SPECIAL ISSUE

November 2011Volume 58 Number 4PROFESSIONALSPECIAL ISSUEPROFESSIONALIZATION OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION:ZEITGEIST FOR OUR AGE (PART 1)

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PresidentHillary HartVice PresidentAlan HouserSecretaryRachel HoughtonTreasurerAiessa MoynaExecutive DirectorKathryn Burton, CAEDirectorsKaren BaranichNicoletta A. BleielLori CorbettRich MaggianiTricia SpayerW. C. WieseImmediate Past PresidentCynthia C. Currie-CliffordWhat is a technical communicator? Technical communicators develop and design instructional and informational toolsneeded to ensure safe, appropriate, and effective use of science and technology, intellectual property, and manufacturedproducts and services. Technical communicators combine multimedia knowledge and strong communication skills withtechnical expertise to provide education across the entire spectrum of users’ abilities, technical experience, and visual andauditory capabilities. For more information visit www.stc.org/story/tc_tw.asp.The Society for Technical Communication is the largest association of technical communicators in the world. STC iscurrently classifying the Body of Knowledge for the field and communicating the value of technical communication. Itsvolunteer leadership continues to work with government bodies and standards organizations to increase awareness andaccurate perception of technical communication. Membership is open to all with an interest in technical communication.Visit the STC Web site (www.stc.org) for details on membership categories, fees, and benefits.INDEX TO ADVERTISERSADVERTISER TELEPHONE/FAX EMAIL/URL PAGEDoc-To-Help +1 (800) 858-2739/+1 (412) 681-4384 sales@componentone.comC2www.doctohelp.comSTC Membership + 1 (703) 522-4114 www.stc.org 2STC Technical Communication + 1 (703) 522-4114 http://summit.stc.org 369SummitSTC Membership + 1 (703) 522-4114 www.stc.org 370Adobe Systems +91 120 2444711/ +91 120 2537681 TechCommCoreMarketing@adobe.com C3www.adobe.com/products/technicalcommunicationsuite.htmlMadCap Software +1 (858) 320-0387 / +1 (858) 320-0338 sales@MadCapSoftware.comwww.madcapsoftware.comC4

EDITOR-IN-CHIEFMENNO DE JONGUniversity of TwenteTCEditor@gw.utwente.nlJACKIE DAMRAUAssociate Editor, Book ReviewsJackie.damrau@comcast.netLYN GATTISAssociate Editor, Recent & RelevantLynGattis@missouristate.eduEDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARDTHOMAS BARKERTexas Tech Universitythomas.barker@ttu.eduMICHELLE CORBINIBM Corporationcorbinm@us.ibm.comCAROLINE JARRETTEffortmark Ltdcaroline.jarrett@effortmark.co.ukAVON J. MURPHYMurphy Editing and Writing Servicesavonmu@comcast.netJANICE (GINNY) REDISHRedish & Associates, Inc.ginny@redish.netCAROLYN RUDEVirginia Techcarolynr@vt.eduKAREN A. SCHRIVERKSA Communication Design & Researchkschriver@earthlink.netSHERRY G. SOUTHARDEast Carolina Universitysouthards@ecu.eduKIRK ST.AMANTEast Carolina Universitystamantk@ecu.eduDESIGN AND LAYOUTEEI COMMUNICATIONS8945 Guilford Road, Suite 145Columbia, MD 21046+1 (410) 309-8200ADVERTISING REPRESENTATIVEStacey O’DonnellBusiness Development ManagerSociety for Technical Communication9401 Lee Highway, Suite 300Fairfax, VA 22031-1803, USADirect: +1 (571) 366-1915Fax: +1 (703) 522-2075stacey.odonnell@stc.orgSUBSCRIPTIONS+1 (703) 522-4114REPRINT PERMISSIONSTCcopyright@stc.orgTechnical Communication (ISSN 0049-3155, permit 0763-740) is published quarterly by the Society for Technical Communication, a nonprofit educational organization, 9401 LeeHighway, Suite 300, Fairfax, VA 22031-1803, USA. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2011 by Society for Technical Communication. Periodicals postage paid at Fairfax, VA 22030,USA, and at additional mailing offices. Canada Post Agreement Number 40045946. Send change of address information and blocks of undeliverable copies to P.O. 1051, Fort Erie, ON12A 6C7, Canada.POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Technical Communication, 9401 Lee Highway, Suite 300, Fairfax, VA 22031-1803, USA. Printed in the USA.CHANGES OF ADDRESS AND CORRESPONDENCE: Notification of change of address for both STC members and nonmember subscribers should be sent to the STCoffice. Nonmember subscription rates (print version): $400 USD per year, $415 USD in Canada, ($435 USD overseas). Individual issues may be purchased from the Society office for$40 while supplies last.“Every year without fail, I always get something withSTC that keeps me ahead of the competition. ereare people at home who are stale, they’re not reallyprogressing. But when you join STC and you haveaccess to all this information, you’re advancing yourcareer. Years ago it was an STC conference and thenetworking opportunities I encountered there thatplaced me on a path to discovering new eLearningtechnologies that I was able to leverage and offer toclients back home, long before my competition evenknew the trend was coming.”.org/renew

VOLUME 58, NUMBER 4November 2011ISSN 0049-3155NOVEMBER 2011Special Issue: Professionalization of Technical Communication:Zeitgeist for Our Age (Part 1)ARTICLESNovember 2011Volume 58 Number 4APPLIED RESEARCH285 The First Wave (1953–1961) of theProfessionalization Movement in TechnicalCommunicationEdward A. MalonePROFESSIONALAPPLIED RESEARCH307 Glorified Grammarian or Versatile ValueAdder? What Internship Reports RevealAbout the Professionalization of TechnicalCommunicationJanel BlochSPECIAL ISSUEPROFESSIONALIZATION OF TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION:ZEITGEIST FOR OUR AGE (PART 1)DEPARTMENTS277 GUEST EDITORIALProfessionalization ofTechnical Communication:Zeitgeist for Our Age.Introduction to ThisSpecial Issue (Part 1)Nancy W. Coppola328 BOOK REVIEWSJackie Damrau, Editor353 TOOLS OF THE TRADEReview of Four Bookson HTML5Avon J. Murphy357 RECENT & RELEVANTSherry Southard, EditorSTC OFFICE 9401 Lee Highway Suite 300 Fairfax, VA 22031-1803 +1 (703) 522-4114 Fax +1 (703) 522-2075

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORSAbout the JournalTechnical Communication is a peer-reviewed,quarterly journal published by the Societyfor Technical Communication (STC).It is aimed at an audience of technicalcommunication practitioners and academics.The journal’s goal is to contribute to thebody of knowledge of the field of technicalcommunication from a multidisciplinaryperspective, with special emphasis on thecombination of academic rigor and practicalrelevance.Technical Communication publishesarticles in five categories:• Applied research – reports ofpractically relevant (empirical oranalytical) research• Applied theory – originalcontributions to technicalcommunication theory• Case history – reports on solutions totechnical communication problems• Tutorial – instructions on processesor procedures that respond tonew developments, insights,laws, standards, requirements, ortechnologies• Bibliography – reviews of relevantresearch or bibliographic essaysThe purpose of TechnicalCommunication is to inform, not impress.Write in a clear, informal style, avoidingjargon and acronyms. Use the first personand active voice. Avoid language that mightbe considered sexist, and write with thejournal’s international audience in mind.Our authority on spelling and usageis The American Heritage Dictionary, 4thedition; on punctuation, format, andcitation style, the Publication Manual ofthe American Psychological Association, 6thedition.Manuscript Preparation and SubmissionSubmitting a manuscript to TechnicalCommunication for review and possiblepublication implies that its submission hasbeen approved by all authors, researchers,and/or organizations involved, that themanuscript (or a substantial portion) hasnot been published before, and that themanuscript is not under review elsewhere.When using previously publishedmaterials (for example, images or textexcerpts), authors are responsible forobtaining the permissions needed to reprintcopyrighted materials.The typical article length is between5,000 and 8,000 words. Exceptions arepossible.Use up to three levels of headings,and indicate them clearly. Do not numberheadings of sections and subsections.FIRST-LEVEL HEADING(all caps, on a line by itself)Second-level heading(first word only capitalized, bold, on a lineby itself)Third-level heading (first word onlycapitalized, bold, followed by two spaces,as part of the first line of the paragraph)Except for the cover page, removeall identifying information from themanuscript. This includes author names,author affiliations, acknowledgments,and references to work in progress orunpublished manuscripts.Do not use footnotes. Instead, useauthor-date citations within the text, andprovide a complete list of works cited(labeled “References”). Avoid multiplecitations for ideas or approaches unless theydemonstrate an evolution in thought orpractice.Check all author-date citations withinthe text and all entries in the reference listfor both accuracy and conformance tothe Publication Manual of the AmericanPsychological Association (APA), pp.169–224.Submit your manuscript as a doublespacedelectronic file with one-inch margins.Do not attempt to mimic the format orlayout of a published article. Keep the layoutas clean and simple as possible.Microsoft Word files are preferred. Ifyou use another word processor, a Rich TextFormat (RTF) file is also acceptable.Organize your manuscript as follows:• Page 1: Cover page – Title of themanuscript, a running head, and thenames, affiliations, and contact infoof all authors• Page 2: Structured abstract – Asummary of the article (maximum250 words), using the headings“Purpose,” “Method,” “Results,” and“Conclusion”• Page 3: Up to five keywordsand a practitioner’s take-away(maximum 100 words) – A bulletedlist summarizing the practicalimplications of the article• Page 4: Start of the manuscript• References• Tables and figures – Start each table orfigure on a new page.Send the manuscript as an attachmentto an e-mail message to the editor-inchief,Menno de Jong (e-mail: TCEditor@gw.utwente.nl).Review ProcessThe editor-in-chief will read your manuscriptand check its potential suitability for thejournal. In the case of a positive outcome, themanuscript will be sent to three independentreferees for a double-masked review. On thebasis of the referees’ recommendations, theeditor will send you a decision about themanuscript. There are five possibilities: (1)reject, (2) revise and resubmit, (3) acceptwith major revisions, (4) accept with minorrevisions, and (5) accept as is.CopyrightsThe Society for Technical Communicationrequires that authors transfer copyrightsto STC for articles appearing inTechnical Communication and grant STCpermission to post the articles on TechnicalCommunication Online for an indefiniteperiod. STC will grant colleges, universities,and libraries the right to use the articles freeof charge for educational purposes.

Guest EditorialProfessionalization of TechnicalCommunication: Zeitgeist for Our AgeIntroduction to This Special Issue (Part 1)Nancy W. CoppolaAbstractPurpose: To trace the contemporary currents of professionalization for technicalcommunication and our watershed initiatives in recent history.Methods: Analysis of literature, including social media, and conversations with ourthought leaders.Results: Two of the three established processes for professional identity are described;the third process will take shape in the next issue of Technical Communication.Conclusions: We have emerging paradigms for the body of knowledge, evolvingconsensus on core competencies, and economic markers of disciplinary status.Keywords: professionalization, core competencies, body of knowledge,disciplinary statusPractitioner’sTakeaway:• There are two online resources forinformation that constitute the bodyof knowledge for our profession.• The integrated combinations ofknowledge and skills valued bypractitioners are similar to the corecompetencies of academics.• Professional status for practitionersand disciplinary status for academicsshow comparable struggle andadvancement.In the mode of an intellectual throw-down, GeraldSavage, in 2003, emphatically exclaimed that thetechnical communication field lacks the status,legitimacy, and power of mature professions. He chidedpractitioners and academics alike for our identitycrisis: “We cannot be recognized by others if we can’teven recognize ourselves (Kynell-Hunt &Savage,2003, p.1). Both volumes of Power and Legitimacy inTechnical Communication, edited by Kynell-Hunt andSavage, show that professions emerge in processes ofstruggle for market control and closure, their membersseeking definition of a coherent body of knowledge andpursuing development of a professional history that willprovide a unifying identity (Kynell-Hunt & Savage,2003, 2004). These ideological, economic, and politicalprocesses for professional identity are already in play fortechnical communication, but are we there yet? Or, inthis changing, contingent, and globalized world, havewe already bypassed the traditional notion of professionto arrive at an entirely different view of contemporaryprofessionalization?This special issue of Technical Communicationaddresses those questions in the first collected,multiple-author response to professional status sincethat seminal two-volume collection edited by Kynell-Hunt and Savage. This introduction will look at theascent of professionalization in the past decade andmap advancements to the cultural and economicframework of today. We break from voices of the pastin the lack of heraldic pronouncements of professionalstatus; nor do we call for a reshaping, remapping,reconfiguring, revising, or rethinking our field. AsRude (2009) notes, the prefix re implies dissatisfactionand the idea that we need, somehow, to be modified.Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 277

Guest EditorialProfessionalization of Technical CommunicationRather, we find much to be satisfied about, evidentin many of the activities in our field described in thisintroduction: emerging paradigms for the body ofknowledge, evolving consensus on core competencies,and mediating disciplinary status. These are the first twoprocesses for professional identity in play for technicalcommunication—ideological and economic. Importantpolitical processes will be described in the next issue ofTechnical Communication, the second part of our specialissue on professionalization.Emerging Paradigms for theBody of KnowledgeWe might begin with the bedrock of professionalissues: our underlying disciplinary body of knowledge.STC President Hillary Hart (2011) claimed the bodyof knowledge as a presidential goal for 2011–2012,describing it as framing out the multiplicity of skills,concepts, and knowledge—areas that enable technicalcommunicators to contribute so effectively to business,government, and the public good. Johndan Johnson-Eilola and Stuart Selber (2004) boldly declared that ourfield will not achieve the status of a mature professionuntil it can come to grips with a coherent body ofdisciplinary knowledge. They provide a foundationfor our body of knowledge in the landmark volumeCentral Works in Technical Communication, a collectionof influential articles and best work that encompassescomplex theoretical topics, research methods, andsocial issues. Their work, dedicated to the theory thatunderlies scholarly research and common professionalpractices, comes closest to what we might call a canonof literature for technical communication. Contrastthis iconic work with another way to imprint coreknowledge on those who would claim competencyas a technical communicator: the DSST (DANTESSubject Standardized Test) in Technical Writing. TheDSST, which enables schools to award credit to studentsfor knowledge equivalent to that learned by taking acollege course in technical writing, covers knowledge ofbasic facts and terms, understanding of concepts andprinciples, and the ability to apply knowledge to specificproblems and situations—all in a 2-hour multiplechoicetest. Although these are wildly different formsof knowledge frameworks, the contrast points up thecomplexity of developing a unique core knowledge basefor technical communication.And then there is the capitalization issue. The initialcapitalization form—Body of Knowledge—representsthe formal document the professional associationscall by that title. Think of the PMBOK © Guide, theglobal standards published by the Project ManagementInstitute that provide guidelines, rules, and characteristicsfor project management. The lowercase form—bodyof knowledge—refers to the collected set of resourcespublished by the associations to represent guidance onknowledge in their field (Morris, Crawford, Hodgson,Shepherd, & Thomas, 2006). Fortunately, we havetwo emerging paradigms for defining a technicalcommunication body of knowledge: the EServerTC Library and the STC Body of Knowledge Portal(TCBOK). The TC Library proclaims that it is “thesingle most comprehensive technical communicationbody of knowledge in the world” (“About this Site:EServer TC Library,” 2011). The TCBOK hedges itsclaim by acknowledging that “the team is not creatinga body of knowledge for the TC profession, but ratherattempting to organize, make accessible, and connecttogether the plethora of information necessary totrain for and practice within the profession” (“Bodyof Knowledge – experimental wiki – About the STCTCBOK project,” 2010). To accomplish this, the teamcreated the architecture for a web-based portal to provideaccess to a TC BOK more emerging than known.However, these are paradigms built from differenthermeneutic approaches, as TC Library creator GeoffreySauer and TCBOK founding task force member DavidDayton stated in their ATTW 2010 conference panel“Bodies of Knowledge for Technical Communication:Paradigms and Possibilities.” Sauer (2010) describedthe TC Library development as inductive, with contentsorted into 12 categories and tagged with metadatasuch as author, language, publication, and year. A tagcloud visually represents the relative prominence of thelibrary’s content, which is determined by the numberof works added by its contributors. The TCBOK portalwas developed deductively, according to Dayton, withcontent categories culled from peer-reviewed literatureand then hierarchically arranged through group affinitydiagramming. The initial framework for the high-leveltaxonomy was validated by the STC membership atconferences and through surveys. Carolyn Rude, the278 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Guest EditorialNancy W. Coppolapanel respondent, identified common elements of thetwo knowledge-gathering efforts: (1) practitioner bias,in which the taxonomies favor workplace outcomesand do not address important research questions; (2)identity, or making clear who we are and what we know;(3) academic-industry relations, or helping to breachthis divide by including work of both academics andpractitioners; and (4) foregrounding knowledge, ormaking knowledge more important than the functionsperformed.Favoring outcomes over function in defining a bodyof knowledge helps professions evolve, according to theChange Management Solutions (2008) report to STC.Its review of 10 emerging professions found that bodiesof knowledge defined objectively (by a defined outcome)were more successful that those defined functionally (bythe processes and functions performed). The consultantsfound that the development of the body of knowledgemust be market driven and positioned to address theproblems of the end-user, not the techniques of thepractitioner; outcome-defined professions tend to bemore responsive to changes in customer/client needs,business environments, and technological advances.They also more readily absorb new practices andpractitioners, rather than competing with them (ChangeManagement Solutions 2008, p. 27).How successful are our body of knowledge effortstoday? If we measure success by frequency of use,then surely we would call the TC Library successful.With 17,000-plus visitors and 100,000 hits a day, theopen-access website “is the most popular technicalcommunication website in the world” (Johnson, 2008).The TC Library links to more than 20,000 works, only10% of which are peer-reviewed, so that its users—professional, scientific, and technical communicators—may browse content located elsewhere. If we measuresuccess as user design for multiple stakeholders andtheir needs, then we would call the TCBOK a success.With 14 personas and their detailed tasks and scenarioscreated for the site, the portal “has the potential to bemuch more than a means for technical communicatorsto stay up to date. …[it] can serve many other kindsof people—from students looking to enter the field tobusiness executives trying to understand what technicalcommunication is about” (Minson, 2009). The TCLibrary continues its rapid growth in both usage andcontent development. Since I chronicled its developmentas an early task member, the TCBOK (2010) has pausedfor reflection. As a collaborative wiki, the platformprovides only a raw development site without the userinterface of a finished Web site. After the initial flurry ofactivity, content population has flattened. An upcomingSTC Webinar hopes to capture and inspire academics touse the portal for student projects in developing contentand moving this initiative forward.Toward Consensus on Core CompetenciesAs practitioners in an applied field, we manifest ourprofessional knowledge as core competencies. Althoughwe do not yet have a collection of empirically basedand nationally recognized core competencies, we aremoving toward consensus on knowledge and skillsnecessary for success. Recent research explores andtheorizes disciplinary competencies as well as mediatesthem in new arenas. In our assessment research at NewJersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), we have definedcore competencies as those integrated combinationsof knowledge and skills that allow evidence-baseddemonstration of professional accomplishment tostakeholders of our field.Our literature gives us various taxonomies of corecompetencies for technical communicators. We haveaccess to a deep sense of practitioner knowledge (Daviset al., 2003; Harner, Johnson, Rainey, & Rude, 2003;Hayhoe, 2002; Turner & Rainey, 2004), as well assurvey data (Dayton & Bernhardt, 2004; Whiteside,2003) and categorized bibliographic information (Alred,2003; Smith, 2004). Others have described professionalroles that are enabled by our core competencies. SaulCarliner (2001) detailed a long list of core competenciesfor technical communicators as information designers,Corey Wick (2000) enumerated core competencies thatenable technical communicators to lead in knowledgemanagement, and William Hart-Davidson (2001)interpreted our core competencies for playing a role ininformation technology systems.All to what end? In our research at NJIT, weidentified core competencies through literature review,particularized them by faculty and advisory board forlocal context, and assessed them as student outcomesin ePortfolios. In 2009, we completed nine instancesof portfolio assessment over 5 years, confirming theVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 279

Guest EditorialProfessionalization of Technical Communicationvalidation efforts to establish core competencies throughePortfolio review. Supported by a research grant fromthe Council for Programs in Technical and ScientificCommunication (CPTSC), we partnered with facultyof the graduate program in technical communicationat Texas Tech University (TTU) to field test, shareassessment strategies, and work toward a common setof core competencies (Coppola & Elliot, 2007). Thetwo teams were able to find a collaborative set of corecompetencies for our programs, shown as a data point inTable 1 of comparative competencies (Coppola, Elliot,Barker, Carter, & Kimball, 2007). Although small, thispilot project validated our claim that a community ofresearchers could collect localized competency sets thatrespond to their programs’ curricular initiatives andschool missions (Coppola & Elliot, 2010). A currentCPTSC Program Assessment and Review initiative, ledby Thomas Barker, reports outcomes and assessmentmethods of 27 technical communication programs.The CPTSC Outcomes Survey (Barker, 2011) wasadministered to program directors and administratorslisted in the CPTSC academic database to determineprogrammatic outcomes and methods of creating andreviewing outcomes. Their snapshot of sets of programoutcomes provides a data point for Table 1. Eachprogram strives for a desired end: a set of variables that,when taken together, will serve as the core competenciesof our field.If assessment of program outcomes allows evidencebaseddemonstration of professional accomplishmentto the academic stakeholders of our field, how do wedetermine whether our core competencies align withthose of the professional stakeholders? Kenneth Rainey,Roy Turner, and David Dayton (2005) answered thatquestion by surveying 67 technical communicationmanagers to learn which core competencies they seek innew hires. The authors first identified a comprehensivelist of competencies valued by academics throughcontent analysis of 156 course descriptions from the10 top undergraduate programs in technical andprofessional communication in the United States.Dayton’s follow-up interview with three of thesurveyed technical communication managers bothcontextualized and corroborated the survey data. Thecore competencies most important to those who hire ourgraduates are also represented as a data point in Table 1.How do we know that these core competencies aretruly ours? Corporate strategists C. K. Prahalad andGary Hamel (1990) give us four characteristics to test.Core competencies are unique skills that (1) providea significant source of competitive differentiation,(2) transcend a single market, (3) make a significantcontribution to the perceived customer benefits ofthe end product, and (4) are not easily imitated. Theauthors use an elegant metaphor that is as appropriateto technical communication as it is to a corporation:The diversified corporation is a large tree. The trunkand major limbs are core products, the smaller branchesare business units; the leaves, flowers, and fruits are endproducts. The root system that provides nourishment,sustenance, and stability is the core competence. You canmiss the strength of competitors by looking only at theirend products, in the same way you miss the strength ofa tree if you look only at its leaves. (Prahalad & Hamel,1990, p. 82)We are reminded here that our core competenciesare not defined by the end products we produce butby our demonstrable knowledge and skills. And werecognize that technical communication is as muchabout craft knowledge as codified knowledge, often tacitas well as explicit.How might we think about writing, then? Is writingknowledge of the game (a prerequisite to getting intothe casino), or table stakes (capabilities that are crucialfor survival but do not confer any specific differentialadvantage over other competitors in that industry)? Oris writing the casino itself, a core competency that isnot easily imitated anywhere else on the strip? Whenparticularized as writing for a specific audience directedby clearly defined purposes, writing takes its rightfulplace as a core skill for our profession.The newly formed STC Certification Commission(STCC) (STCC Candidate Instructions for STCCertification, 2011) identified broad areas of practicethat represent the major activities performed bytechnical communicators. The committee, led by pastSociety President Michael Hughes, validated theseareas of practice against (1) the new job description oftechnical writing given in the U.S. Bureau of LaborStatistics (BLS) Occupational Outlook Handbook, (2)the International Standards Organization technicalwriting standard (ISO26514), and (3) more than40 help-wanted ads from various locations in the280 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Guest EditorialNancy W. CoppolaUnited States and Canada. The results showed strongagreement between the areas of practice and whatthese sources consider the major elements of technicalcommunication. The certified practitioner demonstratesproficiency in the following areas:• User, Task, and Experience Analysis—Define theusers of the information and analyze the tasks thatthe information must support.• Information Design—Plan information deliverablesto support task requirements. Specify and designthe organization, presentation, distribution, andarchival process for each deliverable.• Process Management—Plan the deliverablesschedule and monitor the process of fulfillment.• Information Development—Author content inconformance with the design plan, through aniterative process of creation, review, and revision.• Information Production—Assemble developedcontent into required deliverables that conform toall design, compliance, and production guidelines.Publish, deliver, and archive.For actual demonstration, however, the areasof practice are broken down into nine areas called“competencies,” shown as a data point in Table 1.The table shows the key integrated skill setsidentified by certification, managers’ expectations,program outcomes, and cross-college portfolioassessment. It has not been reorganized to highlightcommonalities, but it quickly shows that thecompetencies cross-reference among the four sources.Semantic differences account for some variation;academics might talk of “rhetorical situation,” whilemanagers might speak to “analysis of users’ needs.”“Ethics” figures prominently in academic responses(columns 2 and 4) but seems absent from those ofprofessionals (1 and 3). However, Rainey and colleagues(2005) (column 3) recognized the omission and statethat “the ability to observe ethical and legal obligations”was an important identified skill but that it was noteasily categorized in their main sections. And thecertification application of STCC (column 1) requiresthat candidates abide by a code of professional conductpromising integrity and honesty. “Research” was nothigh on the list of competencies sought by managers,but they did find field-testing a manual and conductingTable 1. Comparison of Competencies from Professional and Academic SourcesCross-institutionalassessment 1Balance of theoretical knowledgeand practical skillsProgrammatic Managers’ expectations 3 STCC 4outcomes 2Document designCollaboration with subjectmatterexpertsProject planningUser-centered design Rhetorical situation Collaboration with coworkers Project analysisRhetorical awareness Team Analysis of users’ needs Solution designWriting and editingResearchAssessment of/ability to learnto use technologyOrganizational designProfessionalismEthicsDocument design and wordprocessingapplicationsWritten communicationEthical and multicultural practice Genres Self-motivation and evaluation Visual communicationFacility with multiple technologies Visual Evaluation of own work Content developmentTheory and practiceContent managementAudience analysisFinal production1Combined Core Competencies: NJIT and TTU 3/15/07 (Coppola & Elliot, 2007)2Programmatic Outcomes (Barker, 2011)3Top Competencies ranked as important by managers (Rainey et al., 2005)4Candidate Instructions for STC Certification, Version 1.0, June 1, 2011Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 281

Guest EditorialProfessionalization of Technical Communicationsecondary research useful. And STCC’s Solution DesignCompetency asks the candidate to demonstrate theability to design high-level solutions for implementinginformation products, showing research methodologyand synthesis of research results into an overall designsolution. The takeaway from this exercise is thatpractitioners and academics are not that far apart whenwe talk about core competencies.Mediating Disciplinary StatusAchieving disciplinary status for technicalcommunication practitioners and academics hasenormous economic importance for us. Practitionersdefine the business environment and economic value forour field; academics compete for critical resources andstakeholder status in their specific institutional sites withthe coins of their realm: teaching, research, and service.Disciplinary status is closely aligned withprofessional status. Sociologists tell us that the conceptof professionalization yields information about the waywork is organized under a common educational identity,the kind of memberships that occur in professionalorganizations, and the nature of the emergent sharedwork culture (Evetts, 2011). For practicing professionals,STC has worked hard to provide authoritativedifferentiation. In 2010, work with the BLS resulted ina separate chapter for technical writers in the OccupationOutlook Handbook, an essential reference documentfor corporations. This means that for the first time theBLS has acknowledged technical writers as distinct fromother writers, a critical boundary for our autonomy.A common educational identity for academicsrequires a different negotiation of space, but it doesnot appear that our campuses are as well differentiatedas our corporations. Our disciplinary status on thenation’s campuses has been as storied and hard wonas our status of practicing professionals. Before 2010,the Classification Code for Instructional Programs inthe United States, which is used to report institutionaldata to the Integrated Postsecondary EducationalData System, included two almost identical codes fortechnical communication: Technical and BusinessWriting and Technical and Scientific Communication.These codes differentiated the focus of our academicprograms on the genres we produce rather thanrecognizing common knowledge, actions, and ideas.The Consortium of Doctoral Programs in Rhetoricand Composition successfully lobbied both theNational Research Council and the National Centerfor Educational Statistics for disciplinary status. Theresult was inclusion in the National Research Counciltaxonomy of graduate programs under the designationRhetoric and Composition and one code for allinstructional programs in Professional, Technical,Business, and Scientific Writing (23.1303) (Phelps &Ackerman, 2010).Rude (2009) notes an instance in which technicalcommunication is omitted from one important referencework’s list of disciplines that constitute English studies.English Studies: An Introduction to the Discipline(s)(McComiskey, 2006) includes chapters on linguistics,creative writing, rhetoric and composition, literature,critical theory and cultural studies, and Englisheducation. Rude interprets this omission as an artifactof politics and power: anxiety about the surge of the“immigrant” field and an effort to suppress it (2009,p. 190). Her assessment points the way to our nextdiscussion of the processes in play for professionalizationof technical communication: politics and power.In This IssueAn important aspect of professionalization, accordingto Savage (1999), is awareness of our historical identity.Several historical studies in the first volume of Kynell-Hunt and Savage (2003) show the promise of shapingprofessional consciousness through historicizing technicalcommunication. In this special issue, Edward A. Maloneleads the way forward by looking back with “The FirstWave (1953–1961) of the Professionalization Movementin Technical Communication.” Malone notes that recentdiscussions about the professionalization of technicalcommunication have shown little awareness of this earlyhistory. When scholarly articles on the topic include aliterature review at all, they usually limit their reviewto post-1970 or even post-1980 scholarship. Malone’sarticle fills a gap in our understanding of the history oftechnical communication as a profession by reviewingsix professionalization issues and providing an historicalperspective for each. He finds that our history teaches usto be cautiously optimistic about our achievements.282 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Guest EditorialNancy W. CoppolaJanel Bloch examines professional consciousness asone of five professionalization themes in a collection ofinternship reports of technical communication graduatestudents. Her article “Glorified Grammarian or VersatileValue Adder? What Internship Reports Reveal aboutthe Professionalization of Technical Communication”provides a study of interns over the recent quartercentury;this is an important longitudinal study thatsuccessfully examines a substantial and relevant dataset. This article argues that steps toward enhancingprofessionalization can be made in the earliest workexperiences of a technical communicator’s career, by allinvolved—interns, employers, and faculty. Bloch alsoprovides recommendations for students, sponsoringorganizations, and faculty to design internship programsthat will help contribute to the professionalization of thetechnical communication field.We title this special issue “Professionalization ofTechnical Communication: Zeitgeist for Our Age”because running through the initiatives described hereand in the next issue is a clearly discernible pattern thatshows an appetite for professionalization. I see a growingcollective consciousness, but certainly not collectiveagreement, for professionalization. It is a spirit—orzeitgeist—for our time.ReferencesAbout this Site: EServer TC Library. (2011).EServer TCLibrary. Retrieved from http://tc.eserver.org/about/Alred, G. (2003). Essential works on technicalcommunication. Technical Communication 50,585–616.Barker, T. T. (2011). CPTSC Outcomes Survey: Areport. CPTSC Program Administrator’s Forum,CPTSC Conference, Harrisonburg, VA, 2011.Retrieved from http://www.cptsc.org/programreview.htmlBody of Knowledge – experimental wiki – About theSTC TCBOK project. (2010). About the STCTCBOK Project. Retrieved from http://stcbok.editme.com/AboutUsCargile-Cook, K. (2002). Layered literacies: Atheoretical frame for technical communicationpedagogy. Technical Communication Quarterly, 11,5-29.Carliner, S. (2001). Emerging skills in technicalcommunication: The information designer’s placein a new career path for technical communicators.Technical Communication, 48, 156–175.Change Management Solutions. (2008, February).What makes a profession professional? Benchmarkingsuccessful professions Prepared for the Society forTechnical Communication.Coppola, N. W. (2010). The technical communicationbody of knowledge initiative: An academicpractitionerpartnership. Technical Communication,57, 11–25.Coppola, N. W., & Elliot, N. (2007). A technologytransfer model for program assessment in technicalcommunication. Technical Communication, 54,459–474.Coppola, N. W., & Elliot, N. (2010). Assessment ofgraduate programs in technical communication:A relational model. In M. Hundleby & J. Allen(Eds), Assessment in Technical and ProfessionalCommunication, (pp. 127–168). Amityville, NY:Baywood.Coppola, N. W., Elliot, N., Barker, T., Carter, L.,& Kimball, M. (2007). Rebuilding technicalcommunication as a research discipline: Acommunity model for program assessment. Paperpresented at the annual meeting of the Associationof Teachers of Technical Writing, New York.Davis, M., Ramey, J., Williams, J., Gurak, L., Krull, R.,& Steehouder, M. (2003, September). Shaping theprofession: Leading academic programs in technicalcommunication. Paper presented at the meetingof the International Professional CommunicationConference, Coronado Springs Resort. Orlando, FL.Dayton, D. & Bernhardt, S. A. (2004). Results ofa survey of ATTW members, 2003. TechnicalCommunication Quarterly, 13, 13–43.Evetts, J. (2011). Sociological analysis ofprofessionalism: Past, present and future.Comparative Sociology, 10, 1–37Harner, S. W., Johnson, R., Rainey, K.T., & Rude,C.(2003, October 3). Plenary panel of the 30thAnnual Meeting of the Council for Programs inTechnical and Scientific Communication, ClarksonUniversity, Potsdam, NY.Hart, H. (2011). Report from the STC President.Intercom, 58(6), 22.Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 283

Guest EditorialProfessionalization of Technical CommunicationHart-Davidson, W. (2001). On writing, technicalcommunication, and information technology: Thecore competencies of technical communication.Technical Communication, 48, 145–155.Hayhoe, G. F. (2002). Core competencies: Theessence of technical communication. TechnicalCommunication, 19, 397–398.Johnson, T. (2008). EServer TC Library: The MostPopular Technical Communication Website inthe World | I’d Rather Be Writing. Retrievedfrom http://idratherbewriting.com/2008/12/02/tceserverorg-the-most-popular-technicalcommunication-website-in-the-world/Johnson-Eilola, J., & Selber, S. (2004). Central Works inTechnical Communication. New York, NY: OxfordUniversity Press.Kynell-Hunt, T., & Savage, G. J. (Eds.). (2003, 2004).Power and legitimacy in technical communication(Vols. 1–2). Amityville, NY: Baywood.Minson, T. (2009). STC Body of Knowledge:A Promising Effort | Gryphon MountainJournals. Retrieved from http://www.gryphonmountain.net/2009/05/stc-body-of-knowledge-a-promising-effort/Morris, P. W. G., Crawford, L., Hodgson, D., Shepherd,M. M., & Thomas, J. (2006). Exploring therole of formal bodies of knowledge in defininga profession—The case of project management.International Journal of Project Management, 24,710–721.Phelps, L. W., & Ackerman, J. W. (2010). Making thecase for disciplinarity in rhetoric, composition,and writing studies. College Composition andCommunication, 62, 180–215Prahalad, C. K., & Hamel, G. (1990). The CoreCompetence of the Corporation. Harvard BusinessReview, 68(3), 79–91.Rainey, K. T., Turner, R. K., & Dayton, D. (2005). Docurricula correspond to managerial expectations?Core competencies for technical communication.Technical Communication, 52, 323–352.Rude, C. D. (2009). Mapping the research questions intechnical communication. Journal of Business andTechnical Communication, 23, 174–215.Sauer, G. (2010, March 17). The EServer TC Library: Aninductive approach to defining our body of knowledge.Presented at the Bodies of Knowledge for TechnicalCommunication: Paradigms and Possibilities,ATTW 2010.Savage, G. (1999). The process and prospects forprofessionalizing technical communication. TheJournal of Technical Writing and Communication, 29,355–381.Smith, E. O. (2004). Points of reference contributing tothe professionalization of technical communication.Power and legitimacy in technical communication:Strategies for professional status (Vol. 2, pp. 51–72).Amityville, NY: Baywood.STCC Candidate Instructions for STC Certification.(2011). Society for Technical Communication.Retrieved from http://stc.org/education/certification/cptc-applicationTurner, R. K., & Rainey, K. T. (2004). Certification intechnical communication. Technical CommunicationQuarterly, 13, 211–234.Whiteside, A. L. (2003). The skills that technicalcommunicators need: An investigation of technicalcommunication graduates, managers, and curricula.Journal of Technical Writing & Communication, 33,303–318.Wick, C. (2000). Knowledge managementand leadership opportunities for technicalcommunicators. Technical Communication, 47,515–529.About the AuthorNancy W. Coppola, PhD, is professor of English anddirector of the Master of Science in Professional andTechnical Communication at New Jersey Institute ofTechnology. She is a Fellow of the Society for TechnicalCommunication, 2010 recipient of the STC Jay R.Gould Award for Excellence in Teaching, and 2005 and2006 IEEE Rudy J. Joenk, Jr. Award for excellence inresearch. Contact: coppola@ADM.NJIT.EDU.Manuscript received and accepted 18 November 2011.284 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

