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PROXIMATE AND PHYTOCHEMICAL SCRENING OF CISSUS POPULNEA 

Onoja Peter Kimmy 

PRELIMINARY PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING AND ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF MEDICINAL PLANT: 

COCHLOSPERMUM TINCTORIUM A. RICH 

Abdulsalm A O 

DETERMINATION OF RESIDUAL CONTENTS OF PESTICIDES IN RICE PLANT AND RICE GRAINS (ORIZA SATIVA) 

FROM FOUR DIFFERENT REGIONS OF OMALA LGA, KOGI STATE, NIGERIA 

Onoja peter Kimmy 

DETERMINATION OF THE LEVELS AND HEPATIC EFFECTS OF POTASSIUM BROMATE IN BREAD SAMPLES SOLD 

IN AWKA METROPOLIS, NIGERIA. 

CHIKE SAMUEL OKAFOR, DESMOND NONSO OKEKE, CHIKE C OKOLI 

CONSTRAINTS BEHIND DEVELOPMENT OF KHULNA REGION AS A PROMINENT TOURIST DESTINATION 

Feroz Ahmed, Sheikh Moinul Islam 

EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT STRUCTURES ON THE TRADITIONAL HOUSES IN INDONESIA 

Budi arlius putra 

AWARENESS AMONG THE PEOPLE ABOUT E-BANKING SERVICES WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE COSMOS 

CO-OPERATIVE BANK LTD PUNE (MAHARASHTRA) 

Janardan Kundlik Pawar 

THE ROLE OF MANAGEMENT EDUCATION IN BUILDING THE MANAGEMENT CAPACITY OF MEDICAL 

DIRECTORS OF HOSPITALS IN NIGERIA AS LINE CHIEF EXECUTIVES 

Antigha Okon Bassey 

STRATEGIES ADOPTED BY THE INDIAN WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS AND THEIR SUCCESS IN RURAL AREAS 

Kalai Selvi V, Suganya S

Proximate and Phyto Chemical Screening of CISSUS POPULNEA 

1 ONOJAH, P.K., 2 SALAWU, O.W., AND 3 UMAR .S. 

CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT, KOGI STATE UNIVERSTIY, 

P.M.B. 1008, ANYIGBA , KOGI STATE. NIGERIA. 

Abstract 

The work reports the chemical evaluation, nutritional and flavoring properties of Cissus Populnea. This 

spices contain crude protein (37% - 21%), crude fibre (23 — 22%), crude fat (3.10 — 20%), 

carbohydrate (16 — 24%) total ash content (2.0 — 3. 10%), Moisture (1.68 — 1.82%). The spices are 

sources of minerals comprising of calcium, Iron Zinc, Copper, Magnesium, Sodium and Potassium. 

phytochemical screening revealed the presence of saponins, flavonoids as well as hydrogen 

upanmides. These bloactive substances may be responsible for the biological properties of the plants. 

Key words: chemical composition, nutritional values, physicochemical composition, 

phytochemical screening. 

Introduction 

Nigeria is endowed with numerous varieties of useful plants whose fruits, seeds, stems, roots 

and leaves serve various important roles in medicine and in nutrition. Amongst the numerous varieties 

of plants are Cissus Populnea (Okoho), Cissus Sicyoides, cissus rheifolia, cissus pallida, cissus 

quadrangularis. Cissus Populnea belongs to the family of Vitaceae which are woody climber1, some 

times vines, rarely small succulent trees, Hermaphrodite or polygamonecious to polygamo-droecions2. 

It grows in diverse ecozones of Nigeria, ugada, Niger Republic, Cameroon and coted’ivoire3 The plant 

is a climbing stem widely distributed in many parts of Nigeria, especially within the guinea Savannah 

region of Anabara, Kogi and Benue Stat&4 The gala and Idoma ethnic group refers to this plant as 

okoho, ogbolo ajara (yoruba), dafaaraa (Hausa). It is used extensively in medicinal preparation in West 

Africa. 

Cissus Populnea and Sesamum radiatum are the two tropical medicinal plants used to correct 

male infertility factor in South-western part of Nigeria. Expert evaluations of these herbs found that 

they have antimicrobial activities which cure many sexually transmitted infections that could be 

responsible for male infertility. The 2009 edition of research journal of medicinal plants showed hat 

the essential oil from the stem powder of Cissus Populnea inhibit the growth of several germs of 

bacteria origin and as such may correct male infertility arising from bacteria infections. In Benin 

Republic, it is used as diuretic. Extracts from the root of the plant have been used for the treatment of 

skin disease, boils, infected wounds and for treating urinary trait infections, thus suggesting anti 

bacteria activity5 Cissuss Populnea_are muciIaginous Yielding a visci sap that form from a freshly cut 

stems. The root is used in part of Nigeria as an arrow-poison antidote6 It is usually powdered and 

added to “daddawar” batso (Hausa). 

All parts of Cissuss Populnea exudes a mucilaginous material traditionally utilized as food raw 

material5 Gum exudates are mainly obtained from the stem and root of the plant. Young tender leaves 

are equally mucilaginous and they have dual function of thickener and vegetable in soup( 8). The gum 

obtained from Cissus Populnea has been evaluated for its potential uses as a dispersant in 

pharmcentical liquid system. Literature survey reveals that comprehensive physiochemical 

characterization of the gum has not been done. This study therefore, focuses on the phytochemical 

composition and proximate composition of the stem and root of the plants. 

www.theinternationaljournal.org > RJSITM: Volume: 02, Number: 03, January-2013 Page 0

Material and methods 

Materials 

The Cissus populnea stems and roots were obtained from the forest at ugwolawo in Ofu Local 

Government Area of Kogi State. It was the thoroughly washed to remove the adhering dirts and 

foreign material. The fresh roots and stems were cut into five strips with a kitchen knife and were air 

dried. It was then reduced to a fine powder using mortar and sieve. The powdered samples were put 

inside an air-tight polyethyhene container, neatly labeled and kept in a refrigerator pending analysis. 

Methods 

The moisture content was determined by heating 4.Og of the powdered sample to a constant 

weight in a thermostatically controlled oven at 105°C. The fat component of the samples was obtained 

by solvent extraction of 3.0g of the powdered sample in a continuous extractor of soxhlet using 

petroleum spirit (boiling range — 40 — 60°C) for about 2 hours. Crude fibre was analyzed by 

consecutive treatment of the powdered samples with light petroleum, boiling dilute tetraoxosulphate 

(vi) acid, boiling dilute sodium hydroxide, dilute hydrochloric acid, alcohol and ether and then ashed 

to obtain the remaining insoluble and combustible organic residue. The crude protein of the samples 

was estimated for by digesting the samples in hot concentrated tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid then titrated 

with standard hydrochloric acid. The ash component was determined by heating 5.Og of the powered 

samples to a constant weight in a muffle furnace at 550°C while the carbohydrate was estimated by 

difference. 

The minerals were obtained by dry ashing the ground sample in a muffle furnace at 555°C. The 

produced ash was dissolved in 10% hydrochloric acid and the resulted solution was used for the 

mineral content using atomic absorption spectrophometer (PYE UNICAMS.9) 

The physico-chemical properties of the extracted oil of the sample: free fatty acid and acid 

value were determined using AOAC10 while iodine value was determine by the method of josyln (11) . 

The phytochemicals: ackaloid (12) , Saponin (13) , tannin (14), phenol, cyanogenic glycosid (5) and 

flavonoid (16) were variously determine. 40g of the powdery samples was soaked in 250cm3 of distilled 

water for 24hours. The mixture was filtered using whatman No.1 filter paper. The filtrate was then 

concentrated to a volume of 50cm3’ stored in the refrigerator for use. Preliminary phytochemical 

screening of the extract was also carried out. 

Results and Discussion 

Table 1: Phytochemical Screening of the stem and root of cissus Populanea 

Alaloids phenols saponins Tannis flavonoids Phytate Cyanogenic glycoside 

Stem - - + - + + + 

Root - - + - + + + 

Table 2: Proximate composition (%). 

Parameters Stem Root 

Total Ash 2.0 3.10 

Moisture 1.82 1.68 

Crude fibre 22.0 23.0 

Crude protein 37.0 21.0 

Crude fat 20.0 3.10 

Total carbohydrate 16.68 24.0 


Table 3: Mineral Content of Cissus Populnea (Mg/Kg) 

Elements Stem Root 

Fe 0.58 0.82 

Cu 0.11 2.02 

Zn 0.14 0.20 

Mg 0.10 1.50 

Ca 1.37 2.40 

Na 5.0 22.0 

K 34.0 26.0 

Table 4: Phytochemical Composition of Stem and Root Extract of Icissus Populnea 

Parameters Stem Root 

Alkaloids (%) - - 

Saponins (%) 0.49 0.77 

Tannins (%) - - 

Flavonoids (%) 0.38 4.02 

Phenols (%) - - 

HCN (mg/kg) 0.13 0.12 

Table 5: Physico-chemical Properties of the Stem and Root oil Extract of Cissus Populnea 

Properties Stem Root 

Acid value 2.23 2.26 

(mgKOH/g) 

Iodine value (wijs) 0.52 0.37 

Oil (%) Deep pale yellow 40.54 

Colour Pleasant taste light pale yellow 

Taste 0.12 Pleasant taste 

Free Acid Pleasant odour 0.12 

(Fatty oleic) 

Odour Pleasant odour Pleasant odour 

Discuss 

The phytochemical screening as well as the composition of the stem and root extracts of 

Cisuss Populnea used for the test are present in Table 1 and 4 respectively. The results of 

hytochemcial compositions of the stem and root shown in Table 4 indicate that the root has higher % 

concentration saponins, flavoniods but lower % concentration of cyanogenic glycoside then the stem 

of Cisuss Populnea. 

The proximate composition (%) of the stem and root of Cisuss Populnea is depicted in Table 2. 

The total ash content of the root is highest (3.10) then the stem (2.0). The stem has the highest 

moisture content of (1.82) compared to that of the root. The crude fibre of the stem and root samples 

are 22.0 and 23.0 respectively. These values are higher than that reported for Banhima racemosa plants 

(1.91± QQ)(17) The crude protein contents of the analysed samples are stem (37.0), root (21.0). These 

values are not too low from that of other plants like okoro, groundnuts (18) The fat content of the stem 

(20.0), root (3.10). The stem value is lower than those reported for some seeds such as cowpea 

(22.70%). Click beans (19) . The carbohydrate content of root (24.0) is higher than that of the stem 

(16.68). This may be due to the higher protein of the stem (37.0) compared to the root (21.0) 

Some of the mineral contents (mg/kg) in the Cissus populnea are shown in Table 3. From the 

Table, the plant is rich in potassium; (stem-340, root — 26.0), sodium (stem — 5.0, root- 22.0), 

calcium (stem — 1.37, root-2.40), magnesium (stem-1.10,root-1.5), Iron (stem — 058, root-0.82), Zinc 


(stem — 0.14, root-0.20), copper (stem — 0.11,root-2.02). These minerals are essential composition of 

body fluid balance, impulse conduction normal development and maintain of normal acid-base balance 

of the blood. The stem is very low in Iron (0.58), copper (0.11) and Zinc (0.14). These are trace 

elements essential for formation of the red blood cells and components of enzymes. 

Table 5 presents the physico-chemial properties of stem and root oil extracts of Cisuss 

Populnea. From the analysis, the percentage oil obtained are stem-52.40, root-40.54. The taste and 

odour are pleasant while the colour is deep pale yellow for stem and light pale yellow for the root 

samples. The free fatty acid obtained for the stem (0.12), root (0.12) are the same. These values are 

higher than that of Bauhinia racemosa seeds (0.06) (20). The acid value of the stem oil extract 2.23) 

and root (2.26) are also very close. These values are lower than (5.64) reported for Bauhinia racemosa 

seeds by Amoo and moza17 Both the free fatty acid and acid values are very important in determining 

whether an oil can be used for industrial purposes or edibility purpose. The iodine value for the stem 

extract (0.52) is higher than that of the root (0.37). These values are lower than that obtained for 

Bauhinia racemosa seeds by Amoo and Moza17 The iodine value is an indication of shelf-life, by 

measuring the degree of unsaturation and ability to become rancid by oxidation. 

Conclusion 

The outcome of this investigation has greatly elucidated the nutritive composition of the spices 

as quality food with good medicinal properties. They can serve as potent nutritious food supplements 

and drugs. 

References 

1. Li, K. (1998). Vitaceae: in lichaonuan (ed). Fl. Republic popularis Sin. 

48(2): u-vu, 1-3, 12-208. 

2. global Biodiversity information facility. (Nov.15,2007). http://wwwgbif.org.mediated distribution 

data. 

3. Geldam, M.A. (2004). Effects of aqueous stem bark of cissus populnea in serum, enzymes in normal 

and auoxan induced diabatic rat. Pakistan journal of biscience.7;1427 — 1429. 

4. Alfa, J., Chukwu, A. and Audeala, C.(2003). Cissus stem gum as potential dispersant in 

pharmaceutical liquid system, rheological characterization. Boll chim farm 19099; 140:20-7 

5. Ojekale, A.B., Lawal, O.A., Lasisi, A.K. and Adeleke, T.S. (2004) phytochemistry and 

spermatogenic potential of agueous extract of Cissus Populnea. Guill and perstem bark. Sd World J. 

2006, 6: 2140 

— 2146 open URL. 

6. Chukwu, A.C.O. (1989). Primary evaluation of Cissuspopulnea gum as binder in sodium sachy late 

tablet formulation. Drug development industry pharm. 15(2): 325—330 

7. Bhutani, K.K., Kapoor, R. and Atal, C.K.(1 984). Two unsymmetric tetracyclic triterpenoids from 

cissus quadrangularis. Phytochemistry, 

(23):407 —410 

8. Garcia, G., Cartas-Heredia, L., Lorenzanajimenz, M. and Gijon, E.(1997). Vasoconstrictor effect of 

Cissus Sicyoides on Guinea-pig aortic rings. Gen.pharmac. (29) 457 — 462. 

9. Person, D. (1976). Chemical Analysis of foods, 7th edition. J. and 

Achurchill, London. 

10. AOAC (1975). Official methods of Analysis 12th edition. Association of Official Analytical 

cherusts. Washington, D.C. USA, 196 — 1962 

11. Josyln; AM. (1970). Methods in Food analysis. Physical, chemical and instrumental methods of 

Analysis, 2 edition. Academic Press, New York, San Francisco, 1 -3. 

12. Maxwell, a., Se persand, M.P. and Mooton, DR. (1995). 3—6 Amino spirosolane stereodal 

Alkaloids from solanum Triste. Journal of Natural products. 56(4):821 — 825. 


13. Bohm, B. and Kocipal —Abyazan, R. (1994). Flavonoid and condensed Tannins from leaves of 

Hawaiian Vaccinium Raticulation and V. Calycinium. Pacific Science 48:458 — 463 

14. Sofowara, A. (1993). Medicinal plants and Traditional medicine in Africa. 2’ edition. Spectrum 

Books Ltd. Ibadan, Nigeria. 

15. Ebana, RU., Essien, A.I. and Ekpa, D.D. (1995). Nutritional and Potentially Medicinal Value of the 

leaves of Lasianthra Africana. Global journal of pure and applied sciences 1(1&2): I — 8 

16. Aletor, V.A. and Aladetimi, 0.0. (1989). Proximate composition of some under utilized Nigeria 

legumes; Die Nahrang.33,(IO):999 — 1007. 

17. Amoo, l.A. and Moza, L. (1999). Extraction and physicochemical properties of oil from Bauhinia 

racemosa seeds. La Rivista. Italiana Delle Sostanze Grasse, Vol-LXXVI -Settebre. 

