A meta-analytically derived nomological network of procrastination

1412 W. van Eerde / Personality and Individual Differences 35 (2003) 1401–1418
model of affective well-being at work. In addition to the commonly found factors, negative and
positive affectivity, five lower order factors were presented. Two of these factors have been
researched in relation to procrastination: Anxiety–comfort and depression–pleasure. In contrast,
the three remaining factors, anger–placidity;boredom–enthusiasm;and tiredness–vigour have
been neglected. Particularly the latter two would seem to be important to investigate with respect
to procrastination.
Also, an important field of study is procrastination in groups, because student and work groups
are often used for increasingly complex tasks. Questions such as ‘do groups regulate procrastination
of their members?’, ‘is social loafing the same as procrastination?’, or ‘is procrastination a
phenomenon at the group level?’ would be interesting to answer in future research.
A different approach to studying procrastination may lead to more specific insights that can be
used in interventions, be it by training or reorganizing tasks, teams, or procedures, to overcome
the dysfunctional aspects of procrastination, and perhaps enhance potential functional aspects.
In everyday life, deadlines are extremely important, and where there are deadlines, people procrastinate.
A realistic view on procrastination is more important than a moral judgment. Instead
of labelling persons procrastinators and nonprocrastinators, it would be wiser to think of contextual
and process variables that induce procrastination and that moderate the outcomes. Future
studies should reflect this more often. Although the results of this meta-analysis provides insight
into individual differences, a more comprehensive theoretical framework of procrastination is still
needed.
Appendix. Studies included in the meta-analysis
*Beck, B. L., Koons, S. R., & Milgrim, D. L. (2000). Correlates and consequences of behavioral
procrastination: the effects of academic procrastination, self-consciousness, self-esteem,
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and new directions (special issue). Journal of Social Behavior and Personality. 15, 3–13.
*Berzonsky, M. D., & Ferrari, J. R. (1996). Identity orientation and decisional strategies. Personality
and Individual Differences, 20, 597–606.
*Beswick, G., & Mann, L. (1994). State orientation and procrastination. In J. Kuhl, & J.
Beckmann (Eds.), Volition and personality: action versus state orientation (pp. 391–396). Seattle:
Hogrefe & Huber.
*Beswick, G., Rothblum, E. D., & Mann, L. (1988). Psychological antecedents of student procrastination.
Australian Psychologist, 23, 207–217.
*Blunt, A., & Pychyl, T. A. (1998). Volitional action and inaction in the lives of undergraduate
students: state orientation, procrastination, and proneness to boredom. Personality and Individual
Differences, 24, 837–846.
*Bridges, K. R., & Roig, M. (1997). Academic procrastination and irrational thinking: a reexamination
with context controlled. Personality and Individual Differences, 22, 941–944.
*Burns, L. R., Dittmann, K., Nguyen, N. L., & Mitchelson, J. K. (2000). Academic procrastination,
perfectionism, and control: associations with vigilant and avoidant coping. In J. R. Ferrari,
& T. A. Pychyl (Eds.), Procrastination: current issues and new directions (special issue).
Journal of Social Behavior and Personality. 15, 35–46.