The First Wave (1953–1961) of theProfessionalization Movement inTechnical CommunicationEdward A. MaloneApplied ResearchAbstractPurpose: To demonstrate that the professionalization of our field is a long-termproject that has included achievements as well as setbacks and delaysMethods: Archival research and analysis.Results: Many of the professionalization issues that we are discussing and pursuingtoday find their genesis—or at least have antecedents—in the work of the founders ofthe profession in the 1950s.Conclusions: Our appraisal of our professionalization gains must be tempered bya certain amount of realism and an awareness of the history of the professionalismmovement in technical communication.Keywords: technical communication, history, professionalization, 1950sPractitioner’sTakeaway• This study provides a considerationof current professionalization issuesin the context of their historicaldevelopment.• It encourages us to temper ourenthusiasm and remain cautiouslyoptimistic about recent gains in thequest for professional status andrecognition.• It makes us better informed aboutthe origin and early developmentof the profession of technicalcommunication in the United States.• It contributes to the creation of astrong, shared historical consciousnessamong members of the profession.IntroductionAs a former president of the Society of TechnicalWriters and Publishers (STWP) noted, “Therewas a controversy in the early days. Was technicalwriting really a profession? Did we want it to be aprofession? If it was, how should we get other peopleto recognize that it was?” (Root, 1972, p. 1). The firstgeneration of professional technical communicatorswas deeply interested in the process and prospectsof professionalization. They set themselves “the taskof exploring what it means to become a profession,how professionalization might be achieved, andwhat possible consequences might result from ourachieving full professional stature” (Savage, 1997, p.34). The profession-building activities of the 1950s(e.g., the formation of professional organizationsand journals, the writing of professional codes ofconduct, the creation of academic programs) wereattempts to professionalize technical communication.The earliest technical communication journals andconference proceedings included articles strategizingand discoursing about professionalization—for example,Robert T. Hamlett’s “Technical Writing Grows into aNew Profession” (1952), Floyd Hickok’s “Professional,Artisan, Something Else?” (1955), and Israel Sweet’s “IsVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 285

Applied ResearchThe First Wave (1953–1961) of the Professionalization MovementTechnical Writing a Profession?” (1957). For at least60 years, in fact, technical communicators have beenseeking—and predicting the eventual achievement of—mature professional status (Wright, Malone, Saraf, Long,Egodapitiya, & Roberson, 2011).Recent discussions about the professionalization oftechnical communication have shown little awareness ofthis early history. When scholarly articles on the topicinclude a literature review at all, they usually limit theirreview to post-1970 or even post-1980 scholarship.There have been notable exceptions. For example,Smith (1980) offered a historical perspective (1940 tothe present) on the “Pursuit of Professionalism” fromhis vantage point as a member of the first generationof professionals as well as a long-time editor ofthe Society for Technical Communication’s (STC)Technical Communication. By tracing technical writers’ethical outlook from the late 1800s to the present,Brockmann (1989) adopted a historical perspectiveon professionalism that is simultaneously narrowerand broader than Smith’s. Malcolm and Kunz (2001)provided an account of STC’s four formal studiesof the certification issue between 1975 and 1998,demonstrating that the organization has had a longstandinginterest in the topic. Most recent studies,however, lack this kind of concern with the historicaldevelopment of these issues.To be sure, the work on professionalization since1990 has been more sophisticated and better informedin many ways than the work of pioneers such as Hamlett(1952) and Hickok (1955) and even scholars such asSweet (1957) and Light (1961). Yet I think we canbenefit by knowing the early history of these issues,examining how far back the discussions extend and howlittle some of them have changed since the 1950s. Manyof the professionalization issues that we are discussingand pursuing today find their genesis—or at least haveantecedents—in the work of these pioneers.In this article, I will identify six currentprofessionalization issues (e.g., the role of professionalorganizations, codification of a specialized body ofknowledge, certification by professional organizations)and examine how they were viewed and pursuedduring the first wave (1953–1961) of the ongoingprofessionalization movement in technicalcommunication. My purpose for doing this is todemonstrate that our founding fathers (and mothers)were well aware of these issues and pursued them inearnest. Whether the fact that we have been pursuingprofessionalization on similar terms for almost 60 yearsgives us hope or despair for the future, we should atleast recognize that professionalization is a long-termproject that has included achievements (e.g., professionalorganizations, scholarly journals) as well as setbacks anddelays (e.g., certification of practitioners, accreditation ofacademic programs).Three StipulationsAlthough some have argued that Reginald Otto Kapp,who started the Presentation of Technical InformationGroup in England in the late 1940s, was the father ofthe “worldwide profession” of technical communication(Kapp, 2005), I take the position that the seeds of thetechnical communication profession in the United Stateswere planted in the 1950s by the founders of the NewYork-based Association of Technical Writers and Editors(TWE), the Boston-based Society of Technical Writers(STW), and the Los Angeles-based Technical PublishingSociety (TPS). Since then, we have been seeking matureprofessional status and recognition. Thus, when I referto the profession of technical communication, I mean thedeveloping or maturing profession: it has already sprunginto being but has not yet fully matured.Moreover, I take the position that our professionhas always been technical communication, not technicalwriting first and then technical communication later. Inother words, the profession did not evolve from writingnarrowly to communication broadly; it began broadlyas communication (Malone, 2010, pp. 175–176).There were debates in the 1950s about whether theprofession should be defined as writing narrowly orcommunication broadly—in fact, such debates were atthe heart of the organizational mergers that took placein the late 1950s—but they were largely resolved at anearly date in favor of communication. The profession’sformal adoption of the term technical communicationas the name of the profession represented a correction,rather than an update, of the name; the term technicalwriting had always been a misnomer when appliedbroadly to the profession. When STC changed its namefrom the Society of Technical Writers and Publishersto the Society for Technical Communication in 1971,286 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchEdward A. Malonethen STC President Mary Schaefer (1971) (Figure 1)wrote that the new name “is explicitly constant with theprimary purpose for which our Society was formed [in1953]—to advance the theory and practice of technicalcommunication in all media” (p. 5).Figure 1: Mary M. Schaefer(1913–2001), first womanpresident of STC, serving in1970–1971. During WorldWar II, she left her positionas a secretary to become atechnical editor in theOffice of the Chief ofOrdnance, U.S. WarDepartment, Washington,D.C. She later worked as atechnical communicator atthe Naval Research Laboratory, Vitro Corporation, and theApplied Physics Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University(Shimberg, 1966). Photo from the STC archives.Finally, when I refer to the professionalizationmovement in technical communication, I am referring toa movement that has been taking place since at least theearly 1950s. My research suggests that there have beenseveral waves in the movement. The first wave seems tohave crested between 1953 (the formation of TWE) and1961 (the publication of Light’s “The Technical Writerand Professional Status”). Relatively little attention waspaid to professionalization issues in the mid- and late-1960s, but the movement picked up again in the UnitedStates in the early to mid-1970s with the formationof the Association of Teachers of Technical Writing(ATTW) and the Council of Programs in Technical andScientific Communication (CPTSC), the launching ofthe Journal of Technical Writing and Communication, andthe publication of Cogan’s (1974) “Pursuing ProfessionalIdentity and Maturity.” I have not traced the relevantscholarship closely beyond this point, but there seems tohave been considerable activity in the early 1980s andat the turn of the millennium (1999–2003) (Malone,n.d.). In her call for proposals for this special issue ofTechnical Communication, Coppola (2010a) suggestedthat the professionalization movement in technicalcommunication may have begun to crest again after a 6-or 7-year hiatus.Six Professionalization IssuesI use the term professionalization issue to refer tosomething that is believed to be an attribute of aprofession’s mature status or a means of achievingsuch a status. Such an issue is an important topicin our discussions about professionalization. Withthis definition in mind, I will discuss six currentprofessionalization issues under the following headings:Professional OrganizationsBody of KnowledgeEthical StandardsCertification of PractitionersAccreditation of Academic ProgramsLegal RecognitionIn each case, I will try to establish the relevance of theissue to our current professionalization efforts anddiscussions before discussing the issue’s early history.Professional OrganizationsSavage (1999) identified the establishment of “formalorganizations that unify the practice and represent theprofession” as one of the “key socio-political factorsin professionalization processes” (p. 366). Morerecently, Carliner (2003) has argued that professionalorganizations in technical communication contributeto feelings of power, status, and legitimacy at both theindividual and communal levels. At the individual level,they provide opportunities for affiliation with othertechnical communicators, professional development,and public recognition of accomplishments.At the communal level, they improve technicalcommunication’s standing in the academy by publishingscholarly journals, and they can also improve its standingin industry by certifying technical communicators,increasing the profession’s public visibility, and helpingto manage industry’s perceptions of the profession.At an early date, technical communicators in theUnited States recognized that professional organizationswere a means of cultivating the profession of technicalcommunication. The men and women who heldtwo breakout sessions at the April 1953 Workshopon the Production and Use of Technical Reports inWashington, DC, to discuss the special problems facingtechnical writers and editors went on to create theAssociation of Technical Writers and Editors (TWE)because they believed that “a national organization wasVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 287

Applied ResearchThe First Wave (1953–1961) of the Professionalization Movementvital to the growth of the profession” (Clark, 1956, p.2; Warnock, 1953). Their constitution stated that theorganization’s primary objective was “to advance theprofession” through such activities as developing “aliterature of the profession” and promoting professionalethics (“TWE constitution,” 1955, p. 8). The BostonbasedSociety of Technical Writers (STW), also started in1953, had the same general objective in mind. As theirpresident declared two years after STW’s formation,“Now that organization as a national professionalsociety, with graded membership, is complete, we arefree to apply our energies directly to our basic program:developing the profession” (Flint, 1955, p. 1). One ofthe purposes of the Technical Publishing Society (TPS),started on the West Coast in 1954, was “to promote theprofession by establishing and maintaining minimumrequirements of professional practices” (Van Hagan,1954, p. 1). These three organizations would eventuallymerge to become the Society of Technical Writers andPublishers (STWP), the former name of STC. Yearslater, the editor of STC’s Technical Communicationwould remind his readers that “these [early] societieswere established and were supported precisely becausethey were seen as a necessary step on the path towardprofessionalism” (Smith, 1980, p. 2).Both Savage (1999) and Carliner (2003) havesuggested that we have too many organizations (e.g.,STC, PCS, ATTW) to pose a unified front in thestruggle for professionalization. Carliner (2003), in fact,sees cooperation, if not consolidation, as necessary tomove to “the next level” (p. 98). The founders of ourprofession—including Samuel A. Miles (Figure 2)—grappled with the same problem in the 1950s. Miles(1955), who had started an organization in New YorkCity in 1954, wrote:One thing is certain: the technical writer, bywhatever name we may call him, and underwhatever definition we may formalize, is here to stay.The continued growth of technical writing is proofof this fact. As I write these words, another group—the twelfth, thirteenth, or fourteenth, dependingon the definition of a group—has come to myattention. It is the Technical Writing ImprovementSociety, of Los Angeles….TWIS is the third or fourth group ambitiousenough to consider itself the nucleus of a nationalgroup. All this activity means that there is hope thatwe shall soon get together and that the “Tower ofBabel” which we are creating will be a firm structurebased on mutual understanding. (pp. 3–4).In late 1955, Miles’ organization merged with TWEto become TWE’s New York chapter (Kleinman, 1989).This was the first in a series of consolidations that wouldeventually lead to the creation of STC.Figure 2: Samuel A. Miles(1916–1982), cofounder and vicepresident of Miles-Samuelson, atechnical publishing business inNew York City, and founder(1954) of the New York-basedSociety of Technical Writersand Editors, an independentorganization that merged withTWE in late 1955 to become TWE’s first and largest (NewYork) chapter. As early as 1949, Miles had explored thepossibility of creating a “society” of scientific and technicalcommunicators within the framework of the AmericanAssociation for the Advancement of Science (Miles, 1951;“Operation,” 1951; “Sam Miles,” 1955). Photo from the Fall1955 issue of the TWE Journal.A major step toward unification was taken in 1957when TWE and STW merged to form the Societyof Technical Writers and Editors (STWE). In thediscussions leading up to this merger, TWE and STWargued about membership qualifications and gradesof membership. TWE wanted to follow its practice ofallowing anyone to join who had a professional interestin technical communication, while STW wanted torestrict membership to technical writers, technicaleditors, and teachers of technical writing, excludingillustrators, production people, and especially technicallibrarians. Whereas TWE did not want membershipgrades, STW wanted membership to be stratified intomembers, senior members, and fellows (Malone, n.d.).As one TWE member complained, “[STW officers] haveset up these classifications so that they can be in the topgrades and they are unwilling to become just ordinarymembers. They want to remain stars” (TWE, 1956, p.52). After several months of negotiations (Figure 3), the288 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchEdward A. Malonetwo groups finally compromised, essentially adoptingTWE’s policy on membership qualifications and STW’spolicy on membership grades (Malone, n.d.).because such “narrow-minded interest does not lenditself to genuine professional growth” (p. 23). Thus,he called for a “larger perspective” reflecting “theprofessional rather than the craft attitude or pointof view”:I am convinced that the writing and editing oftechnical and scientific material constitute theinescapable common denominator of interest andconcern to the memberships of ALL these groups,and that differences of approach and concern arematters of degree rather than kind. (p. 23).Figure 3: Meeting at Hotel Statler, New York City, on May14, 1956, to discuss TWE-STW merger. From left to right:Francis H. Achard (STW secretary-treasurer), Elsie C. Ray(TWE secretary), Paul S. Kennedy (TWE treasurer), RichardFrehsee (TWE president), Donato C. Ian (STW 2nd vicepresident), Irving Jenks (TWE vice president), Paul H. Flint(STW past president), and Ronald D. Eames (STW president).Photo from the archives at STC headquarters.It is clear from at least one transcript of thesediscussions that TWE members thought the decisionsabout membership qualifications would determinethe composition of the profession for the future. Onemember asked, “What profession [are we talkingabout]?” and another replied, “That will be determinedby who is going to be included. Everybody who is goingto be included will make up the profession” (TWE,1956, p. 49). Indeed, the adoption of TWE’s policyon membership qualifications may have contributed(however modestly) to the broad-based profession oftechnical communication that we have today.Not satisfied by the merger of TWE and STW,however, Light (1959) argued for an even broadercoalescence of professional organizations. He notedwith dismay that electronics writers were representedby STWE, medical writers by the American MedicalWriters Association, science writers by the NationalAssociation of Science Writers, and writers in thenuclear energy industry by the Nuclear Energy WritersAssociation. This “splintering of members of our craftinto the corners and tiny pigeon-holes of our dailyconcerns” struck Light (1959) as counterproductiveBy uniting their efforts, Light believed, members ofthese groups would discover “what the advantages are incollaboration and eventual unification of forces” (p. 23).These particular groups never did unite, and one canonly imagine what might have become of the professionif they had.The final step toward unification of technicalcommunicators in the United States came in 1960,when STWE merged with the Los Angeles-based TPS tobecome the Society of Technical Writers and Publishers(STWP). TPS’s membership, reflecting the entire fieldof technical publishing, was even broader than TWE’smembership. It included such groups as filmmakers,printers, and managers of technical typists (Figure4)—an inclusivity that had to be scaled back duringthe merger negotiations. The president of STWE notedthat the merger with TPS was undertaken first andforemost because “it was important to the advancementof the profession that we have one National andInternational Society instead of several” (Grogan, 1960,p. 3). Although TWE and STW had started chaptersas far west as Albuquerque, TPS brought many ofCalifornia’s technical communicators into the fold. Withthe formation of STWP in 1960, members of that firstgeneration of professionals believed that the goal ofunifying the profession by and large had been achievedand that mature, professional status and recognitionwere just around the corner.Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 289

Applied ResearchThe First Wave (1953–1961) of the Professionalization MovementFigure 4: Cover of theSeptember–October1957 issue of theTechnical PublishingSociety’s magazine.The content in thevertical stripes onthe cover reflectedthe organization’sbroad definitionof the profession,which encompassedwriting; editing;graphic arts andart editing; printingand reproduction;visual education;and management. The title of the magazine, TechnicalCommunications, also reflected this broad definition.Body of KnowledgeAn important issue in the current professionalizationmovement is the codification of a specialized bodyof knowledge. Rainey (2004) viewed the codificationof multiple bodies of knowledge for technical andprofessional communication as the first step in thecreation of a workable certification system, whichhe viewed as the lynchpin of professionalization.He proposed to codify the body of knowledge bycreating an encyclopedia of technical and professionalcommunication. More recently, Coppola (2010b)presented a history and description of the TechnicalCommunication Body of Knowledge (TCBOK) project,STC’s initiative to create a coherent framework forstudying/understanding the technical communicationprofession’s body of knowledge. STC TCBOK is “aneffort of many to resolve seemingly archetypal tensionswithin our profession”—tensions that have existed sincethe creation of STC (Coppola, 2010b, pp. 10–11).Mature professional status may rest on the importantwork that is being done now in this area.Defining a body of knowledge was also animportant goal of the first generation of technicalcommunicators. Scholars such as Sweet (1957) andLight (1961) had read Flexner (1915) and especiallyCogan (1953, 1955), whose definitions of a professionincluded the requirement of having a well-defined,specialized body of knowledge. Light (1961) had alsoread Vannevar Bush’s definition of a profession: “Firstand foremost, its members are the possessors andcustodians of a special field of knowledge, acquired bylong, assiduous study” (as cited in Light, p. 6). Sweetand Light, in turn, communicated these definitions(i.e., the attributes of a profession) to the largerbody of technical communicators interested in theprofessionalization of the field.Israel Sweet was the dean of the Evening Schoolat the Pratt Institute in New York City and laterVice President of Education at LaSalle ExtensionUniversity, a now-defunct correspondence school.At the STWE conference, Sweet (1957) raised thequestion, “Is Technical Writing a Profession?” He notedthat many practitioners and academics were simplycalling themselves professionals in hopes of enjoyingthe privileges of the title. He carefully analyzed theattributes of a profession that Flexner (1915), Cogan(1955), and others had put forth in their articles anddecided that most of the attributes were operationalrather than definitional. He identified two, however,that were relevant to his question: “a significant bodyof knowledge directly identifiable to technical writingand unique to the field” and “professional training fortechnical writers” (pp. 67–68).Although Sweet (1957) concluded that technicalwriting did not yet have a unique, substantial, welldefinedbody of knowledge, he identified what that bodyof knowledge could be if it existed:If there is a body of knowledge directly related totechnical writing, it must be, not the content ofother disciplines but a content of its own; and itmight be assumed that such a body of knowledgemight be called technical communication (p. 68).Note his use of the term technical communication. Evenat this early date, he recognized the inadequacy of theterm technical writing for describing the diverse activitiesand interests of people in the field. Sweet (1957) alsoconcluded that technical writers were not receivingproper professional training. He charged academia withthe responsibility of identifying and codifying technicalwriting’s body of knowledge and training technicalwriters:290 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchEdward A. MaloneIt is the university, in short, that must identify thebody of knowledge associated with a particular fieldof [sic] discipline, and that must explore this bodyof knowledge in an effort to sharpen its focus andto amplify its considerations. It is the university thatmust provide professional training for the technicalwriter (p. 69).To Sweet, then, technical writing was not yet aprofession.Light (1961) questioned whether the concept ofprofession was obsolete and whether the goal was stillworth pursuing. In either case, he said, the course ofaction should be the same: technical writers should seek“specialized, academic education and training” fromuniversities (p. 9). Like Sweet, Light believed that thetasks of defining a specialized body of knowledge anddeveloping technical writing curricula are integrallyrelated, and he offered the following explanation as towhy technical writing did not yet have a specializedbody of knowledge:Most professions have a relatively long historyof development. From slow emergence in theworld of work or thought to the build-up of anorganized body of knowledge peculiar to thepractitioners, to the specific and special trainingfor performance—this kind of background is stilldenied the technical writer because of the recencyof his emergence. (p. 5)Light (1961) was fond of calling attention to theillegitimacy of technical communicators: he believedthey were “a bastard group of uncertain origin, with noconventional or legitimate genealogy” (p. 5). This factmilitated against their upstart desire for professionalrecognition and status.Another writer on the subject of a technical writingbody of knowledge was Floyd Hickok (Figure 5), thepractitioner who founded STW in Boston in 1953.Hickok had a bachelor’s and a master’s degree inEnglish education and worked as a high school teacherbefore joining the Navy during World War II. In themilitary, he received “extensive college level trainingin electrical engineering” (Hickok, 1963, p. 1). Afterhis discharge, he went to work as a junior electronicsengineer at MIT’s Laboratory for Electronics. Later, hewas promoted to manager of the technical publicationsdepartment (Hickok, 1963). In March 1955, Hickokflew to England to present a paper at a meeting of thePresentation of Technical Information Group in Londonabout the professionalization of technical writing(Hickok, 1955).Figure 5: Floyd A. Hickok (right, 1907–2003), founder andfirst president of the Boston-based Society of TechnicalWriters, passes the gavel to the newly elected second STWPresident Paul H. Flint (left, 1908–1998). Hickok workedclosely with Flint in both the Navy reserves and the summerTechnical Writers Workshop at Tufts University, where Flintwas an English professor and a dean (U.S. Navy, 1962; “Dr.Paul H. Flint,” 1957). Photo from the June 1954 issue of theTechnical Writing Review.In that paper, Hickok proposed four characteristicsof a professional person: he possesses and is able to use“a body of specialized information,” he has the necessaryskills to do his job well, he performs his job ethically,and he is concerned about recruiting qualified peopleto the field. Of these four characteristics, only the firstone was in question. Defining the body of knowledgeonly in terms of language and publishing, Hickok(1955) argued, would be a recipe for “a non-professionalfuture”; therefore, “the Technical writer must use,professionally, the body of knowledge of a science as wellas that of publishing” (p. 11). Although Hickok believedthat the technical writer could claim the title of aprofessional on that basis, he did not think the technicaleditor could, for the technical editor was “a serviceperson to another type of professional person,” and “aVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 291

Applied ResearchThe First Wave (1953–1961) of the Professionalization Movementperson who must play this role will find it difficult tomake valid his claim to professionalism” (p. 11). Hickokwas confident, however, that technical writing wouldeventually become a profession as society’s dependenceon technical communication became greater and thescience of communication was better understoodthrough systematic study.Although the founders of the profession were moreconcerned with creating professional organizations andestablishing academic programs than circumscribinga body of knowledge, they fully recognized theimportance of having a well-defined, specialized body ofknowledge and worked in their own way to define it—not by creating an encyclopedia or the kind of projectthat STC TCBOK represents, but by establishing anddeveloping professional journals. The first technicalcommunication journals were created soon after the firstprofessional organizations in technical communication,and they were created, in part, to begin the necessaryprocess of developing and delineating the body ofknowledge required for technical communication tobecome a mature, recognized profession. One of theways in which TWE and its sister organizations intendedto advance the profession was by developing “a bodyof literature”—a corpus representing the profession’scollective attempt to develop, identify, and codify itsbody of knowledge through research and intellectualexchange. TWE’s Journal, STW’s Technical WritingReview, and TPS’s Technical Communications—the firsttechnical communication journals—served as vehiclesfor this project. After the TWE-STW merger in 1957,the STWE Review carried on the project: “The primaryobjective of the STWE Review will be to contribute tothe professional advancement of technical writing andediting” (Grogan, 1958, p. 4). 1Ethical StandardsBuchholz (1989) explained that society grantsprofessions a certain degree of autonomy to governthemselves and allows its members to enjoy theprivileges of status and recognition in exchange fora promise to “behave responsibly and ethically toall humankind” (p. 62). Savage (2003) noted that“emerging professions almost always articulate a social1 For the history of STC’s journal, see Smith (1990) and Malone(2008a). For the history of the IEEE Professional CommunicationSociety’s journal, see Sanders (1997) and Malone (2008b).commitment and a set of guiding ethical principles”(p. 3). Doing so might be viewed as their applicationfor recognition as a profession. Working on behalf of aprofession, a professional organization usually makes thissocial contract explicit in the form of a code of conductor a list of ethical principles. The organization maydiscipline or expel members who behave unethically.In 1998, STC developed a set of ethical principlesthat members should follow in their professionalactivities. These principles are organized under thefollowing six headings: legality, honesty, confidentiality,quality, fairness, and professionalism (STC, 1998). Tomy knowledge, STC does not monitor, enforce, or evenaggressively promote adherence to these principles. Evenif STC did, it might not change behavior. Dombrowski(2000a) argued that codes of conduct are importantbut ultimately insufficient: ethical behavior “cannotbe reduced to mechanical conformance to rules,because generalized rules cannot capture the complexcontingency of real, particular situations, and becauseethical conduct usually involves a heavy measure ofpersonal judgment and decision making” (p. 4).In 1955, Robert T. Hamlett (Figure 6), the firstpresident of TWE, proposed a code of ethics fortechnical writers as a way of fostering higher professionalstandards. Hamlett may have taken his cue from thecodes of ethics that engineering organizations hadcreated. Hamlett (1952) was a firm believer thattechnical writers should have engineering degrees. Witha degree in electrical engineering from the University ofIllinois, he had worked for several years as an engineerbefore taking a job as a technical writer with SperryCorporation in New York. He eventually moved intoa management position and was in charge of hiringtechnical writers, editors, and others to staff one of thelargest corporate publications offices in the country(“About the authors,” 1959). His 1955 code consistedof ten affirmative and negative promises written in firstperson, presumably to be spoken by the technical writer(Table 1). Some of these promises obviously reflectedhis own pet peeves—for example, “I will not give‘lip service’ to the statement that ‘Engineers are poorwriters’” (Hamlett, 1955, p. 27). Although it was neveradopted, this code of ethics may be the first one writtenspecifically for technical communicators. Hamlett(1956) later developed this code into a full-lengtharticle about good and bad technical writers—an article292 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchEdward A. Malonehe described as a “Do-It-Yourself Kit” for those whowanted to be regarded as professionals.Figure 6: Robert T. Hamlett (left, 1902-1976), first presidentof the Association of Technical Writers and Editors (TWE),passes the gavel to incoming president Richard Frehsee(right, 1913-2006). Hamlett was head of the publicationsdepartment at Sperry Corporation in New York. In the 1950s,he coined and promoted the term publications engineer asan alternative to the term technical writer (Hamlett, 1952).Frehsee was a long-time employee of IBM in Endicott, NewYork. Photo from the Spring 1956 issue of the TWE Journal.In a controversial book, Bishop (1963) described thepervasive corruption in the technical writing industryof the 1950s. The images on the book’s dust jacket(Figure 7) alluded to the proverbial three monkeys whosee, hear, and speak no evil—the evil in this case beinggreed, fraud, and incompetence. As “the first TechnicalWriter ever hired on the Pacific Coast by the firsttechnical data subcontracting firm ever formed in theLos Angeles area” (Bishop, 1961, p. ii), Malden GrangeBishop had interviewed and worked with hundreds oftechnical writers during the 1940s and 1950s. In hisbook, for example, he told the story of his involvementin an FBI sting operation leading to the arrest of twomen who had promised to send government contractshis way in exchange for kickbacks. He told other storiesof cut-and-paste artists who patched together militaryequipment manuals from old manuals; job applicantswho falsified their credentials, even one who triedto pass off Bishop’s work as his own; and well-paidtechnical writers who knew less about science thanthe average high school student. It was in this generalcontext that STWE formulated and disseminated itsCanons of Ethics in 1958. These canons were basedon a code developed by the Engineers’ Council forProfessional Development (ECPD), the predecessor ofTable 1: Hamlett’s Code of Ethics for Technical Writers, 19551. I recognize the “service” nature of my work. Mypresent and my future depend upon the products ofscience and its workers in all levels.2. I will not give “lip-service” to the statement that “Engineersare poor writers.” (I know that they vary nomore in writing ability than any other group. It is myjob to recognize the work of good writers and to helpthat of poor writers.)3. I recognize that my profession is founded on quality.The reason for my existence as a technical writerstems from my contribution to the quality of technicalwriting.4. I will not be “sensitive” about credit for my part increating technical literature. I believe that outstandingperformance is its own best reward.5. I will not “push” my profession. But I will serve fullyand effectively in my assigned tasks so that the professionwill be “pulled” up by its performance.6. I will endeavor to keep a proper balance betweenliterary quality and technical accuracy. I will not insiston “my way” unless it is the only way.7. I will recognize always the indispensable efforts ofothers in making my product a good one. The illustrator,the photographer, the typist, and the printer mustshare in common pride for a job well-done.8. I believe that the prestige of my profession will beincreased by higher standards of workmanship, and Irecognize my individual responsibility in this respect.9. I believe that the prestige of my profession will beincreased by the establishment of higher educationalstandards for technical writers.10. I will give my share of support to professional societieswhich are sincerely dedicated to the raising ofstandards in technical writing and increasing theprestige of technical writers.Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 293

Applied ResearchThe First Wave (1953–1961) of the Professionalization Movementthe Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology(ABET). They were adopted “as a necessary frameworkwithin which technical writing must grow if it is toachieve professional status” (Mitchell, 1962, p. 301).Figure 7: Dust jacketof Bishop’s Billionsfor Confusion: TheTechnical WritingIndustry (1963), anexposé of greed,fraud, andincompetence in thetechnical writingindustry during the1950s. A small pressin California hadpublished an earlierversion of the bookunder the title Gowrite, young man!(1961), but the bookdid not attract broadnational attentionuntil the second(retitled) edition.Brockmann (1989) questioned whether a codebased on the problems facing engineers could adequatelyserve technical communicators, but he also pointedout that there was no agreement in 1958 about ethicalstandards for technical communication because theprofession was still in its infancy. Without consensus,they had to borrow from another profession’s code ofethics. Emerging professions create codes of ethics notonly to guide the behavior of their members, but alsoto “provide evidence of professional intentions andideals” (as cited in Brockmann, 1989, p. 111). The 1958code, however, did not have a long-term effect on thetechnical communication profession. Schaefer (1980)recalled that the 1958 code faded into the background,and not much attention was paid to creating professionwideethical standards for technical communicators untilafter Watergate, a scandal that heightened the nation’sconcern about the lack of ethical behavior in society andthe need for education in ethics and guiding principles.One of the most articulate statements aboutthe important place of ethical standards in the newprofession came in 1960 from Hobart C. McDaniel(Figure 8), who would later become president of STWP.McDaniel (1960) believed that a profession originatesfrom the professional attitudes that workers havetoward their work. Over time, these attitudes become“moral responsibilities and ethical considerations” thatguide behavior and eventually lead to a shared set ofethical standards. Such standards must come “fromthe profession itself and from the preparatory periodof study and learning before entering the profession,”not from an external source (p. 36). McDaniel (1960)admonished all technical communicators to follow theirprofessional societies’ codes of ethics and promote thehighest possible standards of ethical behavior in theworkplace. He believed that this was the most importantcontribution they could make to their profession.Figure 8: Hobart C.McDaniel (1902–1990),manager of thetechnical informationdepartment atWestinghouse inPittsburgh andpresident of STWP in1962–1963. “Mac” (ashe was called)launched a one-mancampaign in the 1960sto change the name ofthe profession fromtechnical writing totechnography (Galasso, 1963). Due to his influence, theSTWP Review was subtitled “Journal of Technography” forseveral years. Photo from the May 1962 issue of the STWPNewsletter.By 1975, most of these early efforts to formulate,promulgate, and inspire ethical standards had beenforgotten. At the crest of what might be called thesecond wave in the professionalization movement,a member of STC’s Houston chapter argued thatthe first step on the path to professional status andrecognition must be the development of a code ofethics for technical communicators. The following year,294 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchEdward A. MaloneSTC’s committee on ethics, formed in the aftermathof Watergate, drafted a code and proffered it to STCmembers (Harbaugh, 1978). The resulting “Codeof Communicators” was apparently created withoutawareness of the 1958 code and was not much better bymost accounts (Schaefer, 1980).Certification of PractitionersSTC has considered the certification issue severaltimes in the past 35 years. It appointed committeesto examine the feasibility of a certification system in1975, 1981, 1982, and 1994 (Malcolm & Kunz, 2001).The members of these committees contributed manyhours of service—they conducted surveys and wrotereports—but their efforts did not result in a certificationsystem immediately. They discovered that there werenot enough interested STC members to support sucha system (Malcolm & Kunz, 2001). After many delaysand setbacks, STC finally began certifying technicalcommunicators in May 2011. This newly createdcertification system employs portfolios of work ratherthan examinations to assess a technical communicator’scompetencies in six areas: user analysis, documentdesign, project management, content creation, delivery,and quality assurance. Certification is valid for threeyears, after which the individual must be reevaluated.Recertification requires ongoing participation inprofessional development activities (Jong, 2010).Technical communicators have long recognized therole of certification in the professionalization process.Other professions, such as engineering, law, andmedicine, have rigorous certification or licensing systemsin place; these systems have weighed heavily on theminds of technical communicators seeking status andrecognition. The first discussions about the certificationof technical communicators apparently took place in the1950s. At the joint STWE-TPS convention in 1960,the president of McGraw-Hill noted the long-standinginterest in the possibility of a certification or licensingsystem for technical writers: “I understand that thissubject has been discussed several times in your annualmeetings, but as far as I know nothing has been doneabout it” (Benjamin, 1960, p. 234). Thus, even at thisearly date, the feasibility of a certification system hadbeen discussed at several past annual conventions andhad already fallen into that limbo where controversialissues go.The McGraw-Hill president urged his audienceto resurrect the idea as soon as possible: “We havesystems for licensing engineers, electricians, plumbers,and undertakers, so why should we not have a systemfor licensing technical writers?” (Benjamin, 1960, p.234). During this period, McGraw-Hill sold technicalwriting services to private companies and the federalgovernment, including the military, but eventuallyfound that the success of this part of their businesswas being undermined by a plethora of unqualifiedfreelancers (“Technical Writing Service,” 1954;Benjamin, 1960). The McGraw-Hill president believedthat a system of certification or licensing would “go farto convince military procurement officers and othercustomers” to use bona fide professionals rather thanamateurs. He suggested that this system be implementedthrough “on-the-job training programs with gradedexaminations” (Benjamin, 1960, p. 234).Later that year, STWP’s Education and ProfessionalDevelopment Committee took up the issue in earnest,no doubt influenced by this prominent speaker’ssuggestion. The following statement comes from theminutes of the November 4, 1960, STWP Board ofDirectors meeting:A discussion was held concerning the feasibilityof formulating voluntary examinations which,when passed, would entitle the writer, illustrator,or other publication personnel to be registered asa professional and be given a certificate similar toa “professional engineer.” This item was referredto the Standards and Ethics Committee withrecommendation that they check with stateexamining boards and other professional societies,and if the project seems feasible, formulate theexaminations to test basic “knowledge,” not “how hedoes it or what techniques are required for specificwriting tasks.” (Berry, 1960, p. 6)Nothing seems to have come of this initiative, however.As far as I can tell, no examinations were created. Thework of this committee, like that of committees in the1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, was quickly forgotten.Although Malcolm (1987) recalled attendinga session about the certification of technicalcommunicators at the 1964 STWP convention inSan Diego, I have not been able to find any evidenceVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 295