18. Aletor, l.A. and Aladetimi, 0.0. (1989). Proximate composition of some under utilized Nigeria 

legumes: Die Nahrung, 33,(10):999 — 1007 

19. Aletor, V.A., lkhena, A.F. and Egbarevba 1990): “The Quality of some critical processing 

variables”. Food Chemistry, 36:311 —317. 

20. Salifah, E., Kelley, C.J. and Leary, J.D. (1983). Constituents of the leaves of Cissus rhecfolia. J. 

Natural Products (46), 353 - 358 


Preliminary Phytochemical Screening and Antibacterial activity of Medicinal 

Plant: COCHLOSPERMUM TINCTORIUM A. RICH 

ABSTRACT. 

A.O. ABDULSALAAM 1 , DR. M.M. IDRIS 2 AND DR. O.W. SALAWU 3 . 

1&3 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY, KOGI STATE UNIVERSITY, 

P.M.B. 1008, ANYIGBA - KOGI STATE OF NIGERIA. 

& 

2 DEPARTMENT OF PURE AND INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY, 

BAYERO UNIVERSITY,KANO - NIGERIA. 

E-mail: Absal24@yahoo.com 

The crude extracts from leaf of Cochlospermum tinctorium in different solvents were subjected to 

phytochemical screening and antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas,Proteus, 

Klebsiella and Staphylococci. The ethanol extract was used for phytochemical screening. Hexane, 

chloroform, ethylacetate and ethanol extract were used for antimicrobial activity. Phytochemical 

studies indicate the presence of carbohydrate, simple sugar, glycoside, flavanoid, steroid, saponin, 

Tannin and Resin. Ethanol extract exhibited significant to moderate activity at concentrations of 

500µg/ml and 1000µg/ml respectively against all the tested microorganisms. Chloroform and ethyl 

acetate extracts showed moderate activities against E.coli ,P.auregenosa, K.pneumonae and Proteus at 

1000µg/ml. 

Key words:Cochlospermum tinctorium,Phytochemicals,Antimicrobial 

INTRODUCTION 

Traditional medical option still holds a strong part in the public health delivery system of many 

communities in the world today [1] .For reasons of safety, effectiveness, stability, standardized dosage 

forms, isolation, characterization and identification of drugs of plant origin, phytochemical 

investigation becomes an urgent priority. Plants extracts from plants such as Actotis actotoides have 

been shown to inhibits the growth of bacteria and fungi [2] .Andrographis paniculata contained anti 

cancer and immune stimulatory compounds [3] .Artemisinin isolated from Artemisia annua L. have been 

used to cure resistant malaria parasite. The success recorded in the use of isolates from plant in curing 

resistant parasite, virus and bacteria infections has further focused attention on plants as source of 

drugs [4,5] . 

Plant Morphology 

Cochlospermum tinctorium A. Rich (Cochlospermaceae) is a shrub that can grow up to 10m 

high. The slash is iodine -like in colour. 

Leaves are alternate, palmately lobed with stipules. Inflorescence consists of brightly coloured 

yellow flowers that are regular and borne in racemes or panicles. 

Fruits are elongated, 3-5 valve, capsules containing seeds that are embedded in cotton foam. 

The seeds are bean-shaped with brown to black colour. It contains oily endosperm with broad 

cotyledon. It is a savannah plant commonly found on fallow farm lands [6,7] 

Ethnomedical Uses 

The bark, root, seeds are used in the treatment of various ailments in different areas around the 

world. In Nigeria, a decoction of the root is used for treating gonorrhoea. It is used in the 

treatment of diabetes by the Igede people of Benue State [8,9]. 


The leaves are used in the treatment of malaria fever in some parts of Kogi State. In Mali, the 

plant is variously used against jaundice, abdominal pains, haemorrhoids, intestinal worms, 

helminth, bilharzia and hepatitis. It was also reported to have been used against gastrointestinal 

diseases like ulcer, stomach ache, flatulence and constipation [10]. The leaf pulp is used in wet 

dressing of wound to maturate abscesses and the rhizome is used as antifungals and 

antibacterials [11,12]. 

In Ivory Coast, the use of the plant for oedematous conditions, orchites, schistosomiasis, 

epilepsy, pneumonia, intercostal pains, brochial infections, indigestion and in eye instillations 

for conjunctivitis were reported [13]. 

Other Uses 

The bark is used as rope and as jute. Edible oil is obtained from the seed and cotton from its 

fruits and the yellow root used as a dye and in cooking [14]. 

General procedure 

The solvent procured from local suppliers were redistilled prior to use. Phytochemical screening was 

carried out on washed and dried test tubes. The plants extracts were suspended in DMS0 in test 

tube/vials. In vitro nutrients Agar antimicrobial assay was carried out on culture plates containing the 

organisms. 

Plant collection 

The leaves of Cochlospermum tinctorium A.Rich were collected from Ajaokuta L.G.A., Kogi State, 

where the natives used it to cure various ailments. The sample was identified by Baba Ali Garko and 

authenticated by Dr.B.S. Aliyu of the Department of Biological Sciences,Bayero University,Kano- 

Nigeria. The sample was air-dried in the laboratory for three weeks, crushed and ground to powder. 

Extraction of plant material 

In a screening program, the air-dried powdered sample (500g) was extracted using four(4) 

different solvents, sequentially arranged in order of their increasing polarity: Hexane, 

Chloroform, Ethylacetate and ethanol[15]. 

Each solvent was allowed to extract for a period of two weeks. At subsequent stages, the residue is airdried 

before extracting with the next solvent. The extracted material were concentrated under reduced 

pressure using Rotar vapour(R110) at 40 0 c. Concentrated crude extracts were transferred into a clean 

weighed beaker and allowed for complete evaporation under room conditions. Weights of the crude 

extracts were measured and each of the solvent extracts coded as F hex 01, F chl 01, F ethyl01 , F eth 01 

respectively. 

PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING. 

The crude ethanol extract was used for the phytochemical analysis, the extract was screened for the 

presence of the following components; carbohydrates, reducing sugars, flavonoids, alkaloids, steroids, 

glycosides, saponins, tannins and resins using standard methods[16,17]. 

COLLECTION OF MICROORGANISMS 

In this antimicrobial screening only some selected bacteria were used .These bacteria are stock culture 

collection of microbiology unit of the department of biological sciences, Bayero University , Kano. 

They are; Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas, Proteus, Klebsiella and Staphylococci. Stock cultures were 

maintained on Nutrient Agar (Oxoid) at 4 0 c in refrigerator in accordance with standard 

specification[18,19]. They were identified to specie level through biochemical test, serology and 

growing them in differential and selective media[20]. 


PREPARATION OF EXTRACTS 

Each of the (0.005g) was dissolved in sterile dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO)(1 ml). Thus, a 

concentration of 5000 µg/ml was obtained as stock for each of the extracts. Subsequent concentrations 

of 100µg/ml, 500µg/ml and 1000µg/ml were prepared from the stock, using dilution formula; 

C 1 V 1 = C 2 V 2 

Where C 1 =Concentration of stock solution, C 2 =Concentration of desired solution 

V 1 =Unknown volume to be drawn from stock solution, 

V 2 =Volume of desired concentration (C 2 ) which is taken to be 1ml 

a.100µg/ml=0.2ml of stock solution in 0.8ml of DMSO 

b.500µg/ml=0.2ml of stock solution in 0.98ml of DMSO 

These concentrations were labelled and stored in refrigerator at 4 0 C for further use. 

PREPARATION OF SENSITIVITY DISCS 

The discs were prepared in the laboratory using What man No.2 filter papers. This was achieved by 

punching the filter paper using a standard punching machine of diameter 6.25±0.1mm. The filter discs 

were then sterilized using autoclaving machine at a pressure of 20lb and temperature of 127 0 C for 30 

minutes. The discs were then impregnated with the different concentrations of the prepared extracts, 

followed by drying in an incubator at 37 0 C for 60 minutes 

SENSITIVITY TEST 

The sensitivity test was carried out using Nutrient Agar for the growth of the entire microorganisms. 

The test organisms were directly inoculated on the nutrient agar by direct streaking method, using a 

sterile wire loop. Discs of various concentrations of the extracts prepared were then placed on labelled 

plates containing the inoculums with the aid of sterile forceps. Control discs impregnated with DMSO 

only were placed at the centre of each of the petri-dishes. A pre dilution time of about 3-5 minutes was 

allowed for the test extracts to diffuse into each medium. The Petri-dishes were then incubated at 35 0 C 

for 24 hours. The degree of sensitivity was determined by measuring the visible zones of inhibition of 

the bacteria growth produced by the diffusion of extracts from the discs into the surrounding medium. 

The organism is then reported as ῾Resistant᾽, Intermediate/moderately sensitive and 

῾Sensitive᾽(susceptible) [21]. 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 

TABLE 1: Solvent used and weight of extracts of the leaves of Cochlospermum tinctorium 

S/NO. SOLVENT USED WEIGHT OF EXTRACTS 

1. Hexane(F Hex 01) 2.7g 

2. Chloroform(F Chl 01) 1.8g 

3. Ethylacetate(F Ethyl 01) 5.0g 

4. Ethanol(F Eth 01) 10.8g 


TABLE 2: Result of Phytochemical screening of crude F Eth 01 extract from the leaves of 

Cochlospermum tinctorium 

S/NO. CONSTITUENTS TESTED INFERENCES 

1. Carbohydrates + 

2. Simple Sugar + 

3. Glycoside + 

4. Flavanoid + 

5. Alkaloid - 

6. Steroids + 

7. Saponin + 

8. Tannin + 

9. Resin + 

Key: 

+ Indicates the presence of the tested constituent. 

- Indicates the absence of the tested constituent. 

Phytochemical Screening 

Phytochemical screening on the F Eth 01 was carried out to detect the following constituents: 

Carbohydrates, Simple Sugar, Glycoside, Flavanoid, Alkanoid, Steroid, Saponin, Tannin and Resin. 

The result indicated the presence of all the tested natural products except Alkaloid. (Table 2). 

Table 3: Result of antimicrobial bioassay of crude solvent extracts from the leaves of Cochlospermum 

tinctorium 

Zone of Inhibition (mm) 

S/NO Extract Concentration (µg/ml) Staph. E. Coli P. aureg. K. Pneu. Proteus 

1. Hexane 1000 07 07 10 7.5 10 

500 00 07 00 00 8.4 

100 00 00 00 00 7.1 

Control 00 00 00 00 00 

2. Chloroform 1000 07 08 9.2 08 08 

500 07 00 00 00 7.6 

100 00 00 00 00 07 

Control 00 00 00 00 00 

3. Ethylacetate 1000 07 00 8.4 08 08 

500 07 00 08 00 00 

100 07 00 00 00 00 

Control 00 00 00 00 00 

4. Ethanol 1000 11 10 10 12.5 11.7 

500 09 09 08 00 8..2 

100 08 08 07 00 07 

Control 00 00 00 00 00 

Key: 

0-7mm zone of inhibition means resistance 

8-9mm zone of inhibition means moderate 

≥10mm zone of inhibition means sensitive 

Antimicrobial Bioassay 

Antimicrobial bioassay was carried out on the crude solvent extracts of the leaves of 

Cochlospermum tinctorium (Table 3). 


The results showed that Ethanol extracts had sensitive activity against all the isolates at all 

concentration except for concentration of 500 µg/ml and 100 µg/ml against K. Pneumonia. The 

Ethanol extract can be used to cure the infections caused by: 

i. K. Pneumonia (urinary and respiratory tract infections, necrosis, inflammations, wound 

infections, pneumonia, thrombophlebitis, cholecystitis, diarrhoea, osteomyelitis, meningitis, 

endocarditis, endophthalmitis) at concentration of 1000 µg/ml. 

ii. Proteus (urinary tract infections, skin infections, diarrhoea, gastrointestinal infections) at 

concentration of 1000 µg/ml and 500 µg/ml. 

iii. Staphylococcus aureus (skin and soft tissue infection, pneumonia, urinary tract infections 

iv. 

and mastitis) at concentration of 1000 µg/ml and 500 µg/ml. 

P. aureginosa (respiratory infection, meningitis and brain abscess, external otitis, 

endocarditis, keratis, sclera abscess, endopthalmitis, opthalmia, orbital cellulites, 

neonatorium in children, diarrhoea, bone and joint infection, panophthalmitis, supparative 

thrombophlebitis, abdominal pain, ecthyma gangrenosum and pastular lession) at 

concentration of 1000 µg/ml and 500 µg/ml. 

v. E. Coli (abdominal ceamp, diarrhoea, haemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) at concentration 

of 1000 µg/ml and 500 µg/ml. 

Hexane extract also exhibited significant inhibition against P. Aureginosa and Proteus at 

concentration of 1000 µg/ml. 

The chloroform extract exhibited moderate activity against P. Aureginosa, K. Pneumonia 

and Proteus at concentration of 1000 µg/ml. These extracts can be used to cure infections 

caused by the microorganisms. 

Conclusion: 

This study has been a contribution to the assessment of possible antimicrobial compounds from 

the leaves of Cochlospermum tinctorium. The crude Ethanol extract has sensitive activity against 

infectious microorganisms. Generally, the plant extracts showed broad spectrum of antimicrobial 

activities. These provide a support for the use of the plant in treatment of various antimicrobial 

infections in different places around Africa and Nigeria in particular. 

Recommendation: 

On the basis of this study, it is recommended that further and detailed pharmacognostic studies 

be intensified on the extracts from these plants, so that its potential chemotherapeutic, insecticidal and 

other economic values could be harnessed for human benefit. 

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2. Kumar,M., Sridevi K, N.M., (2004) Anticancer and Immunostimulatory compound from 

Andrographis paniculata. Journal of Ethnopharmacology,92:291-295 

3. Burkill, I. H., (1985) The Useful Plants of Tropical West Africa. 2 nd Edition Vol. 1, Families A-D. 

Royal Botanical Garden Kew, Richmon 

4. Gbile, Z. O. (1984) Vernacular Names of Nigerian plants in Hausa Federal Research Institute of 

Nigeria, Ibadan. . 

5. Watson, L. and Dallwivitz., M. J. (1992). The Families of flowering plants. Angiosprerm Families 

– Cochlospermaceae Planch http://deta-inkey.com/angio/www/cochlosp.htm. 

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Nupeland. Jube-Evans Books and Publication State, Nigeria. 


7. Hutchinson, J. and Dalziel, J.M. (1966). Flora of West Africa. 2nd ed. F. N. Hepper ed., Pg. 183 – 

185 Published by Crown Agents for Overseas Governments and Administration, 

Millband-London. 

8. Igoli, J.O., I.C., Igwe and N.P., Igoli (2003) Traditional Medicinal Practices among the Igede people 

of Nigeria, J. Herbs, Spices and Medicinal Plants, 10(4):1-10. 

9. Decraene, Rose P. (1989) Morphology and Anatomy of Cochlospermum tinctorium and Bixa with 

special Emphasis on Mutistaminate Androecium. JSTOR: American Journal of Botany: 

76, No. 9, Pp. 1344 – 1359. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici 

10. Diallo, B., Vanhaelen, M., Kiso, Y., Hikino, H. (1987) Antihepatotoxic actions of Cochlospermun 

tintorium Rhizomes. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 20:239 – 243. 

11. Kongkathip Ngampong, Phonnakh Sida, Kongkathip Boonsong, Sunthitikawinsakul Arunrat 

(2003) Anti-HIV-1 Limonoid: First Isolation from Clausena excavate. Phytother Res. 17, 1101–1103. 