Applied ResearchThe First Wave (1953–1961) of the Professionalization Movementof this session in the published proceedings of theconvention. However, I did find a paper on the subjectin the proceedings of the 1964 Institute in Technicaland Industrial Communications, an annual conferencethat English Professor Herman Weisman sponsored atColorado State University, starting in the late 1950s andcontinuing throughout the 1960s. Titled “A Programfor Accrediting Technical Writers,” the paper waspresented by A. M. I. Fiskin, an associate professor ofEnglish at Drake University. Fiskin (1965) proposed thecreation of a certification system that would be based onexaminations and have seven steps, with a diploma andthe title “Associate Technical Writer” being awarded afterStep 4, and with certification and the title “CertifiedTechnical Writer” being awarded after Step 7. Thecandidate for certification would have to demonstrate(1) knowledge in three scientific fields; (2) competencein the use of English grammar and writing; (3)knowledge of illustration, blueprints, and reproduction;(4) proficiency in editing (e.g., revision, rewriting);(5) ability to work within given formats (e.g., militaryspecifications); (6) in-depth knowledge of two of thescientific fields from Step 2; and (7) ability to manage alarge project with many participants. Candidates couldskip some steps by getting appropriate university degrees(Fiskin, 1965).Accreditation of Academic ProgramsThe accreditation of academic degree programs intechnical communication continues to be an importantissue in professionalization discussions. Accreditationis a kind of certification: a designated body, such as aprofessional organization or a governmental agency,certifies that an academic program meets establishedquality standards for programs of its kind. Davis(2003) argued that the development of professionalstandards, especially standards for accrediting academicprograms, may be “the most important task in ourcentury [i.e., the 21st century] for the profession oftechnical communication” (p. 84). Noting the benefitsof accreditation to academic programs in engineering,Hayhoe (2007) called for STC’s Academic Communityto work with CPTSC and ATTW to “explore thedesirability of establishing an accreditation system”for academic programs in technical communication(p. 408).The issue of accreditation is related to the issue ofprogram assessment (i.e., the measuring of students’achievement of formally articulated learning outcomes).The discipline of technical communication has seen aproliferation of the literature about program assessmentin recent years, with edited collections of essays andspecial journal issues devoted to the theme. See, forexample, the bibliography of this literature on theCPTSC website (St.Amant et al., 2011). See also thespecial issue of Technical Communication on programreview and assessment (St.Amant & Nahrwold,2007) and the book on assessment by Hundleby andAllen (2010). This rapidly growing body of literaturenotwithstanding, the profession has made little progressin implementing credible systems of assessment, externalreview, and accreditation of academic programs.Mark Haselkorn, the 1996–1997 president of IEEEPCS, viewed accreditation of academic programs as animportant step in the professionalization of technicalcommunication. In the mid-1990s, he appointed anad hoc committee to investigate the possibility of usingABET to accredit technical communication programs(Haselkorn, Davis, Goodman, & Nolen, 1998). ABETis a confederation of 30 professional and technicalorganizations, including IEEE. The American Instituteof Electrical Engineers, the predecessor of IEEE, was in1932 one of the seven founder organizations of ABET’spredecessor, ECPD (ABET, 2010). This longstandingrelationship between IEEE and ABET suggested ABET(in cooperation with PCS) as a potential accreditingbody for technical/professional communicationprograms. On its Web site, PCS states that it is the onlyprofessional organization to give serious considerationto accreditation of academic programs (“ABETInformation,” 2007). Nevertheless, PCS does not havean accreditation system in place and seems to haveabandoned the idea.The most successful initiative in this area to date hasbeen CPTSC’s program review service. Although it doesnot accredit programs, CPTSC will put an interestedacademic program in touch with willing and qualifiedexternal reviewers. It is the responsibility of the programto negotiate such matters as “expenses, honoraria, andreporting requirements” (CPTSC, 2008a). CPTSCalso provides guidelines for a self-study that programsprepare before the reviewers visit campus. The results ofthe review are intended for a program’s internal use:296 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchEdward A. MaloneThe purpose of the review is to help developstrong programs in technical and scientificcommunication, not to compare or rank programs,and not to establish certification for programs ortheir graduates” (CPTSC, 2008a). The idea for thereview service seems to have originated in 1987(Little, 1991), but the first review did not take placeuntil 1995 (Rude, 1995, p. 65). The most recentone may have been in 2004 (“Business MeetingMinutes,” 2004, p. 104; Tracy Bridgeford, personalcommunication, May 17, 2011). Rehling (2003),whose academic program underwent an externalreview in the early 2000s, testified to the value ofthe process: “an external review visit and reportcan transform attitudes toward our discipline, withcorresponding status and power rewards, based onnew understandings of our legitimacy and of thenature of students and studies (p. 71).What contribution did the founders of theprofession make to the development of adequateeducational training and standards? One of TWEmission statements was “to advance the professionthrough … the establishment of professional college anduniversity curricula for the training of technical writersand editors” (“TWE Constitution,” 1955, p. 8). Theyrecognized the pivotal role that college and universitydegree programs had played in the professionalizationof other fields, and they viewed attributes such as aspecialized body of knowledge and formal educationaltraining as important to their effort to professionalize.Sweet (1957) was convinced that only universities couldproperly identify and hone technical communication’sbody of knowledge and adequately train practitioners.He was not alone in this belief. Richard Frehsee, thesecond president of TWE, summed up the thinking ofmany practitioners at the time:Frehsee (1957) was confident that TWE had academia’sear and could provide consultation and assistancein creating bona fide degree programs in technicalcommunication.All of the early organizations had universityprofessors in high positions, and these professorsserved as liaisons between practitioners and academia.TWE’s nucleus group included at least one academic:John A. Walter, an English professor at the Universityof Texas and coauthor of a textbook titled TechnicalWriting (Mills & Walter, 1954). Although not acharter member of TWE, he was a member of TWE’sexecutive board by 1955 (“Pioneer,” 1990). Likewise,STW’s nucleus group, located in Boston, includedseveral academics, including John H. Mitchell of theUniversity of Massachusetts (Mitchell, 1989). PaulH. Flint, a Tufts University professor, served as thesecond president of STW. In a report on the first yearof his presidency, Flint (1955) listed the organization’seducation-related accomplishments: “We have … madepreliminary contact with one university with a view tosponsoring symposia for leaders in the field, eveningclasses for practicing technical writers and summerschool courses to prepare advanced undergraduates orrecent graduates to begin as Technical Writers” (p. 1).On the West Coast, TPS was collaborating with one ofits own Directors, English Professor Mitchell Marcusof Los Angeles State College, to create a graduatecurriculum in technical publishing at that college (“30-unit,” 1955). The involvement of these academics inthe first technical communication organizations, alongwith other academics such as Jay R. Gould, W. EarlBritton, Christian K. Arnold, Herman M. Weisman,and Henrietta J. Tichy (Figure 9), helped to create theprofession’s first bridges between industry and academia.The question that has bothered many of us is justhow do we become of age. It’s not going to happenovernight—nor by wishing it were so. It is going tohappen, I believe, through education and training.… the real solution lies with the educators, notthrough quick and dirty courses but in completeundergraduate programs. (Frehsee, 1957, p. 4)Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 297

Applied ResearchThe First Wave (1953–1961) of the Professionalization MovementFigure 9: EnglishProfessor HenriettaJ. Tichy (1912–1994?), the firstwoman fellow ofSTC (“Two Fellows,”1968). The authorof Effective Writingfor Engineers,Managers, andScientists (1966),Tichy taughttechnical writingand literatureat Hunter College in New York City. Photo from the STCarchives.TWE, STW, and TPS apparently had some successin “establishing” bona fide degree programs at collegesand universities. In the mid-1950s, STW worked closelywith administrators at Simmons College, a woman’scollege in Boston, to create a four-year undergraduatedegree program in technical writing. Students pursuingthis degree, in effect, had to double-major in journalismand one of the following technical/scientific areas:electronics, chemistry, or biology (“Program,” 1956).STW described its involvement as follows:… plans were not finalized until this past winter[1955–1956] after discussion between members ofthe School of Publications and practicing technicalwriters, members of the STW Boston ChapterEducation Committee. Stimulated by the interestshown by these STW members and by their promiseof cooperation, college officials approved immediateaction on the new program. (“Program,” 1956, p. 69)Launched in fall 1956, the curriculum for the degreeconsisted of such courses as graphic arts, editing andpublishing techniques, layout and design, and articlewriting, but no courses with the title “technical writing”or “technical editing” (“Program,” 1956). The title ofthe degree was “Technical Writing and Publishing,”however, rather than “Technical Journalism” (SimmonsCollege, 1957, p. 41). Other colleges and universities(e.g., Iowa State, Kansas State) were offering bachelor’sdegrees in technical journalism at an earlier date(Cortelyou, 1958), but the Simmons program may bethe first, nominally, in technical writing.In 1958, Erwin Steinberg, an English professor,started an undergraduate degree program in technicalwriting and editing at Margaret Morrison CarnegieCollege, the women’s college at Carnegie Institute ofTechnology (Carnegie Tech, now Carnegie MellonUniversity) in Pittsburgh (Figure 10). Steinberghad a working relationship with the TWE/STWEPittsburgh chapter, and especially its vice-chairman H.C. McDaniel. Each year at Carnegie Tech, Steinbergand McDaniel “put together a full day of lectures andworkshops on various aspects of technical writing oneday a year” (Erwin Steinberg, personal communication,June 28, 2007). It is likely that Steinberg consultedMcDaniel or the chapter about the curriculum for theCarnegie Tech degree. As the editor of the WestinghouseEngineer and the manager of a large group of technicalcommunicators at Westinghouse, McDaniel was thecenter of technical writing activity in Pittsburgh duringthis period (Janis Ramey, personal communication,September 9, 2009).Figure 10: English Professor Erwin R. Steinberg (b. 1921)with the first students in the technical writing and editingprogram at Margaret Morrison Carnegie College. Left toright: Ellen Brady, Sara Shook, Sally Gannon, Steinberg,Janis Geisler (aka STC Fellow Janis Ramey), and NancyFerree. Reprinted from the Pittsburgh Press, October 1958.By 1960, only a few universities were offering degreeprograms in technical communication, but STWP’sEducation and Professional Development Committee(EPPC) was already discussing STWP-sponsoredaccreditation of such programs. The following passagecomes from the minutes of the Nov. 4, 1960, STWPBoard of Directors Meeting:298 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchEdward A. MaloneA discussion was held concerning whether theEPPC should establish, on behalf of the society,realistic curricula standards for university degreesin technical writing, technical illustration, andother fields it may deem proper, and to recommendto the Board appropriate ways of determiningwhether these standards are being met by particulareducational institutes so that the society can grant orwithhold approval of curricula on this basis. (Berry,1960, p. 6)This initiative was obviously premature and did notbear fruit. At this early date, the profession lacked awell-developed, specialized body of knowledge and corecompetencies. As Rainey, Turner, & Dayton (2005)argued many decades later, “Only with a process ofcodification and certification will the profession bein a position to establish accreditation of academicprograms” (p. 335).The challenge of creating effective academicprograms was bigger than the first generation ofprofessionals had anticipated. For this reason, theydid not succeed on the scale they had hoped. Thecooperation between academics such as Flint andSteinberg on the one hand and practitioners such asHickok (a former high school teacher) and McDaniel onthe other was undercut by the general ill will betweentheir camps. As Gould (1989) recalled, “In the earlydays, the 50s, technical writing and the technical writerswere without much honor, especially in academiccircles” (p. 169). The reverse was also true. Duringthe merger negotiations between TWE and STW, aTWE member asked, “How can they [STW] have aman like Flint in their organization? He is an Englishprofessor” (TWE, 1956, p. 98). These attitudes poseda formidable obstacle to collaborative educationalinitiatives. A decade after the formation of TWE,Hamlett (1963) lamented that “Education has notanswered the challenge for higher standards in preparinggraduates for technical writing careers” (p. 22). Anotherdecade later, Colby (1975) was complaining thatRennselaer Polytechnic Institute’s graduate degreeprogram in technical writing (which had been startedin 1953, the same year that TWE and STW werefounded) was the only academic program in technicalcommunication that he really trusted.We have continued to create academic programsin technical communication (more than 223 in 2011by one count [STC, 2011]), but we have not succeededin implementing uniform program assessment protocolsor an accreditation system. There is evidence thatindustry desires such quality assurance when hiringuniversity graduates in technical communication.Malcolm (1987) noted that a 1983 survey conductedby STC indicated that employers of technicalcommunicators were interested in having STC vetand accredit academic programs.Legal RecognitionAnother current issue in professionalization isgovernment recognition of the profession. On January25, 2010, STC issued a press release declaring that “STCEfforts Realized as U.S. Government AcknowledgesTechnical Writers as Distinct Profession.” The pressrelease was referring to the fact that the job title“Technical Writer” had been given its own chapter inthe 2010 edition of the government’s OccupationalOutlook Handbook. By separating technical writers fromother types of communicators, the U.S. governmentwas acknowledging that technical writing had differentrequirements than other types of writing. According tothe news release, this change was important because itgave technical communicators authoritative evidenceto use in discussions with employers about the status oftheir profession (O’Sullivan, 2010).Although the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statisticsdid not formally acknowledge technical writing as adistinct profession until 2010, governmental agencieshave long recognized technical writing as a distinctactivity and “technical writer” and “technical editor” asofficial job titles. The National Advisory Commissionfor Aeronautics (NACA), NASA’s predecessor, had“Assistant Technical Editor” as an official job title asearly as 1935 (NACA, 1941). That editor, Pearl I. Young(Figure 11), was a scientist by education who workedwith NACA engineers on their reports, and in later yearsshe taught in-house report writing courses, produceda style manual for NACA reports, and supervised anediting group of mainly women (Verniel & Douglas,1996). Thus, Young was one of the first—if not thefirst—U.S. government employees with the job title“Technical Editor” in the modern sense.Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 299

Applied ResearchThe First Wave (1953–1961) of the Professionalization Movement“Technical Writer (profess. & kin.) see Writer, TechnicalPublications” (U.S. Employment Service, 1943, p. 320).The entry for “Technical Publications Writer” read asfollows:Figure 11: Pearl I. Young (1895–1968), a technical editor andlater manager of a technical editing group at the Langleyand Cleveland fields of the National Advisory Commissionon Aeronautics, the predecessor of NASA (Verniel &Douglas, 1996). Having majored in physics, chemistry, andmathematics at the University of North Dakota, Young beganher NACA/NASA career as a laboratory assistant (as picturedabove) and was promoted to junior physicist before movinginto editing (c. 1930) (NACA, 1941). She is the eponym of thePearl I. Young Theater at NASA’s Langley Research Center(NASA, n.d.). Public domain photo from NASA.The Dictionary of Occupational Titles, published bythe U.S. Employment Service in four major editions(and many supplements) between 1939 and 1991,sheds light on the emergence of the government job title“Technical Writer” in the post-World War II era. Thefirst edition of the dictionary, published in 1939, didnot include “Technical Writer” at all, but it did include“Editor of a Trade or Technical Publication”:Editor, Trade-or-Technical Publication (print &pub.) 0-06.53. Edits a trade or technical publication:accepts or rejects material; writes editorials andspecial articles, maintaining editorial policy ofpublication; makes field trips in search of newpractices or first hand information on conditions;consults advisers on trade or technical questions;edits material; plans lay-out and checks andapproves final proofs of issue. (U.S. EmploymentService, 1939, p. 316)As a job title, “Technical Writer” made its debut ina 1943 supplement to the first edition of the dictionary:Writer, Technical Publications; ordnance engineer;technical writer (profess. & kin.) 0-06.90. Preparestechnical manuals, bulletins, and other publicationsdealing with subjects, such as improvements inelectrical and mechanical equipment and services,and the assembly, use, maintenance, repair, andtransportation of ordnance materials: consultsworkers engaged in developing new equipmentand in making improvements, and other sources,such as blueprints, trade and engineering journals,and manufacturers’ catalogs, to acquire or verifytechnical knowledge of subject; selects, organizes,edits, and rewrites articles, bulletins, manuals,or other materials dealing with general andparticular phases of subject; directs preparationof illustrative materials, such as photographs,drawings, and sketches. May specialize in aparticular phase of technical writing, such as use,repair, and maintenance of firearms, or tanks, or theapplication, theory, installation, and operation oftelephone and telegraph equipment. (p. 352)Note that the occupation is classified as “profess. & kin.”Thus, as early as 1943, the U.S. government formallyrecognized “Technical Writer” as belonging to a groupof “professional and kindred occupations”—that is,occupations requiring specialized study and training.Sweet (1957) noted that many technicalcommunicators in the 1950s took great comfort fromthe fact that government agencies such as the Bureauof Census and the Federal Security Agency listed thetechnical writer as a professional worker; however, asSweet (1957) also pointed out, these agencies recognizedthe billiard player, jockey, dog trainer, freak, masseur,gambler, fortune teller, animal impersonator, yodeler,and stooge as professional workers (p. 65)The history of the struggle for legal (i.e., judicial)recognition of the profession extends back to at least1957, when a U.S. federal court ruled that a technicalwriter was a professional under the U.S. Department ofLabor’s Wage and Hours Act and therefore exempt fromreceiving time-and-a-half pay for overtime work.300 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchEdward A. MaloneFrom January 1955 to July 1956, David Rothsteinworked as a technical writer for Cannon & SullivanTechnical Publications in Los Angeles. He createdtechnical handbooks from engineering data presentedon blueprints and was also in charge of deciding whatartwork was needed and ordering it. In adjudicatinghis lawsuit, the court found that “The type of workperformed by a technical writer is predominantlyintellectual and creative, rather than routine,” requiring“judgment or discretion,” and that Rothstein was “abona fide professional employee” (Rothstein, 1957).In other words, the court ruled against Rothstein, whodid not want to be regarded as a professional in theWage and Hours Act sense because it meant less pay forovertime work.Similarly, the profession received legal recognitionfrom the U.S. Immigration and NaturalizationService (INS) in the early 1980s. In 1979, a technicalpublications writer from India was denied “preferencestatus” to immigrate to the United States when an INSDistrict Director decided that he did not belong to aprofessional occupation. The company that wanted tohire the writer filed an appeal, and the case was sent to aRegional Commissioner, who ruled c. 1980 that technicalwriting was a professional occupation because entry intothe occupation typically required a bachelor’s degreefrom a university. STC’s Executive Director had solicitedstatements to that effect from three editors in the field andan academic program director and submitted them to thepetitioner’s attorney, and apparently this testimony swayedthe INS official. Commenting on the INS’s ruling, theeditor of STC’s Technical Communication declared that“Technical Writers [were] Legally Professionals Now”(Smith, 1981, p. 3).ConclusionProfessionalization has been a long-term project that hasincluded achievements as well as setbacks and delays.If nothing else, our history teaches us to be cautiouslyoptimistic about those achievements. Many times inthe past we have felt confident that mature professionalstatus was just around the corner, only to discoverthat it was farther away than we thought. It is easy toexaggerate or overestimate an accomplishment in thesatisfaction of the moment, particularly when we lack astrong historical consciousness as a profession. Althoughit would be wrong to describe professionalization as aSisyphean task, it has been a frustrating one so far. Ourappraisal of our gains must be tempered by a certainamount of realism and an awareness of the history of theprofessionalism movement in technical communication.The recent achievement of a measure of legalrecognition by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics(BLS) is a case in point. We have been trumpetingthe government’s recognition of technical writing as aprofession—or at least a professional activity—sincethe 1950s, but what has that recognition really donefor the technical communicator’s professional status?Although persuading the BLS to segregate technicalwriting from other forms of writing in its OccupationalOutlook Handbook was an accomplishment, it wasnot the accomplishment that STC had set its sightson achieving. STC was trying to persuade the BLSto replace the term “technical writer” and its narrowimplications with the term “technical communicator”and its much broader implications (Martin &O’Sullivan, 2010). The fact that the BLS did notrecognize “technical communication” as the name of ourprofession more than 40 years after the profession itselfofficially embraced that term should give us pause.Although the unification of technicalcommunication organizations in the late 1950sand early 1960s has given way to a multiplicity oftechnical communication organizations in the 21stcentury, and at least one technical communicationprofessor believes that we are “diluting our efforts”with “too many organizations” (as cited in Carliner,2003, p. 95), there may still be cause for optimism.We should view the creation of organizations such asATTW and CPTSC and international organizationsof technical communicators in places like Australia,Japan, Germany, France, and Switzerland as evidenceof the profession’s continued growth and relevance overthe years. In recent decades, there have been attemptsto achieve greater cooperation, if not unification,among these organizations. In the 1990s and early2000s, for example, representatives of the majortechnical communication organizations met annuallyfor an informal Summit of Technical CommunicationOrganizations (Carliner, 2003). TCeurope andIntecom are international umbrella organizations thatfoster cooperation among national organizations.Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 301

Applied ResearchThe First Wave (1953–1961) of the Professionalization MovementThere has also been some cross-pollination among theU.S. organizations. Several STC fellows are officersor directors of IEEE PCS, ATTW, and CPTSC. Aformer president of STC is now the editor of the IEEETransactions on Professional Communication.As early as 1960, STC discussed the feasibility ofcreating an internal system for accrediting academicprograms (Berry, 1960); more than 50 years later,however, we still do not have an accreditation system inplace. The unsuccessful attempt of IEEE PCS to createsuch a system in the 1990s underscores the difficultyof the task. Although it has been helpful to severalprograms, CPTSC’s Program Review service does notprovide the kind of quality assurance that might comefrom ABET accreditation, for example. Nor was it everintended to do so. Nevertheless, important progress isbeing made in developing and assessing student learningoutcomes in technical communication programs.Scholars have developed a sizable corpus of assessmentliterature in technical communication, and CPTSCnow offers an annual Award for Excellence in ProgramAssessment (CPTSC, 2008b) in connection with theCPTSC Research Assessment Project (Coppola, 2008).One important sign of the discipline’s maturation isthe interest it has shown in the study of ethics in recentdecades. Although organizations such as ATTW (2011)and STC (1998) have codes of ethics to guide membersin their professional practice, we no longer view thesecodes (if we ever did) as sufficient by themselves to fosterethical behavior. We seem to have a better understandingof the motivations and mechanisms behind suchbehavior—if the amount of literature on the subject isany indication. There has been a proliferation in theliterature about ethics in technical communicationscholarship since 1970 (Dombrowski, 2000a, p. 4).Introductory textbooks in technical communicationusually include a section or chapter about ethics.For example, Anderson (2010) integrated “EthicalGuidelines” throughout his textbook. There are severalbooks devoted to ethics in technical communication(Allen & Voss, 1997; Brockmann, 1989; Dombrowski,2000b; Markel, 2001). Undergraduate and graduatecurricula in technical communication often includemodules, if not entire courses, in ethics.Finally, significant progress seems to have been madein the areas of certification and body of knowledge.Recent achievements in these two areas are grounds forbeing optimistic about the profession’s future. STC’simplementation of a certification system for technicalcommunication professionals this year represents theculmination—and in some respects, the achievement—ofmany years of hard work. It may not be all hyperboleto say that “A Monumental Day Dawns for TechnicalCommunicators” (Jong, 2010, p. 6). We will have towatch closely to see whether certification changes theemployment landscape and the public’s perception of theprofession. In the 60 years that have passed since technicalcommunicators created the first professional organizationsand journals in technical communication, the professionhas had time to develop a specialized body of knowledgeand create outlets (e.g., professional conferences andjournals) for documenting, exploring, and critiquing it. Asa framework and portal, STC TCBOK promises to makethat body of knowledge accessible to anyone who wishesto know what technical communication is and whattechnical communicators do.References30-unit graduate curriculum proposed for technicalpublishing master’s degree. (1955, November).Technical Publishing, 1(2), 5. Society for TechnicalCommunication, Fairfax, VA.About the authors. (1959). In S. Mandel (Ed.), Writingin industry: Selected papers from the Proceedings ofConference on Writing and Publication in Industry(pp. 117–121). Brooklyn, NY: Polytechnic Press.ABET information. (2007). IEEE ProfessionalCommunication Society. Retrieved February 9,2011, from http://ewh.ieee.org/soc/pcs/index.php?q=node/56ABET. (2010). History. Retrieved February 10, 2011,from http://www.abet.org/history.shtmlAllen, L., & Voss, D. (1997). Ethics in technicalcommunication. New York: Wiley ComputerPublishing.Anderson, P. V. (2010). Technical communication: Areader-centered approach (7th ed.). Boston, MA:Wadsworth.ATTW. (2011). Code of ethics. Retrieved May 14,2011, from http://www.attw.org/?q=node/107Benjamin, C. G. (1960). Technical writing in thesoaring sixties. In Proceedings of Seventh Annual302 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchEdward A. MaloneNational Convention (STWE meeting jointly withTPS) (pp. 231–235). Columbus, OH: STWE.Berry, D. C. (1960, November 4). Minutes [of] theboard of directors of the Society of TechnicalWriters and Publishers. Society for TechnicalCommunication, Fairfax, VA.Bishop, M. G. (1961). Go write, young man! ThreeRivers, CA: Del Malanbob Press.Bishop, M. G. (1963). Billions for confusion: Thetechnical writing industry. Menlo Park, CA: McNallyand Loftin.Brockmann, R. J. (1989). A historical considerationof ethics and the technical writer: From the 1880’sto the 1980’s. In R. J. Brockmann & F. Rook(Eds.), Technical communication and ethics (pp.107–112). Arlington, VA: Society for TechnicalCommunication.Buchholz, W. J. (1989). Deciphering professionalcodes of ethics. IEEE Transactions on ProfessionalCommunication, 32(2), 62-68.Business meeting minutes. (2004). In J. Dubinsky &R. Judy (Eds.), Pathways to diversity: 31st annualmeeting of the Council for Programs in Technical andScientific Communication, Purdue University, October7–9, 2004 (pp. 104–108). Retrieved from http://www.cptsc.org/pro/2004.pdfCarliner, S. (2003). A critical look at professionalorganizations in technical communication. In T.Kynell-Hunt & G. J. Savage (Eds.), Power andlegitimacy in technical communication, Volume I: Thehistorical and contemporary struggle for professionalstatus (pp. 71–100). Amityville, NY: Baywood.Clark, I. T. (1956). Report of the chief archivist of theassociation of technical writers and editors (motherchapter, New York City) from April 13, 1953through November 14, 1956. Society for TechnicalCommunication, Fairfax, VA.Cogan, E. A. (1974). Pursuing professional identity andmaturity. Technical Communication, 21(4), 15–16.Cogan, M. L. (1953). Toward a definition of profession.Harvard Educational Review, 23(1), 33–50.Cogan, M. L. (1955). The problem of defining aprofession. Annals of the American Academy, 297,105–111.Colby, J. B. (1975). Licensing of communicators.Technical Communication, 22(3), 24–25.Coppola, N. W. (2008). CPTSC assessment: Acommunity research model. Retrieved from http://assessment-cptsc.njit.edu/Coppola, N. W. (2010a). Call for proposals: Specialissue on “achieving professional status in our field.”Retrieved February 20, 2011, from http://www.cptsc.org/cfp.htmlCoppola, N. W. (2010b). The technical communicationbody of knowledge initiative: An academicpractitionerpartnership. Technical Communication,57(1), 11–25.Cortelyou, E. (1958). Some qualifications of a technicaleditor. STWE Review, 5(2), 5–9.CPTSC. (2008a). Program review. Retrieved January 30,2011, from http://www.cptsc.org/program-review.htmlCPTSC. (2008b). Research assessment project.Retrieved May 16, 2011, from http://www.cptsc.org/research-assess.htmlDavis, M. T. (2003). Shaping the future of ourprofession. In T. Kynell-Hunt & G. J. Savage (Eds.),Power and legitimacy in technical communication,Volume II: Strategies for professional status (pp.75–86). Amityville, NY: Baywood.Dombrowski, P. M. (2000a). Ethics and technicalcommunication: The past quarter century. Journal ofTechnical Writing and Communication, 30(1), 3–29.Dombrowski, P. M. (2000b). Ethics in technicalcommunication. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.Fiskin, A. M. (1965). A program for accreditingtechnical writers. In H. M. Weisman (Ed.),Proceedings of the 1964 Institute in Technical andIndustrial Communications (pp. 75–76). ColoradoState University, Fort Collins, CO.Flexner, A. (1915, June 26). Is social work a profession?School and Society, 1, 901–911.Flint, P. H. (1955). STW has had a good year. TechnicalWriting Review, 2(3), 1.Flint, P. H. (1957). Medford Daily Mercury, n.p. Copy inpossession of Sue Hickok Potter, St. Petersburg, FL.Frehsee, R. (1957). A word from the president. TWEJournal, 3(1), 4.Galasso, J. A. (1963, October). What’s in a name?STWP Review, 10(4), 23–24.Gould, J. R. (1989). A pioneer remembers. TechnicalCommunication, 36(2), 168–169.Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 303

Applied ResearchThe First Wave (1953–1961) of the Professionalization MovementGrogan, T. A. (1958). Editorial notes. STWE Review,5(1), 4.Grogan, T. A. (1960, May). The president speaks.STWE Newsletter, 6(3), 3–4. Society for TechnicalCommunication, Fairfax, VA.Hamlett, R. T. (1952). Technical writing grows into newprofession: Publications engineering. Proceedings ofthe I.R.E., 40, 1157–1160.Hamlett, R. T. (1955, Winter). Natural and artificialhorizons in technical writing. TWE Journal, 1(2),9–10, 18–19, 27.Hamlett, R. T. (1956). Technical writing—Good or bad.TWE Journal, 2(2), 9–11.Hamlett, R. T. (1963). Technical writing stumbles into anew era. STWP Review, 10(3), 22–23.Harbaugh, F. W. (1978). Professional recognition: A listpriceoption. Technical Communication, 25(1), 1–3.Haselkorn, M., Davis, M. T., Goodman, M. B., &Nolen, B. E. (1998). Seeking ABET accreditationfor technical communication programs. In IEEEInternational Professional Communication Conference(IPCC 98) Proceedings: A contemporary renaissance:Changing the way we communicate (pp. 195–196).Piscataway, NJ: IEEE.Hayhoe, G. F. (2007). Why should program assessmentmatter to practitioners? Technical Communication,54(4), 407–408.Hickok, F. (1955). Professional artisan, something else?Technical Writing Review, 2(3), 10–12.Hickok, F. (1963). Short form resume. Copy inpossession of Sue Hickok Potter, St. Petersburg, FL.Hundleby, M. N., & Allen, J. (2010). Assessment intechnical and professional communication. Amityville,NY: Baywood.Jong, S. (2010, June). A monumental day dawns fortechnical communicators: Certification! Intercom, p.6.Kapp, J. (2005). About Reginald O. Kapp Biography.Retrieved January 30, 2011, from http://www.reginaldkapp.org/AboutROK/About_biography.htmKleinman, J. M. (1989). Recollections of STC. TechnicalCommunication, 36(3), 262–64.Light, I. (1959). Letters. STWE Review, 6(1), 2, 23.Light, I. (1961). Technical writing and professionalstatus. Journal of Chemical Documentation, 1(3),4–10.Little, S. B. (1991). A case for program review, notcertification. In J. P. Zappen & S. Katz (Eds.),CPTSC Proceedings [of] the Council for Programsin Technical and Scientific Communication[‘s] 18thAnnual Conference (pp. 105–109). Np: CPTSC.Retrieved from http://www.cptsc.org/pro/1991.pdfMalcolm, A. (1987). On certifying technicalcommunicators. Technical Communication, 34(2),94–102.Malcolm, A., & Kunz, L. D. (2001). Certifyingtechnical communicators: An historical perspective.STC Conference Proceedings. Retrieved January 11,2011, from http://www.stc.org/confproceed/2001/PDFs/STC48-000036.pdfMalone, E. A. (2008a). A. Stanley Higgins andthe history of STC’s journal. IEEE ProfessionalCommunication Society Newsletter, 52(7). Retrievedfrom http://ewh.ieee.org/soc/pcs/newsletter/archive/2008/ pcsnews_julaug2008.pdfMalone, E. A. (2008b). John M. Kinn: IEEE-PCS’s firsteditor.” IEEE Professional Communication SocietyNewsletter, 52(10). Retrieved from http://ewh.ieee.org/ soc/pcs/newsletter/archive/2008/pcsnews_nov2008.pdfMalone, E. A. (2010). “Chrysler’s most beautifulengineer”: Lucille J. Pieti in the pillory of fame.Technical Communication Quarterly, 19(2),144–183.Malone, E. A. (n.d). Women organizers of the firstprofessional societies in technical communication.Manuscript in review.Markel, M. H. (2001). Ethics in technicalcommunication: A critique and synthesis. Westport,CT: Ablex.Martin, M., & O’Sullivan, R. (2007). The case for“technical communicator.” Retrieved May 15,2011, from http://www.ce.utexas.edu/prof/hart/documents/ case4tech_communicator_martinandosullivanSTC.pdfMcDaniel, H. C. (1960). Editorial notes. STWE Review,7(1), 3, 33–34, 36, 38.Miles, S. A. (1951). Articulate science. Science, 114,554.Miles, S. A. (1955, August). A message from thepresident. STWE Newsletter, 1(6), 3–4. New York,NY: Columbia University Libraries.304 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchEdward A. MaloneMills, G. H., & Walter, J. A. (1954) Technical writing.New York: Rinehart.Mitchell, J. (1962). Handbook of technicalcommunication. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.Mitchell, J. (1989). … The more things stay the same.Technical Communication, 36(4), 418–419.NACA. (1941, July 17). Personnel information sheet [ofPearl Irma Young, 206–36– 2950]. U.S. NationalArchives and Records Administration, CivilianPersonnel Records Center, St. Louis, MO.NASA. (n.d.). Welcome to the Pearl I. Young Theater[brochure]. Retrieved from http://crgis.ndc.nasa.gov/historic/File:Pearl_I._Young_Theater_Brochure.pdfOperation knowledge. (1951). Special Libraries, 42(9),353, 358.O’Sullivan, R. (2010, January 25). STC efforts realizedas U.S. government acknowledges technicalwriters as distinct profession. Society for TechnicalCommunication, Fairfax, VA.Pioneer in the profession: John A. Walter, writer, editor,educator. (1990). Technical Communication, 37(2),194–195.Program for women technical writers. (1956). TechnicalWriting Review, 3(4), 69.Rainey, K. T. (2004). Certification recognition fortechnical communicators: It’s time! In IEEEInternational Professional Communication Conference(IPCC 04) Proceedings (pp. 70-76). Piscataway, NJ:IEEE. DOI: 10.1109/IPCC.2004.1375278Rainey, K. T., Turner, R. K., & Dayton, D. (2005). Docurricula correspond to managerial expectations?Core competencies for technical communicators.Technical Communication, 52(3), 323–352.Rehling, L. (2003). Thank you, thank you! Or: Howexternal reviewers help out. In Reaching Out:Incorporating the Borders that Inscribe Us: 2003Conference Proceedings [of the] 30th Annual Meetingof the Council for Programs in Technical and ScientificCommunication (pp. 70–71). N.p.: CPTSC.Retrieved from http://www.cptsc.org/pro/2003.pdfRoot, V. (1972). Nineteen years of accomplishment.In The 19th International Technical CommunicationConference Proceedings (pp. 1–3). Washington, DC:STC.Rothstein v. Cannon & Sullivan, 13 WH Cases 389(S.D. Cal. 1957).Rude, C. (1995). Minutes: CPTSC annual businessmeeting 1995. In M. Cooper (Ed.), Proceedings [of]the Council for Programs in Technical and ScientificCommunication[’s] 22nd annual conference (pp.65–68). Retrieved from http://www.cptsc.org/pro/1995.pdfSanders, S. P. (1997). Forty. IEEE Transactions onProfessional Communication, 40(1), 1–3.Savage, G. J. (1997). What should technicalcommunication educators know aboutprofessionalization? In C. Yee (Ed.), Proceedings [of]the Council for Programs in Technical and ScientificCommunication[’s] 24th Annual Conference (pp.34–35). N.p.: CPTSC. Retrieved from http://www.cptsc.org/pro/1997.pdfSavage, G. J. (1999). The process and prospects forprofessionalizing technical communication. Journalof Technical Writing and Communication, 29,355–381.Savage, G.J. (2003). Introduction: Toward professionalstatus in technical communication. In T. Kynell-Hunt & G. Savage (Eds.), Power and Legitimacy inTechnical Communication: Volume I: The Historicaland Contemporary Struggle for Professional Status (pp.1-12. Amityville, NY: Baywood.Schaefer, M. M. (1971). From the president. TechnicalCommunications, 18(1), 5.Schaefer, M. M. (1980). Introduction [to SpecialSection on Ethics]. Technical Communication, 27(3),4.Shimberg, H. L. (1966, April). Mary Schaefer. STWPReview, 13(2), 15.Simmons College. (1957). Simmons College CatalogueIssue for 1957–1958. Boston: Simmons College.Smith, F. R. (1980). In pursuit of professionalism.Technical Communication, 27(3), 2–3.Smith, F. R. (1981). Technical writers legallyprofessionals now. Technical Communication, 28(3),3.Smith, F. R. (1990). The development of the STCjournal. Technical Communication, 37(3), 216–220.St.Amant, K., England, P., Johnston, J., Killgore, V.,Richardson, N., & Siepert, D. (Comps.). (2011).Program assessment bibliography. Retrieved fromhttp://www.cptsc.org/assessbib.htmlVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 305

Applied ResearchThe First Wave (1953–1961) of the Professionalization MovementSt.Amant, K., & Nahrwold, C. (Eds). (2007,November). Special issue of TechnicalCommunication, 54(4)STC. (1998, September). STC’s ethical principles fortechnical communicators. Retrieved February 2,2011, from http://staging.stc.org/about-stc/theprofession-all-about-technical-communication/ethical-principlesSTC. (2011). Academic database. Retrieved from http://www.stc.org/education/academic-databaseSweet, I. (1957). Is technical writing a profession? In1957 STWE Convention Proceedings (pp. 67–68).Washington, DC: STWE.Technical writing service. (1954). In The McGraw-HillBook Company: Imprint on an era (pp. 61–63). NewYork: McGraw-Hill.TWE. (1956, September 22). Conference of theAssociation of Technical Writers & Editors, HotelStatler, New York, N.Y. Society for TechnicalCommunication, Fairfax, VA.TWE constitution: Proposed constitution of theAssociation of Technical Writers and Editors.(1955). TWE Journal, 1(2), 8, 24.Two fellows installed. (1968). Technical Communications,15(3), 22.U.S. Employment Service. (1939, June). Dictionaryof occupational titles, Part 1: Definitions of titles.Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.U.S. Employment Service. (1943). Dictionary ofoccupational titles, Supplement (2nd ed). Washington,DC: Government Printing Office.U.S. Navy. (1962, December 7). Report on the fitness ofnaval research officers on inactive duty. Departmentof the Navy, Navy Personnel Command, Millington,TN.Van Hagan, C. E. (1954). By-laws of the TechnicalPublishing Society. Copy in possession of KarenBergen, Los Angeles, CA.Verniel, P., & Douglas, D. (1996, Spring). A milliondollars worth of memories: Pearl I. Young. Womenin Aviation, 8(2), 27–30.Warnock, M. (1953, April 14–15). Minutes oftechnical editors’ session[s]. Society for TechnicalCommunication Collection (MC063, Box 1).Massachusetts Institute of Technology Libraries,Institute Archives and Special Collections,Cambridge, MA.Wright, D., Malone, E. A., Saraf, G. G., Long, T. B.,Egodapitiya, I.K., & Roberson, E.M. (2011).The history of the future: Prognostication intechnical communication. Technical CommunicationQuarterly, 20(4), 443-480.About the AuthorEdward A. Malone is Associate Professor of TechnicalCommunication at Missouri University of Scienceand Technology, formerly known as the Universityof Missouri-Rolla. He has published articles inTechnical Communication Quarterly, Journal of Businessand Technical Communication, IEEE Transactionson Professional Communication, and TechnicalCommunication. Contact: malonee@mst.edu.Manuscript received 23 February 2011, revised 18 May 2011,accepted 3 August 2011.306 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchGlorified Grammarian or VersatileValue Adder?What Internship Reports RevealAbout the Professionalization ofTechnical CommunicationJanel BlochAbstractPurpose: To compare and contrast the experiences of technical communicationinterns over recent decades as they relate to the progress toward the professionalizationof technical communication.Methods: Exploratory thematic analysis of 15 detailed graduate student internshipreports (1984–2009) based on five professionalization issues: educational background,identifiability of technical communicators, status, demonstrating value added, andprofessional consciousness.Results: Interns across the entire time range faced professionalization issues. Regardingeducation, the need for technical communicators to possess specialized subject-matterknowledge is becoming even more essential in this age of distributed work and couldbe addressed within the technical communication curriculum by more consistentlyrequiring minors or double majors in specialized fields. The study also shows acontinuing lack of awareness of the technical communication skill set; the TechnicalCommunication Body of Knowledge project is progress toward professionalizing theskill set. Additionally, status issues and the need to add value were persistent challengesfor the interns. Educators should avoid conditioning technical communicationstudents to expect low job status and help them find the right organizational fit,actively promote themselves, and be financially aware. The professional consciousnessof technical communicators seems to have eroded over time, as the overlap with otherfields may hinder technical communication from becoming an easily differentiableprofession, although the Technical Communication Body of Knowledge project andSTC’s move toward certification may assist in this regard.Conclusions: Several recommendations are offered for interns, employers, and facultyto help interns be perceived as professionals and to improve the professionalization oftechnical communication as a whole.Keywords: internships, professionalization, graduate programs, statusVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 307

Applied ResearchGlorified Grammarian or Versatile Value Adder?Practitioner’sTakeaway• Employers of technicalcommunication interns shouldcarefully match interns with positionsto fully use their skills, consideringissues such as subject-matter expertiseand fit with organizational culture.• Employers of technicalcommunication interns shouldbe prepared to provide adequatefeedback, help them with networking,and coach them to be self-advocates.• Technical communicationinterns must be prepared to beentrepreneurial and financiallysavvy and to seek opportunities todemonstrate their value in tangibleways.• Practitioners should maintain contactwith academic programs in technicalcommunication, which continuallyseek internship opportunities forstudents.IntroductionThe media often broadcast “technical writer” as apromising career choice. In fact, U.S. News & WorldReport ranked “technical writer” as “one of the 50 bestcareers of 2011” (Newman, 2010). However, studentsinterested in technical communication careers stillstruggle with identifying opportunities and adapting totheir first position. To help ease this transition, manytechnical communication programs offer course creditfor internships, and some include them as a degreerequirement (Savage & Seible, 2010). Internships canbenefit all involved: Students obtain experience and achance to apply their academic knowledge, employerssee what students can offer, and faculty stay connectedwith workplace needs. As Munger (2006) puts it,internships can be “win-win-win situations” (p. 336).An important part of internships is for students toreflect on connections between the work done on the joband the knowledge learned in school. This reflection canbe prompted by activities such as keeping journals andparticipating in class discussions during the internshipand also by writing a comprehensive report uponcompleting the internship (e.g., Tovey, 2001, p. 232). Ingraduate-level technical communication programs, thisreport can be equivalent in length and rigor to a master’sthesis, complete with a faculty supervisory committee.This article discusses my exploratory study of thedetailed internship reports of students in a technicalcommunication master’s degree program. These reportsfrom 1984 to 2009 chronicle the experiences of studentsworking in a variety of technical communication-relatedpositions.My study addresses two gaps in the literature.The first is the lack of narratives of technicalcommunicators’ work experiences, which Savage andSullivan (2001) identified and began to address in theircollection Writing a Professional Life: Stories of TechnicalCommunicators On and Off the Job. Second, as theseinternship reports cover the past quarter century, Iaddress the need for longitudinal studies of technicalcommunicators’ work (Rude, 2009). These reports,taken together, provide a look at trends, or lack thereof,in the professionalization of technical communicationand offer a unique opportunity to compare and contrastexperiences over time. I conclude with recommendationsfor interns, employers, and faculty.MethodologyThe internship reports in this study were written bystudents in the Master of Technical and ScientificCommunication (MTSC) program at Miami Universityin Oxford, Ohio. This program began in the mid-1980sand, as Anderson (1984) explains, was designed arounda “problem-solving model” (p. 163) that reflectedthe need to devise creative strategies to address thevariety of situations technical communicators face inthe workplace. By developing this problem-solvingmind-set, students were prepared “not only for entrylevelpositions as writers and editors, but also for rapidadvancement in the profession” (Anderson, p. 165).Students were required to complete an internship,following detailed requirements for both employers andstudents (see Miami University, 2004a, 2004b). Theinternship could take various forms, such as a summer308 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchJanel Blochinternship or a designated portion of a full-time job,and it was often the student’s first professional workexperience.To get academic credit for the internship, studentswere required to write a detailed report approved by afaculty committee. Students submitted the approvedreport to Miami University’s library to be publiclyavailable, just as is done for a thesis or dissertation. Theywere aware of four audiences: future MTSC students,their faculty committee, their internship colleagues, and“a very nebulous fourth audience”—anyone obtainingthe report through Miami University’s library (MiamiUniversity, 2004b, p. 6).The content and organization of these reports weredelineated quite clearly (Miami University, 2004b):• A description of the employer and how theintern fit into its organizational structure• A general overview of the intern’s work• A detailed description of the intern’s work on amajor project• The intern’s reflection on the internship,relevant to topics studied within the MTSCprogram.To help ensure the value of the internship to allconcerned, interns were required to have a statementsigned by the employer and the faculty committeeverifying that the internship involved “professionalwork appropriate for someone who has completedat least one year of graduate study in technical andscientific communication” (Miami University, 2004b,p. 2). Employers agreed to give interns an appropriateorientation and to provide two evaluations.Interns were also required to have both a supervisorwithin the organization and a “writing mentor” whocould “teach, advise, and evaluate” them regardingworkplace writing (Miami University, 2004b, p. 4). Thesupervisor and the mentor could be the same person butneed not be. For example, a student in a “lone writer”position would need an external writing mentor.This collection of internship reports provides avaluable data set of firsthand accounts of the work oftechnical communicators that can be used in examiningissues pertaining to the professionalization of technicalcommunication. Specifically, this set of reports does thefollowing:• Provides detailed accounts of technicalcommunication work experiences• Includes samples of work in (often lengthy)appendices• Spans a wide range of time, 1984–2009,allowing for a kind of longitudinal study• Represents a variety of internship situationsin different technical areas, includingtechnological, medical, scientific, andenvironmental.For this exploratory investigation, I selected 15reports, from the more than 200 available, to examinein detail—approximately half from the beginning andmiddle years of the time range, and the rest from morerecent years. I chose more reports from recent yearsto reflect the present status of the field and to offerinsights for making recommendations, and I selectedreports representing a variety of internship situationsand subject-matter areas. Because the reports varied inthe details offered, I chose reports that addressed the fiveprofessionalization issues discussed in the remainder ofthis article.My university’s Institutional Review Boarddetermined that the requirements for human subjectsresearch are not applicable to this study because allthe reports are publicly available. Full citations for thereports are listed in Appendix A. Table 1 summarizesthe reports analyzed for this article. To emphasize theyears rather than the authors throughout this article,the reports and the interns are referred to by year andnumber rather than by the author’s name.Professionalization IssuesTechnical communication has long struggled withprofessionalization issues. The two volumes of Power andLegitimacy in Technical Communication (Kynell-Hunt& Savage, 2003, 2004) include 20 articles, and relatedpieces have appeared in this journal on a regular basis.I have identified within these discussions five commonthemes that also appear in the reports in my study: (1)Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 309

Applied ResearchGlorified Grammarian or Versatile Value Adder?Table 1: Summary of Internship Reports Examined for This StudyTitleYear and OrganizationNumberTechnical Writer 1984-01 Technical Communications Department of a large electronic dataprocessingcompanyMedical Writer 1984-02 Medical Affairs Department of a large pharmaceutical companyTechnical Publications Writer/Editor 1985-01 Neurotoxicology Division, U.S. Environmental Protection AgencyTechnical Writer 1994-01 Risk Management Business Unit of a newly merged software companyPart-time Assistant Medical Writer 1995-01 Regulatory Services Department of the pharmaceutical division of alarge consumer products companyTechnical Writer 1995-02 Small consulting firm providing services such as training, documentation,technical artwork, and simulationsTechnical Writer 1995-03 Small technical communication consulting firm with large corporateand government clientsTechnical Writer/Editor 2004-01 Document Development Branch Editorial Team, Education and InformationDivision, National Institute for Occupational Safety and HealthTechnical Writer 2004-02 Web-Based Learning team in Information Systems and ServicesDepartment of a large grocery retailerStudy Analyst/Report Writer 2004-03 Study Analysis and Reports Department of a large contract scientificresearch organizationUser Services Analyst 2004-04 Small software companyTechnical Communicator/Trainer 2007-01 Small consulting companyTechnical Writer 2009-01 Office of an international ground engineering and environmentalconsulting firmCommunity Health Worker 2009-02 Community health center in an economically disadvantaged areaInstructional Design Senior Analyst 2009-03 Content Development Center of a division of a global managementconsulting, technology services, and outsourcing firmeducational background; (2) identifiability; (3) status;(4) demonstrating value added; and (5) professionalconsciousness. Each of these themes is explained below.Educational BackgroundThe existence of academic programs in a fieldcontributes to professionalization, as Kynell-Hunt(2003) discusses in explaining how engineeringimproved its status as a profession. In 1995,Zimmerman and Muraski recommended thatmore technical communicators pursue educationalopportunities specifically related to technicalcommunication and observed, “Less than 20% ofSTC’s members reported having degrees in technicalcommunication. Most have degrees in English,journalism, social sciences, or scientific, engineering,or technical fields” (p. 621). As with engineering andmedicine, careers in technical communication precededacademic programs, and only in recent decades havedegrees in technical communication become widelyavailable. Even now, it is possible to become a technicalcommunicator with a degree in another field, andexisting technical communication degree programs havediffering requirements. This variation in education has310 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchJanel Blochbeen simultaneously advantageous and problematic(Harner & Rich, 2005; Meloncon, 2009; Rainey,Turner, & Dayton, 2005; Wilson & Ford, 2003).IdentifiabilityAnother aspect of professionalization repeatedly notedin the literature is that technical communicators aresometimes difficult to identify, and when they areidentified, there is no clear understanding of whatthey can do (Giammona, 2004; Hayhoe, 2003; Jones,1995). This lack of identifiability indicates the absenceof “market closure,” which Savage (1999) argues isa characteristic of true professions: An occupationwith market closure has an “identifiable status in themarketplace, to the exclusion of other occupation groupswho would offer or claim to offer comparable services” (p.357). The long-debated issue of a professional certificationfor technical communicators (Turner & Rainey, 2004) isdirectly associated with this theme as well.StatusThe literature includes much ongoing discussion aboutthe low status and perceived dispensability of technicalcommunicators in the workplace (Giammona, 2004;Hayhoe, 2003; Myers, 2009). According to Spilka(2000), “technical communicators are often undervaluedand perceived as grammarians only. They are often onthe lowest rungs of the corporate ladder and the first tobe laid off when company finances become shaky; andthey are rarely viewed as corporate leaders” (p. 219).Demonstrating Value AddedThe literature has frequently discussed the needfor technical communicators to be proactive indemonstrating their value, which is not readily apparentin traditional accounting measures (Redish, 1995).According to Sherri Michaels, a technical communicatorwith decades of experience, technical communicatorsare “unknown and unseen asset[s]” and “To have animpact, we need to be more opportunistic, to imbedourselves in the core functions of our organizations—improving sales revenue, reducing risk, or increasingproduct acceptance” (qtd. in Myers, 2009, pp. 8–9).Technical communicators need to use their rhetoricalskills to demonstrate—in ways that are meaningful totheir colleagues—the value they provide. Once thisgroundwork is established, they should be more likelyto be the “change agents” that Hughes (2002, p. 284)believes they are capable of being and instigate the“social change” that Kynell-Hunt (2003, p. 61) arguesis necessary for the technical communication field toharness the power to truly achieve professional status.Professional ConsciousnessCompared to those with more established professions,technical communicators are not as individually orcollectively connected to the field (Savage, 1999). Therecent developments in the Technical CommunicationBody of Knowledge project (Coppola, 2010) are a stepin the right direction toward establishing a commonknowledge base to which all technical communicatorscan connect.Analysis of Internship ReportsThe following discussion examines theprofessionalization themes identified above as theyappear in the selected internship reports. Subsequentreflection details what this analysis indicates about themovement toward the professionalization of technicalcommunication.Educational BackgroundThe MTSC program was established in the mid-1980s, as the number of degree programs in technicalcommunication was beginning to grow (Anderson,1984, p. 160). It included courses focused specifically ontechnical communication, along with others in relatedtopics such as rhetoric, editing, linguistics, visual design,organizational communication, and management.The MTSC program also required students to takegraduate-level coursework in a specialty area (e.g.,medical, environmental) and to complete an internshipin that same area. Table 2 summarizes the educationalbackground (in addition to the MTSC coursework) ofthe internship report authors and the experience of theirimmediate coworkers.Table 2 may reflect the changing nature of technicalcommunicators’ work environments resulting from thetrend toward distributed work, a concept embeddedin popular terms such as “the new economy, “theknowledge economy,” or “the hyperlinked organization”(Spinuzzi, 2007, p. 266). As Spinuzzi (2007) explains,Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 311

Applied ResearchGlorified Grammarian or Versatile Value Adder?Table 2: Summary of Educational Background of Intern and Experience of Coworkers in Given Work SituationsYear Organization Additionaleducation of internWork situation and coworker experience1984-01 Technical CommunicationsDepartment of a largeelectronic data-processingcompany1984-02 Medical Affairs Departmentof a large pharmaceuticalcompany1985-01 Neurotoxicology Division,U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency1994-01 Risk Management BusinessUnit of a newly mergedsoftware company1995-01 Regulatory Services Departmentof the pharmaceuticaldivision of a large consumerproducts company1995-02 Small consulting firm providingtraining, documentation,technical artwork, andsimulations1995-03 Small technical communicationconsulting firm2004-01 Document Development BranchEditorial Team, Education andInformation Division, NationalInstitute for OccupationalSafety and Health2004-02 Web-Based Learning teamin Information Systems andServices Department of a largegrocery retailerGraduate businesscoursesUndergraduate biologydegreeUndergraduate Englishand journalism degreewith graduate coursesin chemistry andbiologyUnspecifiedHad worked forthe company as aresearch associatefor 3+ yearsUnspecifiedUnspecifiedUnspecified—hadsome sciencegraduate courses,but not a strongscience backgroundUndergraduatecomputer sciencedegreeMember of a Technical CommunicationsDepartment where coworkers had varyingdegrees of education and experience; somehad no experience but had recently completeddegrees, while others had much experience, butno formal training in technical communication.The only medical writer on a single teamconsisting of a physician, a clinical researcher, astatistician, and an administrative assistant. Oneother medical writer served all product teams.The only technical communicator—reported tothe division director and supported scientists/researchers.The only technical communicator on a 15-memberproduct team of developers and specialistsin quality assurance, management, and sales.Member of a team developing a new drugapplication; the only writer on the team; thereappeared to be writers on other teams, but noformal medical writing group.Worked with two other consultants—one witha MTSC degree, and the other working onan instructional design degree. Clients hadmanufacturing and engineering backgrounds.Worked with other consultants having graduatedegrees in technical communication. Clientstypically had backgrounds in engineering orenvironmental science.Worked with other writer/editors (unspecifiededucational background), some with many yearsof experience. Also worked with an occupationalchemist subject-matter expert.The only technical writer on team, with a groupleader, group manager, and three developers.312 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchJanel BlochYear Organization Additionaleducation of internWork situation and coworker experience2004-03 Study Analysis and ReportsDepartment of a large contractscientific research organizationUndergraduate sciencedegreeWorked with other study analysts with unspecifiedbackgrounds.2004-04 Small software company Unspecified Worked with other technical communicatorswith bachelor’s or master’s degrees in technicalcommunication.2007-01 Small consulting company providingservices such as creatingsoftware applications anddesigning data warehouses2009-01 Office of an internationalground engineering and environmentalconsulting firm2009-02 Community health center in aneconomically disadvantagedarea2009-03 Content Development Center ofa division of a global managementconsulting, technologyservices, and outsourcing firmUnspecifiedUnspecifiedUnspecifiedUnspecifiedThe only technical communicator—worked withconsultants with a variety of backgrounds, suchas computer science and database management.The only technical communicator in this office—many colleagues had engineering and technologybackgrounds.Worked with the medical director and othermedical personnel. No coworkers with trainingin technical communication.Worked with other consultants with training ininstructional design.distributed work results from “the fundamental shift inwork organization away from the stable, rationalized,modular work structures that characterized theIndustrial Revolution and toward less stable, moreinterpenetrated work” (p. 266). Perhaps indicative ofthis shift away from “modular work structures,” theonly intern in the sample who worked in a departmentcalled “technical communications” was 1984-01. In the1980s, as the computer industry was developing, moreorganizations employed multiple full-time technicalwriters, sometimes having separate departmentsfor them. Eventually, many of those technicalcommunications departments gave way to outsourcingand rightsizing. As can be seen in Table 2, most of theother interns were among few writers employed by theirorganization. Indeed, six of the interns were lone writers(1984-02, 1985-01, 1994-01, 2004-02, 2007-01, 2009-01). An exception may be 2009-03, but this intern wasemployed by a consulting firm and thus worked for avariety of clients (i.e., “less stable, more interpenetratedwork”).Table 2 seems to also reflect the increasingavailability of specialized study in technicalcommunication. Intern 1984-01 was also the onlyone mentioning difficulty working with technicalcommunicator colleagues who lacked academic trainingin the field. Interestingly, this intern describes efforts toarrange additional training for these colleagues and howthese efforts were met with resistance. Although otherinterns worked with technical communicator colleagues,many of these coworkers had advanced academictraining in technical communication (1995-02, 1995-03, 2004-04).The interns’ graduate education seems to haveserved them well in initially finding a position in theworkplace. In addition to communication-relatedcourses, the MTSC program required graduate-levelcoursework in a subject-matter area related to theinternship. A lack of subject-matter knowledge cansometimes detract from a technical communicator’sperceived professionalism; a number of interns indicatedthat subject-matter expertise was extremely helpful toVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 313

Applied ResearchGlorified Grammarian or Versatile Value Adder?Table 3: Summary of Work Done by the InternsYearRepresentative work done by the intern1984-01 Interviewed colleagues in various areas and created technical documents for both technical and nontechnicalaudiences—mainly for internal useEdited the work of colleagues in Technical Communications and other departmentsCreated order management forms and other documents for internal projectsTransferred files from one system to another1984-02 Prepared communications addressed to the Food and Drug AdministrationHelped researchers prepare scientific journal articles and poster presentationsEdited advertising copy1985-01 Wrote standard operating procedures (SOPs) on experiments routinely performed and developed a system forwriting, editing, formatting, and maintaining the SOPsWrote a brochure describing the purpose, research, and goals of the organizationProvided writing and editing support as needed1994-01 Created a complete draft of a user’s guideDesigned, wrote, edited, and produced a set of documentationAssisted the business unit manager with marketing, conference, and customer communicationsDid status report newsletters, edited an ad for American Banker, edited presentations for banking conferences,and revised marketing brochures1995-01 Wrote and edited a clinical investigator’s brochureWrote and formatted guidelines and descriptions of the information required in a new drug application (NDA)Wrote and edited two-page summaries of articles with data supporting the NDA1995-02 Did technical research, writing, editing, and desktop publishing for instructional design projects for a largeequipment manufacturer1995-03 Edited and wrote an annual site report for an environmental cleanup projectDeveloped two training kits for groups within a large consumer products companyManaged one small projectDeveloped computer-based training (CBT)Attended proposal meetings to market the firm’s CBT development services2004-01 Wrote and designed a brochure about skin exposure to chemicalsEdited an occupational safety and health program and system effectiveness reportCreated a large poster to present scientific information from a white paperEdited and animated a PowerPoint slideshow2004-02 Helped plan, edit, design, and revise content for a web-based training courseDeveloped application simulationsCreated a newsletter to broadcast the newly created department’s activities and services2004-03 Analyzed data and wrote reports using software packages and databases—involved the entire writingprocess—including revisionComprehensively coedited a textbook chapterCreated graphics for coworkers314 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchJanel BlochYearRepresentative work done by the intern2004-04 Documented the firm’s latest software application, including writing online help and creating onlinedemonstrations for the application2007-01 Updated the organization’s websiteCreated user and system documentation for a proprietary applicationDeveloped timelines, status reports, and checkpoints2009-01 Prepared a large report for a major clientPrepared construction quality assurance reports and marketing information, including statements ofqualifications and templatesUpdated the office intranet sitePrepared environmental impact assessments, conducted independent research, prepared permit amendmentsand modificationsConducted résumé reviews for the firm’s book of consultants’ résumés2009-02 Developed and wrote the content needed to expand the clinic’s websiteRedesigned the clinic’s informational brochureWorked on two grantsWrote health dialogue scripts for the clinic’s health care workers to use in interacting with patients2009-03 Developed an online training courseDeveloped other low-end and high-end instructor and web-based trainingDid audience analysis, gathered information from subject-matter experts, and prepared/reviewed deliverablesthem in relating to coworkers in other fields (1984-02,2004-01, 2004-02). Others indicated that even moretechnical knowledge would have been helpful (1984-01,1985-01, 2009-01).IdentifiabilitySeveral of the interns encountered colleagues orother professionals who did not identify technicalcommunication as a separate profession and who wereunsure of what technical communicators do. Table 1includes a variety of job titles, which seem to shift awayfrom “technical writer” or “technical communicator”;this shift may indicate movement away from marketclosure (Savage, 1999). While further analysis of theentire set of reports would be needed to substantiatethe shift, this finding is echoed by Rainey, Turner,and Dayton (2005, p. 325), who found that the 67technical communication managers they surveyedused 16 different titles, and by Lanier (2009, p. 53),who studied employment advertisements for technicalcommunicators.However, Savage (1999) also argues that “a commonmarket-controlling strategy in professionalization is forpractitioners to work for clients, rather than employers”(p. 365). Table 2 indicates that, despite the variabilityof job titles, technical communication may actually bemoving toward market closure in this respect, because6 of the 15 interns worked for consulting firms orcontractors (1995-02, 1995-03, 2004-03, 2007-01,2009-01, 2009-03), and more of these situations were inrecent years.Another indicator of market closure is producingwork different from those in other professions.Zimmerman and Muraski (1995) observed thatalthough technical communicators are asked to producea wide variety of documents, “they may not have therequisite interviewing, organizing, writing, copyediting,proofreading, analyzing, illustrating, conductingusability assessments, and computer skills” (p. 622).The reports show that these interns were indeed able toproduce many kinds of documents and did possess thenecessary complex skills, which likely came from theVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 315

Applied ResearchGlorified Grammarian or Versatile Value Adder?academic background provided in the master’s program,often coupled with the intern’s subject-matter expertise.Table 3 illustrates the kinds of documents produced andthe skills applied in producing them.As Table 3 shows, the interns produced a widevariety of documents and used many different skills,such as writing; editing; design; audience analysis;interviewing; and even project management, marketing,negotiation, and sales.StatusTo examine the status issues the interns faced, I searchedtheir reports for themes relating to respect, value,support, and trust and found that the interns articulatedtwo kinds of status issues: those related to being internsand those related to being technical communicators.Status Issues Related to Being Interns Status issuescommon to interns included lack of cooperation fromcolleagues or clients and insufficient managementsupport.Lack of cooperation from colleagues or clients. Becauseinterns are new on the job, getting cooperation andrespect from colleagues or clients is inherently achallenge (Sitts, 2006). For the interns in my study, thisproblem was exacerbated by the nature of their work,because many of their colleagues or clients were subjectmatterexperts (SMEs) from whom the interns neededinformation. For example, intern 1984-01 struggledto get programmers to find the time to meet with himbecause they viewed it as taking away from time thatcould be spent programming. Similarly, intern 1985-01 was assigned to write SOPs mandated by uppermanagement, but the scientists she needed to work withwere not motivated to assist her because in their highpressure“publish or perish” environment, they preferredto spend their time on research. Some interns seemedfrustrated and upset by having requests for informationmet with delayed, minimal, or no response (1985-01,1994-02), while others took the situation as a given andadjusted. For example, interns 1995-01 and 2009-02attributed the delays to timing issues that were simplypart of the process.Insufficient management support. A perceived lackof management support is also common to internsin general. In their empirical study of the internshipsatisfaction of 261 undergraduate business students,D’Abate, Yount, and Wenzel (2009) found that theavailability of feedback and mentoring from supervisorsaffected an intern’s overall contentment (p. 534). Thisfinding held true in my study as well. Some of theinterns mentioned being expected to carry out complexprojects without supervisory support. For example,intern 1984-01 was assigned to write a document thatupon further investigation (while the supervisor wasaway),was determined not to be needed, and intern2004-03 felt a “sense of abandonment” (p. 29) whenher supervisor took an extended leave, providing littleinstruction on how to proceed during this absence.Intern 1985-01, who was trying to write managementmandatedSOPs, believed that her supervisor shouldhave intervened more on her behalf, saying, “if theimportance of my work had been communicated … bythe Director rather than by me, the [research scientists]might have taken their part in my assignments moreseriously” (p. 59).Status Issues Related to Being TechnicalCommunicators Other status issues within thereports relate specifically to the nature of the technicalcommunication field: expectations of low status, lack ofsubject matter knowledge, and differences in goals.Expectations of low status. Interns at both ends ofthe time range reported being advised to expect toencounter problems with status—not because they wereinterns, but because they were technical communicators.For example, the colleagues of intern 1984-01 explainedthat “gaining respect and cooperation from professionalssuch as systems analysts was a problem throughout thetechnical writing profession” (p. 64). And several yearslater, intern 2007-01 wrote that she learned in graduateschool that “the role of the technical communicator isfor the most part underappreciated” (p. 49). Perhapstechnical communicators are being conditioned toexpect this situation, thus creating a self-fulfillingprophesy.Lack of subject matter knowledge. Technicalcommunicators are sometimes perceived to have a “lack[of] sufficient technical or scientific background in theeyes of technical and scientific colleagues” (Zimmerman& Muraski, 1995, p. 622). For example, intern 1984-01 indicated difficulty in getting a programmer to meetwith him, and then when they finally met, experiencingproblems because of the difference in subject matter316 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchJanel Blochknowledge. Intern 1985-01, a lone writer workingwith scientists in a research organization, felt inherentlylacking in status because she did not share theirbackground, and observed that they “seem to have littleinterest in or patience with people who do not ‘speakthe language’ of professional scientists, particularlyneuroscientists” (p. 53). Most of the interns, however,rather than being hampered by a lack of knowledge,took steps to remediate it by investing significant time inlearning more about the subject matter, the project, orthe organization.Differences in goals. Often status issues seemed toresult from differences in goals between the technicalcommunicators and their colleagues or clients. Forexample, the research scientists who worked withintern 1985-01 were not motivated to help her withher project because they did not see the SOPs she waswriting as essential to their work. Yet when she offeredediting services, they were much more enthusiasticabout working with her because editing related directlyto their own professional goals. Clients sometimes havedifferent goals as well. As an audience-centered technicalcommunicator, intern 1995-03 strove to prepare highqualitydocuments; however, she sometimes foundthat a client was not interested in her suggestions andjust wanted a “finished product to show his/her bossor to complete an agreement” (p. 29). At the sametime, this intern found that other clients did demandquality (p. 30). Given these important differences inclient motivations, she soon learned to view the clientas an important primary audience whose needs oftentook precedence over those of the actual users of thecommunication.Not all technical communicators have statusissues. While none of the interns in my study reportedflourishing to the extent of the new technical writerwhose coworkers made her feel like a “goddess,”(Rutten, 2001, p. 43), some did report minor triumphs.Intern 1984-02 describes a successful internship as anembedded medical writer on a product team. Intern2004-02, while initially feeling that his colleagues had alimited understanding of his role, describes successfullyteaching them what he could do.Demonstrating Value AddedSometimes technical communicators are in positionsin which there is a question of whether they areneeded at all. Interns in this type of situation included1984-02 (employed by an organization that had onemedical writer but was contemplating hiring morewriters and embedding them on teams, as was donewith this intern); 2004-02 (hired as the first technicalcommunicator on a new team); and 2009-01 (workingfor a consulting firm that was evaluating the need fora permanent technical communicator). The internsin these test case roles seemed especially motivatedto demonstrate that they could add value. As intern2009-01 stated, “I knew that virtually everyone in theoffice viewed my role as superfluous and a type of addedluxury” (p. 54).In identifying the strategies the interns usedfor demonstrating value and, in turn, laying thegroundwork for effecting the change that couldultimately enhance the professionalization of the field, Ilooked in the reports for discussion around themes suchas adding value, measuring costs, and self-promotion.Three areas appear to contribute to the ability todemonstrate value: organizational fit, proactive selfpromotion,and financial awareness.Organizational Fit To “move from the periphery,”Sullivan, Martin, and Anderson (2003) suggest that newtechnical communicators have “a realistic view of one’sposition in the team’s or organization’s hierarchy” (p.125), while simultaneously attempting to put themselveson a “social trajectory” (p. 127). Intern 2004-01,who worked for an office within a large governmentagency, recommends that understanding how technicalcommunicators’ work fits into the structure of thelarger organization can help improve the ability to“appropriately write and frame the information intheir communication products” (p. 27), thus enablingthe communications to be perceived as more valuable.Obviously, learning this takes time, and many of theinterns reported devoting significant percentages of thetotal time of their internship to training and self-study.Before accepting a position within an organization,technical communicators need to determine whethertheir individual values and goals mesh with theorganizational culture. For example, intern 1985-01realized too late that her scientist colleagues in theresearch organization where she interned did not believethat the work she had been assigned to do added value.They perceived it as busywork and, given the limitedVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 317

Applied ResearchGlorified Grammarian or Versatile Value Adder?time of her internship period, this attitude was difficultto change, especially without management support.Another intern, 2007-01, discovered that she was theonly female in a small organization and did not fit wellinto the culture. Intern 2004-03 reported strugglingwith ethical issues relating to the animal research aboutwhich she was writing. Situations of poor organizationalfit are best avoided at the outset, as they will just makethe challenge of proving one’s value even more difficult.In contrast, intern 2009-01, a test case technicalcommunicator, displayed a positive attitude by sayingthat “explaining my role, demonstrating my skills,showing my value to the organization, and learning thetechnical subject matter, continued to pose challengesto my role and position within the organization, andthey are challenges that I think anyone who is carvinga new path and changing the traditional roles withinan organization is going to face” (p. 10). However,depending on the situation within the organization,these efforts still might not have been successful.Technical communicators need both a positive attitudeand the right environment to be able to effectivelydemonstrate their value.Proactive Self-Promotion Kynell-Hunt (2003)argues that to “extend the creation of power, status,and legitimacy,” technical communicators need to“become proactive rather than reactive to the specificrequirements or needs of industry” (p. 65). Doing socould be challenging, however, as they often serve inroles that support those in other disciplines, such asengineers or software developers. Intern 2009-01 stated,“I knew that simply sitting and waiting for work tofall into my lap was not going to show my initiative orjustify the need for a technical communicator. However,if I could say, ‘I noticed that I could help with X, isthat something I could get involved in?’ I knew thatthey would see that I was proactively trying to makemyself more visible and valuable to the organization”(p. 56). Intern 2004-02 earned respect by takinginitiative in creating a newsletter to promote the newweb-based learning group of which he was a part (p.29). Additionally, intern 2007-01 stated, “I was mybest advocate” and would “seek out the areas where myexpertise would be valuable—especially looking forthose that may have been overlooked by management”(p. 45). Furthermore, to make herself more well known,intern 2009-01 tried to find opportunities to workwith colleagues nationally and globally because“[g]etting involved in projects beyond the [local] officehelps to illustrate that I am adding value to the entireorganization in ways that no one at [organization] wouldhave predicted” (pp. 56–57).Some interns found that an effective way todemonstrate value was to assist colleagues with technicalediting. For example, intern 1985-01 struggled toget her research scientist colleagues to appreciate herwork. She eventually noticed that she could show valuethrough editing their writing, but she struggled to movebeyond that. Another intern had more success with thisapproach; when intern 2004-02 edited content that hadalready been edited several times by others, he madesignificant improvements to it (p. 27), greatly impressinghis teammates. Although some technical communicatorsmay resist this tactic, adding value in small, yet tangible,ways may be an effective starting point.Financial Awareness As Mead (1998) puts it, “iftechnical documentation cannot be shown to contributeto the bottom line, it has no reason for being, regardlessof its efficiency or the quality of the documentsthemselves” (p. 353). Several of the interns specificallymentioned budgetary considerations. Intern 2004-04was thinking in the right direction when she wantedto “get a better sense of how technical communicatorshelp [the company] meet its primary goal of increasingprofitability” (p. 7). Intern 1995-03 ultimately addedvalue to her firm by realizing that with “fixed contractprojects” such as the environmental report she wasworking on, there was no point in trying to persuade theclient to accept changes that would make the documentmore user-centered because this would generateadditional work with no additional revenues (p. 24).While many made some reference to consideringbillable hours and total revenues, most of the interns didnot mention using specific rubrics for measuring value.However, intern 2004-03 mentioned that a goal of herwork was “reducing the number of technical assistanceand support calls” (p. 12). Additionally, intern 2007-01indicated a bottom-line focus by mentioning that shelearned to always think of her client’s financial backersas “the most important audience for the documentationand for the software” because “if the investors pulledtheir funding … [the client] could potentially collapse318 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchJanel Blochbecause it was a start-up company that relied on itsinvestors for financial support” (p. 24). While she didnot elaborate on the specifics of how she demonstratedvalue, intern 2009-03 (employed by a division of aninternational consulting firm) stated that value-creationis one of the organization’s core values—“ensuring thatour products and services provide measurable value andmeet or exceed client expectations” (p. 4).While none of the interns reported making vaststrides towards adding value by effecting change withintheir organization, some reported small successes. Forexample, intern 2004-02 convinced his colleagues of hisrelevance to the work group by displaying his wide arrayof skills, such as “content management, problem solving,and instructional design” (p. 28). Intern 2007-01 tookthe initiative to prepare “status reports” for her managerand her client to show the value she was adding and to“foster effective communication” (p. 40). Most happily,intern 2009-01, a test case technical communicator, wasoffered a full-time position.Not all interns were as victorious. Intern 2004-03attempted to change the organization’s writing style towhat she had been taught in school—always using serialcommas and active voice—but was not successful (p.24). She also tried to provide design suggestions for thereport templates, but her “suggestions were sidelined tokeep the focus on the prose” (p. 29). Intern 2004-04was a bit dismayed when her proposal to having a stylesheet for naming icons consistently was not accepted,as “sadly only issues that directly affected functionalitywere immediately or eventually addressed” (p. 23).This intern further explained that her attempts to addvalue by making documentation more user-centeredwere hampered when “the SMEs proposed that I writesystem-centered documentation” and “it was difficultto reach a compromise that we knew users wouldappreciate” (p. 23). In some cases, these suggestionsmight not have moved forward because general ruleslearned in academic environments cannot always beapplied within the complicated tangles of constraintspresent within workplaces.Despite varying degrees of success, these internswere all attempting to apply similar audience-centeredprinciples. In doing so, they were drawing from acommon body of knowledge, which is part of anotherimportant aspect of professionalization: a professionalconsciousness.Professional ConsciousnessBecause most of the interns in my study were newemployees without prior work experience, they facedchallenges common to any new employee. Sometimes,however, these challenges were compounded by the lackof professional identity in the technical communicationfield. Savage (1999) observes that some technicalcommunicators “do not see themselves as members of acategory of workers who are distinguished by specializedknowledge and practices, nor by a professional history interms of which they can identify themselves” (p. 161).Two kinds of issues pertaining to professionalconsciousness relate to my examination: ambiguity ofcareer paths and an evolving common body of knowledge.Ambiguity of Career Paths Savage (1999) argues thatthe opportunity to have “a long-term career in the field”(p. 142) is necessary for a professional consciousness:“practitioners should be able to expect to advance inthe field, earning increasing rewards and recognition,without having to leave the profession” (p. 142). Indeed,several interns indicated that they were planning thispath, although they did not seem to subscribe to anarrow definition of the field. For example, intern 2007-01 described her internship as follows: “I was an editor,a communicator, a printer expert, an MS-Office guru,an application whiz, a programmer, a writer, a trainer, agraphic design specialist, an information architect, andan instructional designer to name a few. To explain how Ifill all of these roles each day as a technical communicatorwould never do the field justice” (p. 49). Intern 2004-01stated that he learned to educate coworkers “about thebreadth of technical communication and all of the waysthat [he] could contribute to [the organization] beyondwriting and editing documents” (p. 27). He believed thisinternship was a good step toward his “future endeavorsas a technical and environmental communicator” (p.10). Intern 2004-02 demonstrated a professional identityby stating that a goal for his work was to “model theimportance of the technical communication profession”(p. 29).Some of the internships had designations otherthan “technical communication.” For example, intern2009-03, who had an instructional design positionwith a large consulting firm, explains the overlapbetween the two fields but also notes that “therewere some areas where I needed to develop new skillsVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 319