12. Brain, K. R., and Turner, T. D., (1975) The Practical Evaluation of 

Phytopharmaceuticals.Wright Scienctechnica, Bristol; Pp.57-58. 

13. Scott, A. C. (1989): Laboratory control of Antimicrobial therapy. In: Medical Microbiology. 

Collee, J. g., Duguid, A. G. and Marmion, B. P. (eds). Churchill-Livingston, New 

York. Pp. 9 – 181. 

14. Cheesbrough, M., (2000). District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries, low price Edition. 

The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, Cambridge parts; pg. 132 – 143. 

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Edward Arnold Publishers, U. K. Pp. 320. 

16. Evans, C. W. (1996) Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy, 14 th edition, W. B. Saunders’ Company 

Ltd., London Pg. 268-270. 

17. Hostettmann, K., F., Chinyanganya. M., Millard and J. H., Wofender (1996). Chemistry, 

Biological and Pharmacological Properties of African Medicinal Plants. University of 

Zimbabwe, Mount Pleasant, Harare – Zimbabwe. 

18. Kamal (1998) Medical Laboratory Technology. Routine diagnostic test. 1 st ed. Vol. II, Tata 

McGraw Hill Pub. Co. Ltd. Pp 326 – 332. 

19. Katzung, G., Betram (1992) Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. 5 th Edition. Appleton and Lange, 25 

Van Zant Street, East Norwalk, Connecticut 06855, U.S.A. 

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Yamada, H, Paulsen D. S., (2005) Medicinal uses of Cochlospermum tinctorium in 

Mali Anti-ulcer, Radical Scavenging – and Immunomodulating activities of polymers in 

the aqueous extract of the roots. Journal of ethonopharmacology. 96:255 - 269. 

21. Robert Berkow, Andrew J., Fletcher, M. B. Chir., (1992) The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and 

Therapy. Merck Research Laboratories, 6 th Edition: Merck and Co., Inc. Rahway, N. J. 

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Mir Publishers, USSR Pg.113- 143. 


Determination of Residual contents of pesticides in Rice Plant and Rice Grains 

(Oriza Sativa) From Four different regions of Omala LGA, KOGI State, Nigeria. 

ONOJOH, P.K., NSI, E.W ALIYU, A.O.C 

CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT, KOGI STATE UNIVERSITY, ANYIGBA. 

ABSTRACT 

The Study was conducted to investigate the Pesticide Residues in rice plant and rice grains (husked) 

(Oriza Sativa) in major rice growing areas of Omala Kogi State Nigeria. The concentration of eight 

pesticides was determined by gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GS-MS). In all the 

96 samples, four (4). Pesticides, i.e, endosulfan I, Endosulfan II, endosulfan-sulfate, Lindane, and 2,4- 

DAmine were found in concentrations ranging from 0.001- 0.480mg/kg. The maximum Residue limits 

(MRLs) so presently there is no serious health problem due to pesticides poisoning. The results present 

important information on current contamination Status of an important agricultural crop in Omala, 

Kogi State, and highlight the needs for immediate action to manage the use of some excessively 

applied and potentially persistent pesticides. 

INTRODUCTION 

Pesticides are indispensable in modern agriculture, their use or misuse may lead to serious 

contamination of the environment. The primary role of agriculture is to produce a reliable supply of 

wholesome food to feed the burgeoning world population safely and without adverse effects on 

environment. The intensified agriculture, in developing countries, has therefore dictated the increasing 

use of agrochemicals to meet the growing food demands. About 45% of the food grown on the world 

is lost annually because of the effects of weeds, insects and Diseases as reported by international 

Atomic Energy Agency (1987). In spite of the known difficulties caused as a result of pesticide usage, 

as yet the alternative to practical control measures employing pesticides are still in the developing 

stage. Crop losses would be doubled if existing pesticide uses were abandoned. The use of pesticides 

has often a dramatic impact on food production. However, negative effects of pesticides on non-target 

organisms and their effects on the environment must be recognized (1) . Contamination of the 

environment and food by pesticide residues is a radically current issue in many areas of the world. 

Rice (Oriza Sativa) is an important cereal and second stable crop of Omala after beans. Its’ 

production constitutes the major economic activity and a key source of employment for the rural 

population of Omala in Kogi East senatorial area of Kogi State Nigeria. The area under cultivation for 

rice (oriza sativa) in year 2010 – 2012 was 173, 409 hectares and so was the third largest crop grown 

after maize and beans. Igah is a key area of rice production of Omala. No useful data have been 

generated so far and investigation reflecting real situation of pesticide contamination has been very 

scanty. 

Rice planting in the key areas dated back to 1991 and the use of pesticide to increase yield and 

kill pests dates back to 1993. The climate of the area is moderate, neither too hot nor too cold but 

humidity is around 76%. The average annual rainfall in most of the places of the farm is around 

110cm. Agriculture is the major source of sustenance for the majority of the population. 

The purpose of this study was to assess the pesticide residues in rice plant leaves and rice 

grains in the major rice growing areas of Omala, Kogi State. The data collected are to be used as a 

reference point for future scrutiny as well as for providing basis for developing sustainable natural 

resource management practices and for taking preventive measures to reduce human health risks. 


MATERIALS AND METHODS 

Samples: Pesticide remains were measured quantitatively in 96 (12 from each region) samples of rice 

plant and rice grain collected from the key rice growing agricultural farms of Igah, Ogoh, Echa and 

Ajadaga areas in Omala LGA in 2010 and 2011 respectively. Random sampling method was used for 

said purpose (2) . All samples were collected in labeled dark glass bottles, transported to the laboratory 

and stored a short time at 4 0 c until they were evaluated for pesticide residues. All the husked rice 

(Oriza Sative) was unhusked carefully by hands. 

Material and reagents: All organic solvents were product of Merck and redistilled before using. 

Standard pesticides of purity 99.9% were obtained and stock standard solutions of each pesticide was 

prepared in n-hexane at 100mg/ml. an immediate solution of the mixture of all pesticides was also 

made up in n-hexane. 

Extraction and determination of pesticides: Extraction of pesticide was performed by the method 

adopted by Skoog et al., 2005. Standard. Acetone and dichloromethane (1:1) was used for extraction of 

pesticide residues from the rice plant and rice grain by Soxhlet apparatus. Clean-up and analysis of 

food were performed according to the Chinese standard method (3) . Two pesticides were determined 

using gas chromatographic method. Two micro litres of extract were injected into a gas 

chromatography Mass spectrometer (Shimadzu- 9a)equipped with the following instrument 

parameters and operating conditions; flame ionization detector; columns, capillary 30mx 0.53mm 

packed with a mixture of 200+ 2.0% OV -17 and 4.5% DC, Chromosorb WAW, column temperature, 

240 0 c ; detector temperature 275 0 c. Peak area and retention times were calculated by comparison of 

retention time obtained from standard solutions of comparable strength. 

Quantification limit (QL): The Minimum Detectable Quantity (MDQ) considered as the smallest 

quantity of the standard materials resulting in definite visible peak was determined for each of the 

pesticides by preparing and analyzing various pesticide standard concentrations in a range of 0.01- 

0.002mg/kg. The least pesticide concentration that resulted in visible peak was taken as the 

quantification limit (DL). 

Results and Discussion 

Pesticides are used globally in farming sector to control pest population. A study of the possible 

contamination of rice plant and rice grains (oriza sativa) in four areas of Omala viz: Igah, Ogoh, Echa 

and Ajadaga of Kogi State Nigeria were carried out during the crop year 2010 and 2011. The marked 

compounds detected were those used more frequently for controlling pest population of rice crop of 

Omala, Kogi State. The four pesticides in rice plant and rice grain are presented in Table 2 and Table 3 

respectively. 

Chromatograms obtained for the pesticides are as shown in figs II. The mixed standard which was 

analyzed contained eight pesticides as shown in the table 1; namel, Dichlorvos, Atrazine, 2,4-Damine, 

Propanil, Endosulfan, Cypermethrin, DDT, Lindane. In all, Didchlorvos eluted first with retention time 

of 6.425min while cypermethrin eluted at 16.168min. 

Table 2 shows the result from the analysis of rice plant samples for the pesticide residues of 

atrazine, glyphosate, endosulfan, orizi plus, lindane, p,p- DDT and P,P-DDE using a gas 

chromatography machine with a quantification limit of 0.0002mg/kg. The presence of endosulfan I 

and 2,4-DAmine in the rice plant sample was identified and quantified. In the rice grain samples, (see 

table 3), the result also demonstrates that rice samples collected from each area contained endosulfan I 

pesticide residue though at a very low concentration of 0.002mg/kg. 


Worthy of note, is the fact that the concentration of these pesticide residues found in these 

samples are low and pose no immediate threat to man or animals that eat or forage on them as their 

concentration were below the Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) for cereals. However, there is every 

possibility that these pesticide residues may bioaccumulate in the body system of the animals and man 

who eventually eat them. Recent literature reveals that the largest proportion of human acute toxicity 

data is associated with pesticide intoxication (4) . The World Health Organization (5) estimated an annual 

worldwide total of some three million cases of acute, severe poisonings matched possibly by a greater 

number of umreported, with 220,000 deaths. Additionally, many Organo Phosphorus (OP) pesticides 

are considered as environmental andocrine disruptors (6) . 

Table 1: Pesticide recovery/calibration of standard (0.5mg/kg) 

Peak Ret. Time Area Height Conc. Compound name 

1. 6.427 616 209 0.982mg/kg Dichlorvos 

2. 11.567 20926 7961 0997mg/kg Atrazine 

3. 11.676 7117 3039 0.994mg/kg 2,4-D Amiine 

4. 11.834 18711 7142 0.999mg/kg Propanil 

5. 12.935 71285 20323 0.983mg/kg Endosulfan I 

6. 13.487 7952 2256 0.992mg/kg Endosulfan II 

7. 14.628 6857 1153 1.008mg/kg Lambda 

8. 16.187 9187 622 0995mg/kg Cyhalothrin 

9. 18.461 591 81 0.000mg/kg Cypermethrin 

Table 2: Average pesticide residue concentration (mg/kg) in rice plant samples in different 

Omala areas. 

Pesticide 

Concentration (mg/kg) k 

Endosulfan I 0.015 

Endosulfan II 

ND (

Pesticide 

Endosulfan I 

Endosulfan sulfate 

Lindane ( – HCH) 

2,4-D amine 

Y 

KEY 

Endosulfan I 

Endosulfan sulfate 

Lindane ( – HCH) 

2,4-D amine 

0.015 

0.203 

0.480 

0.019 

X 

Concentration (mg/kg) 

Table 3: Average pesticide residue concentration (mg/kg) in rice grains (husked) samples in 

different Omala rice growing areas. 

Pesticide Concentration (mg/kg) MRL (mg/kg) (7) 

Endosulfan I 0.001 1.0 

Endosulfan II ND – (

Pesticide 

Y 

KEYS 

Endosulfan I 

2,4 - DAmine 

0.001 

0.020 

Concentration (mg/kg) 

X 

Conclusion 

The results underline that Pesticide residues are not present in most the samples of husked rice 

grain and rice plant leaves collected from Omala area. Although presently there is no serious health 

problem observed due to pesticide residues in rice (Oriza Sativa) crop, however, it does not guarantee 

for future health free problems. Routine supervision of these pollutants in rice is required for the 

prevention, control and reduction of pollution to minimize health risks. 

REFERENCES 

1. Tu, C.M and Miles, J.R.W. (1976).Interaction between Insecticides and Soil Microbes. 

Res.Rev., 64;1-65. 

2. Ahmed, S., Zia W –Haq, M., Imran, M., Iqbal, S., IQBAL, J., of Pesticides in rice (Oryza 

Sativa L) crop from different regions of Pakistan. Pak. J.Bot., 40(3) 1253 – 1257. 

3. Skoog D.A., West, D.M., Holler, F.M. and Crouch, S.R (2005) Fundamentals of Analytical 

Chemistry. 175. 

4. Wang, S.C. (2002). Detection of Pesticides in Food. Hygiene detection handbook in food (3 rd 

Edition), Chemical Industry Press, Beijing, China, 269. 

5. Ecobichon, D.J. (2000). Pesticide use in the developing countries. J. Tox., 160 (1-3); 27 – 33. 

6. Osibanjo, O.S., and Adeyeye, A.A. (1989). Investigation of Pesticide residues in some 

vegetables, Cereals and fruits. Journal of pesticide effect. 

7. Anonymous (1990). Public health impact of pesticides used in Agriculture, World Health 

Organization, Geneva. 

8. Anonymous (1987). Radiotracer studies of pesticides in stored products, IAEA TECcDoc. 405, 

Vienna, Austria, 97. 


Determination of the Levels and Hepatic Effects of Potassium Bromate in Bread 

Samples sold in Awka Metropolis, Nigeria. 

ABSTRACT 

Chike S. Okafor, PhD; Desmond Okeke, BSc; Chike C. Okoli, BSc. 

Dept. of Applied Biochemistry, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria 

This study determined the levels and hepatic effects of Potassium bromate in Bread samples sold in 

Awka Metropolis, Nigeria. Potassium bromate is an additive widely employed by bread makers to 

improve bread quality. On account of its deleterious effect and carcinogenicity in humans, certain 

levels of potassium bromate are not allowed in bread. The present evaluation was carried out in Awka 

Metropolis where consumption of bread is relatively high. Ten (10) different samples of bread 

obtained from different locations were analysed for potassium bromate and were then fed to Wistar 

rats for toxicological analysis.The quantitative assessment showed that all the bread samples contained 

potassium bromated in quantity that exceeded the minimum allowed by the FDA. The level of bromate 

in the bread samples ranged between 5.309+0.023ppm to 9.136+0.024ppm. The result of the 

toxicological study showed that there were significant increases(p RJSITM: Volume: 02, Number: 03, January-2013 Page 17

Uyo metropolis showed the presence of potassium bromate in some of the samples. Research findings 

have shown that potassium bromate decomposes vitamins A, B 1 , B 2 , and E in bread [1] . Rats 

administered potassium bromate in drinking water at various concentrations up to 10,000mg/l showed 

significant signs of liver and kidney toxicity [8] .The effect of potassium bromate on liver is 

questionable [9] 

Apart from its use in flour, potassium bromate is used in permanent hair wave neutralizing solutions 

and the dying of textiles using sulfur dyes [10] . It may be formed in water during ozonation when the 

bromide ion is present [11 ]. Some natural foods like flour have natural content of bromine. Flour has 

2.4-7.7mg/kg of bromine [7] . 

1.1 AIM AND OBJECTIVES: 

This study aimed at determining the levels and hepatic effects of Potassium bromate in bread samples 

sold in Awka Metropolis, Nigeria. 

EXPERIMENTAL 

Reagents. All reagents used were of analytical grade. The potassium bromate used was produced by, 

chemika fluka chemical, Buchs, SwitzerLand . 

Sample collection. Bread samples were purchased from open markets, bus stops, bread stores and 

from bread vendors in Awka Metropolis. A total of ten(10) different samples of bread were used in this 

study. Wistar albino rats used were purchased from the Department of Veterinary Medicine, 

University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria. 

Sample treatment. The different bread samples were dried under room temperature (30 0 c) for 72 

hours and grinded via the manual grinding machine. 

Potassium bromate content determination. The Potassium bromate content determination was done 

using the method [12] 

TOXICOLOGICAL STUDIES: 

Twenty(20) adult male Wistar albino rats weighing 109 + 8.35g used for the study were first 

acclimatized for one week and divided into 5 groups of 4 rats each; group A (control), group B, group 

C, D and E (treatment groups). Groups A B, C, D, and E were fed with composed feed rations 

composed of 20% growers marsh and 80% bread samples containing 0ppm, 7.04ppm, 8.40ppm, 

8.52ppm and 9.14ppm respectively. Water and feed were given to the animals ad libitium. 