Applied ResearchGlorified Grammarian or Versatile Value Adder?that I had not learned during my study of technicalcommunication” (p. 56), including writing traininggenres (such as scenarios and case studies) and usingsoftware tools for instructional design software (suchas iAuthor and Adobe Presenter). She explains thatthe instructional design development process she usedis similar to the technical communication problemsolvingprocess she learned in the MTSC program. Theaudience-centered approach also overlaps, as do thewriting skills (2009-03, p. 60). As a community healthworker, intern 2009-02 performed many technicalcommunication tasks, such as writing grant proposals(p. 29). She indicated that in this position she was ableto “function as a technical and scientific communicatorin multiple ways: as a knowledge manager, writer,editor, project manager, information designer, trainee,trainer, and subject matter or software expert” (p. 39).Intern 1984-01 mentioned that after his internshipin a technical communication department of a largecompany, he moved into a different department butcontinued to write documentation while also havingincreased responsibilities. These examples indicate thatin contrast to degree programs such as engineeringor accounting, where most graduates do go on tobecome engineers or accountants, not all graduates oftechnical communication programs go on to specificallydesignated technical communication positions. Thisissue complicates the idea of the professionalization oftechnical communication because the overlap that thefield has with others may hinder it from becoming adistinct and differentiable profession.Evolving Common Body of Knowledge Savage(1999) supports the need for a common body ofknowledge for technical communication, saying that“an attitude prevails that our field has no content, no‘higher world of ideas’” (pp. 156–157). The authors ofthe internship reports, however, draw from a commonbody of knowledge—that which they received from theirtechnical communication master’s degree program.A few of the interns expressed disappointment thattheir internships did not allow them to apply all of theirskill sets. Intern 1984-01, for example, felt limited inthe technical communication department of a large dataprocessing company and moved to a different positionwithin the company that gave him more leadership anddecision-making opportunities. At the other end of thetime range, intern 2004-03 also felt limited in terms ofbeing able to use her design skills. She felt constrainedby being restricted to working with report templatesand boilerplate and stated, “I will search for jobs inthe future that will let me apply a balance of writingand design techniques to help my communicationsaccomplish their objectives” (p. 29). In contrast, intern2004-04 was pleased that she could display a varietyof skills, saying that “technical communicators are alsorequired to be learning strategists, project managers, andWeb site developers” and believed her master’s programprepared her accordingly (p. 24).Trends in the Professionalization ofTechnical CommunicationUsing the same five themes as in the analysis in theprevious section, the following reviews what the reportssuggest about the progress made toward professionalstatus for technical communication over the last quartercentury and how that status may be enhanced.Educational backgroundThe trend toward more degree programs in technicalcommunication is a positive step in the direction ofprofessionalization. Only one of the earliest interns inmy sample expressed difficulty in working with technicalcommunication colleagues who lacked training inthe field.However, academic programs in technicalcommunication vary in curricular requirements (Harner& Rich, 2005; Meloncon, 2009). For example, somerequire internships and some do not, in contrast toestablished professions such as social work, nursing,and education, where internships are required andstandardized (Savage & Seible, 2010). The difficulty ofstandardizing academic programs is an issue that willneed to be addressed as technical communication movestoward professional status.Another issue that has persisted over time regardingeducation is that because technical communicatorstypically work in conjunction with colleagues in otherfields, they somehow need to develop expertise in thosefields. In fact, in this age of distributed work, technicalcommunicators are frequently lone writers working witha variety of colleagues who have different backgrounds.320 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchJanel BlochBecause technical communicators are commonlycharged with compiling, or “undistributing,” this work(Slattery, 2007), they often need expertise in otherfields. In my study, this issue was identified by internsacross the entire time period. While the MTSC programrequired some coursework in a specialty area, otherprograms may not. In standardizing degree programs,this issue of subject-matter expertise willneed to be addressed, possibly by requiring thattechnical communication degrees be accompanied byminors or double majors in the field the individualchooses to enter.IdentifiabilityThe issue of technical communicators’ colleagues andclients not understanding what they do persists. Forexample, Hoeniges (2001), one of the interns profiled inSavage and Sullivan’s (2001) Writing a Professional Life:Stories of Technical Communicators On and Off the Job,said to her employer in her exit interview, “I think thatyou underappreciate the contribution that your writerscould make on your software projects .... Often, my roleon the so-called team is to … do some kind of grammarmagic …. But [we] can bring so much more. We canhelp with logical thinking, project management, GUIdesign … I’m leaving … because I don’t want to spendevery day frustrated at knowing that I could make adifference …” (pp. 53–54).The reports across the entire time span of my studyreflect this sentiment as well. When people think oftechnical communication, they often think of writingand editing technical documents. However, technicalcommunicators can, and desire to, do much more.Additionally, as technology has evolved, so has thetechnical communication skill set. For example, the firstintern listed in Table 3, 1984-01, performed what mightbe thought of as “traditional” technical communicationtasks—editing and gathering information to createtechnical documentation. Also, interns 1984-02 and1985-01 edited and assisted with writing documentssuch as brochures and SOPs. At the other end of Table3, while the interns were still writing documentationand large reports, they were doing a wide variety ofother things as well, such as updating websites, creatingonline demonstrations, designing online training, anddoing project management activities, such as developingtimelines, status reports, and checkpoints.One might argue that identifiability is a problem forinterns in any field, because it is often unclear what typeof work interns should do, given that they have limitedexperience. In fact, O’Neill (2010), a former directorand counselor at a large university’s career services office,states that she “met many students who landed in myoffice precisely because their internships lacked directionand meaningful work” (p. 4). Additionally, Tovey (2001)explains how writing interns she supervised were givenchildcare duties by the director of a shelter because thoseassignments were perfectly acceptable for the social workinterns the agency also employed. Like Tovey’s interns,the interns in my study faced problems that have moreto do with their being technical communicators thantheir being interns.What makes technical communication different fromprofessions such as social work, law, and accounting isthat these fields involve relatively easily defined concepts,in that regardless of the specialty (e.g., children’s services,intellectual property, auditing), the social worker,lawyer, or accountant is easily identified. However,“technical communication” is nebulous because technicalcommunicators can work in any profession.Therefore, perhaps one way of moving towardprofessionalization is that rather than aiming toprofessionalize technical communication positions,which are inherently difficult to identify, we shouldfocus on professionalizing the skill set. This way ofthinking might add further credence to the TechnicalCommunication Body of Knowledge project (Coppola,2010), which is an attempt to codify the knowledgethat one claiming to have the expertise of a technicalcommunicator should have, regardless of the nature ofthe technical content to which one applies these skills orthe job title one holds.StatusThe issue of status has long been a complaint amongtechnical communicators, but it is also a commonproblem with interns. Status issues were evident acrossthe entire range of my study. While some of the statusissues the interns experienced may have resulted justfrom being interns, others resulted from the nature oftechnical communication. Some mentioned that theyhad been cautioned throughout their academic career toexpect status problems, indicating that this expectationcould at least partially be a self-fulfilling prophesy.Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 321

Applied ResearchGlorified Grammarian or Versatile Value Adder?Rather than perpetuate this mind-set, technicalcommunication programs should educate studentsto think of themselves as professionals deserving ofstatus. However, students also need to be equippedwith strategies for promoting themselves and sellingtheir skill set. Obtaining technical subject matterknowledge or having a degree in another field mayalso help increase status. While the movement towardprofessional certification of technical communicatorsmay be a step in the right direction, certification in itselfmay not improve status unless employers understand itssignificance. Like some of the interns in my study, ratherthan waiting for status to be granted them, technicalcommunicators need to use their rhetorical skills tounderstand and work with the difference in goals thatcolleagues and clients may have.Demonstrating Value AddedAdding value goes hand in hand with status. Technicalcommunicators need to take the responsibility ofproving their worth to others within organizations,being aware that others are often focused on thebottom line. By taking a bottom-line focus, technicalcommunicators should be able to identify strategies foradding value, as many of the interns in my study did.Part of being able to demonstrate added valuedepends on having the right organizational fit in the firstplace. Those interns in my study who struggled withconvincing clients and coworkers of their worth werelikely not in the right organization. While it may bedifficult to do, especially for those with little workplaceexperience, technical communicators should strive to seekemployment in organizations that value communicationand have needs matching the technical communicationskill set. Additionally, once within an organization,technical communicators should seek opportunities forself-promotion, as several of the interns did.As with many of the other characteristics ofprofessionalization, the need to demonstrate value addedwas present across the entire range covered by my study.However, it is common for members of professionalizedfields to work on a contract basis as outside consultantsinherently responsible for convincing others of the needfor their services (e.g., accountants, lawyers, engineers),so the need to prove value added is not unique totechnical communication and will likely become evenstronger if professionalization is achieved. The differencebetween technical communication and other professionsmay be that technical communicators are often notacademically trained to think in a profit-oriented way—something that will need to change as the field movestoward professional status.Professional ConsciousnessThe professional consciousness of technicalcommunicators seems to have eroded over time. Of thethree most recent interns in my sample (from 2009),two were not employed as technical communicators(one was an instructional designer and the other acommunity health worker), and the other, althoughcalled a technical writer, was in an experimentalposition in which she largely needed to create her ownwork. In contrast, the earliest intern (1984-01) wasemployed preparing documentation in the technicalcommunications department of a large company. Inthe 1980s, when the MTSC program and many othertechnical communication programs were established,graduates could expect to find jobs as technical writers,much as graduates of engineering programs expectto find jobs as engineers. However, as time went by,those positions were downsized, outsourced, or mergedinto other positions. With the advent of the Internet,additional roles in which technical communicatorscan employ their skills sets have arisen. While thelack of professional consciousness is not necessarilya bad sign, it may be partially remedied through thebody of knowledge project and STC’s move towardcertification. These efforts should help both technicalcommunicators and those they work with develop aclearer understanding of the work they can do and thevalue they can provide.Recommendations RegardingProfessionalizationThe analysis of these internship reports supports thefollowing recommendations for students, employers, andfaculty. Building on Munger’s (2006) advice regardingtechnical communication internships in general, theserecommendations should help interns to be perceived asprofessionals and to improve the professionalization oftechnical communication as a whole.322 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchJanel BlochAdvice for Interns• Before accepting the internship, ask about thetasks you will be assigned and their importanceto the organization. Some of the interns weresurprised that the organizational culture did notplace much value on their projects or on writing ingeneral (1985-01, 2004-04).• Try to choose an internship in which you willbe dealing with subject matter with which youare comfortable and conversant. Some of theinterns (1984-01, 1985-01, 1994-01) encounteredobstacles by not having a technical background asstrong as that of their clients or coworkers (e.g.,computer programmers, scientists). Also, most ofthe interns mentioned the need to be willing toinvest significant time in becoming familiar withthe subject matter.• Before beginning the internship, ensure thatyou will have a supervisor and/or a mentorwho understands the competencies of technicalcommunicators and the value they can add.If there are no mentors available within theorganization, use your professors and other contactsto help you find one outside the organization(2007-01, 2009-02). Also, be sure your mentorsand supervisors will be available during yourinternship period.• Be prepared to network within the organization.Several of the interns built trust throughnetworking. For example, intern 2004-02 took theinitiative to participate in various projects to makenew contacts and demonstrate his value, and intern2009-01 found that “Getting involved in projectsbeyond the [local] office helps to illustrate that I amadding value to the entire organization in ways thatno one at [organization] would have predicted” (pp.56–57).• Realize that the subject-matter experts fromwhom you seek information have their own goalsand deadlines; do not take delays or oversightspersonally, and use your rhetorical skills to showhow your work can benefit them. Be preparedto work with a wide variety of specialists of alllevels of experience. Intern 1995-01 explains theneed to be able to “work as an equal with doctoralscientists, physicians, and other highly trained andexperienced individuals” and to be able to motivatethem to provide what is needed (p. 26).• Take initiative and apply a wide range of skills.Many of the interns capitalized on opportunitiesthey would not have been given if they had notsought them out (e.g., 2009-01).• Realize that there is often not enough timefor the kind of evaluation and feedback fromyour supervisors that your professors likelyprovided you in school. As intern 2007-01 says,“oftentimes no response or feedback was a signthat I was meeting or exceeding [my supervisor’s]expectations” and that in some cases “no feedbackis good feedback.” This intern found that the “lackof feedback meant that [her supervisor] was veryimpressed and relieved he did not have to offer mefeedback to produce good, quality work on time”(pp. 43–44).Advice for Employers Sponsoring Internships• Realize that interns and new employees desireand appreciate feedback—both praise andconstructive criticism. Interns may initially beconfused by the “no news is good news” approachdescribed by intern 2007-01. They also may feeluncomfortable asking for feedback, so offeringfrequent feedback, even if brief, helps interns betteralign their work with your expectations.• Have a clearly defined and present supervisor.Because the environment is new to interns, be suresupervisors are available throughout the internshipperiod. Some interns became frustrated andconfused when their supervisors took extendedleaves of absence (1984-01, 2004-03).• Have appropriate and relevant work for theintern to do. Ask interns for input. A numberof interns found that their skill set was not beingfully used. Before finalizing the internship, explainthe work as specifically as possible. If work planschange, develop adequate alternatives. For example,a widespread economic downturn affected thework plans for interns 2009-01 and 2009-03, whenclients of the consulting firms they worked forscaled down or canceled projects. Even in-houseadministrative work can be mutually beneficial; forexample, intern 2009-01 worked on improving thefirm’s résumé book.Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 323

Applied ResearchGlorified Grammarian or Versatile Value Adder?• Provide opportunities for interns to displaytheir professionalism and coach them in doingso. Allow and encourage interns to interact withclients and other professionals, but also realize theywill not yet have built the network needed to knowwhom to go to with particular questions. Introduceinterns to relevant contacts and encourage them todemonstrate and sell their entire skill set.• Increase contact with faculty. Academic programsrelated to technical communication are alwayslooking for internship opportunities for students.If you have such an opportunity, contact relevantfaculty. The STC website includes a database ofacademic programs (http://stc.org/education/academic-database).Advice for Faculty• Increase contact with organizations that couldbenefit from technical communication interns.Using your school’s career services office and yourown network, find appropriate contacts withinorganizations that could potentially employ interns.Ask students to do the same. If a student has asuccessful internship experience, maintain contactwith that employer so that future students canbe placed there. If a student has an unsuccessfulexperience, try to identify the reasons so thatchanges can be made for future placements.• Help students learn to develop social knowledgeand authority. Because a common problemamong the interns was the failure to fit into theorganization’s culture (1985-01, 2004-04, 2007-01), teach students to critically evaluate howwell their values and skill sets might mesh withinorganizations with which they are consideringemployment. Sullivan, Martin, and Anderson(2003) say, “Not only should our students belearning subject-matter, rhetorical and productionskills, they should also be learning social strategiesthat will enable them to create identities ofbelonging” (p. 132).• Help students understand that principles ofstyle, punctuation, and usage—such as writingin the active voice or using serial commas—areunderstood and applied differently amongorganizations. Some interns expressed frustrationthat writing guidelines they had learned in schoolwere not followed in the workplace. For example,when intern 2004-03 suggested that the scientificresearch organization where she was working reviewits policy of not using the serial comma, she was“informed that this was a long-standing practicethat was not going to change” (p. 24).• Try to prepare students for the reality offinancially related workplace concerns suchas managing budgets, tracking billable hours,maximizing revenues and profits, and makingaccurate estimates. In school, the financial aspectsof projects are often ignored. In the workplace,however, such issues are typically of primaryconcern. Students should be equipped to handlethe financial aspects of project management,particularly as many technical communicators nowwork for consulting firms. Many of the internsreported needing to be concerned with billablehours, project budgets, and revenues. For example,intern 2009-03 mentioned that while designingtraining, she had to keep the project budget inmind when deciding which features to include(p. 47). Intern 2007-01 explained that it wasundesirable for employees to be in the office or“‘on the bench’ and not actively billing at a clientsite” (p. 6). Intern 1994-01 realized “the criticalimportance of learning how to make accurate workestimates” (p. 40) and how these estimates affectboth coworker and client expectations.• Encourage students to make meaningful andexplicit connections between their internshipwork and their coursework. Through internships,students should “learn to integrate theory andpractice, classroom learning, and professionalexperience” (Clark, 2003, p. 475). Because they hadcompleted their coursework and were away fromcampus, the interns in my study were instructed tomake these connections in their reports. Integratinginternships with classes where students meet onlineor in person with the instructor and other internscan allow them to make these connections moreimmediately and, perhaps, deal with challengesmore quickly.324 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchJanel BlochConclusion and Future ResearchThis article has examined the professionalization oftechnical communication from the perspective of asample of internship reports of technical communicationgraduate students. These reports have been used toprovide insight into the progress (or lack thereof) towardprofessionalization of technical communication. I haveused these firsthand studies of interns over the recentquarter century to look at professionalization of the fieldand provide recommendations for students, sponsoringorganizations, and faculty to design internship programsthat will help contribute to the professionalization of thetechnical communication field.This initial investigation indicates that whilethere have been changes in the nature of technicalcommunicators’ work and the environment in whichit is conducted (such as changes in technology andthe movement toward distributed work), many of thesame issues regarding the professionalization of the fieldhave existed throughout the entire range of my study.These results seem to verify what many of us alreadyknow: There is still work to be done in terms of makingtechnical communication a viable profession now and inthe future.My hope is that further study of these reportswill provide more insights into how we can improvethe visibility of the contributions of technicalcommunicators and the value that they provide.This article argues that steps toward enhancingprofessionalization can be made in the earliest workexperiences of a technical communicator’s career, by allinvolved—interns, employers, and faculty.AcknowledgmentsThe author is grateful to the Council for Programs inTechnical and Scientific Communication for providinga 2010 research grant in support of this project, toNorthern Kentucky University Master of Arts in Englishgraduate student Amy Jones for her assistance with thisresearch, and to her colleagues Andrea Gazzaniga, TonyaKrouse, and Tamara O’Callaghan for their comments ondrafts of this article.ReferencesAnderson, P. V. (1984). What technical and scientificcommunicators do: A comprehensive model fordeveloping academic programs. IEEE Transactions onEducation, E-27, 160–166.Clark, S. C. (2003). Enhancing the education valueof business internships. Journal of ManagementEducation, 27, 472–484.Coppola, N. W. (2010). The Technical CommunicationBody of Knowledge initiative: An academicpractitionerpartnership. Technical Communication,57, 11–25.D’Abate, C. P., Yount, M. A., & Wenzel, K. E. (2009).Making the most of an internship: An empiricalstudy of internship satisfaction. Academy ofManagement Learning & Education, 8, 527–539.Giammona, B. (2004). The future of technicalcommunication: How innovation, technology,information management, and other forces areshaping the future of the profession. TechnicalCommunication, 51, 349–366.Harner, S., & Rich, A. (2005). Trends inundergraduate curriculum in scientific andtechnical communication programs. TechnicalCommunication, 52, 209–220.Hayhoe, G. (2003). Who speaks for our profession?Technical Communication, 50, 313–314.Hoeniges, C. (2001). It’s not Mark Twain’s riveranymore. In G. J. Savage & D. L. Sullivan (Eds.),Writing a professional life: Stories of technicalcommunicators on and off the job (pp. 50–59).Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.Hughes, M. (2002). Moving from information transferto knowledge creation: A new value proposition fortechnical communicators. Technical Communication,49, 275–285.Jones, D. (1995). A question of identity. TechnicalCommunication, 42, 567–569.Kynell-Hunt, T. (2003). Status and the technicalcommunicator: Utilitarianism, prestige, and the roleof academia in creating our professional persona. InT. Kynell-Hunt & G. J. Savage (Eds.), Power andlegitimacy in technical communication: Vol. I. Thehistorical and contemporary struggle for professionalstatus (pp. 53–67). Amityville, NY: Baywood.Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 325

Applied ResearchGlorified Grammarian or Versatile Value Adder?Kynell-Hunt, T., & Savage, G. J. (Eds.). (2003). Powerand legitimacy in technical communication: Vol. I. Thehistorical and contemporary struggle for professionalstatus. Amityville, NY: Baywood.Kynell-Hunt, T., & Savage, G. J. (Eds.). (2004). Powerand legitimacy in technical communication: Vol. II.Strategies for professional status. Amityville, NY:Baywood.Lanier, C. R. (2009). Analysis of the skills called for bytechnical communication employers in recruitmentpostings. Technical Communication, 56, 51–60.Mead, J. (1998). Measuring the value added of technicaldocumentation: A review of research and practice.Technical Communication, 45, 353–379.Meloncon, L. (2009). Master’s programs in technicalcommunication: A current overview. TechnicalCommunication, 56, 137–148.Miami University, Department of English. (2004a).Regulations governing internships for employers ofMTSC interns. Retrieved from http://www.units.muohio.edu/mtsc/internregsempl.pdfMiami University, Department of English. (2004b).Regulations governing internships for MTSCstudents. Retrieved from http://www.units.muohio.edu/mtsc/internregsstdnt.pdfMunger, R. (2006). Participating in a technicalcommunication internship. TechnicalCommunication, 54, 326–338.Myers, E. M. (2009). Adapt or die: Technicalcommunicators of the 21st century. Intercom, 56(3),6–13.Newman, R. (2010, December 6). Best careers2011: Technical writer. U.S. News & WorldReport. Retrieved from http://money.usnews.com/money/careers/articles/2010/12/06/best-careers-2011-technical-writerO’Neill, N. (2010, Fall). Internships as a high-impactpractice: Some reflections on quality. Associationof American Colleges & Universities (AAC&U) PeerReview, 4–8.Rainey, K. T., Turner, R. K, & Dayton, D. (2005). Docurricula correspond to managerial expectations:Core competencies for technical communicators.Technical Communication, 52, 323–352.Redish, J. (1995). Adding value as a professionaltechnical communicator. Technical Communication,42, 26–39.Rude, C. D. (2009). Mapping the research questionsin technical communication. Journal of TechnicalWriting and Communication, 29, 355–381.Rutten, A. (2001). How I became a goddess. In G. J.Savage & D. L. Sullivan (Eds.), Writing a professionallife: Stories of technical communicators on and off thejob (pp. 39–43). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.Savage, G. J. (1999). The process and prospects forprofessionalizing technical communication. Journalof Business and Technical Communication, 23,174–215.Savage, G. J., & Seible, M. K. (2010). Technicalcommunication internship requirements in theacademic economy: How we compare amongourselves and across other applied fields. Journal ofTechnical Writing and Communication, 40, 51–75.Savage, G. J, & Sullivan, D. L. (Eds.). (2001). Writing aprofessional life: Stories of technical communicators onand off the job. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.Sitts, D. K. (2006). Learning to work with emotionsduring an internship. Business CommunicationQuarterly, 15, 446–449.Slattery, S. (2007). Undistributing work throughwriting: How technical writers manage texts incomplex information environments. TechnicalCommunication Quarterly, 16, 311–325.Spilka, R. (2000). The issue of quality in professionalcommunication: How can academia make more ofa difference? Technical Communication Quarterly, 9,207–220.Spinuzzi, C. (2007). Technical communication in theage of distributed work. Technical CommunicationQuarterly, 16, 265–277.Sullivan, D. L., Martin, M. S., & Anderson, E. R.(2003). Moving from the periphery: Conceptionsof ethos, reputation, and identity for thetechnical communicator. In T. Kynell-Hunt& G. J. Savage (Eds.), Power and legitimacy intechnical communication: Vol. I. The historical andcontemporary struggle for professional status (pp.115–136). Amityville, NY: Baywood.Tovey, J. (2001). Building connections between industryand university: Implementing an internship programat a regional university. Business CommunicationQuarterly, 10, 225–239.326 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Applied ResearchJanel BlochTurner, R. K., & Rainey, K. T. (2004). Certification intechnical communication. Technical CommunicationQuarterly, 13, 211–234.Wilson, G., & Ford, J. D. (2003). The big chill: Seventechnical communicators talk ten years after theirmaster’s program. Technical Communication, 50,145–159.Zimmerman, D. E., & Muraski, M. L. (1995).Reflecting on the technical communicator’s image.Technical Communication, 42, 621–623.About the AuthorJanel Bloch is an assistant professor specializingin technical, business, and professional writing inthe Department of English at Northern KentuckyUniversity in Highland Heights, Kentucky. Her currentresearch interests include technical communicationcareer paths, editing, social media, and workplacecommunication. She is a Senior Member of STC andcan be reached at blochj1@nku.edu.Manuscript received 14 February 2011, revised 14 June 2011,accepted 16 August 2011.Appendix A: Internship Reports Includedin This StudyAllen, A. R. (2004). A technical communicationinternship at the National Institute for OccupationalSafety and Health (NIOSH). Miami University,Oxford, Ohio. Retrieved from OhioLINKElectronic Theses and Dissertations Center.Baker, W. E. (1984). A communications internship withMead Data Central (Unpublished internship report).Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.Byrum, S. (2006). A technical communicationinternship with WIL Research Laboratories Inc.Miami University, Oxford, Ohio. Retrieved fromOhioLINK Electronic Theses and DissertationsCenter.Clark, M. E. (1984). Internship as a medical writer atStuart Pharmaceuticals (Unpublished internshipreport). Internship. Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.Denman, C. (2004). Defining the role of the technicalcommunicator: An internship with the web-basedlearning group at the Kroger Company. MiamiUniversity, Oxford, Ohio. Retrieved fromOhioLINK Electronic Theses and DissertationsCenter.Farah, V. (1988). An internship in technicalcommunication with the Neurotoxicology Divisionof the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency(Unpublished internship report). Miami University,Oxford, Ohio.Krugh, L. (2009). Report on a MTSC internship atGolder Associates Inc. Miami University, Oxford,Ohio. Retrieved from OhioLINK Electronic Thesesand Dissertations Center.Pegue, M. (2010). Practicing technical and scientificcommunication in a community health center: Aninternship report. Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.Retrieved from OhioLINK Electronic Theses andDissertations Center.Pochydylo, A. (1994). Report on a MTSC internshipat Servantis Systems, Incorporated (Unpublishedinternship report). Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.Popp, S. M. (1994). Writing and editing technical andscientific documentation at The Oxford Associates, Inc.(Unpublished internship report). Miami University,Oxford, Ohio.Scott, S. P. (2004). Developing online help at BluespringSoftware: An internship. Miami University, Oxford,Ohio. Retrieved from OhioLINK Electronic Thesesand Dissertations Center.Slusher, K. L. (1994). A medical writing internship withProcter & Gamble Pharmaceuticals (Unpublishedinternship report). Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.Wheeler, D. K. (2010). A technical writing internshipin instructional design at Accenture Learning.Miami University, Oxford, Ohio. Retrieved fromOhioLINK Electronic Theses and DissertationsCenter.Wier, K. (1996). An internship as a technical writer atTechcomm, Inc. (Unpublished internship report).Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.Zadik, J. E. (2008). Report on an MTSC internship at theNormandy Group. Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.Retrieved from OhioLINK Electronic Theses andDissertations Center.Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 327

Book ReviewsJackie Damrau, EditorBooks Reviewed in This IssueCreate Stunning HTML Email That Just Works! 329Mathew PattersonHTML, XHTML & CSS QuickSteps 329Guy Hart-DavisWhere Good Ideas Come From: 330The Natural History of InnovationSteven JohnsonCSS Cookbook, 3rd edition 331Christopher SchmittDigital Literacy for Technical Communication: 33221st Century Theory and PracticeRachel Spilka, ed.APA Handbook of Interpersonal Communication 333David Matsumoto, ed.Envisioning Collaboration: Group Verbal-Visual 334Composing in a System of CreativityGeoffrey A. CrossEnglish for Presentations at International Conferences 335Adrian WallworkWorld Wide Research: 336Reshaping the Sciences and HumanitiesWilliam H. Dutton and Paul W. Jeffreys, eds.The Mobile Learning Edge: Tools and 337Technologies for Developing Your TeamsGary WoodillChanging Cultures in Higher Education: 338Moving Ahead to Future LearningUlf-Daniel Ehlers and Dirk Schneckenberg, eds.The Myths of Innovation 339Scott BerkunType Rules!: The Designer’s Guide to 340Professional TypographyIlene StrizverEuphemania: Our Love Affair with Euphemisms 341Ralph KeyesMosquito Marketing for Authors 342Michelle DunnDesigning Interfaces 343Jennifer TidwellThe Writer’s Guide to Queries, Pitches & Proposals 344Moira AllenTeaching Intercultural Rhetoric and 344Technical CommunicationBarry Thatcher and Kirk St.Amant, eds.The Fine Art of Self-Publishing: Everything 345You Need to Know About the Costs, Contracts,& Process of Self-PublishingMark LevineThe Technology Toolbelt for Teaching 346Susan Manning and Kevin E. JohnsonRemote Research: Real Users, Real Time, Real Research 347Nate Bolt and Tony TulathimutteThe Accidental Taxonomist 348Heather HeddenStarting Your Career as a Freelance Writer 349Moira AllenSocial Media for Trainers: 350Techniques for Enhancing and Extending LearningJane BozarthUsability of Complex Information Systems: 351Evaluation of User InteractionMichael J. Albers and Brian Still, eds.Virtual Collaborative Writing in the Workplace: 352Computer-Mediated Communication Technologiesand ProcessesBeth L. Hewett and Charlotte Robidoux328 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Book ReviewsCreate Stunning HTML EmailThat Just Works!Mathew Patterson. 2010. Collingwood, Vic, Australia: SitePoint Pty. Ltd.[ISBN 978-0-9805768-6-3. 144 pages, including index. US$29.95 (softcover).]Create Stunning HTMLEmail That Just Works!should be in the arsenal ofall freelance Web designerslooking to expand theirclient lists. It also belongs inthe library of anyoneworking in a field that sendsmass messages.The six-part book startswith a useful discussion ofthe role of e-mail. Patterson cites statistics that belie theidea that e-mail is an old tool, useless in an era of tweetsand apps, and notes that “email is a low-cost, highreturnmedium that appeals to businesses” (p. 2). Blesshim, he urges planning and information reuse.Here is a statistic that should give you pause if youdesign your own e-mails: “Building HTML for emailmeans you’re dealing with more than four or five majorweb browsers, and 12 to 15 different email clients, eachwith solid market share” (p. 70). The guts of the bookexplain why the tag is vital to HTML-codede-mail despite the advances in coding for Web sites. Itshould also affirm why a designer’s skill and know-howare needed to do the job right.E-mail samples abound in the “Design for theInbox” chapter, and examples are liberally includedin the “Coding Your Emails” chapter. Patterson offersnumerous tables that compare feature support invarious clients like Outlook, Thunderbird, and Gmail.For example, Table 4.6 (p. 84) compares HTML fontproperties support for 11 e-mail clients.Patterson writes with a light and deft touch thatmakes this book easy and enjoyable to read. Forexample, a subhead on page 20 poses the burningquestion “How can I avoid my email being filtered?”The answer: “Use magic, if possible.” His runningexample is for a company (with a Web site, of course)called Modern Henchmen.The book has a functional design that works withpages of text as well as the many colorful examplesof HTML-based e-mail messages and side-by-sidecomparisons of e-mails viewed in different programs.Clearly marked notes, tips, and warnings are sprinkledthroughout. The book has a dedicated Web site witherrata, a code archive, downloadable templates, readerreviews, and ordering information.Page vi informs us that SitePoint specializes inpublishing “fun, practical, and easy-to-understandcontent for Web professionals.” HTML Email ThatWorks! is all that and more.Ginny Hudak-DavidGinny Hudak-David is the senior associate director in the Office forUniversity Relations, the communications unit of the three-campusUniversity of Illinois.HTML, XHTML & CSS QuickStepsGuy Hart-Davis. 2010. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. [ISBN 978-0-07-163317-8. 206 pages, including index. US$19.99 (softcover).]HTML, XHTML &CSS QuickSteps is agreat how-to book thattakes you through theworld of HTML,XHTML, and CSS invery simple, bite-sized,step-by-step chunks.The QuickSteps booksuse guideposts (icon-based text boxes) on almost everypage to give you additional detail about information onthat page. This book will teach you everything you needto know about creating your own personal or businessWeb site. Hart-Davis covers topics on how to structureyour Web pages, apply manual formatting, add graphicsand links, create tables and frames with HTML, usecascading style sheets (CSS) to control formatting, useMicrosoft Office applications (for example, Word, Excel,PowerPoint) for Web page creation, and create formsand scripts to collect information from your Web visitors.Images (graphics) are an area that many Webcreators fail to set up for proper accessibility and useVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 329

Book Reviewsby screen readers for visitors with visual challenges.Hart-Davis says to tag all Web site images with the altattribute for decorative, bulleted, or horizontally linedimages. This tag shows text to visitors if the image doesnot display in their browser or instructs screen readers totell visitors what is being displayed.Hart-Davis recommends testing every aspect of yoursite with the three common browsers: Internet Explorer,Firefox, and Safari. The majority of people use InternetExplorer (60-70%), with 20-25% using Firefox and7-10% using Safari.It’s important to find the right Web host. Hart-Davis suggests you look for eight features in hosting:amount of space, amount of traffic, number of e-mailaccounts, your own domain name, Internet connectionspeed and uptime, Web tools support, audio/videostreaming, and shopping carts and secure servers. Webhosting services offer multiple types of services, rangingfrom basic to developer, at reasonable rates. Manyinternet service providers have generous service offeringsfor no charge or for a minimal fee.HTML, XHTML & CSS QuickSteps walks throughan in-depth process on how to plan, design, and createyour Web site to meet the needs of your audience. Asyou begin building your site, make sure that you havepermission to use any digital content (music, audio/video,photos) to prevent a lawsuit for copyright infringement.Not everything on the Web is available for free use.I enjoy especially how Hart-Davis provides commonInternet and computer terminology (site, servers, clients,URLs) with enough detail not to detract from the step-bystepinstruction. Also enjoyable are the historical bits, suchas how the Web should have been called the Mesh becausemany sites are nothing more than a “mesh of links amongpages” (p. 28). The book’s layout, simplicity in style, anduse of the iconic guideposts make it an easy read.Jackie DamrauJackie Damrau has more than 20 years of technicalcommunication experience. She is a Fellow and member ofthe STC Puget Sound chapter and the Instructional Design &Learning SIG, and General Manager of the STC InternationalSummit Awards. She serves as the Book Review Editor forTechnical Communication.Where Good Ideas Come From:The Natural History of InnovationSteven Johnson. 2010. New York, NY: Riverhead Books. [ISBN 978-1-59448-771-2. 336 pages, including index. US$26.95.]A writing assignment that ispart of my annual performancereview includes a section oninnovation. The instructionsmention that people in theglobal company I work for areexpected to “think differently toinnovate or develop improvedalternatives for existingproducts, methods andapproaches.” So I turned toSteven Johnson’s Where Good Ideas Come From: TheNatural History of Innovation.Johnson is the co-founder of three influentialWeb sites (most recently, outside.in) and author ofseven books about science, technology, and culture.Where Good Ideas Come From is the closing volume inan unofficial trilogy that began with The Ghost Map(Riverhead Books, 2006) and The Invention of Air(Riverhead Books, 2008), books about world-changingideas and the environments that made them possible.To answer the question “Where do good ideas comefrom?” Johnson took an environmental perspective,looking for the spaces that have historically led tounusually high rates of creativity and innovation. Hestates the argument of the book: “A series of sharedproperties and patterns recur again and again inunusually fertile environments” (p. 17). He then dividesthem into seven patterns (the adjacent possible, liquidnetworks, the slow hunch, serendipity, error, exaptation,and platforms), devoting a chapter to each.Johnson builds his argument around anecdotesdrawn from different historical periods and contexts.Examples are mostly from natural sciences and hightech. A key takeaway from the book is “the more weembrace these patterns—in our private work habits andhobbies, in our office environments, in the design ofnew software tools—the better we will be at tapping ourextraordinary capacity for innovative thinking” (p. 17).330 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Book ReviewsThe book ends with an analysis that takes roughly200 of the most important innovations and scientificbreakthroughs from the past 600 years and then plotseach breakthrough somewhere in one of the fourquadrants of a diagram.This may not seem like a book to recommendto technical communicators, but there are plenty ofinspiring examples from today’s leading innovativecompanies that easily make the book worth reading.One of the best examples is Google’s “20-percent time”program for all engineers. It lets them spend 20% oftheir time on whatever pet projects they want. Theprogram has played a part in generating key productssuch as AdSense (in 2009, responsible for more than $5billion of Google’s earnings), Orkut (one of the largestsocial network sites in India and Brazil), and Gmail.Also fascinating are the remarks on Apple, which isconsistently ranked as the most innovative company inthe world.For a book that approaches innovation from themore traditional perspective of group action and theindividual, I recommend The Innovator’s Way: EssentialPractices for Successful Innovation (The MIT Press, 2010),by Peter J. Denning and Robert Dunham.David KowalskyDavid Kowalsky is a technical writer for NEC Corporationof America. He received his MA in East Asian studies fromWashington University (St. Louis) and a certificate of technicalwriting and editing from the University of Washington. He is asenior member of STC’s Puget Sound Chapter.CSS Cookbook, 3rd editionChristopher Schmitt. 2010. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly Media. [ISBN 978-0-596-15593-3. 704 pages, including index. US$49.99 (soft cover).]This is the third iteration ofthis reference on coding withcascading style sheets (CSS).Browsers have evolved sincethe first published edition in2004, and Schmitt’scompendium has attemptedto incorporate these changes.As with almost alltechnology books, however,the technology—browsersupport for specific features—changes faster than thetime it takes to write, edit, publish, and sell a book. As aresult, some browser limitations noted in the printversion may no longer apply by the time a coder uses theCSS Cookbook. There is an online edition, but it is onlyfree of charge for 45 days after entering the coupon codefrom the print version.CSS Cookbook is not intended to be read cover tocover. Instead, readers can look up the “recipe” for theparticular task they want to accomplish. Even thoughthe current CSS 2.1 standard offers many more optionsthan 1.0 did, the “Hacks and Workarounds” section isstill one of the most useful portions of the book. Otherhelpful information includes notes on accessibility (didyou know that right-justified text is difficult to read fordyslexics?) and an appendix listing all CSS properties,their values and defaults.Each “recipe” outlines the problem this particularitem is intended to solve, the solution itself (includingsample code), a discussion of how that solution works,known browser issues with this item, and a “see also”section referring to further information elsewhere on theWeb. Many “recipes” also include screen shots and othergraphic elements. While many “before and after” shotshelp readers visualize how exactly this particular solutionchanges the display of text or graphics, some add little tothe text. A few screen shots are downright confusing, aswhen a caption purports to show the effect of a selectoron an ordered list, but the corresponding image showsan unordered list.Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 331