Sacrifice and sample collection. 

The animals were fed for 4 weeks and then sacrificed. The animals were starved over night prior to 

sacrifice. Sacrifice was done using cotton wool soaked in a little chloroform which was put in a 

transparent plastic bucket together with the animals. The bucket was covered and the animal observed 

for signs of suffocation. Following suffocation blood was extracted from the animal through heart 

puncture using syringe and needle. The blood samples were equally collected in non-anticoagulant 

sample tubes. 

The rats were handled in line with the ethical guidelines governing the handling of animals. 

Alanine Amino Transferase (ALT) content determination. The Alanine Amino Transferase activity 

determination was done using the method [13] 

Aspartate Amino Transferase (AST) content determination. The Aspartate Amino Transferase 

activity determination was done using the method [13] 

RESULTS. 

QUANITATIVE ANALYSIS 

The results for the quanitative assessment of the 10(ten) bead samples are shown in the table 1. The 

result showed that all the bread samples contained potassium bromate. 


ALT ACTIVITY (U/L) 

AST ACTIVITY(U/L) 

Table 1: Potassium bromate(KB r O 3 ) content of bread samples 

Sample 

Quantity of KB r O 3 (ppm) 

S 1 8.395± 0.018 

S 2 6.543± 0.017 

S 3 5.679± 0.013 

S 4 8.642± 0.036 

S 5 5.432± 0.023 

S 6 8.519± 0,049 

S 7 7.037± 0.020 

S 8 8.395± 0.018 

S 9 9.136± 0.024 

S 10 5.309± 0.023 

Mean ± standard deviation 7.310± 1.482 

Values presented above are mean of four determinations per sample. 

70 

AST ACTIVITY 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

Group A Group B Group C Group D Group E 

Experimental Groups 

Fig1: The Aspartate Amino Transferase activities of the experimental Wistar rats 

25 

ALT ACTIVITY 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 

Group A Group B Group C Group D Group E 

EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS 

Fig2: The Alanine Amino Transferase activities of the experimental Wistar rats 


DISCUSSION. 

This study determined the levels and hepatic effects of Potassium bromate in Bread samples sold in 

Awka Metropolis, Nigeria. 

Result of the study showed that all the bread samples used for the study contained potassium bromate. 

The result showed that the potassium bromate content of the bread samples ranged between 

5.309+0.023ppm and 9.135+0.024ppm. All the 23 bread samples purchased from the eastern part of 

Nigeria used for their study contained potassium bromate at levels exceeding the maximum allowed by 

Food and Drug Agency (FDA) [14] . The maximum amount of potassium bromate allowed in bread by 

the FDA is 0.02µg/g [7] . 

The result of the animal model study showed a significant increase(p

[9]Y.S. Lee, J.Y. Choi, M.K. Park, E.M. Choi, H. Kasai, M.H. Chung; 

Induction of OH8Gua glycosylase in rat kidneys by potassium 

bromate (KBrO 3 ), a renal oxidative carcinogen. Mutation Researc, 364: 227–233(1996) 

[10]R.B. Mack; “Round up the usual suspects. Potassium bromate poisoning”.North Caroline Medical 

Journal, 49:243-245(1988) 

[11]W.R. Haag, J. Hoigne, “ozonation of bromide – containing Water: Kinetics of formation of 

hypobromous acid and bromate”. Environmental science and technology, 17:261-267(1983) 

[12] P.A. Cunniff “Determination of Potassium bromate 

in wheat bread”. AOAC Official method analysis international. 32:18-19(1995). 

[13]S. Reitman, S. Frankel; Amer.J. Clin. Path. 28:56(1957) 

[14] M.O. Emeje, A.C. Ooefulei, A.U. Nnajii, Ofoefule , S.A Brown, 

Assessment of bread safety in Nigeria: Quantitative determination of 

potassium bromate and lead. African Journal of Food Science, 4(6): 394- 

397(2010). 


Constraints behind Development of Khulna Region as a 

Prominent Tourist Destination 

Feroz Ahmed, Professor, Business Administration Discipline, 

Khulna University, Khulna 9208, Bangladesh 

& 

Sheikh Moinul Islam Moin Assistant Chief, Ministry of Planning, 

Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. 

ABSTRACT 

This study aimed to identify the constraints of tourism development in Khulna region of Bangladesh 

that seems a prospective area for tourism. The data were collected from tourists from Khulna, Bagerhat 

and Satkhira by using a structured interview schedule. 120 respondents were interviewed through 

structured questionnaire. Descriptive Analysis in addition to Correlation Analysis and Factor Analysis 

was performed to reveal the facts. The study identified that though rich in natural resources Khulna 

Region lacks in man-made features, associate services and destination marketing functions. Thus, the 

overall situation is inadequate to attract sufficient number of tourists in this region. 

INTRODUCTION 

Khulna Region encompasses the lush green southwestern part of Bangladesh sternly guarded by the 

Bay of Bengal and the Sundarbans. It is the virgin daughter of Ganges-Delta that is not yet fully 

tainted by the ominous black hand of urbanization. It is ornamented with a unique bounty of natural 

diversities along with a vast array of wildlife wonders. 

Highlight of this region is Sundarbans - the single largest mangrove forest in the world. In 1997, 

UNESCO has declared this area as a World Heritage Site. The unique display of natural mangrove 

forests, the infinite crisscross of creeks, rivers, streams and streamlets and a spectacular gathering of 

diverse wildlife make it a savory feast for all eyes. The Sundarbans has numerous outstanding features 

to make it all exclusive. It is the home to the Royal Bengal Tiger (an endemic species found in no 

other jungle), Spotted Deer, Irrawaddy Dolphin, Estuarine Crocodile and Indian Python. It has a rich 

avifauna that comprises about 50% of birds known in Bangladesh. It is a major passageway and refuge 

for migrant and seasonal birds. It is made up of 334 species of flora including Sundari, Gewa and 

Goran and thousands of hectares of unbroken and uninhabited wild nature. Moreover, it is decked with 

a handsome number of tourist points that can efficiently meet the human need of hunger for nature. 

Besides the Sundarbans and other natural assets, Khulna Region also bears the pride of having a 

number of ancient architectural heritages. The Sixty-Domed Mosque of Bagerhat is only one of many 

to cite as an example. 

With all its beauties and wonders, in this age of ecotourism, Khulna Region as a tourist destination 

should have been in the top of the list in every tour portfolio. However, the reality is just the reverse 

and it is out-of-focus so to say in the domain of tourism activities. The arrival of tourists here is so 

minimal to be included in the statistics. Maybe it lacks any or more of the destination image factors 

that attracts the tourists, maybe the problems are rooted in the associate service areas or all the 

problems maybe evolved from the faulty process of destination marketing functions. This study was 

designed to investigate the reasons behind. 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

From the second half of the last century, the world is witnessing tremendous developments in the 

tourism and hospitality sectors. The international tourist arrivals increased from 25 million in the year 


1950 to 67 million in 2000 registering – an average annual growth rate of 7 percent. Now tourism 

industry is enjoying one of the top most positions in the overall business set-up worldwide and is 

contributing over ten percent to global GDP and generating employment for 200 million people. The 

WTO’s Tourism Vision 2020 forecasts the international arrivals are expected to cross 1.56 billion by 

the year 2020. Among that, 1.18 will be intra regional and 0.371 will be long haul travelers (Dixit, 

2006). 

The vastness of tourism marketing has given the birth of some specialized disciplines in the field – one 

of them is destination marketing. Destination marketing is the process of developing, promoting, and 

distributing specific location to satisfy travelers and maintain appeal as long as possible. Albrecht 

(2008) mentioned that destination marketing is a proactive, strategic, visitor-centered approach to the 

economic and cultural development of a location, which balances and integrates the interests of 

visitors, service providers, and the community. Hudson (2005) described that there are some objectives 

behind destination marketing; they are: improving the image of an area in the hope that this will 

encourage industrialists to relocate their factories and offices to the area, providing jobs for local 

residents, increasing the range of facilities that are available for the local community, giving local 

residents more pride in their local area, which can happen when people see that tourists want to visit 

their region, providing a rationale and funding for improvements to the local environment and trying to 

make the destination politically more acceptable. In the core of destination marketing, there lies a 

destination that is destinations are in the hub of all the destination-marketing activities. A destination is 

the final stop of a journey, or the goal for travelers (Pike, 2004). A tourist destination needs to fulfill a 

number of prerequisites to be a prominent one. These can be categorized in some major groups – 

Prime Attractors, Built Environment, Supporting Services and Socio Cultural Dimensions (Lumsdon, 

1997). Lumsdon (1997) stated that the main attraction, physical characteristics e.g., road, commercial 

facilities, essential supporting facilities e.g., catering, socio-cultural dimensions vary from place to 

place. 

As per as Bangladesh is concerned in the standpoint of Destination Marketing, “it is a country with 

rich history, an out of the ordinary beauty, and interesting sites to roam about” (Hossain, 2007). It is 

actually a country with rich traditions, natural beauty, beaches, forests, lakes, hills, wild lives, 

archaeological attractions, monuments, handicrafts, sanctuaries, religious festivals, cultural heritage, 

tribal culture and architecture, incredible greenery, mighty rivers and attractive river cruises, sunny 

beaches, colorful tribal life and attractive cultural functions that offer great tourist attractions (Haque, 

2005; Hossain and Nazmin, 2006). 

When it comes to travelling in Bangladesh besides Cox’s Bazaar the other name that tops in the list is 

Khulna Region (comprised of Khulna, Bagerhat, and Satkhira districts). Like a promised land, this 

region has fulfilled the foremost and primary requirement of being a prominent tourist destination that 

is it is in a well off position in terms of natural attributes. This is a gifted region with rivers, jungles 

and the bay. The historical sites are additions to these virtues. The largest mangrove forest of the 

world, the Sundarbans, shields this region along with the Bay-of-Bengal. The unique collection of 

natural mangrove forest, creeks, streams, rivers, estuaries and stunning wildlife seem to call one and 

all to enjoy. 

As a tourist destination, Khulna Region is centered in the city of Khulna – the third largest city of 

Bangladesh. It is the main entrance of this region and starting point for the tourists to other sites of the 

region. While there aren’t any sights or activities to speak of in Khulna City, the streets become full of 

life at night, with endless markets and bazaars to travel around. Another place of importance for the 

tourists in this region is Bagerhat. This town has more historical monuments in its surrounding area 

than any other town in Bangladesh (after Dhaka, the capital); including its most famous Sixty-Domed 

Mosque. Bagerhat was also home to one of the most venerated men in the history of Bangladesh, Khan 

Jahan Ali. The graveyard of Khan Jahan Ali is situated in the vicinity of the mosque in this town. It is 


a place of spiritual and religious importance for the Muslims. Mongla, the port nearby Bagerhat is 

another place to be mentioned as an attraction for the tourists. It is a port on the joint estuary of the 

rivers – the Passur and the Mongla. It has a string of freighters riding at anchor waiting to be loaded or 

unloaded. It’s a spectacular site, especially toward the southern end where dense jungle lines the 

banks. The edge of the Sundarbans begins only 5 km south away from this place. The district of 

Satkhira is also adorable for its natural beauty. In addition to some parts of the Sundarbans, this place 

is also rich in archeological heritages. In the core of all the tourism activities of Khulna Region, there 

lies the vast Sundarbans. The Sundarbans as the name implies is a beautiful forest. This natural wonder 

is ornamented with a handsome number of tourist points: Karamjal, Katka, Kachikhali, Nilkamal 

(Heron Point), Dublarchar, and Mandarbaria. 

METHODOLOGY 

The study was conducted in Khulna Region that encompasses three southwestern districts of 

Bangladesh – Khulna, Bagerhat and Satkhira. A survey was conducted among the tourists available in 

this region by using a structured interview schedule during the survey period (January to March 2011) 

whether the respondents were local or regional or international. The interview schedule contained in 

27 questions; of them, the first 6 intended for the general information about the tourists comprised of 

multiple choice questions including checklists and ranking questions as well. The next 20 were 5-point 

Likert Items and the last one was an open-ended question. The questions included in the questionnaire 

were relevant to various tourism destination related aspects, accumulated through literature review. As 

the arrival and staying of tourists in any region is quite uncertain and irregular a phenomenon, it was 

virtually impossible to use simple random sampling. Hence, a judgment sampling technique was used. 

The total size of the sample was 120, comprised of tourists both local and foreign. 

To understand the scenario of the region under study in terms of different destination variable, 

descriptive analysis using the ‘weighted average’ was performed. The neutral value 3 was taken as the 

critical value and if the average of the responses for any factor exceeds the critical value 3 it is in the 

positive half and if it is lower than 3 it is in the negative half. The following table was used for 

interpretation: 

Range 

Meaning 

0 to 2.99 Poor 

3 to 3.99 Moderate 

4 to 5 Excellent 

ANALYSIS 

Table – 01: Profiles of the Respondents Surveyed 

Geographic Distribution N = % Demographic Distribution N = % 

120 

(Profession) 

120 

Overseas Tourists 80 66.67 Student 49 40.83 

Local Tourists 40 33.33 Business 36 30.00 

Government Job 11 9.17 

Geographic Distribution N = 

Private Job 15 12.50 

(Overseas Tourists) 

80 

SAARC 14 17.50 Housewife 5 4.17 

Asia(ex-SAARC) 42 52.50 Retired 4 3.33 

Europe 9 11.25 

Africa 4 5.00 Psychographic Distribution 

(Visit –Motive) 

N = 

120 

N. America 6 7.50 Enjoying Holidays 64 53.33 


S. America 2 2.50 Business 26 21.67 

Oceania 3 3.75 Meeting Relatives 7 5.83 

Study Tour 8 6.67 

Geographic Distribution N = 

Formal Education 13 10.83 

(Local Tourist) 

40 

Dhaka 14 35.00 Volunteer Work 2 1.67 

Chittagong 1 2.50 Honeymoon 0 0.00 

Khulna 22 55.00 

Rajshahi 2 5.00 

Sylhet 0 0.00 

Barisal 1 2.50 

Rangpur 0 0.00 

Source: Field survey 2011 

Table – 01 depicts that most of the foreign tourists come to destination Khulna are from Asia when 

viewed continent wise. To be specific the part of Asia excluding the SAARC Region is the major 

source of tourism client for Khulna Region. The other major contributor of tourism revenues in this 

region are the Europe and the South Asia. People from Africa, America (both North and South) and 

the Oceania scarcely give a visit to this region. As for the local tourists, Khulna region itself 

constitutes the largest segment. The other noticeable local region is Dhaka, the region of the Capital. 

The most frequent segment of tourism market that pays visit to Khulna Region is the students 

(40.83%). The other major segments are business people and public and private jobholders. Most of 

the tourists in Khulna Region come here to enjoy their holidays (53.33%). The other noticeable 

motives are to performing business tasks, meeting relatives, study tour and formal education. Some 

come here for volunteer works. 

Relationship among the Destination Factors 

To reveal the interrelationship among the destination variables a correlation analysis was performed. 

And the result shows that most of the variables are positively correlated with one another. However, a 

few show the negative correlation. Of the positives, most show a small or medium correlation and very 

few go to the extremes – high or poor. At an average, the destination variables under study are 

moderately correlated with one another. The strongly positively correlated variables are shown below. 

Table – 02: Pearson’s Coefficient (r) for Destination Factors 

Factor 1 Factor 2 Pearson's 

Coefficient – r 

Booking Facilities for Tour Packages Booking Facilities for Accommodation 0.646 

Performance of Tour Operators Standard Tour Packages 0.576 

Booking Facilities for Tour Packages Availability of Accommodation 0.564 

Entertainment Facilities Games/Sports/Fishing/Rowing Facilities 0.558 

Heritage & Tradition Internal Transport 0.534 

Booking Facilities for Accommodation Internal Transport 0.516 

Standard of Tour Packages Internal Transport 0.504 

Booking Facilities for Accommodation Standard of Accommodation 0.503 

Availability of Accommodation Standard of Accommodation 0.503 

External Transport Promotion & Communication Tools 0.503 

Promotion & Communication Tools Booking Facilities for Tour Packages 0.501 

The table portrays that there is strong correlation between booking facilities for accommodation and 

booking facilities for tour packages. Two types of booking facilities are likely to be of same quality. 


Strong correlation between performance of tour operators and standard of tour packages also can be 

seen. Efficient tour operators will naturally arrange standard tour packages. A high correlation exists 

between booking facilities for tour packages and availability of accommodation. Places abundant with 

accommodation facilities are generally follows high quality tour packages with efficient booking 

facilities. There is a high correlation between entertainment facilities and games/sports/fishing/rowing 

facilities. Naturally, entertainment facilities go in line with games/sports/fishing/rowing facilities. The 

correlation table shows that internal transport facilities available in a destination are highly correlated 

with heritage and tradition of the destination. The result seems quite natural as the cultural attributes of 

any destination in addition to economic condition usually determine what form of transportation a 

society will use. Hence, there is strong correlation between booking facilities for accommodation and 

internal transport. It is always expected that a place with good transport facility will provide a good 

booking facility as well. The table shows that there is a high correlation between tour packages and 

internal transport facilities. It will be easier to arrange effective tour packages if the transport facilities 

are standard. Booking facilities for accommodation for a destination are highly correlated with the 

standard of accommodation of that destination. It is obvious that the correlation will be high as good 

accommodation naturally entails a good booking facility. There is a strong correlation between 

availability of accommodation and standard of accommodation. Tourists zone with available 

accommodation are likely to maintain the standard as well. A high correlation exists between external 

transport facilities and promotion and communication tools. Good transport facility tends to give better 

facilities for promotional activities. A high correlation exists between promotion and communication 

tools and booking facilities for tour packages. Standard promotion and communication tool must be 

supplemented by an efficient booking system. 

Leading Factors that Underlie Destination Variables 

Table-03: Rotated Component Matrix 

Component 

1 2 3 4 

Entertainment Facilities 0.754 

Games/Sports/Fishing/Rowing Facilities 0.717 

Cultural Mix 0.710 

Heritage and Tradition 0.614 

Internal Transport Facilities 0.557 

External Transport Facilities 0.554 

Local People towards Tourists 0.527 

Man Made Features 0.517 

Food and Beverage 0.761 

Standard of Accommodation Facilities 0.635 

Availability of Accommodation Facilities 0.610 

Booking Facilities for Accommodation 0.502 

The Security System 0.455 

Site Seeing Services 0.775 

Promotion & Communication Tools 0.630 

Booking Facilities for Tour Packages 0.613 

Standard of Tour Packages 0.575 

Performance of Tour Operators 0.504 

Natural Features 0.713 

Largest Mangrove Forest 0.688 

The table 03 shows the factor analysis using the principal component analysis option. It loads the 

factors (variables) into four components. The result indicates that the factors under same component be 

have a common theme. It is clear that under the first component lie every factor related to destination 

characteristics posed by non-natural attributes. Under the second component, there fall associate 


services. The third component comprises activities of destination marketing organizations that is, 

destination marketing functions. The fourth and final component includes the natural features. 

Therefore, after factor analysis four principal factors with some sub factors emerge – Destination 

Characteristics in Terms of Natural Attributes, Destination Characteristics in Terms of Non-natural 

Attributes, Associate Services, and Destination Marketing Functions. This clearly coincides with the 

objectives of the study and the literature reviewed. The further analysis will be based on these four 

factors. 

Destination Khulna in Terms of Natural Attributes & Facilities 

Table-04: Khulna as a Tourist Destination in terms of Natural Attributes and Facilities 

Features 

Average 

Mean Score 

Standard 

Deviation 

The attractiveness of natural features of Khulna 4.55 0.606 

The largest mangrove is a major attraction 4.83 0.382 

Man Made Features in Khulna Region 2.82 1.085 

Cultural Mix in Khulna Region 3.02 1.021 

Heritage and Tradition in Khulna Region 3.05 1.18 

Internal Transport Facilities in Khulna Region 3.04 1.184 

External Transport Facilities in Khulna Region 2.86 1.04 

Entertainment Facilities in Khulna Region 2.13 1.038 

Games/Sports/Fishing/Rowing Facilities in Khulna Region 2.15 1.038 

Local People towards Tourists 3.88 0.972 

Table 04 shows tourists’ opinion regarding Khulna as a destination in terms of natural attributes and 

facilities. The figure indicates that only two elements namely the natural attractiveness of Khulna and 

the largest mangrove forest(the Sundarbans) beside Khulna have got score over 4 and one has close to 

four, indicate that these three elements are satisfactory. Three elements namely cultural mix, heritage 

and tradition in Khulna and internal transport of Khulna have moderate score with high standard 

deviation; indicate that these elements are not within satisfactory region. The other four element’s 

score is very poor; indicate that these issues are far below the acceptable region. 

Table – 05: Destination Khulna in Terms of Associate Services for Tourists 

Features 

Average 

Mean Score 

Standard 

Deviation 

Booking Facilities for Accommodation 3.02 1.045 

Availability of Accommodation 2.96 1.103 

Standard of Accommodation 2.96 1.056 

Food and Beverage 3.30 1.097 

Security System 3.27 1.043 

Table – 05 illustrates the respondents’ view about Khulna in terms of Associate Services for the 

tourists. It indicates that none of the elements in this category crosses the value of 4 to reach the region 

of glory. Only three elements ‘the booking facilities for accommodation’, ‘Food & Beverage’ and 

‘Security System’ falls into average category scoring more than 3. The other two fails to touch the 

average region for a very low margin. Therefore, in terms of associate services Khulna Region is in a 

moderate level. It has yet to achieve the excellence. 

Table – 06: Destination Khulna in Terms of Destination Marketing Functions 

Features Average Mean Score Standard Deviation 

Booking Facilities for the Tour Packages 3.12 0.98 

Standard of the Tour Packages 3.25 1.039 

Performance of the Tour Operators 3.27 1.235 

Site Seeing Services 3.45 1.052 

Promotion and Communication Tools 3.30 1.021 


Table – 06 depicts the observation of respondents’ about Khulna in terms of Destination Marketing 

Functions. All the elements are seen to be fallen between 3 and 4 portraying an average score with 

high standard deviation in most cases. Thus, the Destination Marketing Functions in Khulna Region 

are performed maintaining an average standard. 

CONCLUSION 

The advantage thanks to nature is unfortunately offset by the absence of other attributes and 

requirements in the path of being a prominent tourist destination. When it comes to the non- natural 

attributes that helps to make a destination more favorable for tourists arrival and add to the natural 

beauties Khulna Region is in a severely poor condition. It lacks in most part of the built environment 

that drives the tourists off this destination. As far as the associate services for the tourists are 

concerned Khulna Region is in a mediocre position far behind the adequate let alone attractive. With a 

few exceptions it lags behind the quality standard in every aspect of associate services. When it comes 

to destination marketing functions, Khulna Region is in better condition than non-natural attributes 

and associate service areas. However, it is still in a second-rate position among the attributes, still not 

sufficient enough to attract sufficient number of tourists in this region. 

REFERENCE 

Albrecht, K. (2008). The Future of Destination Marketing, DMAI Futures Study 2008, 

http://www.tourismwallawalla.com/marketing/DMAIStudyExecSummary.ppt, explored on 

January 15, 2011 

Dixit, S. (2006). Hospitality and Tourism Management. 1 st Edition. New Delhi: Aman Publications, p. 

1 

Haque, M., (2005), “Tourism Industry in Bangladesh”, The Independent, September, 27, p. 9. 

Hossain, M. A. and Nazmin, S. (2006). “Development of Tourism Industry in Bangladesh- an 

empirical study on its problems and prospects” Centre for Tourism and Hotel management 

Research, Ga-1, Rashedul Hasan Bhaban, University of Dhaka. 

Hossain, M. A. (2007). “Strategic Promotion Approaches to Developing Tourism in Bangladesh: An 

Empirical Study of Some Selected Tour Operators”, Research Book, Bureau of Business 

Research, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh 

Hudson, H. (2005). Destination Marketing, Marketing for Tourism and Hospitality: a Canadian 

Perspective, http://www.hudson.nelson.com/ppt/ch_12.ppt, explored on January 16, 2011. 

Lumsdon, L. (1997) Tourism Marketing, Dongbei University of Finance & Economics Press. 

Pike, S. (2004) Destination marketing organizations, Advances in Tourism Research, Elsevier. 


Earthquake Resistant Structures on the Traditional Houses in Indonesia 

Budi Arlius Putra, Seoul National University , Korea 

Abstract 

Indonesia is one area of potential eartquake, the awareness for designing earthquake-resistant 

construction is an important role in conservation of traditional houses. In fact, the results of postearthquake 

investigation since 2004 show that the traditional houses has a better resistance to 

earthquake loads. This drew the attention of architects to relearn the local wisdom of values embodied 

in traditional houses. In addition, change of civilization and technological progress causes a shift in the 

value of life. Shift in traditional values occur in the design and method construction of house. This 

study discusses the assessment of the reliability of a traditional houses against earthquake loads. Use of 

rapid evaluation based on the building typology on the traditional houses from four big island in 

Indonesia. For further analysis of the seismic performance would follow “World Housing 

Encyclopedia”. This study is limited to the assessment structural component resistance to earthquake 

load. 

Keywords: earthquake-resistant, traditional houses, reliability, structure 

INTRODUCTION 

The traditional houses are different from building to building, country to country. They can vary in 

structural systems, material, and environmental. Houses have being formed due to the condition of 

specific place, time, and culture. Indonesia is archipelago country covers more than 1700 big and small 

islands have almost 700 ethnic, which is reflected in the shape of a traditional house. There are two 

types traditional buildings built some 200 years ago and second are built during the Dutch occupation 

150 years ago. The first type traditional buildings still exist in several places in Indonesia, which will 

be focused for this study. 

This study is present a procedure for assessing the reliability of traditional house based on evaluation 

of structural components that characterized by earthquake resistant features. For representative of 

various character of ethnic, this study has selected a few of traditional houses that scattered in four 

different islands. 

EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT INDICATORS 

The art of designing earthquake resistant building, as the structural and non-structural element play a 

central roles in determining the structural behavior sensitivity of damage. Some forms of traditional 

housing construction have been achieved without any specify technical knowledge, but rather through 

a type of natural selection process applied to building construction. Since the constant threat of 

earthquake, the local population has learned the principles of earthquake-resistant construction through 

a trial and error process. Poor earthquake performance which caused damaged or collapsed of some 

building traditional due to lack of maintenance (Boen, 2007). 

For a building to be earthquake resistant it must be cover three requirements; (1) configured well, (2) 

detailed well, (3) constructed well. Weakness in any one of these will result weak-earthquake. It is 

important to recognize and identify the main features to enhance seismic performance of traditional 

buildings. 

TYPOLOGY TRADITIONAL HOUSES 

There are many physical features of traditional Houses from eastern region up to western region of 

Indonesia. Most of the houses have primarily a practical function. They are shelters, storage rooms and 

places for ritual performance. Depending on the material and technology used, traditional Houses can 


generally distinguish between raised-floor house and landed houses. In most of western part houses the 

inhabitants are living on raised floor that is proposed for the technical, hygienic, and other advantages 

of such a solution on muddy and often uneven tropical soil, and in environmental full of dangerous 

animals. 

For evaluation seismic performance of traditional Houses are selected randomly in several location as 

shown in figure 1. 

Figure 1. Location of the selected traditional houses 

Typology of those traditional Houses are described as following. 

Case # 1: Rumoh Aceh 

This house located in northeast part of Sumatera Island Nangrore Aceh Darussalam (NAD) province. 

The house is built as a log wooden post places. Under the house, between the posts which rest on flat 

stones or concrete soles. The wooden mainframe of structure is H-structure formed columns and beams. 

The beam was passing through a post and fixed by pegging. Three part floors are not same levels. 

Case # 2: Omo Hada Nias 

This a unique house exist on Nias Island, a small island at south part Sumatera Island. The features of 

house in north part has oval floor plan, slanting walls all around, rows of vertical pillars and diagonal 

bracing (X form) in the substructure and a huge hat-like roof. The feature of south part houses have a 

row house-like rectangular floor plan, straight load bearing side walls, a slanting front façade, V- 

shaped diagonal bracing in the front façade and a very high roof. Central Nias houses have influenced 

North and South Nias type. These traditional houses were used only locally grown plant material. The 


acing is placed in rows inside or outside a grid of vertical columns in both direction. Four pillars 

connect substructure with living floor and two pillars connect living room and roof. The joints of wood 

elements are used elaborate mortise and tenon connections. 

Case # 3: Rumah Gadang Padang 

Source: Munaf & Is, 2007 

Rumah Gadang (a bighouse) Pagaruyuang palace located in Batusangkar, Tanah Datar, West Sumatera. 

The house has a long rectangular plan with multiple gables roof. Normally, the house has three-tiered 

up swept gable, each with varying floor levels. The structure consists of substructure built woodpiles, 

board floors raised on piles with wooden mainframes and multilevel floors. 

Case # 4: Rumah Joglo Java 

Source: Sardjono, 2 

Joglo house is a typical traditional house in Central Java. The system structure of house uses wood 

material with knock down system. Therefore, allowable to reinstall in elsewhere without physical 

damage of the building. The main structure consists of three elements roof frame, columns and 

foundations stone masonry and pedestals brick masonry. 

Case # 5: Tongkonan Toraja 

Tongkonan is a traditional house of Toraja District Southern part of Sulawesi Island. Tongkonan 

means sitting together where people just gather. Type structure is silts house withstood small stone. 

The saddle-back roof is constructed with layered spliced-bamboo. The house has a rectangular plan. 

The wooden structure is assembled without nail. The wooden piles are shaped and mortises cut in them 

to take the horizontal tie beam. The piles are notched at the top to accommodate the longitudinal and 

transverse beams of the upper structure. 


Case # 6: Laihe Gorontalo 

This traditional house can be found in Gorontalo District, North part of Sulawesi Island. This house is 

still house with shape of plan square. Pillars of house are vary 1m to 1,5m height that use brick 

masonry. Upper brick masonry foundation is tied by longitudinal and transverse beams. The material 

for floor and wall use wood. The wooden structure is assembled without nail. 

Case # 7: Honai, Papua 

This very simple house can be found on the remote area of Yahukimo District in mountain area of 

Papua Island. Lateral load path provided due to the shell action of cylindrical walls. The main structure 

consists of a single cylindrically shape room. The house has a built narrow and without window to 

keep warm avoids the cold mountains. This condition is favorable for the wall proportions and wall 

redundancy requirements. 

METHODS 

To assess the reability of the traditional Houses were evaluated by study the system structures of the 

house whether the requirements needed by earthquake-resistance have been considered. The 

measurement may be expressed by a numerical value to the element examined. This approach is 

organized in two steps. The first step is collecting the structural typology of traditional house. The 

second step is evaluating the presence of earthquake-resistant features. 