Book ReviewsSomewhat perplexing also is the inclusion of achapter on HTML basics. According to the preface,CSS Cookbook assumes the reader “possess[es] someweb design or development experience” (p. xviii).Presumably, anyone with such experience would notrequire an explanation of how to code a basic HTMLpage. While leaving that chapter and some of the lesshelpful illustrations out would not have slimmed thevolume down to the 240 or so pages of its first edition,it might have made the book somewhat easier to handle(not to mention saving some paper).All in all, however, CSS Cookbook still is a useful andcomprehensive reference for web coders of all stripes.Barbara JungwirthAfter writing software documentation and managing an ITdepartment, Barbara Jungwirth now translates technicaldocuments from German to English and codes for an HIVWeb site. She owns reliable translations llc (www.reliabletranslations.com)and writes a blog, On Language andTranslation (http://reliable-translations.blogspot.com/).Digital Literacy for TechnicalCommunication: 21st Century Theoryand PracticeRachel Spilka, ed. 2010. New York, NY: Routledge. [ISBN 978-0-8058-5274-5.272 pages including index. US$39.95 (softcover).]Digital Literacy for TechnicalCommunication, edited byRachel Spilka, is a verycomprehensive look at the shapeof our field and how weinfluence, and are influenced by,the technology that we workwith on a daily basis. The tableof contents reads like a “who’swho” list of notable scholarssuch as Saul Carliner, BernadetteLongo, Barry Thatcher, and Michael Salvo, to name afew, who have contributing chapters in this collection.When I began reading this book, my expectations werequite high, and the content and the writing reallydeliver. It has been years since I have felt this inspired bya collection.The purpose of Digital Literacy for TechnicalCommunication is “to help current and future technicalcommunicators better understand how the natureof their work—and their potential contributions toindustry—has changed dramatically in the new digitalenvironment of modern work” (p. xi). The theme ofthe collection is how much we have evolved as a fieldbecause of the rapid changes that are continually takingplace in technology. What it means to be “digitallyliterate” changes as technology changes. We will becomeobsolete if we don’t constantly adapt to new technologiesand the new ways information is planned, disseminated,critiqued, and used. Despite that central theme, theattitude toward technology is neither critical norenthusiastic. Instead, the various authors challenge us toreconsider how we think about technology.The text is divided into three parts: Part 1 addresses“Transformations in Our Work”; this section attemptsto define the field of technical communication and thedirection it is moving, as well as explain how technologyhas fundamentally changed what we do on the job. I wasnot in the field yet at the time of the Internet revolution,and as a result I found Part 1 fascinating reading andvery informative.The second section, “New Foundational Knowledgein our Field,” contains chapters by Dave Clark,Michael J. Salvo and Paula Rosinski, and WilliamHart-Davidson. The goal of these three chapters,according to Spilka, is to present three new areas thatshould form the core knowledge of our field: therhetoric of technology, information design, and contentmanagement. A snapshot of last year’s Society forTechnical Communication Summit presentations backsup this claim that these three areas are of great interest inthe field today.Finally, Part 3 addresses “New Directions inCultural, Cross-Cultural, Audience, and EthicalPerspectives” with chapters by Bernadette Longo, BarryThatcher, Ann M. Blakeslee, and Steven B. Katz andVicki W. Rhodes. These four chapters ask us to questionthe current theories prevalent in the field and to considerthem from a fresh perspective. Each chapter in this332 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Book Reviewscollection was notable to me for a variety of reasons, butthe chapters by Longo and Thatcher, in particular, stoodout as they challenged us to consider that technology isnot culture neutral and to question the ways in whichwe use technology to spread our culture in ways thatmight not be palatable for others.Despite the focus on theory, the tone of DigitalLiteracy is not high-handed. The information is veryaccessible for all audiences that Spilka mentions inthe preface: “practitioners, students, and educators”(p. xi). As a result of the clear and approachable levelof discourse, many practitioners would find value inthis book, as it most directly concerns them and theirworkplaces. However, the theoretical nature of thecollection and some of its contents would probably notappeal to some. I hope that is not the case, however,because many of the chapters, particularly Carliner’sreflections on how technical communication has evolvedand Thatcher’s chapter concerning digital literacy acrosscultures would be especially interesting and/or useful topractitioners.This collection would also be useful for a graduatecourse in the history of technical communication orthe rhetoric of technology. Academics who try to keepa finger on the pulse of industry trends would find thisbook invaluable because its contents help illustrate howpedagogy should evolve to reflect what is needed in theworkplace. Quite honestly, I was so excited by manyof the concepts in Digital Literacy that I immediatelye-mailed one of the authors with questions as well asshared the book with a colleague. I know it will have avalued place in my collection for years to come.Nicole St. Germaine-McDanielNicole St. Germaine-McDaniel is a senior member of STC andhead of the Technical and Business Writing Program at AngeloState University, as well as a freelance writer and consultant.Her research interests include technical communication for aMexican-American audience and technical communication in thehealth fields.APA Handbook of InterpersonalCommunicationDavid Matsumoto, ed. 2010.Washington, D.C.: American PsychologicalAssociation. [ISBN 978-1-4338-0780-0. 327 pages, including index.US$79.95.]The APA Handbook ofInterpersonal Communication,edited by David Matsumoto,presents 13 studies neatlydivided into two sections:theory and application. As Ireviewed my notes for thisbook, I noticed x’s andsquiggles denoting mylukewarm reception for eachchapter dedicated to theoryand bold checks and stars denoting my satisfaction witheach chapter covering application. Clearly my biases arepoorly concealed. As I am only somewhat conversantwith linguistic theory, much of the first section was loston me. As I am deeply involved in the everyday practiceand observation of interpersonal communications, bothin the workplace and in my personal space, I found thesecond section to be extremely relevant.The topics of theoretical perspectives coveredin the first section are intriguing—body language,spatial semiotics, politeness, humor and irony, andpraising and blaming. I cannot doubt the validity ofthe arguments presented here as each chapter is wellresearched with historical literature and recent empiricaldata, yet to apply them is difficult to figure out. Manyof these studies are simply too short to provide tangibleinsights. For instance, the chapter on “technicallymediatedinterpersonal communication” (misspelledas “technically-medicated” in the table of contents)provides approximately one page each of information ontopics such as blogs, social networking sites, and virtualworlds. One page is enough to introduce a topic, yet toobrief to provide actionable information. For a student oflinguistics or clinical psychology, this section is likely toprove academically fascinating; for the average technicalcommunicator, mildly curious.Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 333

Book ReviewsThe six-chapter section on applied interpersonalcommunication is compelling and filled with pragmatictopics such as everyday communication, the language ofthe elderly, and media competence (a nice companionpiece to the earlier chapter on technically-mediatedcommunications). Although several of the pieces focuson specific communication events and situations, suchas a chapter on therapy, counseling, and diagnostics,the insights afforded are relevant across a number ofscenarios.Two of the more memorable chapters are “Youth,Discourse, and Interpersonal Management” by JannisAndroutsopoulos and Alexandra Georgakopoulou and“Nonverbal Communicative Competence” by NancyM. Puccinelli. In the chapter on youth, the authors offerinsight into language tactics that youth use to align,converge, and collude. My favorite is a delightfullyacademic description of the use of expressions such as“like,…you know,…right?, innit?,…really” (p. 239).With equal adeptness, the writers also cover howyouth mark boundaries, manage conflict, and practiceexclusion through language. Workplace communicatorsor leaders should read Puccinelli’s chapter on nonverbalcommunications. Revelations such as “employees skilledat eavesdropping on positive emotions were evaluatedmore positively by supervisors and peers” (p. 282) areplentiful and make for furious underlining and marginwriting.An average technical communicator may findthe price for The APA Handbook of InterpersonalCommunication prohibitive. APA members orpsychology students with an interest in communicationsmay find this book is certainly a fair deal at its reducedmember price.Gary HernandezGary Hernandez is a communications manager for BP. Hereceived his English literature MA from George MasonUniversity and received his technical writing MS from UtahState University. Gary belongs to STC and IABC.Envisioning Collaboration: Group Verbal-Visual Composing in a System of CreativityGeoffrey A. Cross. 2011.Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishing Company.[ISBN 978-0-89503-400-7. 252 pages, including index. US$54.95.]“You’re only as good as yourlast ad,” Geoffrey Cross relatesin the opening chapter ofEnvisioning Collaboration:Group Verbal-Visual Composingin a System of Creativity (p. 23).This quote, from the chiefcreative officer at an advertisingagency, underscores thedifficulty and importance ofcreating excellent work thatintegrates visual and verbalelements. With its focus on advertising writer-artistteams, this book fills an important gap in research onvisual-verbal composing. Frequently, studies focus oneither visual or verbal collaboration; however, this studyexamines the overlap between the two.Cross spent considerable time—more than six years,including three months of participant observation—working with several teams at this advertising agencyto learn how they created “effective persuasiveand informative verbal-visual messages for client/manufacturer, retailer, and consumer” (p. 25). Thethick description afforded by this ethnographic researchallows him to make strong claims regarding visual-verbalcollaboration. In some cases, these claims extend priorresearch on collaboration; in most cases, Cross refines orrefutes claims made in that prior research.Along the way, readers sit in on early meetingsbetween writers and artists who are competing to createa winning ad campaign to pitch to their client, a wellknownlawnmower company. The writer-artist pairs,or dyads, seek to create a campaign that could translatefrom standard media campaigns to point-of-sale (POS)ads. The chapters that introduce the two primary dyadsmake for a fascinating read. Cross interweaves hisdescription of the collaborative process with follow-upinterviews, giving the reader a chance to understand thewriters’ and artists’ thought processes.334 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Book ReviewsA key challenge for these teams is one that mostwriters and artists face: complex audiences for theirvisual-verbal messages. The work these teams producemust appeal to a number of audiences: colleagues attheir agency, supervisors, the client, and customersof the client’s company. A related challenge is thecompany-wide “tip-ball” meeting model, which serves asa gatekeeping meeting that narrows the company’s focusto one or two pitches. The “tip-ball” meeting shouldtheoretically offer the opportunity for collaborationamong all the creatives; however, Cross notes that thetip-ball often leads to team competition, a commoncollaboration problem.Envisioning Collaboration is primarily valuable forresearchers studying collaboration and verbal-visualcomposing in technical communication. Instructors andpractitioners interested in developing different modes ofcollaboration will also appreciate the insights that Crossdraws. Besides his theoretical claims, Cross offers severalpractical recommendations. For example, he presentsan assignment cycle that could be adapted for differentcourses, one that builds on the brainstorming andcollaborative techniques used by the study’s participants.Ashley PatriarcaAshley Patriarca is a doctoral candidate in Rhetoric and Writingat Virginia Tech. She earned her master’s in English (technicaland professional writing) at the University of North Carolinaat Charlotte, where she also worked in the Department ofEnrollment Management as a technical writer.English for Presentations atInternational ConferencesAdrian Wallwork. 2010. New York, NY: Springer. [ISBN 978-1-4419-6590-5.180 pages, including index. US$29.95 (softcover).]This slim book is aimed atpresenters with English as theirsecond language (ESL), andspecifically at scientificresearchers—an unfortunatechoice, as this book has farbroader appeal. It provides agreat introduction for anyonewho must learn the art ofpresentations and a refresher forexperienced presenters.Designed as a reference book, it leads you through thesteps in preparing a presentation and helps you quicklyfind topics using the table of contents, which alsocleverly serves as a checklist. Although Wallwork makesan early claim to ignore the issues of designing andcreating visual aspects of the slides, he provides ampleinformation on integrating visuals with written andspoken text. Though the rules are simplistic, and youwill break many of them as your skills grow, they are anexcellent guide for beginning speakers and will notdetract from a professional’s presentations.A refreshing change is the book’s focus on audience.Wallwork explains the characteristics that determinehow audiences listen and understand. He reminds usthat too many speakers spend more time designing theirslides than practicing their presentation and the valueof conducting informal colleague reviews before givingthe formal conference presentation. Wallwork clearlydistinguishes between papers and the presentationsbased on them, and explains how to identify and clarifythe key messages before we start creating the slides. Heoffers the intriguing insight that crafting a 2-minute“elevator speech” ensures that you focus on the realmessages.English for Presentations at International Conferencesis full of useful tips, including a section on overcomingnervousness. It includes copious examples, like “beforeand after” comparisons that help make the principlesVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 335

Book Reviewsconcrete. Much of Wallwork’s advice applies equallywell to writing, and doubly so if you are communicatingwith an ESL audience. Yet the heart of this book lies inits many presentation-specific gems, such as speaking inyour own voice. For ESL presenters, Wallwork mentionsonline resources such as annotated BBC news transcriptsthat display the words and let you hear how they arepronounced. For anyone, the collection of speechesat TED.com reveals the tricks of the world’s bestpresenters.Starting presentations with bulleted lists ofyour key concepts helps the audience learn yourpronunciation as you describe what they are seeingon the screen. Although Wallwork discourages theuse of “builds” (adding one bullet at a time to thescreen), he correctly notes this technique’s superiorityto filling a slide with text in a single step: It primesthe audience to understand what you are about to sayand accommodates the fact that most ESL audiencesare better at reading than listening to English. I havefound this technique remarkably effective in my ownpresentations to diverse audiences.English for Presentations at International Conferencesis not without problems, such as Wallwork’s mixedmessage about humor. Though he notes that visualscan “inject humor” (p. 83), he subsequently advocatescaution (p. 101). Unfortunately, few people are naturalcomics, and the risk of cultural gaffes is particularly highwith international audiences. In my experience, onlymild self-deprecation successfully spans cultures, and nopresenter should attempt humor without a profoundunderstanding of their audience. The book’s index isinadequate, as it is more a concordance, exacerbatedby the decision to repeat the index with page andsection numbers, instead of creating a larger and moreusable index. The writing is generally clear, yet severaltypos and other proofreading lapses slipped through(for example, the list of editing services on “p. 164”actually appears on p. 166), and words or phrasingmay sometimes be difficult for ESL audiences to parse(“adverbs of concession”, p. 134; “emotive adjectives”,p. 139). Wallwork’s suggestion that Chinese authorsoften get l and r reversed (p. 29) is rare, though it iscommon for Japanese authors. And the suggestion(p. 73) that automatic spellcheckers may incorrectlyand automatically change words is incorrect; he wasundoubtedly thinking of Microsoft Word’s AutoCorrectfeature.These quibbles notwithstanding, I can unreservedlyrecommend this book for ESL presenters, Englishpresenters with ESL audiences, and anyone who needsto learn or polish their presentation skills. The best thingI can say about English for Presentations at InternationalConferences is that it kindled my desire to try many ofthese tricks in my presentations.Geoff HartGeoff Hart has given dozens of presentations and workshops toSTC chapters, as well as to audiences in India and China.World Wide Research: Reshaping theSciences and HumanitiesWilliam H. Dutton and Paul W. Jeffreys, eds. 2010. Cambridge, MA: TheMIT Press. [ISBN 978-0-2625-1373-9. 382 pages, including index. US$33.00(softcover).]James Gleick, in his newbook The Information, viewsinformation technologyevolving in three parts: thehistorical (drums, smokesignals, etc.), Shannon’s1949 information theory,and the flood (post-Shannon). In addition,changes in electronic storage(Moore’s Law) meansmassive increases in available research data leading to theflood with its accompanying access problems. Thoseissues are what Dutton and Jeffreys’ anthology addresses,specifically, finding and accessing relevant data byresearchers.The editors have divided the papers into four majorgroupings: The Foundations, State of the Practice,Social Shaping of Infrastructures and Practices, andImplications for Research. The collection ends with anessay from the editors, The Ends and Means of World336 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Book ReviewsWide Research. All papers are from the James Martin21st Century School, University of Oxford.The problem, as described by Dutton and Jeffreys,is that a deluge of research data exists in the sciences andhumanities that requires attention to designing access foruse by cross-disciplinary researchers. It does not matterif the researcher is a single individual or a researchconsortium scattered across several disciplines andlocated worldwide. They all face the mounting deluge ofdata and problems associated with it.The editors call using such data “e-research” andinsist that the problems will generate waves well beyondthe laboratory or the ivory tower. The result is a changein what e-researchers know and how they know it.The editors write:Our edited collection focuses on howe-research is reshaping and will continue toreshape not only how research is done but,more important, its outcomes. . . . Our aimis to create an understanding of this processin a way that enables researchers and anarray of other relevant actors to generate a“virtuous cycle.” (p. 3)That cycle is the standard way to do research:collect data, analyze and organize them, write papers orpresentations, and upload them as data to the system.Of interest to technical communicators is theusability in e-research section with essays by de laFlor, Jirotka, Lloyd, and Warr; Martin; and Thelwall.Usability, say de la Flor et al., is no longer about softwareinterfaces. Rather, it is “a means through which supportcan be given to the requirements of cooperative workarrangements” (p. 135). They discuss three areas inwhich usability becomes important: RequirementsEngineering, Human-Computer Interaction, andComputer-Supported Cooperative Work. Martin’s essaylooks at computer platform security, speculating howtrusted computer technologies might work, and Thelwelladdresses social networking and its e-research role.For the price, this collection is a bargain. It offersinsights into how researchers manage the flood ofdata/information, emphasizes the importance ofunderstanding how e-research teams cooperate, andnotes the ways they communicate and collaborate.And it should prove useful for not only technicalcommunicators, but also managers and e-researchers.Tom WarrenTom Warren is an STC Fellow, Jay R. Gould Award for Excellencerecipient, and professor emeritus of English (technical writing)at Oklahoma State University, where he established the BA, MA,and PhD technical writing programs. Past president of INTECOM,he serves as guest professor at the University of Paderborn,Germany.The Mobile Learning Edge: Tools andTechnologies for Developing your TeamsGary Woodill. 2011. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. [ISBN978-0-07-173676-3. 269 pages, including index. US$29.95.]Although it seems we areentering the age of mobiledevices, mobile technologybegan to emerge as early asSeptember 11, 2001. Manypeople that day were usingtheir BlackBerry devices tocommunicate via textmessaging during the attackon the World Trade Center.People used mobilecommunication in 2005 when Hurricane Katrina hitNew Orleans. Now, text messaging is commonplace. Yet,the use of mobile devices for learning is still in its infancy.In The Mobile Learning Edge, Woodill provides anoverview to mobile learning, addresses the need forcompanies to develop a future-oriented mobile learningstrategy, and includes a case study in most chapters. Ifound the Intuition.com case study involving MerrillLynch among the best.Merrill Lynch, one of the world’s leading wealthmanagement companies, found its employees strugglingto find time for training. They conducted a pilot studyby providing their employees with three compliancetraining courses over a two-month period. MerrillLynch conducted the pilot training because of the needVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 337

Book Reviewsfor security on BlackBerry devices. They branded thetraining delivery medium as “GoLearn—a new way totake your training with you” (p. 22). This pilot studywas so successful that companies now want to developsimilar mobile training for their employees.Managers will find Woodill’s book exceptionallyhelpful, as it not only guides the reader through theevolution and methods of effective mobile learning andhow to gather information with mobile devices, butalso spotlights contributing writer David Fell’s work onthe management of mobile learning. In Chapter 8, Felladdresses the guidelines for developing a future-orientedmobile learning strategy, a key topic of this book. Hequotes from Pip Coburn’s book, The Change Function:“…new technologies are adopted only when thepresent crisis in your business is more painful than the‘total perceived pain of adoption’ of the proposed newtechnology” (p. 170).It is important to plan for the present and thefuture. Fell addresses such mobile learning businessmodels as just-in-time learning, contextual learning,information storage and delivery, and the creationof field-based learning materials. He stresses theimportance of understanding the strategic context andcompetitive environment into which mobile learningwill evolve.Herle closes the book in Chapter 10 by addressinghow to implement and manage the enterprise mobilelearning offering. She suggests developing a vision ofyour organization’s overall mobile culture. In addition,Herle poses such questions as who gets mobile devices?how do you control employee data on devices? and howdo you control personal use of the device?This book is a nice reference for managers andtechnical communicators who want to know more aboutmobile learning. In fact, you can begin your own mobilelearning by purchasing Woodill’s book from Amazon’sKindle Store and reading it as you are on the go.Rhonda LunemannRhonda Lunemann is a senior technical writer with SiemensPLM Software, a senior member of STC’s Twin Cities Chapter,and a member of the Hill Speakers Toastmasters Club(Club 4415).Changing Cultures in Higher Education:Moving Ahead to Future LearningUlf-Daniel Ehlers and Dirk Schneckenberg, eds. 2010. Heidelberg: Springer.[ISBN 978-3-642-03582-1. 533 pages, including index. US$179.00.]If you are concerned with theunrealized potential oftechnology to increase theabilities of universities toprepare students for work inthe twenty-first century, Ehlersand Schneckenberg’s ChangingCultures in Higher Education:Moving Ahead to FutureLearning may be of interest.This book focuseson the implementationand implications of new technologies for universityeducation with ongoing cultural changes and rapidlyevolving information and communication technologies.The cultural changes include changes in studentdemographics; the faculty’s role in collaborative, crossdisciplinary,user-center, participatory learning thatdevelops problem-solving competencies; the needfor institutional administration to lead and supportinnovation; and greater dependence on universities bythe government and civil society to contribute towardsolutions that benefit the society and support economicprosperity. The editors provide 37 articles from aninternational array of scholars and practitioners whoaddress the topics of strategic change management,competency development, and quality assurance.The section about strategies to support changefocuses on the needs for a holistic combination of topdownmanagement and bottom-up faculty activitiesthat support the development and implementationof technology-enhanced education, identificationand reduction of important organizational barriers tochange, increased participatory decision making, and anenvironment that facilitates incorporating technologythat supports collaborative learning.The section about developing competencies offaculty and students to use technologies for teaching,learning, and research focuses on the conceptual338 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Book Reviewsframework and methods for developing thecompetencies required to effectively execute e-learning.Schneckenberg contends that many universities haveneither fully recognized nor exploited the potential ofe-learning because of organization barriers and facultyfailure to recognize the e-learning potential and todevelop the requisite competencies to effectively usee-learning. He concludes that universities should takethe lead in training their faculties.The section about quality assurance of e-learningin universities focuses on the need for comprehensivestrategic plans for the implementation and assessmentof both e-learning programs and outcomes. The authorsargue that such plans should focus more on pedagogyand organization, and less on the technologicalcomponent. These plans should be derived fromestablished quality assurance strategies that are already inplace for strategic management of universities’ businessmodels, revenue, and collaborative initiatives.This book is forward-looking and thoughtprovoking, yet has some shortcomings such as thetwo-and-a-quarter page index that is inadequate for atextbook of more than 500 pages. The content, and itsorganization, would benefit from adding a chapter toeach of the three sections that identifies and conciselyexplains the principles essential to each section. Theeditors’ emphasis on Web 2.0 technology is odd, sincethis technology will be replaced by whatever follows,which will be replaced by something else.Changing Cultures in Higher Education can be auseful resource for those who are interested in strategiesand case studies about the use of technology to increasethe readiness of our universities to prepare studentsfor work.Wayne L. SchmadekaWayne L. Schmadeka serves on the faculty in the ProfessionalWriting Program, University of Houston-Downtown. He foundedand for 12 years ran an educational software development firm,has extensive experience developing varied documentation, andconsults with engineering firms to increase the effectivenessand reduce the cost of their documentation.The Myths of InnovationScott Berkun. 2010. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly. [ISBN-978-1-449-38962-8]. 228pages, including index. US$17.99 (softcover).]Despite the importanceassigned to innovation, most ofus know little about howinnovation takes place in thereal world. Worse, Scott Berkunargues in The Myths ofInnovation, much of what wethink we know is clouded bymyths or misconceptions thatinterfere with our ability toactually understand and bringabout worthwhile change.In this expanded paperback reissue of the 2007hardback, Berkun adds to the work that has alreadyestablished him as one of the thought leaders in thefield. Before becoming an author and consultant,Berkun spent a decade (1994–2003) in the trenches asa manager at Microsoft, where he worked on the earlyeditions of Internet Explorer. Berkun is also the authorof Making Things Happen, and Confessions of a PublicSpeaker.In Myths Berkun examines what he calls theten most “pervasive and misleading” myths aboutinnovation. He discusses the belief that innovationcan be achieved by some method, and the role andimportance of epiphanies and bright ideas (including thebelief that good ideas are hard to find); he also covers thefigure of the lone inventor, the idea that the boss knowsmore about innovation than you do, that people likenew ideas, that innovation is inherently good, that thebest ideas win, and more.Throughout, Berkun uses well-researched historicaland contemporary examples to expose what ismisleading, and then point to better models for success.Take the story of Newton and the apple; even if it weretrue (it’s not), it obscures the hard work that went intoderiving the laws of motion, Newton’s real achievement.Stories like the Newton story feed our misconceptionsabout the role of epiphany in innovation—the pervasivebelief that innovation starts with a bright idea. Yes,epiphanies happen, Berkun says, but they usually comeVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 339

Book Reviewsat the end of a long process of hard work on a problem,like finally seeing the picture when the last piece of ajigsaw puzzle is placed, not at the beginning. Would-beinnovators, he says, would be better off searching forgood problems to work on than on waiting for brightideas to strike.While Berkun works to debunk myths, it is clearthroughout that his purpose is to arm you with thewisdom you will need to improve your own chancesof success. To this end, The Myths of Innovation hasbeen considerably expanded for the paperback editionand now includes chapters on “How to pitch anidea,” “Creative thinking hacks,” and “How to staymotivated.”The book also contains an extensive appendix onresearch and recommendations, which contains bothan annotated bibliography and a ranked bibliographyin which Berkun orders his sources according to howuseful they were to him while writing the book. Eventhose who have the hardcover may want to look at thepaperback edition for its new material.Patrick LufkinPatrick Lufkin is an STC Associate Fellow with experience incomputer documentation, newsletter production, and publicrelations. He reads widely in science, history, and currentaffairs, as well as on writing and editing. He chairs the GordonScholarship in technical communication and co-chairs theNorthern California technical communication competition.Type Rules!: The Designer’s Guide toProfessional TypographyIlene Strizver. (2010). 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.[ISBN 978-0-470-54251-4. 272 pages, including index. US$55.00 (softcover).]Type Rules!: The Designer’sGuide to ProfessionalTypography is in its thirdedition, revised for currentstandards and practices. A newchapter on nonprinttypography has been added tocover type on the Web andtype in motion. Technical tips(TECHTIPS in the book)have been updated for recentversions of Adobe InDesign and QuarkXPress, whiletype tips (TYPETIPS) carry helpful hints and interestingtidbits about typefaces. Each chapter offers one or moreexercises designed to reinforce concepts learned in thatchapter, especially if you are using this book in anintroductory graphic design course. In later chapters, theexercises provide potential portfolio pieces, such as a spabrochure exercise.While Strizver stresses in the introduction that thebook does not need to be read in order, someone withlittle to no experience in typography will benefit fromreading the chapters in sequence. The first three chapterscover a brief history of type, an introduction to fonttechnology, and what makes a typeface look the way itdoes. This information provides a good grounding for allthe succeeding chapters.Strizver then leads you through selecting theright type for the job, formatting type, type emphasistechniques, and fine-tuning your type. These chapters gointo the details of type, including type size, line length,indents, tracking, and kerning.The section on finessing your type describes someof the options available if you’re using OpenType fonts,including small caps, figures, swash characters, andalternate characters. To round out the topic, Strizveralso covers drop caps, raised caps, and the many types ofinitial types and techniques.340 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Book ReviewsThe book finishes by identifying and showing howto avoid common typographical typos; how to usetypographical elements such as symbols, signs, fractions,and accents; and how to design your own typeface. Athree-page glossary with the terms used throughout thebook is included, along with a bibliography, the digitalfont foundries and distributors mentioned, and a list oftypographic resource links.I like how the book’s examples include not just artpieces, but also real-world products and layouts. Theexamples illustrate the concepts in each chapter withoutbeing inaccessible. The use of color to make someexamples pop from the page is a refreshing treat forthe eye.Type Rules!: The Designer’s Guide to ProfessionalTypography is a comprehensive introduction to theprinciples and practices of typography. This third editionis a reference I’m happy to have on my bookshelf.Rachel HoughtonRachel Houghton is a Senior Information Designer at Sage,a leading-edge construction productivity and real estatesolutions company. She has more than 14 years of technicalcommunication experience. Rachel is the STC Secretary and isactively involved in the STC Willamette Valley community. Sheenjoys photography and Photoshop.Euphemania: Our Love Affair withEuphemismsRalph Keyes. 2010. New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company. [ISBN 9780-316-05656-4. 279 pages, including index. US$24.99.]Ralph Keyes has written anexcellent book abouteuphemisms that will teachyou not only their history butalso why we use them. Do notread this book in a library,because you are bound tolaugh out loud. And while it iswritten in a popular style,Keyes’ erudition showsthrough in every page and issupported by a finebibliography that can take you deeper into the subject.Euphemisms come from dis-ease, or as the authordefines them: “words or phrases substituted for ones thatmake us uneasy” (pp. 7–8). And what makes us uneasy?Topics such as sex, the body, secretions and excretions,illness and death, unfamiliar food, money, and war.Euphemisms allay that discomfort, or as Keyes putsit: “Euphemisms represent a flight to comfort, a wayto reduce tension when conversing. They are comfortwords” (p. 6).What did I learn from reading this book? That“sleeping with” someone is not anything new—it waswell known to the ancient Greeks and Romans—and isperhaps the most venerable euphemism of all. Are youannoyed with people who say “passed away” insteadof died? That goes back to the Middle Ages. Did youknow that “bear” is a euphemism for “the brown one”?That Johnson—the most often used last name forpenis—goes back to the British lexicographer SamuelJohnson, subject of one of the most famous biographiesever written? And that riffed (Reduction In Force) is aterrible euphemism for laid off?One of the helpful insights of this book, thoughperhaps not an original one, is that class has a great dealto do with euphemisms. The middle class has alwaysthought it could separate itself from the lower class andmove into the upper class by eschewing vulgar words.Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 341

Book ReviewsThe lower classes, meanwhile, reveled in them and theupper class had nothing to lose by using them.The chapters on sex, farting, bowel movements,and body parts will have you in stitches, while those onmoney (one of the most taboo of topics) and war mayget your blood boiling. It’s amazing how the Civil Warand World War I changed the way we speak.Why do we euphemize? “The primary social valueof euphemisms is that they make it possible to discusstouchy subjects while pretending we’re talking aboutsomething else” (p. 229). Plus it’s fun and creative andprovides a code to keep people in or out.Whatever the case, this is an enjoyable, well-writtenbook for those wishing to have a more profoundunderstanding of the role of euphemism in language.Charles R. CrawleyCharles R. Crawley is a Lead Technical Writer at RockwellCollins, Inc., in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. He was riffed once andwould like to see the Cubs in the World Series before hepasses away.Mosquito Marketing for AuthorsMichelle Dunn. 2010. Plymouth, NH: Never Dunn Publishing LLC. [ISBN978-1-4536-0530-1. 174 pages. US$23.95 (softcover).]Mosquito Marketing for Authorswill start you thinking aboutmarketing your book withoutrelying on a publisher. So willmost other marketing books forauthors, but Dunn includesmany examples from her ownexperience, such as a timeline ofspeeches she gave and herexperience at the Book Expo ofAmerica. If you are looking fora jumping point, Dunn’s book includes importantconcepts, if not always actual information. The finalchapter includes a list of books, magazines, and Websites with more information about marketing books.However, the concepts are the same ones that peoplealready know, yet they aren’t expanded with important“how-to” information. The promising title “Promoteyour website for under $50” merely says to look atGoogle Ads. Another promising title, “Word of mouthadvertising,” vaguely says it is a good thing, but offers noadvice on how to get it started, other than “it really doeswork . . . but you have to work at it” (p. 145). Knowingthat word-of-mouth advertising is free and really worksdoesn’t help me without some pointers on how to get itstarted.Where useful information exists, such as examples,the organization makes it difficult to reference specificinformation. Various pieces of related informationare scattered throughout the chapters. For example,the chapter “Marketing off line” includes selling yourbooks over the Web. Many sections do not outrightrelate to the chapter, leaving the reader to decipherthe connection. For example, Dunn describes namerecognition in the chapter “What is my niche?” Shewrites that “selling yourself means getting as much namerecognition as you can or becoming popular in yourgenre” (p. 59). Dunn does not say how her methods ofname recognition, which I assume reference sectionssuch as “Donations” and “Promotional items,” relate toyour niche.Besides the disordered and lacking information,the writing is poor. Errors include linking independentsentences with comma after comma and switching “to”and “too.” But the writing style has greater problems.One of the first sentences Dunn offers: “One veryimportant point I have to make right away in this firstchapter is that if you are an author and your book ispublished, no matter who publishes your book it is upto you” (p. 14). Regardless, the best information was insections written colloquially with personal examples. Yetmany sections never fleshed out the idea.Finally, the cover states that she “self-publishedan award winning book that is a consistent best sellerin its category.” I am not sure how other writers feelabout using word trickery in marketing, but MosquitoMarketing discusses that the best-seller may be the onlybook in its category. Dunn also includes advice aboutpublishers, yet this book is self-published. In the end,this book doesn’t offer anything better than would adifferent, well-written marketing book.Angela BoyleAngela Boyle is a technical writer for Tyler Technologies, Inc,where she has worked since April 2006. She graduated from theUniversity of Washington with a BS in technical communication.342 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Book ReviewsDesigning InterfacesJennifer Tidwell. 2011. 2nd edition. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilly. [ISBN 978-1-449-37970-4. 550 pages, including index. US$49.99 (softcover).]Designing Interfaces is awell-annotated interfacedesign pattern library. It’s anexcellent read for interactiondesign students and entryleveluser experiencedesigners to get a fullspectrum of the popular userinterface patterns. It alsoworks well as a shelfreference book forexperienced designers when it comes to designbrainstorming and problem solving.The book starts by laying out the theoreticalframework by introducing the online user behaviorssuch as “safe exploration,” “instant gratification,”“deferred choices,” user expectations and how they mayinteract with software/Web site, and design implicationsfor making the interface more intuitive and user friendly.Chapters 2 through 10 provide a complete overview ofthe user interface (UI) patterns for navigation, layout,commands, information graphics, forms and controls,social media, and mobile. Tidwell gives two to five pagesto each pattern where she discusses and illustrates theinformation in sections titled “What,” “Use when,”“Why,” “How,” and “Examples.” The book’s layout andinformation is well designed and presented.The first edition of this book was released 5 yearsago, and Tidwell has added two new chapters in thisedition: one on social media that discusses tacticsand patterns for integrating social media into a siteor application, and another about mobile devicedesign, which is a heated topic at conferences and inpublications.The last chapter, “Making it Look Good: VisualStyle and Aesthetics,” is an enjoyable read. Starting withthe manifesto “Looking good matters” and quotingDonald Norman’s well-known book Emotional Design,this chapter touches on the basics of visual design(color, typography, spaciousness and crowding, anglesand curves, texture and rhythm) and what it meansfor desktop applications. Tidwell talks in-depth aboutthe patterns and examples, drawing from the basicvisual design theory like deep background; few hues,many values; corner treatment; borders that echo fonts;hairlines; contrasting font weights; and skinsand themes.Designing Interfaces comes in two versions:paperback and a slightly cheaper Kindle version. The576-page paperback is designed nicely with qualitypaper and color print; the Kindle version is visuallyless appealing, yet offers less weight with hyperlinknavigation for references between chapters.Overall, I find this book to be a comprehensivecollection of best practices and reusable UI designpatterns. The title might be a bit misleading; this bookmight not be your ideal choice if you are looking forinterface design fundamentals, case studies, or designlessons learned. Designing Interfaces is more descriptiverather than analytical. It is not about describing aproblem and guiding you through the analytics andreasoning to create a holistic user experience design. It’sthe readers’ job to apply the patterns to the real-worldproblem solving.Kejun XuKejun Xu is a User Experience Designer in Santa Barbara, CA.She wears multiple hats (interaction designer, informationarchitect, user researcher) and designs across platforms(desktop, mobile, iPhone/iPad). She is extremely passionateabout bringing her customers a more usable, useful, andenjoyable user experience.Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 343

Book ReviewsThe Writer’s Guide to Queries,Pitches & ProposalsMoira Allen 2010. New York, NY: Allworth Press. [ISBN 978-1-58115-743-7.290 pages, including index. US$19.95.]The second edition of TheWriter’s Guide to Queries,Pitches & Proposals leavestechnical writers like us whowant to write a book,newspaper column, play, orother work for publicationwith no excuse for notproceeding. This book is aprospector’s map to a goldmine of information, examples,and surprising facts aboutresources and methodology to use in accomplishing thetask of hitting pay dirt in the publication world. Oneinteresting nugget is that you can leverage your workexperience into a pitch for freelance work with a tradepublication in the same industry.In the introduction, Allen states that much ofwhat is new is how to use the proliferation of onlineavenues for reaching editors, checking posted guidelines,and actually submitting queries. Those who have asimilar yet outdated reference book already on theirshelves will have a good reason to purchase this one.Spare yourself time and frustration by circumventingthe long wait, wondering if the intended editor hasreceived your communication. Unfortunately, you mustremain patient for a time while the editor reviews yoursubmission.Ah! Which to send? A pitch, query, or proposal?If you don’t know the answer now, you will afterreading the chapters on “The Perfect Pitch,” “Writingthe (Almost) Perfect Query,” “Preparing a NonfictionBook Proposal,” and “A Novel Proposal.” Submissionguidelines available from each publisher will indicatewhether the shorter pitch and query or longer proposalis in order. Other chapters of interest include “Why NotSelf Publish,” “Speaking and Teaching Opportunities,”“Pitching to the Greeting Card Market,” “Grants forWriters,” “When to Give Up,” and “Capitalizing onSuccess.” Another nugget worth discovering is theinclusion of dozens and more real samples of publishercontacts that resulted in successful publication. You canstudy successful maps instead of guessing and perhapsmissing the mark.Being the possessor of an extensive list of rejectionnotices and author of a self-published book, I ampreparing to don my prospector’s helmet once more andsearch for an actual publisher. From personal experience,I suggest that anyone like-minded have the followingin place: a timely idea or passion about publishing awritten work, a plan with several options for marketingthe work, a list of potential purchasers (audience) andappropriate publishers, and Allen’s book. Remember, thecost of this book is tax deductible if you make a sale.Hoping we strike it rich . . . or at least find successas each defines it.Donna FordDonna Ford is a senior member of the STC. She has been atechnical writer since 1987 in the hardware, software, andgovernment health care industries.Teaching Intercultural Rhetoric andTechnical CommunicationBarry Thatcher and Kirk St.Amant, eds. 2011. Amityville, NY: Baywood.[ISBN 978-0-89503-377-2. 288 pages, including index. US$58.95.]“The trend toward off shoringmeans that much previouslyindigenous work is nowproduced in parts of Asia andeastern Europe” (p. 19).Because so much hightechnologywork is doneworldwide, technicalcommunicators must be awareof cultural differences,especially since many productsnow have a global audience.I was expecting this collection of academicwriting to focus on how to teach intercultural344 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Book Reviewscommunications, specifically in the technical writingclassroom, because Teaching Intercultural Rhetoricand Technical Communication contains a “TeachingApproaches” section with chapters on teachingintercultural communications and visual rhetoric.Yet this section focuses on ways to integrate and not“ghettoize” interculturalism in the general classroom,with scant attention paid to the specific issues fortechnical communicators. However, there are someinteresting criticisms of teaching practices that focus ongrammar instead of other areas of writing instruction.For example, given the rise in global world English,non-native audiences will understand and maybeeven prefer what some native speakers might considerincorrect grammar or usage like “I am hearing a noise”(p. 77). Another section contains chapters on coursedevelopment that could be useful for instructors in otherfields. For example, you could apply the information onstudy-abroad programs to nearly any course.The book does address technical communicationsin the field surveys in a particular country or in a casestudy. For example, the chapters on technical writingin India, Israel, and New Zealand are interesting.Various authors discuss how technical communicationinstruction is seriously lacking in many parts ofthe world. France is reassessing its state-approvedcurriculum, looking at including writing instruction atthe university level. India has a postgraduate program,but according to two surveys (done in 2005 and2007) most technical communicators have no formalinstruction or training in the field. Another chapterpresents a case study of international trainers in Japan.The author’s advice, which runs counter to the typicalaudience analysis that focuses solely on the reader, is that“we must learn just as much or more about ourselves asabout our audiences. We cannot assume a shared frameof reference; our language, our versions of history, ourviews of time, and our assumptions about professionalrelationship may all be different” (p. 132). He thenexplains some cultural exchanges that prove his point.The examples and content are interesting andthought-provoking, the book is generally well writtenand organized with a strong index, and many in highereducation—specifically rhetoric and composition—will find the materials here useful. However, I wasdisappointed. As a technical communications teacher, Iwas hoping for answers to common problems, suggestedcourse content, or current technical communicationpractices. The chapter on teaching InternationalOrganization of Standardization (ISO), for example,would be useful in any of the sciences or engineeringfields. But if you’re looking for material directlyaddressing technical communicators, this probably isn’tthe book.Kelly A. HarrisonKelly A. Harrison, MFA, works as a consultant, speaker, andwriting instructor in San José, CA. For more than 20 years, shehas written technical materials and online content for varioussoftware companies. Currently, she teaches writing at San JoséState University and prefers short-term and part-time contracts.The Fine Art of Self-Publishing: EverythingYou Need to Know About the Costs,Contracts, & Process of Self-PublishingMark Levine. (2010). 4th ed. Minneapolis, MN: Bascom Hill. [ISBN 978-1-05098-55-3. 274 pages, including index. US$16.95 (softcover).]Getting a book publishedtoday is not like it was once.It’s common knowledge thattraditional book publishing isshrinking, and that e-booksand self-publishing (SP) areincreasing. Less known are thechallenges, and pitfalls thatawait the self-publishingauthor. Mark Levine does afine job guiding new authorsthrough the mist.Technical communicators need to understand theproblems that SP authors face as we may be providingthem editing support. The first part of The Fine Art ofSelf-Publishing deals with the many facets of e-booksand self-publishing. Major topics include marketing,publishers’ contracts, and notes on book design.Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 345

Book ReviewsLevine approaches marketing from severalviewpoints: the author, the publisher, and onlinebooksellers. Traditionally, publishers traditionallymarketed their own books, but today traditionalpublishers as well as SP houses often ask new, unknownauthors to cover most of the marketing costs themselves.Marketing your own work involves a completely newmarketing strategy where the author must blog, get onspecialized Web sites, conduct media interviews, andpublicize their book in diverse ways. The SP company’sjob is to work with online booksellers like Amazon.comand Barnes & Noble to list the book. Amazon.com iscrucial for authors, since traditional houses often usetheir sales rankings to decide when to offer the author acontract. About six million books appear on Amazon, sothat even a ranking of 100,000th is not bad.Levine emphasizes the magnitude of the shift to SPand e-book publishing: In 2008, for the first time, moreSP titles appeared than hard copy. On Christmas day2009, Amazon sold more Kindle e-books than off-theshelftitles.The Fine Art of Self-Publishing highlights twoimportant yet problematic elements for SP publishers:cover design and margins, which incur costs and affectsprofit. For cover design, Levine stresses that coverssell books: “A bad cover will kill your book” (p. 15).Authors can make covers from templates or customdesigned them, normally using Adobe InDesign orPhotoshop, yet it’s worth spending more for a goodcover. Margins are important to the overall design of thebook and crucial to its sales. The margins for a 100-page book should be different from a 400-page book,to accommodate the gutter. “While the public mightnot notice that [the publisher] extended the margins tolower the page count and save on printing, the buyersfor retailers and wholesalers will know the second theycrack open your book” (p. 16).Contracts for an SP author can be very detailed.Contract elements include printing markup, return oforiginal production files, exclusive versus nonexclusivelicensing, and royalties. In chapters 8 through 12,Levine discusses the individual SP houses, rangingfrom Outstanding and OK to the Worst of the Worst.Though you may not be an SP author, or not yet one, itreally helps if you know your potential audience.Steven DarianSteven Darian is an STC Fellow, having retired from teachingbusiness and technical writing at Rutgers for 25 years and ineight countries. He was a manager for Raytheon in Saudi Arabia.Steven is co-authoring a forthcoming book, IMPACT: Writing forBusiness & the Professions, with Professor Olga Ilchenko.The Technology Toolbelt for TeachingSusan Manning and Kevin E. Johnson. 2011. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. [ISBN 978-0-740-63424-0. 208 pages, including index. US$40.00(softcover).]“Teaching is not easy, andteaching with technology is alittle like trying to hit amoving target” (p. vii). If thisexcerpt from the authors’dedication resonates with you,then you may find this bookof interest.The Technology Toolbeltfor Teaching briefly reviewsrationales and processesunderlying several instructional design models. Thereview serves as a cautionary note about selectingWeb-based teaching tools: do not buy a hammer topeel an apple. To help ensure that the tools satisfy theinstructional need, instructional planning, includingidentification of the educational needs, should precedetool selection. Manning and Johnson provide adecision matrix for teachers to use in evaluating andsummarizing how well various tools satisfy the identifiedneeds. They apply this matrix by evaluating a fewtools to demonstrate how instructors can use it. As theauthors observe, “requiring students to use too manytools within one class can become overwhelming andfrustrating, and can distract students from meetinginstructional goals” (p. 22). Too much of a good thing isnot a good thing.Eighty percent of the book is devoted to identifyingand describing an array of tools, which includescreenshots of tool interfaces and examples of tooluses in elementary, secondary, and higher education.Manning and Johnson categorize the tools by the346 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Book Reviewsfunctions they serve: organization, communication andcollaboration, content presentation, assessment, and“identity transformation,” with a multichapter sectiondevoted to each function. Chapters compare a smallnumber of competing Web-based tools by posing andanswering questions such as: What is the tool? Whatproblem does it solve? Is it something that instructorsor students use? Is the tool for novice, intermediate,or expert users? What special equipment or softwareis needed? What are some cautions about the tool?How accessible is the tool to all users? What additionalvocabulary is needed?The organization section includes chaptersabout calendars, scheduling, graphic organizers,social bookmarking, and file management. Thecommunication and collaboration section coversdiscussion forums, Voice over Internet Protocol,instant messaging and chat, blogs, wikis, microblogs,and Web conferencing. The content presentationsection compares audio, video, screencasting, narratedslideshows, and image tools. The assessment sectionaddresses quizzes, tests, surveys, rubrics, matrixes, ande-portfolios. The identity transformation section coversavatars, virtual worlds, social networking, and emergingtechnologies.Manning and Johnson explicitly state thatthe product list they selected for evaluation is notcomprehensive because of the abundance and typicallyshort life cycles of Web-based tools. They pickedproducts that represent a category and may have someexpectation of longevity. The primary value of TheTechnology Toolbelt for Teaching lies in the categoriesit identifies as areas of interest to instructors and inthe methodology for evaluating tools. This book canbe a useful resource for educators who want to useWeb-based tools to help improve the achievement ofeducational outcomes.Wayne L. SchmadekaRemote Research: Real Users, Real Time,Real ResearchNate Bolt and Tony Tulathimutte. (2010). Brooklyn, NY: Rosenfeld Media.[ISBN 978-1-933820-77-4. 266 pages, including index. US$39.00 (softcover).]In the foreword to RemoteResearch, Peter Merholz ofAdaptive Path says, “labusability engineering was bornof a simpler time. . . . Thesedays, our customers’technological world is muchmore complex. . . . Althoughthe world has changed, themethods of standard usabilitypractice are essentially the sameas were practiced in the early 1990s. . . . Wheneverything about the observation environment is sounnatural, how can we expect our findings to providelegitimate insights?” (pp. xiii–xiv).Bolt and Tulathimutte’s book guides you on ajourney to the new methods of usability research.Usability practitioners are now moving from thetraditional lab settings to testing in people’s homes,offices, and other environments as well as conductingusability testing from their desks with their observers inother rooms or in other parts of the world.The authors compare market research, whichlooks for opinions, with user experience research,which is more behavioral. In the first chapter, Boltand Tulathimutte introduce the concept of time-awareresearch. Time-aware research makes it possible tocapture the participant in the middle of performinga task of interest on the Web site, enabled by liverecruiting.Chapters 2 through 5 provide details on settingup, recruiting for, and conducting a basic remote“moderated” study. In these chapters, you learn thedetails about the equipment needs, the process forconducting a pilot test, designing recruiting screeners,and drafting research documents. It also includesa comparison table on screen sharing tools likeGoToMeeting and Adobe Connect. The chapter onremote research uses cases studies to describe automatedVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 347

Book Reviewsforms of research (remote card sorting, task elicitation,surveys) an example of which is a comparison of theClub Med and Beaches.com Web sites. Chapter 8 isa guide to the tools and services that are available forconducting remote research. Interestingly, I found a fewautomated tools missing from the list, like iPerceptionand WebIQ (which I have used many times).Of great interest were the discussions of mobiledevice research and what they term “reverse screensharing.” At work, we use reverse screen sharing often,as we test many prototypes long before the softwareupgrades have been developed and integrated into ourprogram.Remote Research presents the challenges of remotetesting with the authors discussing the issues of notbeing able to see the participants’ faces through thechallenges of online recruiting. A highlight in chapter10 is the troubleshooting table that outlines problemsand solutions for technological issues that might occurduring the testing process.Overall, I found this book to be an excellentaddition to my library of usability books and references.The case studies, tables, figures, and chapter summarieseffectively support the text. If you are new to usabilitytesting or to conducting tests remotely, this book is afairly complete guide. I highly recommend it.Elisa MillerElisa Miller, an STC Associate Fellow, is a Senior UserExperience Engineer for GE Healthcare. She is a past presidentof the Lone Star Community and is an active member of the STCUsability & User Experience SIG.The Accidental TaxonomistHeather Hedden. 2010. Medford, NJ: Information Today, Inc. [ISBN 978-1-57387-397-0. 442 pages, including index. US$39.50 (softcover).]Heather Hedden, a taxonomistand web indexer, has written anin-depth guide to theprofessional world of taxonomy,aiming to educate the personwho perhaps has been requiredto work in the field withouthaving intentionally decided tomove in that direction—hencethe title The AccidentalTaxonomist. Nonetheless, thiswork can be fruitfully used to guide the alreadypracticing taxonomist as well, as is evident from thewealth of information it contains. Its most salientfeatures, however, reflect Hedden’s assumption that thereader will have had no previous experience in the fieldand will need a full and comprehensive introduction.Copiously illustrated with screenshots, tables,and other figures, the work is especially detailed andclearly written. Hedden gives us 12 chapters thatdefine the field (“What Are Taxonomies?”); introduceits practitioners, their duties, and training (“WhoAre Taxonomists?”); explain and define terms andtheir relationships (“Creating Terms,” “CreatingRelationships”); investigate software (“Software forTaxonomy Creation and Management”); differentiatehuman versus automated indexing (“Taxonomiesfor Human Indexing,” “Taxonomies for AutomatedIndexing”); elucidate structure (“Taxonomy Structures”);present the display of thesauri and hierarchicaltaxonomies (“Taxonomy Displays”); introduce the stepsin planning and implementing taxonomies (“TaxonomyPlanning, Design, and Creation,” “TaxonomyImplementation and Evolution”); and review taxonomyas a profession (“Taxonomy Work and the Profession”).In addition, four appendixes (Survey of Taxonomists,Glossary, Recommended Reading, and Websites)supplement the main text. A biography of the authorand a serviceable index round out the volume. Heddenalso supplies an online version of the links mentioned348 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Book Reviewsin the book, which she expects to update as onlineaddresses change or disappear.In a work of this length, it should not be surprisingthat the information contained goes down to a finelevel of detail. For those who have less knowledge of thefield, it can serve not only as an in-depth introductionto familiarize new practitioners with the basics but alsoas a desk reference for those who need the occasionalrefresher or as a reference work to check best practiceor the meaning of a term. For that reason, the glossaryand index become especially important as reader aidsin locating partially remembered information. Theseare generally well executed, but would have been evenbetter had Hedden included a few more abbreviationsas entries in the glossary. For example, “related term” isan entry in the glossary, but the reader who looks for“RT” will not find it. In the index, “RT” is listed inparentheses (“related term (RT)”), which it could havebeen its listing in the glossary, too. On the other hand,“OWL” is an entry in the glossary, but “Web OntologyLanguage” is not.These are very minor complaints about a usefuland usable volume, one that fills a gap in addressing afield that becomes more important as the world’s dataexplosion challenges us to access information that isincreasingly difficult to tame.Karen LaneKaren Lane is a freelance technical editor, indexer, andcoauthor of a technical communication textbook, TechnicalCommunication: Strategies for College and the Workplace.She is an STC Fellow and has served on several Society-levelcommittees, as well as serving as program manager for the2008 STC Technical Summit.Starting Your Career as a Freelance WriterMoira Allen. 2011. New York City, NY: Allworth Press. [ISBN 978-1-58115-760-4. 317 pages, including index. US$24.95 (softcover).]So you want to be a writer andyou think you have what ittakes. But you’re not sure.Starting Your Career as aFreelance Writer tells youeverything you need to know tolaunch your freelance career.According to Moira Allen,being a successful freelancertakes writing ability, businesssense, professionalism,motivation, perseverance, and discipline. In this 300-plus page book, Allen details the steps to writing anarticle and locating the right market, explains thequery and submission process, and walks you througha contract and your rights as an author. Other sectionsgive you more information on growing your writingcareer and “commercial” freelancing. The final chapterurges you to take the plunge into the brave new world offreelancing.Allen has guest contributors pen the chapterson writing for businesses, social networking, writingfor newspapers and making cold calls. All the writersinclude numerous examples. Each chapter (a total of 39)is fairly short with lots of sections. You can read fromstart to finish or hop around based on your interests orthe current state of your career. The information is up todate; the text covers online outlets and resources, e-mailcommunications, and Facebook and Twitter.Allen has a friendly conversation style that makesher work easy to read. In chapter 14, for example, shewrites about special-interest publications that are “alwayshungry for new writers” (p. 97). Ah, but you say youaren’t an expert? Fear not. According to Allen, being anenthusiast about fly fishing or quilting helps you askthe right questions, means you know the vocabulary ofyour specialty, and provides you with a keen interest inthe topic. The chapter details the types of articles youcould consider writing (think personal profiles, currentcontroversies, or how-to), and whether you shouldspecialize as a writer or be a generalist. She covers all thisVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 349

Book Reviewsin five pages, yet the brevity doesn’t leave you feelingthat information is missing.Starting Your Career as a Freelance Writer is wellorganized, nicely written, interesting, and succinct. Asuccessful freelance author (and editor) herself, Allenis professional, polished, and positive in her book.She gives you hope that you too can be a successfulfreelance writer.Ginny Hudak-DavidSocial Media for Trainers: Techniques forEnhancing and Extending LearningJane Bozarth. 2010. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley and Sons. [ISBN: 978-0-470-63106-5. 175 pages. US$40.00 (softcover).]I can’t say that I’ve ever beenso mixed in my reaction toone book as I am with SocialMedia for Trainers. The bookcovers the popular forms ofsocial media such as Facebook,Twitter, blogs, and wikis.Bozarth begins the book byclearly explaining how socialmedia tools can enhance andreinforce learning. She alsoemphasizes that technologyneeds to fit with learningobjectives, and that we should not use technology for itssake of simply existing or being popular. Anotherpositive aspect is that each chapter begins with the basicsand then moves into a list of possible uses of the tool fortraining purposes. This is an excellent setup because itdoes not assume readers are already tweeting, onFacebook, or blogging. If someone is new to thesetechnologies, the book provides simple guidelines forsetting up an account to finding topics or people togoing mobile. Screenshots and additional sites forinformation provide extra guidance, which new userscannot underestimate.I did find a few things that didn’t set so well withme. The first is that Bozarth makes a good case thatsince people are already using the most popular socialmedia tools, trainers should take advantage of thatpopularity and transfer training courses to those toolsinstead of setting them up on a separate learningmanagement system. One less place to have to login would probably be welcome to most employees.However, I doubt that employers would want thebulk of their employee training residing on Facebookand allowing open access at work to that site. Bozarthreiterates at the end of the book that trainers shouldpush for this open access, but I could definitely see anemployer’s concern over this.The other thing that disturbed me was the constantreferral to filling in the spaces between “formal learningevents” as a way to reinforce learning objectives. I haveno doubt that the activities that are included in thisbook will do just that. Yet, I kept asking myself severalquestions: Doesn’t this kind of activity keep people “on”constantly? How much of this “filling in” is mandatory?When do I have time away from work and training?It made me tired just reading about how much wouldbe expected of me outside of work if my trainingdepartment were to expect me to tweet, respond toFacebook discussions, blog, and then collaborate on awiki, all while I’m not at work.It appears as if Bozarth does not want to necessarilytackle these issues, but rather simply help trainers“choose the tool or tools you need” (p. 17). These issuesreally should be part of a training discussion when itcomes to moving material onto platforms outside ofwork sites, especially if the intention is to fill in the spacebetween formal learning events.Diane MartinezDiane Martinez is a writing specialist for Kaplan University’sonline Writing Center and a PhD student at Utah StateUniversity. Her technical writing experience has been mostlyin higher education, engineering, and government contracting.She has been with Kaplan since 2004 and a member of STCsince 2005.350 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Book ReviewsUsability of Complex Information Systems:Evaluation of User InteractionMichael J. Albers and Brian Still, eds. (2011). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.[ISBN 978-1-4398-2894-6. 372 pages, including index. US$79.95.]In the opening paper ofUsability of Complex InformationSystems: Evaluation of UserInteraction, Michael Albers notesthat usability testing for complexinformation systems requiresnew and “fundamentallydifferent” concepts andtechniques than ordinaryusability testing. The researchcollection brought together byeditors Albers and Still unites theorists, researchers andpractitioners to answer the question: What are those newand different concepts and techniques?One overarching theme of the book is the art ofdefining and conceptualizing the nature of “complexity.”Different contributors treat the notion in uniqueways. Albers himself, with two papers in the book, seescomplexity in the interaction of context and multiplerelated pieces of information. Vladimir Stantchevsees complexity in work environments and domainssuch as health care or project management. Kain etal. note the complexity and additional urgency of riskcommunication. Golightly et al. define complexityin terms of “technical” and “contextual” complexity,showing an interaction between the two.The notion of “context” is a constant theme: howdoes the context of an interaction shape the behaviorand the design? Shearer applies activity theory tooperationalize context, while several authors in differentpapers point out the need for contextual analysis andfield studies in understanding complex systems. Othertechniques are needed when the context cannot befully known, as shown in Watson’s paper on applicationprogram interface (API) usability or in Barnum andPalmer’s paper on the use of product reaction cards togauge desirability.The book includes four sections. The first setof papers work to define complexity in the contextof information systems and usability. The secondset provides a theoretical framework for analyzingcomplex systems. The third set looks at how the designrequirements of complex systems can be shaped anddefined. The fourth and final set looks at the practicalside of the problem, using case studies to demonstrateusability testing methods applicable in complex systems.No book can include every possible perspectiveon a topic, and a few are missing here. Domains richin complexity such as distributed computing, cloudcomputing or computer-supported co-operative workare only lightly touched upon.Usability of Complex Information Systems: Evaluationof User Interaction builds on the call from thoughtleaders like Arnie Lund and Janice Redish to re-considerusability evaluation. Instead of techniques for evaluatingindividual tasks, the papers in this book look at thebroader context and user goals in each domain. Takenas a whole, the papers in this book suggest a strong newdirection for research in the user-centered design field.They highlight the importance of framing discussionsof usability in an overall system, with all the complexityand potential framing that discussion entails.Colin BirgeColin Birge is a fifth-year doctoral candidate in the Departmentof Human-Centered Design & Engineering at the University ofWashington. His dissertation is on how UX designers approachdesign problems involving privacy and security issues. He isan experienced program manager and a consultant on privacyand trust.Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 351

Book ReviewsVirtual Collaborative Writing in theWorkplace: Computer-MediatedCommunication Technologies andProcessesBeth L. Hewett and Charlotte Robidoux. 2010. Hershey, PA: InformationSciences Reference. [ISBN 978-1-60566-994-6. 479 pages, including index.US$180.00.]Collaborative writing,sometimes across multiplecontinents, is becoming a factof a technical communicator’slife. This substantial book notonly describes principles,practices, and examples ofsuccessful virtual collaborativewriting, but also is itself anexample of what a dedicatedteam of geographicallydispersed writers with both industry and academicbackgrounds, connected through digital technology, canaccomplish using virtual collaboration.The first section overviews the literature ofcollaborative writing and highlights the move fromtraditional collaborative writing efforts into the virtualarena. The book’s core revolves around six principles forvirtual collaborative writing. Each of the main sectionsdeals with one of these principles, starting with a casestudy, followed by two or more chapters elaborating onthat principle. The table of contents provides chaptersummaries, making it easier for readers to hone in on aparticular area of interest. Sections describe creating aculture of collaboration while building a virtual writingteam; managing team dynamics, including developingleaders and establishing trust; planning and makingdecisions virtually; developing content virtually andusing tools and collaborative modes effectively, includingmeasuring and tracking performance; creating structureas a way of supporting content quality and consistency;and using new media in virtual collaborative writing. Inshort, virtual collaboration is more than cooperation; itis, in fact, interdependence.In creating this book, harmonizing the theoreticalperspective of the academic authors and the practicalconcerns of the workplace practitioners was challenging.Some of the writing does tend to be academic, but forthe most part the text is well balanced and readable.Virtual Collaborative Writing in the Workplace workswell as a course text or a practitioners’ guide. The casestudies in particular leaven this content with stories ofreal-world collaboration experiences. Most chapters endwith practical suggestions that can serve as a springboardfor those who are considering or are in the midst of avirtual collaborative writing project. The book has anexcellent glossary of virtual collaborative writing terms,an extensive bibliography, and a comprehensive indexthat makes accessing information easy in this ratherlarge book.The last chapter summarizes the experiences ofthe authors in collaborating virtually to create thisbook. Anyone managing such a project might findthis the most useful chapter in the book, as it includescomments by the writers about what worked anddidn’t work, along with tables tracing the applicationof most of the principles and their results. One writercaptured the essence of the whole collaborative writingexperience: “our editors allowed us to create a collectionof people, not just text and words” (p. 432).Marguerite KruppMarguerite Krupp is an STC Fellow, an adjunct professor atNortheastern University, and a technical communicator withmore than four decades of experience in the computer industry.She is a frequent presenter at conferences, a playwright, andthe author of several articles.352 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Tools of the TradeReview of Four Books on HTML5Avon J. MurphyIntroductionIf you’ve been writing HTML code over the past decade,you’re going to find much changed with HTML5. Newcontent tags make it possible to embed graphics, audio,and video without making visitors to your Web sitesdownload plug-ins. New structural tags such as ,, , and force youto rethink the organization of your pages. Even if youwrite some bad code, visitors’ browsers are far less apt tocrash than in the past. What to do to get started? If youlike to punish yourself, spend the next month digestingthe full 900-page HTML5 specification (http://www.w3.org/TR/html5/). Or look into one of the four booksdescribed below. It’s your choice.HTML5 Step by StepFaithe Wempen aims HTML5 Step by Step squarely atbeginners. If you’ve never written HTML code, you’llappreciate her painstaking explanations of just abouteverything, including how to download the compressedfile of practice code and how to use Notepad. Themany reminders and cautions—which would driveexperienced developers insane—come one after anotherto keep you out of trouble.If you’ve used other Step by Step books, you’llrecognize the series format, which is designed to makebooks so usable that it’s impossible for you to get lost.Thus, you find ample white space, icons indicating tips,compatibility notes, troubleshooting hints, and otherspecial points. Pages have a spacious feel, with amplewhite space. Screenshots are in grayscale, and headings,bullets, and note text appear in blue. If you preferelectronic text, you have free access to a PDF version ofthe book from Safari Books Online.A chapter typically opens with a graphical “Chapterat a Glance” page and learning objectives, provides shortcode examples and exercises, and ends with a summarypage of “Key Points.” Screenshots accompany almostevery bit of HTML code.Wempen provides solid details appropriate forneophytes on HTML5 structure and tagging, CascadingStyle Sheets (CSS), graphics, navigation, audio andvideo, and JavaScript. The most successful chapter is“Creating Division-Based Layouts,” which compareshow to use tags with how to use new semantictags. You might find more questionable inclusion of a30-page chapter on Microsoft Expression Web. Also oflittle direct use are the appendixes on accessibility andusability, neither of which mentions HTML5 at all.If you want a simple-to-read introduction with lotsof screenshots, especially if you already feel comfortablewith the Step by Step series, this book is your best bet.(Disclosure: I’ve edited several Step by Step books forMicrosoft Press.)HTML5 24-Hour TrainerThe most exciting of our four books is Joseph W.Lowery and Mark Fletcher’s HTML5 24-Hour Trainer.The authors see as their primary audience people justlearning to construct Web pages. A secondary audienceis those who know past versions of HTML but notHTML5.This book pulls out nearly every stop possibleto help you master the technologies and strategiesof HTML5. Discussion of the various topics isaccompanied by plentiful lists, tables, code snippets,screenshots, and boxes containing warnings and otherspecial information. Each chapter provides at least onedetailed “Try It” exercise. A big bonus is the enclosedDVD, which includes 42 video tutorials that reinforcethe book’s technical instruction very well. (Lowery is apopular author in the Lynda.com instructional videoseries.) You practice typing code along with the narrator(who provides further comments), using the filesavailable as a single download from the Wrox Web site.This combination of methods lets you learn throughreading, listening, watching, and doing at the sametime. Although all artwork is done in grayscale, I didn’tconsciously think of that while reading the book andVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 353

Tools of the TradeReview of Four Books on HTML5doing the exercises: I was too busy reading the text andtyping while playing the videos.You get excellent coverage of basic and intermediatetopics, particularly the integration of HTML5 and CSS,media in your pages, lists and tables, and JavaScript.Some of the most useful information concerns youroptions when building forms and the compatibility ofHTML5 features with particular browsers.Given its many useful features and its amount ofinformation, this package is a bargain.Introducing HTML5Bruce Lawson and Remy Sharp write for experienced(X)HTML developers who need a concise overviewof how they must change their coding practices totake advantage of HTML5. Introducing HTML5, onthe whole, provides solid explication of most majorprovisions of the specification; there is no attempt tomake this book a teaching text.The strongest chapters describe making 2Ddrawings with the element and setting updata storage without using cookies, those small filesyou’re always deleting as you browse the Web. You alsoget useful technical detail on accessibility, especially onusing the Web Accessibility Initiative’s Accessible RichInternet Applications suite. In some other chapters,the descriptions don’t contribute much informationbeyond what the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)specification gives you for free.The authors provide a good, smooth read. Nowand then they surprise you with spots of humor, aswhen they note the disappearance of such elementsas and : “You must avoid them asif they were tarantulas, zombies, man-eating tigers,plutonium sandwiches, or Celine Dion songs” (p. 60).The book design uses little color except for orangein such areas as headings and information boxes. Ifyou aren’t reading carefully, the use of numbered lists,sometimes as bullets and sometimes as steps in a process,can be confusing.The authors make available on the Web the graphicsand HTML files for each chapter, as well as links tosuch resources as W3C documents. It would be mucheasier if you could simply download all the sample filesat once instead of returning to the Web site and clickingindividual files one after another. Also, the need to keepthe book short means Lawson and Sharp can’t refer tothe filenames of the samples, so you can spend too muchtime making sure you have the right files.As reliable a guide as this is for the established coder,its price is high for what you get.Pro HTML5 ProgrammingExperienced Web application coders who knowJavaScript can find in HTML5 a strong set ofapplication programming interfaces (APIs),specifications that give them the means to createpowerful features. If you’re such a developer, PeterLubbers, Brian Albers, and Frank Salim’s Pro HTML5Programming: Powerful APIs for Richer InternetApplication Development gives you the details necessaryto take advantage of the more promising APIs.The introductory chapter sets the ground rules forusing any API in the new HTML environment. Thencomes the good stuff: detailed chapters on the HTML5Canvas, audio and video, Geolocation, communication,WebSocket, Forms, Web Workers, Web Storage, andOffline Web Application APIs. The authors dissect oftenlengthy code samples (available as a single downloadfrom the Apress Web site), pursuing in depth the whyand why not as well as the how of coding decisions.They make especially good use of tables to conveydescriptions as well as pros and cons. The one thing thatneeds improvement is the grayscale screenshots, whichsometimes include hard-to-see type.The writing style is unusually relaxed for a highlytechnical book. Touches of humor at times sneak in: “Ifyou want to know why or how [the Haversine] formulaworks, consult a teenager’s math textbook” (p. 103).Perhaps you don’t want to become a programmer.But if you do want to do some API documentation orserve more effectively on a team alongside developers,Pro HTML5 Programming can arm you with detailedinsight that you will find helpful. The amount of usabledetail justifies the price, the highest in this roundup.354 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Tools of the TradeAvon J. MurphyReferencesLawson, Bruce, & Sharp, Remy. (2011). IntroducingHTML5. Berkeley, CA: New Riders. [ISBN978-0-321-68729-6. 224 pages, including index.US$34.99 (softcover).]Lowery, Joseph W., & Fletcher, Mark. (2011). HTML524-hour trainer. Indianapolis, IN: Wrox. [ISBNTABLE 1. Books on HTML5 ComparedHTML5 Step by StepHTML5 24-HourTrainerIntroducing HTML5Pro HTML5ProgrammingAudience Beginner Beginner to intermediate Advanced AdvancedMajorStrengthsMajorWeaknessesCommentsFormat designed for easyreading and learningFully detailedexplanations,especially on layoutstrategiesMany screenshots andcode samplesDownloadable codeYou’re encouraged topractice your newskillsComfortingly familiarStep by Step serieslookContains some irrelevantmaterialAuthorial remarks canbecome irksomeGrayscale screenshotsOverly familiar Step byStep series lookTrustworthy, detailedguide if you’re a beginnerwho craves handholding.Good value.Admirable integration ofseveral instructionalmethodsSurprising amount ofvideo contentDownloadable codeYou’re encouraged topractice your new skillsSense of intellectualcuriosityEspecially strong onforms and browsercompatibilityGrayscale printingExcellent value. Recommendedfor most HTMLcoders who haven’treached advanced status.Strongly independentvoice on thesignificance ofvarious featuresDownloadable codeEspecially strongon the element, datastorage, andaccessibilityNo wasted spaceSome descriptionsoffer little originalinformationGrayscale screenshotsConfusing uses ofnumbered list formatTedious process fordownloading samplecodeNo encouragement topractice your newskillsTrustworthy informationdelivered in a conciseformat. Fair value.Rating (5-star *** ***** *** ****scale)Cost (USD) $34.99 $39.99 $34.99 $44.99Enthusiastically revealshow to fine-tunecoding for maximumeffectDownloadable codeRigorous analysis ofwhat makes each bitof sample code workEspecially strong onHTML5 and CSSintegrationNatural peer-to-peertoneGrayscale printingImplicit rather thandirect encouragementto practice your newskillsThe amount of detailcompressed into thebook makes it a verygood value.Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 355