EVALUATE PROCEDURE 

In order to define reliability of house performance is necessary to identify a reference to satisfy seismic 

requirement. The reliability assessment procedure should indicated by the strength points of a structure 

and given a relative measure of these consistencies. 

For evaluation of building simple include on vernacular building, World Housing Encyclopedia (WHE) 

have provide information the criteria earthquake-resistant should following: 


1. Lateral load path: The structure containts a complete load path for seismic forces effects from 

any horizontal direction that serves to transfer inertial forces from the building to the 

foundation. 

2. Building configuration: The building is regular with regards to both the plan and the elevation. 

3. Roof construction: The roof diaphragm is considered to be rigid and it is expected that the roof 

structure will maintain its integrity i.e. shape and form, during an earthquake of intensity 

expected in this area. 

4. Floor construction: The floor diaphragms are considered to be rigid and it is expected that the 

floor structures will maintain its integrity during earthquake of intensity expected in this area. 

5. Foundation performance: There is no evidence of excessive foundation movement (e.g. 

settlement) that would affect the integrity or performance of the structure in an earthquake. 

6. Wall and frame structures redundancy: The number of line of wall or frames in each principle 

direction is greater than or equal to 2. 

7. Wall proportions: Height-to thickness ratio of the shear wall at each floor level. 

8. Foundation – wall connection: Vertical load-bearing elements (columns, walls) are attached to 

the foundation. 

9. Wall – roof connection: Exterior wall are anchored for out-of-plane seismic effects at each 

diaphragm level. 

10. Wall – openings: The total width of door and window opening in a wall. 

11. Quality of building materials: Quality of building materials is considered to be adequate per 

requirements of national codes and standard. 

12. Quality of workmanship: Quality of workmanship (based on visual inspection of few typical 

buildings) is considered to be good (per local construction standards). 

13. Maintenance: Buildings of this type are generally well maintained and there are no visible signs 

of deterioration of building elements. 

BUILDING PERFORMANCE SCORE 

Once the earthquake-resistance of a building are obtained or met the requirement, then a score is added 

for every realiability parameter. The score is ‘1’ if the criteria meet the requirement of earthquakeresistance 

and the opposite for score ‘0’. Since the evaluation referred on the drawing of typology 

house therefore the criteria of WHE’s procedure for criteria the quality of building materials, quality of 

workmanship and maintenance were ignored. 

DATA ANALYSIS 

Table 1 shows the relation between criteria of earthquake-resistance with house type. 

No Type house Seismic deficiency 

1 Rumoh Aceh Multilevel floor, short columns, unbraced sub-structure, no components embedded in the ground, soft story 

2 Omo Nias Slanting walls, no components embedded in the ground 

3 Rumah Gadang No components embedded in the ground, soft story, multi level floor, multiple gable roof, heavy roof, multi shape plan 

4 Joglo Java Soft story 

5 Tongkonan Toraja Unbraced sub-structure, no components embedded in the ground, soft story, heavy roof 

6 Laihe Joint sub-structure-upper structure, soft story, no components embedded in the ground 

7 Honai Papua No components embedded in the ground 

TABLE I SEISMIC FEATURES 

Total performance score was calculated from the initial score is reduced by factors of seismic 

deficiency as described in Table 1. The performance score for each house follow Table 2. Based on 

Table 2 indicate that no single house that the all criteria meet with the earthquake-resistance (see Table 

2 below) 


TABLE 2 RELIABILITY PERFORMANCE OF HOUSE 

No Criteria 

No case house 

seismic features 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 

1. Lateral load path 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

2. Building configuration 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 

3. Roof construction 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 

4. Floor construction 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 

5. Foundation performance 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 

6. Wall-frame redundancy 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

7. Wall proportions 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

8. Foundation-wall connection 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 

9. Wall-roof connection 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

10. Wall openings 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 

Reliability [%] 70 70 50 90 70 80 90 

CONCLUSION 

Understanding of the structural performance of traditional houses is important. This study explores and 

measure earthquake-resistance features of traditional Houses in Indonesia. Recognize of local wisdom 

in traditional Houses is not means steadiness in the product. Traditional knowledge and qualities 

should not be lost but find a new and modern interpretation. For the houses that will be new, the 

traditional houses can be the key of many solutions. The realiability of earthquake resistant building is 

influenced by the quality of construction, quality of building materials and fit in structural engineering. 

REFERENCES 

[1] Abdul, N. A. 2010. Karakteristik Rumah Budel Sebagai Arsitektur Vernakular Gorontalo. Jurnal 

Inovasi Vol. 7 No. 1 Maret 2010: 176-188 

[2] Boen, Teddy. 2007. West Sumatra Earthquake, 6 March 2007, Structural Damage Report, Seminar 

dan pameran HAKI 2007, Konstruksi tahan gempa di Indonesia. 

[3] EERI and IAEE. 2012. World Housing Encyclopedia, an Encyclopedia of housing construction in 

seismically active areas of the world. [online] available: http://www. world-housing.net 

[4] Gruber, P. 2007. Adaptation and Earthquake Resistance of Traditional Nias Architecture. 

[5] Munaf, Y; Is, S. 2007. Rumah gadang, Konstruksi Indonesia Karya anak bangsa teknologi rumah 

tahan gempa, Departemen Pekerjaan Umum, 44-59 

[5] Sardjono, A.B. 2009. Konstruksi rumah Traditional Kudus. 


Awareness among the people about E-Banking Services with Special reference to the cosmos cooperative 

Bank Ltd., Pune (Maharashtra) 

Abstract 

Prof. Janardan K. Pawar, 

Sinhgad College of Arts & Commerce, Narhe, Pune-411041 

It is an umbrella term for the process by which a customer may perform banking transactions 

electronically without visiting a brick-and-mortar institution. The following terms all refer to one form 

or another of electronic banking: personal computer (PC) banking, Internet banking, virtual banking, 

online banking, home banking, remote electronic banking, and phone banking. PC banking and 

Internet or online banking is the most frequently used designations. It should be noted, however, that 

the terms used to describe the various types of electronic banking are often used interchangeably. 

E-banking is a generic term for delivery of banking services and products through electronic channels, 

such as the telephone, the internet, the cell phone, etc. The concept and scope of E-banking is still 

evolving. It facilitates an effective payment and accounting system thereby enhancing the speed of delivery of 

banking services considerably. This paper attempts to know the E –Banking services provided by banks to the customers, 

its transactions and the awareness of people about E-Banking services with special reference to Cosmos Cooperative 

bank Pune. It reveals the finding and suggestions for the effective implementation of E-Banking service by banks. 

Introduction 

Today’s banking is no longer confined to branches. Customers are being provided with E-Banking 

services which are more convenient to customers are cost effective to the banks. These include ATM, 

Tele Banking, Internet Banking, Mobile Banking, Electronic Fund Transfer, Any Where Banking etc. 

E-Banking facilitates banking transactions by customers round the clock globally. 

Traditional Banking 

The customer has to visit the branch of the bank in person to perform the basic banking operations. Ex- 

Account enquiry, fund transfer, cash withdrawal. The brick & mortar structure of a bank is essential 

for the performance of banking functions. 

E-Banking 

E-Banking enables the customers to perform the basic banking transactions by sitting at their office or 

at homes through viewing their Account details & perform the transactions by sitting at their office or 

at homes through PC or LAPTOP. 

E-Banking Services 

Banking activities through the traditional delivery channel of branch networks on the decline and 

customers can now do banking business from the comfortable confines of their homes using most 

modern E-Banking services. Banks are able to deliver their products more cheaply than the traditional 

branch networks loaded with expensive staff. The ICT has enabled banks to increase the range of their 

services. 


1. ATM (Automated Teller Machine) 

ATMs have become the order of the day in banking. Through they were evolved as novel cash 

dispensers, now they have emerged as a marking tool to target the masses. There are about 10300 

ATMs of many banks are nothing but virtual branches, as a customer can conduct any transactions, 

through the touch screens. They are user friendly and they mass acceptability. They can effectively 

reach at a large customer’s base at low cost. Banks have started dispensing Railway Tickets, Air 

Tickets, and Movie Tickets etc. through ATMs. In future, a bank’s ATM would function like a kiosk 

delivering more on non-cash transactions thereby reducing fixed and operating costs. 

2. Core Banking 

Core Banking is a all about knowing customers needs & providing them with the right products at the 

right time through the right channels 24 hours a day, 7 days week (24x7). In other words, Core 

Banking refers to the activities a bank generally undertakes. It included Core Banking process which 

refers to the complete administration of transactions for the bank through a central data base. In an 

ideal Core Banking scenario, all products, processes, channels and customer relationship management 

tools are the integrated and administrated through a central data base of the bank with branches and 

channels as a delivery points. 

3. Electronic Fund Transfer 

It is system under which computers and electronic technology is used as the substitute for cheque and 

other paper transactions. Funds are transferred instantly among different branches at the various places 

(or locations) in the country through the network using latest communication technology. 

Today, the Electronic Fund Transfer has brought sea change in the nature of transactions of 

business entries. It has largely contributed to the success of the modern banking. 

4. Tele Banking 

It is increasingly used as a modern E-Banking service by the banks. A customer can do online noncash 

related banking over the phone anywhere at any time. Automated Voice Recorders (AVR) or 10 

numbers are used for rendering Tele-Banking services which have added convenience to the 

customers. 

5. Internet Banking (Any Where Banking) 

Under this facility customer can withdraw or deposit cash at branches other than the base branch, 

where he/she maintains account. For cash withdraw or deposit the customer may approach any bank 

counter of the convenient designated branch. Customer will press the PIN number and place finger 

print terminal along with the desired amount to be deposited or withdrawn. He/She has to sign the 

request or receipt generated by the system for this purpose. Customer becomes the customer of entire 

bank rather than a branch where be originally opened an Account. All the branches are interconnected 

with the help of satellite. 

E-Banking Transactions 

Any type of transactions can be handled through E-Banking in the initial phase most of the basic 

banking transactions can be performed conveniently through Internet Banking. The following are the 

E-Banking transactions: 


1. Account Enquiry 

2. Fund Transfer 

3. Payment of Electricity, water and telephone bills etc 

4. Online payment for transactions actually performed through internet. 

5. Request for cheque book, draft etc. 

6. Statement of Accounts 

7. Access to latest schemes 

8. Access to rates of interest & other services. 

Statement of the Problem 

A study on the e-banking services habits of people in respect of the Cosmos cooperative bank Pune. 

The important concepts are covered in the paper are the popularity of different E-Banking products and 

the challenges encountered by the users of such products. 

Objectives of the Study 

 

 

 

 

To analyze the banking activities of people of the Cosmos Cooperative bank Pune. 

To identify the most preferred E-Banking services by the people of the CCB Pune. 

To know the frequency of use of E-Banking services by the people of the CCB. 

The problems encountered by the users of E-Banking services of CCB. 

Scope of the study 

The present study is undertaken in respect of the Cosmos cooperative bank Pune. The study provides 

insights about the banking habits of the people CCB and their most preferred E-Banking service. The 

frequency in which they use E-Banking service of the problems they face in using E-Banking services. 

Limitations of the study 

The primary data is collected through a structured questionnaire and the sample size is only limited to 

100 respondents. 

Methodology 

The study area selected is the Cosmos Cooperative Bank Pune. The respondents are selected from the 

Pune city only. 

Research Design 

In the study both exploratory and descriptive research design has been used. Judgmental or purpose of 

sampling method is used for gathering the primary data. The respondents are the residents of Pune city, 

who have any type of bank account. 

Sample size & tool 

Researchers have selected 100 samples for the study. All the selected respondents are bank account 

holders of one type of the other of the CCB. 

Research tools 

The research has been conducted by using structured questionnaire method for collecting primary data. 


Sources of data 

Primary data has been collected through personal interview method. Secondary data has been collected 

from different sources of literature like magazines, newspapers and text books, journals and internet. 

Statistical tool 

Percentage method is used for analyses of data. The result of the research is presented through tables 

followed by pie charts and bar diagrams. 

Interpretation and Analysis of data 

Table-1 Occupation of Respondents 

Occupation Total No of Respondents Percentage % 

Home maker 18 18% 

Self Employed 16 16% 

Business 26 26% 

Service 30 30% 

Student 10 10% 

Total No of Respondents 

30 

10 

26 

18 

16 

Home maker 

Self Employed 

Business 

Service 

Student 

From the above table, it can be observed that 30% of the respondents surveyed are in service, 26% are 

doing business, 18% of respondents homemakers, 16% of respondents self employed and 10% of 

respondents are students. 

Table-2 Age of Respondents 

Age Groups Total No of Respondents Percentage 

15-24 15 15 

25-34 26 26 

35-44 22 28 

45-54 24 24 

55-64 13 13 



24 

13 

22 

15 

26 

15-24 

25-34 

35-44 

45-54 

55-64 

It can be noted from the above table that 15-24 years age group of respondents are 26%, 45-54 years 

age group of respondents are 24% and 55-64 years age group of respondents are 13%. 

Table-3 Gender of Respondents 

Gender Total No of Percentage 

Respondents 

Male 66 66% 

Female 34 34% 

Total 100 100% 

Total No of 

Respondents 

100 

66 

34 

Male 

Female 

Total 

It can be noted from the above table that 66% of the respondents are men and 38% of respondents are 

women. 

Table-4 Type of A/Cs of Respondents 

Type of A/C Total No of Percentage 

Respondents 

S.B A/c 50 100% 

R.D A/c 08 16% 

F.D A/c 12 24% 

Current A/c 15 30% 


50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 

S.B A/c R.D A/c F.D A/c Current A/c 


Percentage 

From the above table it can be examined that all the respondents have S.B A/c, 30% Current A/c, 24% 

have FD A/c, 16% have RD A/c. It also reveals that the respondents do have more than one type. 

Table-5 Most Preferred E-Banking service 

Name of the 

Service 


Respondents 

Percentage 

(%) 

ATM 70 70% 

Credit Card 02 02% 

Tele Banking 14 14% 

Internet 

10 10% 

Banking 

EFT 04 04% 

Others 0 0% 

Total 100 100% 


Respondents 

ATM 

100 

70 

Credit Card 

Tele Banking 

0 

4 

10 

14 

2 

Internet 

Banking 

It can be noted from the above table that 70% of the respondents use ATM services the most, 14% use 

Tele Banking services, 10% use Internet Banking facility and only 2% of respondents use Credit 

Cards. 


Table-6 Frequency of using E-Banking services 

Frequency Total No. of Respondents Percentage % 

Several times a week 45 45% 

Once a weel 18 18% 

Once a month 24 24% 

Twice a month 13 13% 

Total 100 100% 

Total No. of Respondents 

24 

13 

45 

Several times a 

week 

Once a weel 

18 

Once a month 

It can be observed from the above table that 45% of the respondents use E-Banking services several 

times a week, 24% use once a month, 18% use once a week and 13% use twice a month respectively. 

Table-7 Type of Service used /planning to use 

Type of service Total No of Respondents Percentage % 

A/c Enquiry 80 80% 

Fund Transfer 60 60% 

Payment of Electricity 16 16% 

Online payment of transactions 26 26% 

Request for issue of cheque /bills 08 08% 

Access to rate of interest 0 0% 

Statement of A/c 40 40% 

80 

70 

60 

50 

40 

30 

20 

10 

0 


Respondents 

Percentage % 


It is seen from the above table that 40% of the respondents use E-Banking services to enquire about 

their accounts,30% respondents use it to transfer funds, 20% respondents check their statement of 

accounts and 13% are use it for making online payment transactions which have actually occurred 

through interest. It is also clear from the above table that the respondents use these E-Banking services 

for more than one purpose. 