Tools of the TradeReview of Four Books on HTML5978-0-470-64782-0. 300 pages, including index andDVD. US$39.99 (softcover).]Lubbers, Peter, Albers, Brian, & Salim, Frank. (2010).Pro HTML5 programming: Powerful APIs for richerInternet application development. New York, NY:Apress. [ISBN 978-1-4302-2790-8. 284 pages,including index. US$44.99 (softcover).]Wempen, Faithe. (2011). HTML5 step by step.Sebastopol, CA: Microsoft Press. [ISBN 978-0-7356-4526-4. 386 pages, including index.US$34.99 (softcover).]About the AuthorAvon J. Murphy is a technical editor in westernWashington. A retired college professor and governmentwriter, he is an STC Fellow, a contractor, and principalin Murphy Editing and Writing Services, specializing incomputer and Web technologies. Avon served as BookReview Editor for Technical Communication for 17 years.356 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Recent & RelevantSherry Southard, EditorThe following articles on technical communication have appeared recently in other journals. The abstractsare prepared by volunteer journal monitors. If you would like to contribute, contact Sherry Southard at southards@ecu.edu.“Recent and Relevant” does not supply copies of cited articles. However, most publishers supply reprints,tear sheets, or copies at nominal cost. Lists of publishers’ addresses, covering nearly all the articles wehave cited, appear in Ulrich’s International Periodicals Directory.Thanks to J. A. Dawson, who helped me assemble the manuscript for “Recent & Relevant.”CollaborationDeriving IT-mediated task coordinatorportfolios for global virtual teamsSutanto, J., Kankanhalli, A., & Tan, B. C. Y. (2011). IEEE Transactions onProfessional Communication, 54, 133-151.“Global virtual teams (GVTs) can provide benefitsin terms of lower costs and enhanced performance.However, the realization of these benefits depends oneffective GVT task coordination, which faces significantchallenges due to time-zone differences and geographicaldispersion. Further, there is a lack of understandingof optimal information-technology (IT)-mediatedcoordination mechanisms for these teams. Based onan in-depth study of project tasks carried out by threeGVTs, we uncovered IT-mediated task coordinationportfolios (sets of mechanisms) used for effectivecoordination. The portfolios should fit the GVT’stask dependence, members’ common time frame, andperceived time constraints in order to be effective.”Sherry SouthardThe influence of sociotechnologicalmechanisms on individual motivationtoward knowledge contribution inproblem-solving virtual communitiesYu, J., Jiang, Z., & Chan, H. C. (2011). IEEE Transactions on ProfessionalCommunication, 54, 152-167.“Knowledge contribution in virtual communities is animportant issue in the field of knowledge management.Based on Ames’s theoretical framework on motivation,we propose a model for knowledge contributionin problem-solving virtual communities (PSVCs).The model includes two second-order individualmotivations, with four major mechanisms in PSVCsthat are associated with these motivations. Resultsconfirm that only egoistic motives affect members’knowledge contribution in PSVCs. Further, knowledgerepository and social identity are found to be importantmechanisms for promoting knowledge contributionthrough egoistic motives. This paper concludes withtheoretical and practical implications and providesinsights for future research.”CommunicationSherry SouthardThe communication habits of engineers:A study of how compositional style andtime affect the production of oral andwritten communication of engineersSteiner, D. G. (2011). Journal of Technical Writing and Communication,41, 33-58.“Writing is common skill for many whose job requiresthem to communicate through business documents.But there are many professionals who seemingly havedifficulty with writing. Many engineers are requiredto write proposals and reports yet have receivedlittle formal writing instruction. The purpose of thisstudy was to determine if writing apprehension, theircomposition process, or the presence of deadlines affectsthe production of documents. The hypothesis was thatengineers have high writing apprehension, generally usea product-based approach, and tight deadlines negativelyVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 357

Recent & Relevantaffect the end quality. The researcher conducted indepthinterviews with civil engineers to gauge theirlevel of apprehension, learn their personal compositionprocess, and determine how deadlines affect theirwriting. While the hypothesis was not conclusivelysupported, the study revealed six key themes into howengineers structure their writing tasks and found that thewriting environment of engineers significantly impactsthe composition process.”J. A. Dawson“Eternal ephemera” or the durability of“disposable literature”: The power andpersistence of print in an electronic worldPimlott, H. (2011). Media, Culture & Society, 33, 515-530.“Popular and academic discussions of the future ofprint focus on the electronic formats of books andnewspapers but ignore some of the most ubiquitous andhistorically significant, albeit ephemeral, types of printmedia. This article argues for taking the flyer, leaflet, andpamphlet seriously. These forms of ‘disposable literature’are in part facilitated by electronic media and in partable to disseminate messages in ways that electronicmedia cannot, and thereby provide a bridge betweennew media and new audiences. There are two majorfactors that contribute to the durability or persistence,pervasiveness and power of disposable literature incontemporary society: the unique characteristics of printmedia; and the impact of electronic media in enhancingtheir production and distribution.”Sherry SouthardHow similar are real estate agents andhuman-service workers? A study of realestate agents’ responses to distressedclientsSnyder, J. L., Claffey Sr., G. F., & Cistulli, M. D. (2011). Journal ofBusiness Communication, 48, 300-318.“The study of job burnout has focused primarily onworkers who hold human-service jobs, such as teachers,nurses, and social workers. Little extant research,however, has explored emotional communication andjob burnout among workers from other industries.The present study used the empathic communicationmodel of burnout to explore how interactions withdistressed clients affect real estate agents’ feelings ofburnout and thoughts of quitting. A total of 287real estate agents and brokers completed an onlinequestionnaire about their empathic responses to clientdistress, communicative responsiveness, burnout, andthoughts of quitting. Results indicate that the empathiccommunication model of burnout offers adequateexplanation for the relationship between empathy,communication, and burnout for real estate agents.Practical and theoretical implications of these results arediscussed.”J. A. DawsonLanguage options for managing: DanaCorporation’s philosophy and policydocumentRogers, P. S., Gunesekera, M., & Yang, M. L. (2011). Journal of BusinessCommunication, 48, 256-299.“This historical case study identifies languagecomponents managers may use to articulate shiftsin their strategy. The authors analyzed the languagerevisions and substitutions Dana Corporation’s uppermanagement made to their highly significant strategicstatement, The Philosophy and Policies of Dana (PPD).A large global vehicle parts supplier, Dana experiencedtremendous growth and standing until the late 1990s,when a downturn in the industry necessitated dramaticfacility closings and workforce reductions. The authorscompared the 1987 and 2004 versions of management’sPPD using two frameworks from strategy to guidetextual analyses: Campbell’s Ashridge Mission Modeland Eccles and Nohria’s Strategic Triadic, coupled withhistorical company research and conversations withcompany officials. Dana’s example suggests languageoptions—thematic devices, modifiers, verbs, andsentence subjects—that managers should consider whenformulating messages about the strategic changes theyenvision.”J. A. Dawson358 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Recent & RelevantMoving international technicalcommunication forward: A worldEnglishes approachBokor, M. (2011). Journal of Technical Writing and Communication, 41,113-138.“This article explores how the English languagecontributes to cross-boundary communication failureand establishes that there is an ‘English languageproblem’ that has not been adequately addressed inpreparing United States native English-speaking studentsfor international technical communication tasks. Forexample, U.S. technical communication scholars arestill grappling with the problems of using English insoftware internationalization and translating technicalcommunication products across boundaries of nationalculture and language without privileging Western valuesand beliefs. The tendency is to assume American cultureand American Standard English as the norm, and toidentify cultural and linguistic differences as problemsonly when there is a communication failure or whennon-native speakers of English translate product users’manuals and other documents for use by Americans.The article draws attention to the limitations of thecurrent favored strategies for training native speakersin international audience analysis and calls for arevamping of the curriculum to allow for the integrationof language-based methodologies. It suggests theincorporation of the World Englishes perspective intotraining programs to internationalize students’ learningexperiences.”Daniel DrahnakRethinking the role of valuecommunication in business corporationsfrom a sociological perspective – Whyorganisations need value-based semanticsto cope with societal and organisationalfuzzinessvon Groddeck, V. (2011). Journal of Business Ethics, 100, 69-84.“Why is it so plausible that business organisationsin contemporary society use values in theircommunication? In order to answer this question, asociological, system theoretical approach is appliedwhich approaches values not pre-empirically as invisibledrivers for action but as observable semantics thatform organisational behaviour. In terms of empiricalmaterial, it will be shown that business organisationsresort to a communication of values wheneveruncertainty or complexity is very high. Inevitably,value semantics are applied in organisations first whenthe speakers are uncertain about which stakeholdersto whom they have to address (uncertainty) or whendifferent stakeholder groups have to be addressedsimultaneously (complexity); second, when the identityof the organisation has to be described; and third, whenfuture strategic options that cannot be expressed byquantitative terms have to be communicated. Valuesaccordingly play a role in organisational practice whencertain aspects are indeterminate. Therefore, theyare a means for organisations to communicate underfuzzy circumstances. On the basis of these findings,new approaches to value management can now beformulated.”Christine CranfordTenure, status, and workload:Fundamental issues among businesscommunication facultyLawrence, H., & Galle, W. P. (2011). Journal of BusinessCommunication, 48, 319-343.“This article is based on the work of the Non-Tenure-Track Committee of the Association for BusinessCommunication (ABC). Results of research performedby the committee are discussed. Focus is on issues oftenure, status, and workload that affect instructors ofbusiness communication and, the authors purport,that affect the livelihood of the academic field ofbusiness communication. Placed in the context of thenational trend in academe to hire non-tenure-trackfaculty, the authors review results of surveys of ABCmembers that indicate how business communicationfaculty fit within that national landscape. Additionally,the survey results offer a glimpse at information fromparticipants about tenure status, academic departmentsor homes, salaries, and responsibilities associated withappointments. The article ends with a discussion andthe recommendations that members of the businesscommunication community may want to consider as ameans of strengthening and improving the status andworking conditions many ABC members face.”J. A. DawsonVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 359

Recent & RelevantDesignDesign principles for visualcommunicationAgrawala, B., Li, W., & Berthouzoz, F. (2011). Communications of theACM, 54 (4), 60-69.“Visual communication via diagrams, sketches, charts,photographs, video, and animation is fundamental tothe process of exploring concepts and disseminatinginformation. The most-effective visualizations capitalizeon the human facility for processing visual information,thereby improving comprehension, memory, andinference. Such visualizations help analysts quicklyfind patterns lurking within large data sets and helpaudiences quickly understand complex ideas …. [Theauthors] have used [a] three-stage approach to buildautomated visualization design systems in two domains:cartographic visualization and technical illustration.”Content is illustrated with eight figures.EducationSherry SouthardAssessing typographic knowledge usingtimed testsIshizaki, S. (2011). IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication,54, 105-121.“While researchers and instructors of technical andprofessional communication have embraced theimportance of visual communication skills in recentyears, little systematic effort has been made to developassessment instruments that measure visual design skills.This paper presents a project that examines timed testsas a means of measuring a student’s ability to solvedesign problems. The process and rationale for the testdesigns and the results of a series of empirical studies arediscussed. The results of the studies suggest that timedtests can be a viable complement to the project-orientedassessment approach suggested by prior studies.”A bibliography of works published in thehistory of professional communicationfrom 1994-2009: Part 1Moran, M., & Tebeaux, E. (2011). Journal of Technical Writing andCommunication, 41, 193-214.“Part 1 [covers] bibliographies and methodologicalstatements; disciplinary self-consciousness; theclassical period; the medieval period; Renaissancetechnical communication, Renaissance scientificwriting; Restoration and Eighteenth-Century Englishcommercial discourse, scientific discourse, Englishand American Women’s scientific discourse, Americantechnical communication; Nineteenth CenturyAmerican technical communication, English andAmerican technical communication by women.”Daniel DrahnakGlobalizing writing studies: The case ofU.S. technical communication textbooksMatsuda, A., & Matsuda, P. K. (2011). Written Communication, 28,172-192.“In an increasingly globalized world, writingcourses, situated as they are in local institutional andrhetorical contexts, need to prepare writers for globalwriting situations. Taking introductory technicalcommunication in the United States as a case study,this article describes how and to what extent globalperspectives are incorporated into writing. Based onan analysis of eight textbooks and a closer analysisof four of them, we illustrate the representation oftechnical communication and communicators as well asmulticulturalism and multilingualism in these textbooksand point out the limitations vis-à-vis the cultural andlinguistic complexity of global technical communicationin today’s world. We conclude by consideringimplications for U.S. college composition as it continuesto contribute to the international discourse of writingstudies.”Sherry SouthardSherry Southard360 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Recent & RelevantMeeting students where they are:Advancing a theory and practice ofarchives in the classroomSaidy, C., Hannah, M., & Sura, T. (2011). Journal of Technical Writingand Communication, 41, 173-191.“This article uses theories of technical communicationand archives to advance a pedagogy that includesarchival production in the technical communicationclassroom. By developing and maintaining localclassroom archives, students directly engage in valuableprocesses of appraisal, selection, collaboration, andretention. The anticipated outcomes of this work are thecritical practice of making connections, the decenteringof the self, the ability to work through noise, and theability to imagine future users of the archive. Theauthors conclude that local classroom archives are onenew means of meaningful instruction in the technicalcommunication classroom and the local archive concepthas great potential for further development.”Daniel DrahnakStaffing your documentation team withco-op students: A program that worksBishop, T., & Kessler, J. (2011). Best Practices, 13, 41-44. [Center forInformation-Management Development]“Qualified [co-op] students in a well-managed program”can help to alleviate staffing and budget pressures intechnical publications divisions while they gain indepthprofessional experience. This article describes theextensive co-op partnership between Sybase (an SAPcompany) and the University of Waterloo, Ontario,Canada. Critical success factors for the program includerecruiting motivated, well-prepared students; supervisingeach student consistently; training students throughoutthe co-op term; giving them meaningful assignments;integrating them into company activities; and providingopportunities for interacting with other co-opstudents. The program strives to provide “a positiveand challenging learning experience” so that studentstake away “a real understanding of what contemporarytechnical writing entails.”Lyn GattisUsing I, Robot in the technical writingclassroom: Developing a criticaltechnology awarenessToscano, A. A. (2011). Computers & Composition, 28, 14-27.“This article calls for technical writing courses to bemore engaged in discussions on critical technologicalawareness. Being critically aware of technologymeans looking beyond a socially constructed artifact’sassumed practical benefit and critiquing its effects anddevelopment. All discourse surrounding technologyshould be the purview of the field of technical writing.Because much technical writing pedagogy ignorescultural issues related to technology, this articlepromotes student engagement in discussions aboutsocial constructions of technology to foster criticalthinking. This article concludes with a discussion ofstudent responses to an essay assignment based on IsaacAsimov’s novel I, Robot…. The novel offers a chance forstudents to reflect on how contemporary technologies,such as computers, are enmeshed into the social fabric oftwenty-first-century life. Additionally, I, Robot generatesclassroom discussions that bolster student engagementand highlight the impact of contemporary (and future)technologies on workplace practices and the culture atlarge.”Sherry SouthardUsing the dialogic communication modelto teach students to write a reportintroductionLee, C. (2011). IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 54,201-210.“This paper presents the use of the dialogiccommunication model to teach students how to writea report introduction. In the case study presented, thestudents engaged in discussions and reflections regardingthe contextual complexities in the writers’ and readers’organizational environments, which helped themadapt their writing to their readers’ needs and thoughtprocesses. The thinking process that students go throughin making their writing more reader centered using thismodel could be a useful springboard to help studentsadopt the thinking processes of professional engineers.”Sherry SouthardVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 361

Recent & RelevantInformation ManagementJoin the [technical] conversationCross, A. (2011). Best Practices, 13, 50-55. [Center for Information-Management Development]Although companies must restrict some corporateinformation to employees or customers, a policy ofopenness for other information, including productdocumentation, can provide more rewards than risks.The author addresses concerns that openness enablescompetitors to “duplicate the functionality” or exploit theweaknesses of a product, or gives hackers entry into thesystem. However, open documentation can signal marketinnovation and social responsibility, build trust, andengage customers. A policy of openness also acknowledgescurrent practices of documentation wikis and onlineinformation searches. Further, it can help to ensure usersfind authoritative product information online instead ofuser blogs or “unofficial documentation.”Road blocks to CMS adoptionToth, P., & Gotsill, G. (2011). Best Practices, 13, 74-76. [Center forInformation-Management Development]Lyn GattisThis article summarizes a 2011 survey conducted tolearn more about why companies do or do not usecontent management systems. Of the 100 respondents,67 percent think a CMS could “reduce developmentcosts and increase work efficiency”; however, “only 29percent work for an organization that has implementeda CMS.” Those using a CMS report they have “loweredthe cost of developing and maintaining content byemploying content reuse” and see “benefits of quicklymaking corrections and updates to already-publishedcontent.” Reported obstacles to using a CMS includecost, organizational culture, lack of IT support, and timerequired for configuring the system.Lyn GattisRoad to changeHerrick, T. (2011). Best Practices, 13, 33, 36-38. [Center for Information-Management Development]This article uses road-construction analogies to discussdocumentation redesign. For example, the authorcompares linear document systems to a single “road”connecting a group of topics, or “communities.”Although simple to implement, this method ofarranging by order, not importance, means that updateslikely require system-wide changes. A dense networklinking each document to almost every other documentprovides users with considerable information; butthis approach makes maintaining links difficult, andinformation is sometimes duplicated. Limiting linksstrategically to roads between “heavy traffic towns” canreduce maintenance time and user frustration. However,the author cautions against “extreme minimalism” thatprovides insufficient detail for some topics. The authorsuggests careful planning so as to devote the greatestresources to heavily traveled routes while maintainingsome access to the side roads as well.Lyn GattisInterculturalCommunicationAn analysis of a communication trainingprogram for Chinese managersTuleja, E. A., & Roberts, E. (2011). IEEE Transactions on ProfessionalCommunication, 54, 185-200.“This research is based on an analysis of a managementcommunication training program used by one largeUS international hotel company to train newlypromoted supervisors and managers in Hong Kong andmainland China. The key communication competenciesemphasized in the training materials were listeningeffectively, giving and receiving feedback, usingverbal language correctly, using effective nonverbalcommunication, and displaying empathy. Implicationsof this study indicate that planning and executingany communication training program must be donemindfully, which includes comprehensive follow-up362 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Recent & Relevantthrough reassessment and coaching by the uppermanagers in order to support employees’ transfer oftraining.”J. A. DawsonField convergence between technicalwriters and technical translators:Consequences for training institutionsGnecchi, M., Maylath, B., Mousten, B., Scarpa, F., & Vandepitte, S.(2011). IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 54, 168-184.“As translation of technical documents continuesto grow rapidly and translation becomes moreautomated, the roles of professional communicatorsand translators appear to be converging. This paperupdates preliminary findings first presented at the2008 International Professional CommunicationConference, Montreal, QC, Canada. It analyzes trendsrevealed from recent surveys and recommends followupresearch to determine if the trends may continueand become entrenched. The authors conclude withrecommendations for academic programs interested inadjusting to the trends.”J. A. DawsonGMAT-AWA score as a predictor of successin a managerial communication courseHill, K. L., Hyne, G. E., Joyce, M. P., & Green, J. S. (2011). BusinessCommunication Quarterly, 72, 103-118.“Because communication skills, especially writing,are such an integral part of managerial work, it maybe postulated that these skills are associated withmanagerial success. Yet evidence of writing competencyis not universally considered for admission to MBAprograms. The purpose of this study was to investigatethe possible correlation between the Analytical WritingAssessment Section (AWA) of the GMAT exam and a‘critical thinking’ writing assignment that is similar tothe AWA. Results indicate that the AWA is significantlycorrelated with achievement, not only on the writingassignment but also with the final grade in a managerialcommunication course.”J. A. DawsonIntercultural organizationalcommunication: The social organizing ofinteraction in international encountersLauring, J. (2011). Journal of Business Communication, 48, 231-255.“Intercultural communication has mainly beendescribed in terms of national differences disturbing thesending and receiving of messages. In this article, it isargued that the local organizational context has to betaken into account. By linking Bourdieu’s theories onthe social organization of differences to recent theories oforganizational communication, the focus of the article isdirected at describing the impact of informal and powerrelatedaspects in intercultural communication. Theusefulness of a theory on intercultural organizationalcommunication is illustrated by the results of anethnographic field study on Danish expatriates in aSaudi subsidiary.”J. A. DawsonLacuna or universal? Introducing a newmodel for understanding cross-culturalaudience demandRohn, U. (2011). Media, Culture & Society, 33, 631-641.Rohn proposes “the Lacuna and Universal Model thatprovides a theoretical classification, systematization andterminology of the various reasons that may lie behindthe cross-cultural success or failure of media content.The Lacuna and Universal Model is an analyticalframework that helps to understand cross-culturalaudience demand by taking into account not only theimmediate audience–text relationship, but also thecontextual factors that may influence this demand, andthe role that media publishers and transmitters may playin the success of cross-cultural media trade.”Sherry SouthardLinking contextual factors with rhetoricalpattern shift: Direct and indirect strategiesrecommended in English businesscommunication textbooks in ChinaWang, J., & Zhu, P. (2011). Journal of Technical Writing andCommunication, 41, 83-107.“Scholars have consistently claimed that rhetoricalpatterns are culturally bound, and indirectness is aVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 363

Recent & Relevantdefining characteristic of Chinese writing. Throughexamining how the rhetorical mechanism of directnessand indirectness is presented in 29 English businesscommunication textbooks published in China, weexplore how English business communication textbookwriters in China keep up with the contextual changes inthe Chinese society and how the rhetorical mechanismof directness and indirectness is locally situated in theEnglish business communication teaching practicesin China. We conclude that the pedagogical strategyon directness and indirectness represented in ChineseEnglish business communication textbooks echoes thesame strategy favored by scholars in the United States.”J. A. DawsonTackling the sustainability dilemma: Aholistic approach to preparing studentsfor the professional organizationMabry, S. (2011). Business Communication Quarterly, 72, 119-137.“Increased knowledge of business sustainability as thebasis of a holistic approach to value creation has inspiredmany managers to integrate ecological and socialstewardship into their strategic business innovationplans. However, the coverage of sustainability issues inbusiness courses remains small at many universities. Thisarticle illustrates how business communication studentscan become cognitively, behaviorally, and emotionallyinvolved in the analysis and evaluation of the complexsustainability paradigm via an assignment focusing onsustainability. The approach integrates several levelsof learning, stretching students’ cognitive skills andenhancing the emotional competencies and behavioralskills needed to enter high-level business jobs.”J. A. DawsonProfessional IssuesVerbal abuse in the Army of theCumberland: William Rosecrans’ acidtongue as a major factor in the Uniondefeat at the Battle of ChickamaugaLoges, M. (2011). Journal of Technical Writing and Communication, 41,161-171.“Recent studies suggest that verbal abuse and harassmentare relatively common in the workplace. Thesesame studies show that such abuse decreases workersatisfaction, undermines relationships, and distractsworkers from functioning as team members committedto common goals. This study examines a classic exampleof verbal abuse and harassment in the work-place—that of Union Civil War General William Rosecranstoward his subordinates during a campaign conductedin Tennessee during 1863. It can, in fact, be arguedthat Rosecrans’ abusive language was a major factorin the Union defeat at the Battle of Chickamauga inSeptember of 1863.”Public RelationsDaniel DrahnakConnecting writers with readersCantrell, C. (2011). Best Practices, 13, 71-73. [Center for Information-Management Development]To increase the quality and volume of interactionsbetween its customers and online documentationwriters, ExactTarget attaches a web-based feedback formto each document page. The form identifies the writerof that topic and routes customer emails directly to thatperson. “The intention is to let each reader know thata real person is on the other end of the documentationwho knows the topic, who can help clarify parts thatare not clear, and even improve the documentation, ifnecessary.” This approach to feedback has improvedreaders’ experiences with product and documentationand has increased the writers’ understanding of theiraudiences.Lyn Gattis364 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Recent & RelevantScientific WritingEvaluating applications for an informalapproach to information design: Readersrespond to three articles about nursingWillerton, R., & Hereford, M. (2011). Journal of Technical Writing andCommunication, 41, 59-82.“Although books in the For Dummies series andother similar series have found commercial success,the approach to information design they use has notreceived much attention in technical communicationjournals. This article reports on readers’ responses toinformation presented in the magazine Nursing MadeIncredibly Easy! and two other nursing journals. Threegroups of readers (two groups of nursing students andone group of nursing faculty members) responded tothree articles they read by completing questionnaires andparticipating in focus groups. Nursing Made IncrediblyEasy! was regarded as easy to read and as a good startingpoint for less-experienced readers, but its tone andstyle elicited some strong objections as well. The articleprovides observations and recommendations about usingan informal approach to information design.”Sherry SouthardInsights from illustrators: The rhetoricalinvention of paleontology representationsNorthcut, K. (2011). Technical Communication Quarterly, 20, 303-326.“This study focuses on the intersection of visualrhetoric with rhetoric of science by examining therhetorical context in which natural science illustratorsoperate as they represent paleontology. Field methodswere employed to study the rhetorical context inwhich paleontology becomes represented through art;this article reports the findings from the field studyand contextualizes the study in rhetorical theories ofinvention and a discussion of social versus scientificfacts. The research highlights some differences betweenwhat experts know and what public audiences perceive,offering insight into why those differences exist.”Amber F. RachScientific visuals, language, and thecommercialization of a scientific idea: Thestrange case of the prionReeves, C. (2011). Technical Communication Quarterly, 20, 239-273.“In the field that investigates infectious brain diseasessuch as mad cow disease, the verbal and visual packagingof scientific visuals associated with identifying the agent,prion, its processes, and structure served the communityritual of establishing belief in a highly unorthodoxphenomenon. Visual promotion fed into culturalexpectations of single agents and simple processes,even though the actual agency and disease process haveproven highly complex and perhaps unknowable.”Amber F. Rach“A textbook case revisited”: Visualrhetoric and series patterning in theAmerican Museum of Natural History’shorse evolution displaysDyehouse, J. (2011). Technical Communication Quarterly, 20, 327-346.“This article describes the development of visualrhetoric in a historically significant museum exhibit.The study documents rhetorical change in the museum’sdisplays, specifically in visual series depicting the horse’sevolutionary development. The study also exposes thepurpose of series patterning in the renovated displayand the multiple views on scientific visualizationthis display implies. Such an analysis suggests thebroad range of strategies in visual rhetoric available toscience communicators working in the area of sciencepopularization.”Amber F. RachWarp and weft: Weaving the discussionthreads of an online communityArduser, L. (2011). Journal of Technical Writing and Communication, 41,5-31.“The Pew Internet & American Life Project reports that86% of Internet users living with a disability or chronicillness have looked for health information online ….And while so-called e-patients often start this search forinformation, many find themselves led to communitiesVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 365

Recent & Relevantthat provide this and more, such as Tu Diabetes, anonline social network site. This pause in what can seemlike an endless search for answers may be one that healthprofessionals can gain insight from. Such extendedpauses may give insight into the values of this particularcommunity. This article provides the results and analysisof a study using ethnographic methods and rhetoricalanalysis to examine the texts posted by members of thesocial networking site Tu Diabetes in order to discernthe values held by this community.”Social MediaSherry SouthardBringing social media to the writingclassroom: Classroom SalonKaufer, D., Gunawardena, A., & Cheek, A. (2011). Journal of Businessand Technical Communication, 25, 299-321.“This article introduces a new IText technology calledClassroom Salon. The goal of Classroom Salon isto bring some of the benefits of social media—theexpression of personal identity and community—towriting classrooms. It provides Facebook-like featuresto writing classes, where students can form socialnetworks as annotators within the drafts of their peers.The authors discuss how the technology seeks tocapture qualities of historical salons, which also builtcommunities around texts. They also discuss the centralfeatures of the Classroom Salon system, how the systemchanges the dynamics of the writing classroom, currentefforts to evaluate it, and future directions.”Alexis Poe DavisBuilding and maintaining contextsin interactive networked writing: Anexamination of deixis and intertextualityin instant messagingHaas, C., Carr, B. J., & Takayoshi, P. (2011). Journal of Business andTechnical Communication, 25, 276-298.“In this article, the authors answer the call of theIText manifesto to use ITexts to explore fundamentalissues of writing, describing instant messaging (IM)as a form of interactive networked writing (INW)and showing how IM writers discursively constructcontexts. Specifically, they argue that writers use (a)deixis to build and maintain material contexts and (b)intertextuality to construct sociocultural contexts. Fourintact IM transcripts were coded for instances of fourkinds of deixis—space, time, person, and object—andfor instances of intertextuality. Results showed thatIM writers use all four kinds of deixis and that deicticelements made up almost 10% of the total words ofthe transcripts. In addition, two kinds of intertextualelements— direct quotation and cultural referents—wereused to invoke, build, and sometimes undermine socialand cultural contexts. The authors also discuss some ofthe material affordances and constraints of writing andconclude by arguing that INW is literally dialogic.”Alexis Poe DavisContextualizing experiences: Tracingthe relationships between people andtechnologies in the social webPotts, L., & Jones, D. (2011). Journal of Business and TechnicalCommunication, 25, 338-358.“This article uses both actor network theory (ANT) andactivity theory to trace and analyze the ways in whichboth Twitter and third-party applications support thedevelopment and maintenance of meaningful contextsfor Twitter participants. After situating context withinthe notion of a ‘fire space,’ the authors use ANT to tracethe actors that support finding and moving information.Then they analyze the ‘prescriptions’ of each applicationusing the activity-theory distinction between actionsand operations. Finally, they combine an activity-theoryanalysis with heuristics derived from the concept of‘findability’ in order to explore design implications forSocialWeb applications.”Alexis Poe DavisIText reconfigured: The rise of the podcastTulley, C. (2011). Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 25,256-275.“The podcast is a unique configuration of ITextprecisely because it foregrounds sound in the currentcultural moment of secondary orality. This return to366 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

Recent & Relevantan oral–aural tradition offers several unique benefits.Podcasts adapt well to today’s unstructured work spaces.Moreover, podcasts blur boundaries between virtual andface-to-face communication and virtual and physicalspaces. Finally, podcasts are fragmented, reflecting thefluidity of previous ITexts; yet, unlike ITexts, podcastsmostly exist as complete, scripted texts. This article raisesquestions concerning what the podcast contributes tooverall knowledge of how texts are mediated throughevolving information technologies.”Alexis Poe DavisThe social media release as a corporatecommunication tool for bloggersPitt, L. F., Parent, M., Steyn, P. G., Berthon, P., & Money, A. (2011). IEEETransactions on Professional Communication, 54, 122-132.“This study examines the impact of a newcommunication tool, the social media release (SMR),on bloggers. Specifically, we seek to determine whatfactors will influence bloggers’ intent to use SMRs ortheir components. Our global survey of 332 bloggersfinds that bloggers’ perceptions of the effectivenessof the SMR and the use of SMRs by companiespositively affect their decisions to use SMRs now andin the future. We also find that bloggers’ current useof SMRs influences their decisions to continue usingSMRs. Implications on the use of SMRs as corporatecommunication tools are discussed.”J. A. DawsonTransdisciplinary Itexts and the future ofweb-scale collaborationFernheimer, J.W., Litterio, L., & Hendler, J. (2011). Journal of Businessand Technical Communication, 25, 322-337.“Changes in Web infrastructure have allowed ITextsto become a vehicle for transdisciplinary Web-scalecollaboration so that large-scale teams can createnew knowledge despite differences in team members’disciplinary training, geographic location, andlevels of expertise. In this article, the authors defineWeb-scale collaboration and illustrate the need fortransdisciplinary approaches to problem solving. Thenthey introduce heuristics for creating and evaluatingsuch transdisciplinary, collaborative Web-scale ITexts,drawing on examples generated at a workshop sponsoredby the National Science Foundation that was held atRensselaer Polytechnic Institute in April 2010.”TechnologyAlexis Poe DavisBusiness impact of web 2.0 technologiesAndriole, S. J. (2010). Communications of the ACM, 53 (12), 67-79.“This article describes research designed to measure theimpact of the business value of wikis, blogs, podcasts,folksonomies, mashups, social networks, virtualworlds, crowdsourcing, and RSS filters—all Web 2.0technologies. Properly deployed, they may well permitcompanies to cost-effectively increase their productivityand, ultimately, their competitive advantage; the researchreported here includes results of interview, observation,and survey data-collection from select companies andindustries primarily in the U.S. across six performanceareas: knowledge management, rapid applicationdevelopment, customer relationships management,collaboration/communication, innovation, and training.The results include caution, skepticism, and a significantcontribution to collaboration and communication.Wikis, blogs, and RSS filters have had the greatestimpact, while virtual worlds have had virtually none.”Communications and transport: Themobility of information, people andcommoditiesMorley, D. (2011). Media, Culture & Society, 33, 743-759.Sherry Southard“In a context where the study of communications tendsto focus only on the mobility of information, to theneglect of that of people and commodities, this articleexplores the potential for a closer integration betweenthe fields of communications and transport studies.Against the presumption that the emergence of virtualitymeans that material geographies are no longer ofconsequence, the role of mediated ‘technologies ofdistance’ is considered here in the broader contextsVolume 58, Number 4, November 2011 l Technical Communication 367

Recent & Relevantof the construction (and regulation) of a variety ofphysical forms of mobility and the changing modes ofarticulation of the virtual and material worlds.”Sherry SouthardReading revolutions: Online digital textand implications for reading in academeCull, B. W. (2011). First Monday, 16 (6), n.p. [http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/index]“While the Internet is a text-saturated world, readingonline screens tends to be significantly different fromreading printed text. This review essay examinesliterature from a variety of disciplines on thetechnological, social, behavioural, and neuroscientificimpacts that the Internet is having on the practiceof reading. A particular focus is given to thereading behaviour of emerging university students,especially within Canada and the United States. A briefoverview is provided of the recent transformation ofacademic libraries into providers of online digital textin addition to printed books and other materials, beforelooking at research on college students’ preferences forprint and digital text, and the cognitive neuroscience ofreading on screen.”Sherry SouthardTechnological literacy as network buildingSwarts, J. (2011). Technical Communication Quarterly, 20, 274-302.“Following recent work to advocate a strongly socialunderstanding of technological literacy, this articleconsiders how networking technologies are reshapingour understanding of the social. In this context,technological literacy can be understood as a processof constructing the networks in which literate actionis defined. I explore the role of technological literacyas a force of network building accomplished througha mechanism of translation. From the commentsof experienced technical communicators, I makeobservations about how technical communicators aretaught to be technologically literate.”Amber F. RachUsability StudiesDriving deliverables by listening to thevoice of the customerKratky, J. (2011). Best Practices, 13, 39-40. [Center for Information-Management Development]Documentation centered on “customer requirementsand customer satisfaction” instead of “functionalspecifications” improves customer success anddocument usability, according to this article. The firststep in a customer-driven approach is to determinewhat you want to learn from customers about yourdocumentation. Next, identify sources—such assurveys, social networking tools, trade show events, andonline forums—that will provide the right types of datato answer your questions; multiple data sources will givegreater weight to your conclusions. Finally, summarizethe collected data and distill it into “a manageable set offrequently occurring common themes.” Let customersknow their comments have been received, the authornotes, so they will continue to submit feedback.Lyn GattisUsing storytelling to elicit designguidance for medical devicesGausepohl, K., Winchester III, W. W., Arthur, J. D., & Smith-Jackson, T.(2011). Ergonomics in Design 19 (2), 19-24.“Medical device designers must understand the complexcontext of use within a health care environment toensure product usability. Designers must overcomedomain-specific obstacles during usability research, suchas patient privacy standards, which prevent designersfrom observing practitioners in context. In this project,we investigated storytelling as an alternative elicitationmethod for medical device requirements whendirect observations are limited or not possible. Whilegathering requirements for an infusion pump, wecompared the types of information elicited by focusgroups, interviews, and storytelling sessions. Severaladvantages and implications for the use of story-tellingin usability research are discussed.”Sherry Southard368 Technical Communication l Volume 58, Number 4, November 2011

ROSEMONT, ILLINOISBe Where It AllComes Together2012 TECHNICALCOMMUNICATION SUMMIT20–23 May 2012The Society for Technical Communicationis where it all comes together, and nowhereis that more evident than at the TechnicalCommunication Summit! Technicalcommunicators from around the world willconverge on Rosemont, Illinois, just outsideof Chicago, from 20–23 May 2012 for the 59thannual Summit. Choose from over 80sessions in 10 different tracks at theconference, with some of today’s toptechnical communicators comingtogether to share their knowledge.And the sessions are just thebeginning of your Summit experience!In-person networking, the Expo Hall,preconference education, thehonors banquet, SIG meetings, and somuch more are also available to helpyou advance your career.Registration opens 1 Decemberwith the Really Early Bird package,but hurry! Only the first 100registrants can take advantageof the special price of $795—a$230 savings off the regular admissionrate of $1,025.Visit http://summit.stc.org forcomplete details on how you canbe where it all comes together.STC’s 59 th Annual Conference20-23 May 2012 • Rosemont – Chicago

Where it all comes together.ProfessionalDevelopmentBenefits ofMembershipConnectionsProfessional DevelopmentAccess to award-winning publications,a career center and job board, salary surveys,and an online resource center.Advance your career—write for Intercom orTechnical Communication, speak at the annualconference, or find a new job!EducationConnectionsA personalized social network, geographic and virtualcommunities, and networking at face-to-face meetings.Connect with your peers and mentors virtually or in person!EducationLive webinars featuring world-class speakers,free archived seminars, online certificate courses,and the annual conference.Advance your career through education!These are just a few of the benefits of STC membership.To learn more, visit www.stc.org/renew today!

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