Table-8 Problems encountered in using E-Banking service 

Type of Problems Total No of Respondents Percentage 

Inability to use computers 12 12% 

Limit on daily withdrawal 38 38% 

Costly service charges 26 26% 

Security issues 30 30% 

Technical problems 40 40% 

Unawareness of latest E- Banking service 14 14% 

40 

35 

30 

25 

20 

15 

10 

5 

0 


Percentage 

It can be notified from the above table that 20% of the respondents face technical problems using E- 

Banking services, 19% are find the limit on daily withdrawl as a hindrance, 15% of the respondents 

find security issues, 13% find these services expensive, 7% and 6% respondents are unawareness of 

many E-Banking services and unable to use computer systems capably. The table also reveals that the 

respondents do face more than one problem using Net Banking services. 

Findings 

 

 

 

 

 

All the respondents have an SB A/c. It is the most popular type of A/c held by the 

respondents. 

Majority of the people have their accounts in Nationalized, Commercial banks like SBI, 

SBM compared to private banks. 

ATM is the most preferred E-Banking service by the respondents. 

The respondents also use these services quite frequently, maximum number of respondents 

use them several times a week. 

The respondents use E-Banking services for the purpose of A/c enquiry and transfer of 

funds. However the percentage of people using Internet Banking is very less. 


The respondents also face a number of problems in using Internet Banking Services. 

Many respondents face technical problems while using online banking services. 

Many respondents are concerned about the security aspects while they process Internet 

Banking transactions. 

Many respondents are also of an opinion that they are unaware of many of the E-Banking 

services due to which they are unable use many such services. 

Suggestions 

 

 

 

 

 

There is a need to create awareness about the use of E-Banking services. 

Measures to be taken to avoid the technical problems like machine breakdown, scanner 

problem, software problem, lock-up etc. 

People are cautious about the security issues. Hence proper measures should be taken to 

build the confidence among the users. 

Under utilizing of credit cards facility in the district suggests that the bankers and 

businessmen can improve their business transactions by availing credit card facility to the 

maximum extent. 

People especially belonging to business class demand for reduced service charges, 

competitive service charges will definitely make E-Banking services more popular. 

Conclusion 

E-banking creates issues for banks and regulators alike. For our part we will continue our work, both 

national and international, to identify and remove any unnecessary barriers to e-banking. In 

conclusion, to be a true E-bank, each bank must identify its own unique targets, focus and style. Banks 

need to realize that E-banking is more than simply banking on the Internet. E-banking is more than 

having a web site. E-banking is about building a web business for your bank. 

Bibliography 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Banking Theory & Practices : B.S.Raman Universal Publishers 

E-Banking Opportunities and Challenges : Dr. Mathew Fernades 

Challenges to the Indian Banking Competition : Dr. A.B.N. Kulkarni 

Marketing Research : Bery G.C. Tata Mc Graw Hills 

Bank Financial Management : IIBF 

Advance Bank Management : IIBF 

Financial Services: Perspectives & Challenges: Heyes Samuel. 

E-Commerce: Dr. Uppin S.B 


THE ROLE OF MANAGEMENT EDUCATION IN BUILDING THE MANAGEMENT 

CAPACITY OF MEDICAL DIRECTORS OF HOSPITALS IN NIGERIA AS LINE CHIEF 

EXECUTIVES 

ABSTRACT 

BASSEY, ANTIGHA OKON (Ph.D.), Lecturer, Department of Sociology, 

Faculty of Social Science, University of Calabar, P.M.B. 1105 Calabar C.R.S. – Nigeria 

ABIA, RAPHAEL PIUS, Senior Lecturer, Department of Sociology 


OJUA, TAKIM ASU, Senior Lecturer, Department of Sociology, 


The paper explains the leadership of public hospitals in Nigeria which rests in the hands of Medical 

Doctors who are line personnel without adequate management education and training required to foster 

efficiency of hospital organisation. A table of selected public hospitals in South-South Nigeria is 

presented to empirically substantiate the position of the authors. The paper also reveals management 

attitudes of line chief executive as a source of industrial distrust which breeds industrial disharmony. 

Avenues for management training were also enumerated to guide Line Chief Executive to acquire 

core-competence in management. The paper recommended Nigerian Institute of Management, a 

regulatory body to champion inclusion of management in the professional training of medical doctors 

and other professionals like engineers. The paper strongly maintained that the adoption of Hospital 

Governors as in Britain who are professional managers in terms of amending the enabling laws 

establishing hospital to change them from line chief executive (Doctors) to specialised health 

administrators as heads, will solve the problem of administrative inefficiency and wastage in Nigerian 

public health institutions. 

Keywords: 

Role, Management education, Management capacity, Line, Staff, Chief 

Executive, Medical Directors 

INTRODUCTION: 

The main or cardinal goals of any organization include survival, growth and development, and the 

achievement of these goals depends greatly on the efficiency and effectiveness of Management of the 

organization. In view of this organizational desire, there exist a concerned about who leads, and directs 

the organization to achieve its goals. 

Some organizations are headed by specialists, while others are headed by just anybody. In some cases, 

professional managers or administrators, who are well trained in the art and science of managing both 

human and material resources, are hired as the Chief Executives, and in this situation Management 

techniques, dexterity and administrative acumen are utilized in solving organizational problems, 

thereby placing the organizations on a proper balance for sustainable growth and development. But 

where these managerial ingredients are lacking, due to non possession of adequate managerial skills by 

leaders, organizations will suffer and may possibly collapse. 

This paper considers management training as a key element of organizational leadership; and also 

views effectiveness and efficiency as a pre-requisite for sustenance, growth and development. The 

focus on Medical Directors is because of their peculiarity as line personnel in Hospital organisations, 

who lead hospital establishments’ day-to-day operation in line with laws establishing them and placing 


the headship in the hands, as Medical Directors who are Medical Doctors lacked requisite management 

education (Bassey, 2012). 

LINE AND STAFF IN ORGANISATIONAL LEADERSHIP: A CONCEPTUAL GUIDE 

Koontz, O'Donnell and Weihrich (1980:395) defined line as those functions which have direct 

responsibility for accomplishing the objectives of the enterprise, while staff refers to those functions 

that help the line to work must effectively in accomplishing the primary objectives of the enterprise. 

Tyagi (1981: 161-162) in a more simple language considers line as those agencies which are 

concerned with the main or primary functions for which the organizations came into existence, for 

example teachers in educational institutions and Doctors in healthcare agencies, while staff refers to 

such activities in an organizations which assist the Departmental Head or the Chief Executive in the 

performance of his duties. 

From Tyagi (1981) and Koontz, O'Donnell and Weihrich (1980) definitions, two major things are 

clear:- 

1 Organization may be purely on line levels - for example a professional firm of Lawyers or 

Accountants. 

2 Organization may be line and staff at the same time. 

3 It is difficult to find a purely staff organizations. 

4 In most perspectives, they are both line and staff employees in organizations, e.g. the cashier in 

an accounting firm, or the lawyer attached to a firm of Estate Surveyors. 

Another perspective of viewing line and staff which is also relevance to this paper is the functional 

authority perspective. In this regard, line constitutes "that relationship in which a superior exercises 

direct supervision over a subordinate, while the nature of staff relations is Advisory’’ (Bassey, 

2001:2). 

THE NEED FOR A PROFESSIONAL MANAGER IN HEALTH ORGANISATIONS 

The position of a professional Manager in the organization is critical in terms of his contribution to 

organizational success. Is the professional Manager a line or staff employee? The answer to this 

question depends on the nature and purpose of the organization. Taking for instance a firm of 

Management Consultants, the professional Manager is a line officer, but in a health care institution a 

professional manager who is a health administrator is a staff. Then, when a professional manager is a 

staff, whose role is only advisory despite his management dexterity and administrative acumen, how 

efficient is such organization expected to be in a situation where sound administrative advice may not 

be accepted by Specialist Chief Executive. It is the likelihood of the occurrence of this kind of 

situation in line and staff organizations where a line officer is the Chief Executive and the Staff Officer 

(a professional Manager) is only playing advisory role which prompted the choice of this thoughtprovoking 

delicate topic under examination. 

LEADERSHIP IN LINE AND STAFF ORGANIZATIONS 

Line and Staff Organizations include variety of firms, companies, enterprises of both public and 

private dimension. However, since we are in an economic environment dominated by public 

governmental concerns, focus will specifically be on government organizations, especially those in the 

health sector. 

Other than ministries and departments, government corporations, companies and parastatals have 

enabling laws establishing them. These laws provide for the leadership structures of such 

organizations. These laws include the various Acts and Decrees establishing Federal Universities, 

Public Utility Corporations like Power Holding Company of Nigeria and the Federal Universities 

Teaching Hospitals. In the law establishing Universities, a lecturer of the professorial standing (a line 

staff) is the leader and Chief Executive with the title "Vice Chancellor". In the University Teaching 


Hospitals the enabling decree has provided for the position of Chief Medical Director (C.M.D.) as the 

Chief Executive Officer and this position of C.M.D. is occupied by a Medical Doctor of the status of 

Consultant physician or equivalent (also a line staff). The question again is, how adequately trained are 

these specialists (line) Chief Executives, to manage such large and complex line and staff 

organizations as the University Teaching Hospitals? Do they possess the required management knowhow? 

The answer often is "NO". Whenever the answer is "No" the resultant effect is the bastardization 

of the organizations, as noted by Bassey (2003) that line executives are not interested with details in 

their hasty decision making process and make decision with scanty and porous facts, comprehensive 

examination of issues and their consequences are not carried out and every decision is affected by 

professional bias, and arrogance and pride in total neglect of staff employees. In times of industrial 

crises, the line Chief Executive often take sides with line employee groups at the detriment of staff 

employee groups, which give way to tension and distrust in work group relationship. In this condition, 

no organization can strive on success lane. Bassey (2003) extensive study opines that the professional 

bias is common among doctors (Consultants) as Chief Executives of Health Institutions as compared to 

Professors (Vice Chancellors) as Chief Executives of Universities. This leads us to the administrative 

inadequacies of line Chief Executives which are:- 

1. Lack of Management Training and Education 

2. Inability to apply and adopt humanistic approach to management and preference for nonhumane 

management styles based on line technical training as against scholarship in 

humanism. 

3. Ignorance of the ethics of Management which focus on efficiency and effectiveness of the 

organizations, as against sectional interest which is parochial rather than wholistic. 

4. Professional Bias as against comprehensive rationality in decision making. 

All these problems act as the limiting factors affecting the total capacity of the line Chief Executive to 

move the organization forward. 

Table I: Selected Tertiary and Secondary Heath Institutions in South-South Nigeria 

S/N Name of Institution Chief Executive State of Classification Chief Ownership 

Profession Location Executive 

1. University of Calabar Medical Doctor Cross River Line 

Federal 

Teaching Hospital 

State 

2. Federal medical Centre Medical Doctor Akwa Ibom Line 

Federal 

Uyo 

State 

3. Federal medical Centre Medical Doctor Delta State Line Federal 

Asaba 

4. Central Hospital Warri Medical Doctor Delta State Line Federal 

5. Federal medical Centre Medical Doctor Delta State Line Federal 

Agbor 

6. University of Benin Medical Doctor Edo State Line Federal 

Teaching Hospital 

7. Central Hospital Benin Medical Doctor Edo State Line State 

8. Federal Psychiatric Medical Doctor Cross River Line 

Federal 

Hospital Calabar 

State 

9. University of Port Medical Doctor Rivers Line Federal 

Harcourt Teaching 

Hospital 

10. Braithwaite Memorial Medical Doctor Rivers Line State 

Hospital Port Harcourt 

11. General Hospital Medical Doctor Bayelsa Line State 

Yenagoa 

Source: Federal Office of Statistics (2011) 


Table I above shows that the Chief Executive Officers in publicly owned hospitals in Nigeria are 

Medical Doctors. But in Nigeria, some private hospital though owned by medical doctors as 

proprietors, employed professional managers to run the daily activities of the hospital. The situation in 

some Nigerian private hospitals is in line with the practice in Britain of Hospital Governor (a seasoned 

health administrator) leading hospital establishment. This condition in Britain fosters the efficiency of 

such hospitals and help explain why government functionaries in Nigeria and other developing 

countries patronised health institutions in Europe. 

BUILDING THE CAPACITY OF LINE CHIEF EXECUTIVE IN HOSPITALS WITH 

MANAGEMENT EDUCATION 

Following the managerial inadequacy of line Chief Executives and the pressing need to build their 

management capacity in order to guarantee organizational survival, growth and development, they 

must be trained and retrained to expose them to contemporary ideas, skills and techniques for them to 

utilize in moving the organization forward. The type and method of management training needed 

depends on both the individual need, adaptive capacity, availability of fund, time limitations, 

organizational needs, expectation and dimension. The under-mentioned institutions, among others, 

offer management-training programmes:- 

1 Centre for Management Development: This is a foremost Management training organization, 

funded by the Federal Government as a parastatals of the National Planning Commission, 

established to provide management education to both Public and Private Sector. Its mode of 

training includes workshops, conferences, short courses and specially designed programmes 

for organizations. 

2 Professional Management Associations: The number of professional management 

organizations is as many as there are branches of management. Notable ones include:- 

(a) Nigerian Institute of Management 

(b) Chartered Institute of Administration 

(c) Institute of Cost Management 

(d) Institute of Personnel Management 

(e) Institute of Industrial Management. 

All these bodies provide management education and training based on need and request, 

coupled with their regular workshops, conferences, lectures and mandatory professional 

training for members. Health institutions should contract any of these professional bodies to 

increase administrative component of Medical Chief Executive in specific areas of 

management. 

3 Tertiary Institutions: The role of tertiary institutions in Management education and training can 

never be ignored. The various Universities offer courses/programmes leading to the award of 

first and higher degrees in various fields of management. They play significant role in breeding 

the much-needed manpower to manage the post-colonial Nigerian economy for the success of 

the Nigerianizations and Northernization policies of the fifty and sixties (Ubeku, 1975). 

Medical personnel can pursue programmes in administrative management in addition to their 

medical degree. Example of such programmes include post-graduate Diploma in Management 

and Public Administration offered by University of Calabar. Some universities also designed 

and offer executive management certificates of short durations two weeks to one month to 

enhance administrative competence of Chief Executives. 

Line officers who are Chief Executives require management training as against development. Training 

will provide them with the basic and required management skill which are desired to build their 


capacity and enhance efficiency, as they were previously developed in their chosen area of 

specialization, as a criteria for them to attain management positions. For instance, a pupil Engineer 

who grows in a construction firm to become the Chief Executive Officer (Managing Director) is 

expected to take advantage of management training programme as listed above in order to be a good 

Chief Executive of the construction firm in future. In this regard, a medical doctor should pursue short 

courses in management to prepare him or herself for future leadership because management of 

complex organisation like hospital is beyond clinical diagnosis of patient. 

The Nigerian Institute of Management is at the fore front of Management Education in Nigeria. As the 

institute acquires a regulatory status, the time is ripe for the Institute to be involved in regulation and 

accreditation of Management courses in tertiary institutions in Nigeria, as well as develop the 

management content of other specialised disciplines as Medicine and Surgery. The Nigerian Institute 

of Management should expand its training programmes to every State in Nigeria. By this, the Institute 

can bring line executive everywhere in Nigeria to value, the essence of management training, as a 

basic ingredient of capacity building for effective and efficient management. 

RECOMMENDATION AND CONCLUSION 

This paper specifically attempted to present a solution to the possible problem of inadequate 

managerial capacity of line Chief Executive in health organisations through training and management 

education. This topic was conceived based on current observations in line and staff organizations 

where the Chief Executives is a specialist in the primary area for which the organizations was 

established to serve but lacked required managerial acumen to lead a complex organisation. Other than 

direct training of these line executives in the art and science of management after their appointment to 

management positions, the following recommendations are also made: 

Review of the laws establishing these organizations to make way for professional managers with 

specialized training to lead. 

Introduce management into the training courses in various fields, like medicine, Engineering, 

Architecture and Surveying, etc. 

Make ‘‘Introduction to Management’’ a general study programme in Universities, Polytechnic and 

Monotechnics. 

Compulsory Management Training must be organized for all specialists who are appointed to 

management positions. 

In conclusion, Management is not an all-commerce-affair; every leader and chief executive in 

organisation should be adequately trained in order to build his managerial capacity to meet 

organizational challenges. There is the task for every organisational leader to re-examine himself, 

especially the specialists turned managers and determine personal level of management competence. 

Whenever the level is low, management training and retraining should be considered as the panacea 

and competence booster. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY & REFERENCES 

Bassey, A. O. (2001): "Line and Staff: A critical Issue in Administration of Wages and Salary as a 

factor of Motivation" Lecture delivered at the Nigerian Institute of Personnel Management, 

C.R.S Branch Meeting, July 2001. 

Bassey, A. O. (2003) "The effect of Line and Staff Relations on Industrial Harmony and Productivity 

of Tertiary Health Institutions in Cross River State: A study of Federal Psychiatry Hospital and 


University of Calabar Teaching Hospital". (Unpublished MSc. Thesis, Department of 

Sociology, University of Calabar. 

Donnelly, J., Gibson, J., and Ivancevich, J., (1984): Fundamentals of Management. Texas: Business 

Publications, Inc. 

Koontz, H., O'Donnell, C., and Weihrich, H. (1980): Management. Tokyo: McGraw – Hill 

International Book Company. 

Nwachukwu, C. (1988): Management Theory and Practice, Onitsha: African - Fep Publishers Limited. 

Tyagi, A. (1981): Public Administration (Principles and Practice). Delhi: ATMA RAM & SONS. 

Ubeku, Abel. (1975): Personnel Management in Nigeria, Benin; Ethiope Publishing Corporation. 

Bassey, Antigha Okon, Ojua Takim, Bassey Umo and Ottong J. G. (2012) ‘‘Conflict Between Line 

and Staff Employee and the Achievement of Organisational Goal and Objectives: A Study of 

University of Calabar Teaching Hospital’’, International Journal of Business and Social 

Science, Vol. 3, No. 6, March 

Bassey, Antigha O., Attah, Frank and Bassey Umo A. (2012) ‘‘Industrial Socialisation and Role 

Performance in Contemporary organisations’’ International Journal of Business, Humanity and 

Technology, Vol. 2, No. 5, August 


Strategies Adopted by the Indian Women Entrepreneurs and Their Success in Rural Areas 

Mrs.S.Suganya 

Assistant Professor, Department of Management Studies, V.S.B. Engineering College, Karur – 

639111, TAMILNADU. 

Ms.V.KalaiSelvi 

Assistant Professor, Department of Management Studies, V.S.B.Engineering College, Karur – 

639111, TAMILNADU. 

INTRODUCTION 

The development of women entrepreneurship should form an integral part of the entire development 

process. In India, there is a growing awareness of the need for women entrepreneurs in the 

development of the nation. It, therefore, becomes imperative for the government to frame policies for 

the development of entrepreneurship among women. The government should develop strategies and 

development programme which should aim to raise their economic as well as their social status. It 

should make woman self-sufficient and autonomous. The following are some of the strategies that 

government could act on for the development of women entrepreneurs in India: 

• Education and Awareness: The negative attitude of the society towards women needs to be 

changed. This change is possible only through education and awareness. Women should know 

their potential and role in the society. 

• Better Time Management: A women have to shoulder dual responsibilities, one of an 

entrepreneur and other of a homemaker. She can fulfill both her responsibilities through better 

time management. She can also get her family members involved in the business. 

• Organize Workshops And Seminars: Government should organize workshops and seminars 

on a regular basis to promote entrepreneurship among women. 

• Training Facility: Government should design training schemes to develop entrepreneurship 

among women. Women can attend these training facilities and acquire necessary skills 

required to be an entrepreneur. 

• Easy Finance: Procedures for financial assistance by banks and governments should be 

simplified. Collateral security should be dispensed as women hard have any property for 

guarantee. 

The corporate world celebrates the rise of women in its ranks, thousands of women entrepreneurs are 

working hard to prove that even when it comes to starting and sustaining a business, they are second to 

none. 

"Entrepreneurship is not all that tough if you have the right aptitude," 

Women entrepreneurs constitute a tenth of the Indian entrepreneur universe. 

Currently there are 1.3 million SSIs and 9.1 million registered SMEs in India. 

There are more women entrepreneurs in smaller towns compared to metros. 

Women find it easier to start up but equally difficult to grow and access venture capital. 

The women entrepreneurs struggle to strike the right balance between family and business. As they do 

their best to succeed in their businesses, any failure tends to make them risk-averse and, more often 

than not, renounce the business. 

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 

1. To know about the strategies adopted by them. 

2. To find out the steps for continuous improvement. 

3. To find out the factors that sustains competitive advantage. 

4. To know about the financial support for their success. 


METHODOLOGY 

Research Design: The study is in Descriptive in nature. 

Data Collection through Questionnaire: For the research purpose, Primary Data was collected 

personally and individually from the respondents consisting of a sample of 200 Women Entrepreneurs 

in rural areas( Karur, Kangayam, Tirupur, Erode and Coimbatore district). 

Selection of the Sample: The sample consisted of 200 Women Entrepreneurs, i.e. Sample Size was 

200. The elements of the sample i.e. the entrepreneurs were selected through the random sampling 

plan. 

Tools and Techniques: The primary data collected from the respondents was analyzed by using the 

percentage method, chi-square, ranking and weighted average method. 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

There is one gender-specific definition the authors came across that specifically appealed to them due 

to its emphasis on female entrepreneurship. “Female entrepreneurs are defined as those who use their 

knowledge and resources to develop or create new business opportunities, who are actively involved in 

managing their businesses, and own at least 50 per cent of the business and have been in operation for 

longer than a year” (Moore and Buttner, 1997 in Farr-Wharton and Brunetto, 2009: 2) 

Women’s motives for starting and leading a business have been documented in many studies (Lee and 

Rogoff, 1997; NFWBO, 1999b) to help illuminate the desires and needs of women leaders who choose 

business ownership over organizational management positions. Women’s reasons for business start-up 

reasons encompass a wide range: desiring greater work-life flexibility, seeking challenge, fulfilling a 

long-felt desire, or escaping an organizational glass ceiling. 

women business owner-leaders exercise a large degree of control over the vision and purpose of the 

enterprise, and often deliberately craft working environments and cultures that support their personal 

values and preferences. They can cultivate their own working relationships with greater freedom. They 

can seek as much challenge and take as much risk as they can personally manage. Business- 

Development Bank of Canada, 1999; Industry Canada, 1999. 

Comparisons of women to men business owners continue to be prevalent in business ownership 

literature. Gender-comparative studies have focused on psychological characteristics such as 

propensity to take risks (Masters and Meier, 1988; Sexton and Bowman-Upton, 1990), leadership 

dimensions such as levels of experience and education (Bowen and Hisrich, 1986), and networking 

styles (Aldrich, Reece, and Dubini, 1989). 

Women business owners’ psychological characteristics were a focus of many early studies (Hisrich 

and Brush, 1987; Watkins and Watkins, 1983), showing the historical interest in relationships between 

psychological profile and leadership success. 

SIMPLE PERCENTAGE METHOD 

ANALYSIS AND INTREPRETATION 

Table:1 Demographic Profile of the Women Entrepreneurs 

AGE OF THE RESPONDENTS FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE 

Below 30 years 34 17 

31-40 years 70 35 

41-50 years 54 27 

51-60 years 25 13 

Above 60 years 17 9 

200 100 

TOTAL 


MARITAL STATUS 

Married 147 74 

Unmarried 53 27 

TOTAL 200 100 

EDUCATIONAL LEVEL 

Secondary 48 24 

Graduation 97 49 

Post-graduation 55 28 

TOTAL 200 100 

Source : Primary data 

Demographic profile of the women entrepreneurs: 

1. Age of the Respondents: The analysis of the table shows that majority of respondents (35 

respondents) were between the ages of 31 – 40 years. The study revels that most of the entrepreneurs 

are young and successful to face the competition. 

2. Marital Status: The table shows that 74% of the respondents were married and they are dynamic in 

doing their business with their family support. 

3. Educational Level: From the above table we determine that 24% of respondents were 

educated up to the Secondary level, while 49% of them were graduates, 28% of them 

possessed education up to post -graduate degrees. Which shows that majority of the 

respondents was having ample educational experience of managing the business. 

CHI SQUARE TEST 

H0 

H1 

Relationship between Educational Level and Strategies Adopted by Women 

Entrepreneurs 

There is no significant relationship between Educational Level and Strategies 

Adopted by Women Entrepreneurs 

There is significant relationship between Educational Level and Strategies 

Adopted by Women Entrepreneurs 

Table 2: Relationship between Educational Level and Strategies Adopted by Women 

Entrepreneurs 

Educational 

Level 

Secondary Graduation Post Graduation Total 

Strategies 

Adopted 

Differentiation 

(14.615) 

14 

(25.28) 

25 

(39.105) 

40 79 

Standardization 

(9.62) 

8 

(16.64) 

18 

(25.74) 

26 52 

Focused Leadership 

(8.695) 

7 

(15.04) 

15 

(23.265) 

25 47 

Cost 

(4.07) 

8 

(7.04) 

6 

(10.89) 

8 22 

Total 37 64 99 200 



X 2 = ∑ (O i -E i ) 2 

∑E i 

= 5.611372 

Level of Significance: At 5% level, 

Degree of freedom = (number of rows-1)*(number of columns-1) 

= (r-1) * (c-1) = (4-1) * (3-1) 

= 6 

The table value of Chi-Square at 5% level of confidence with degree of freedom 6 is 12.592. 

The calculated value of chi- square is less than the table value. So, the relationship between 

educational Level and Strategies Adopted by Women Entrepreneurs is not significant, and the 

hypothesis does not good. Thus, the null hypothesis (Ho) is accepted. 

WEIGHTED AVERAGE METHOD 

Table:3 Continuous Improvement of Women Entrepreneur 

High 

(3) 

Medium 

(2) 

Low 

(1) 

Total 

score 

S.NO 

Factors 

WAS 

1 Determine the Current Performance 

120 65 15 505 2.52 

2 Organize the Diagnostic Resources 

99 55 46 453 2.26 

3 Obtain Commitment 

154 32 14 540 2.70 

4 Define the Improvement Objectives 

128 41 31 497 2.48 

5 Identify and Overcome Resistance to 

Change 136 36 28 508 2.54 

Total Weighted Average Score 2.50 


Weighted average = (W∑iXi) 

∑Wi 

The analysis of table shows, overall mean score was 2.50. The respondents were highly improved in 

their performance. The respondents are highly involved in their commitment which got the highest mean 

score of 2.70, followed by resistance to change with mean score of 2.54. Determine the Current 

Performance got the mean score of 2.52, improvement objectives got the mean score of 2.48 and the 

diagnostic resources got the mean score of 2.26.Hence it can be inferred that Women Entrepreneur 

contributes more on their Commitment towards their Success. 

RANKING METHOD 

Table: 4 Sustain Competitive Advantage of Women Entrepreneur 

Factors 

Rank 

Barriers to Entry 4 

Efficiency 1 

Quality 2 

Customer Service Responsiveness 3 



The analysis of table shows, majority of the respondents were ranked Efficiency as important for 

sustaining the competitors and followed by Quality and Customer Service Responsiveness and finally 

the Barriers to Entry were ranked as the least score for sustaining their competition level. 

SIMPLE PERCENTAGE ANALYSIS 

Table: 5 Financial Supports for their Success 

Factors No. of Respondents Percentage 

Banks 150 75 

Friends 8 4 

Families 38 19 

Relatives 4 2 

Total 200 100 


The analysis of table shows, we inferred that about 75% of the respondents got financial support from 

Banks (150 Respondents) and 19% of the respondents got financial support from their family members 

to support their business and they got least financial support from their relatives and friends for their 

business. 

FINDINGS 

The following are the majority of findings of the study: 

1. Demographic profile of the women entrepreneurs: 

Women Entrepreneurs in the age group of 31 – 40 years (35%) felt more concerned for their 

business activities. 

Out of the total respondents, a majority portion of the respondents (49%) belonged to graduation 

level. 

2. Strategies Adopted by Women Entrepreneurs: 

The survey findings clearly indicate that the strategies followed by the women entrepreneur and 

most of them chosen differentiation as the major strategy for their success. There is no significant 

relationship between educational qualification and the strategies adopted by them. 

3. Continuous Improvement: 

It was observed that the total weighted average of 2.70 percentage of respondents had obtain their 

commitments successfully. Out of total respondents, 2.52 percentage of the respondents had 

determined their current performance. 

4. Sustain Competitive Advantage: 

It can be inferred that the respondents have ranked efficiency as one , quality has been ranked as 

two. Finally the respondents have ranked barriers to entry as least in order to sustain competitive 

advantage. 

5. Financial Supports: 

The survey clearly states that most of the women entrepreneurs get their financial supports mostly 

from the banks i.e. 75%, and only 2% of financial support they got from their relatives. 

SUGGESTIONS 

On the basis of main findings and survey, the study makes the following suggestions: 

1. To encourage the women entrepreneurs below 30 years to participate in the business to become 

an eminent entrepreneurs. 

2. To access the knowledge and business practices through their experience and technologies 

available. 


3. To continuous improvement they are recommended to concentrate on organizing the resources 

that are needed. 

4. To sustain in the competitive environment they should have to develop their potential and 

ability. 

5. To have access to better credit facilities. 

CONCLUSION 

Today, more women are breaking free from the traditional, gender-specific roles and venturing into 

the business world. Not only are they holding high corporate positions but they are also 

successful women entrepreneurs who own almost half of all businesses in India. The steady rise in 

female entrepreneurs can be due to many different reasons, most of which share the same rational 

as their male counterparts passion for their ideas, the desire to become their own boss, and the need 

to address philanthropic causes. A recent study indicated that 1 out of every 11 adult women is 

an entrepreneur in India. On the basis of findings of the study, the following objectives are 

considered to be most important for the success of the women entrepreneurs: 

1. Barriers to entry 

2. Organize the competitive advantage 

3. Time Management 

4. Training 

5. Make use of banks and financial institutions. 

REFERENCES 

BOOKS: 

1. Dhameja, S.K(2001) women entrepreneurs, New Delhi: Deep & Deep Publications (P) Ltd. 

2. Godfrey. J (1993) Our wildest Dreams: Women Entrepreneurs Making Money, Have fun, Doing 

Good, N.York, NY: Harper Business. 

3. Candid Brush and Others (2004) Clearing the Hurdles: Women Building High Growth Business, 

Financial Times: Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 

4. Vize, Medha.Dubhashi (1987), Women Entrepreneurship in India, New Delhi : Mittal 

JOURNALS: 

1. Knitkar, Ajit and Nalinee Contractor(1992), “ In Search of Identity: The Women Entrepreneurship 

of India”, Ahmedabad ; Entrepreneurship Development Institute of India, 2(1). 

2. Mohiuddin,A. (1983),” Entrepreneurship Development Among Women – Retrospect and 

Prospect”:, SEDME 10(2). 

WEBSITES: 

1. www.informit.com 

2. http://www.indiatogether.org

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