NOT JUST REPRESENTATION: ENSURING WOMEN’S INFLUENCE IN POST-CONFLICT BOUGAINVILLE 4 Sørensen, 12-14. 5 Hakena, 17; O’Callaghan, “The Origins of the Conflict.” 6 O’Callaghan, “The Origins of the Conflict.” 7 The balance <strong>and</strong> reciprocity associated with this slight paradox may partly explain the lower rate of violence between men <strong>and</strong> women in pre-conflict Bougainville compared to other in other Pacific societies. Tonissen, 26. 8 Ibid. 9 Havini <strong>and</strong> Sirivi, “…As Mothers of the L<strong>and</strong>.” 10 Hakena, “Strengthening Communities <strong>for</strong> Peace in Bougainville.” 11 Eagles, “Aid As an Instrument <strong>for</strong> Peace.” 12 This proposition is rein<strong>for</strong>ced, or perhaps, rein<strong>for</strong>ces what UN Security Council Resolution 1325 refers to as “the important role of women in the prevention <strong>and</strong> resolution of conflicts <strong>and</strong> in peacebuilding.” United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325. 13 Garasu, “The Role of <strong>Women</strong> in Promoting Peace <strong>and</strong> Reconciliation.” 14 Bougainville Peace Agreement. 15 Fem’Talk ENEWS: A Special Bougainville Edition. 16 Nineteen Australian police personnel, integrated with Bougainville <strong>for</strong>ces, are still unable to penetrate the “no-go zone” because of road blocks. McLeod, “Australian Police Encounter Resistance in Bougainville.” 17 Fem’Talk ENEWS: A Special Bougainville Edition.” 18 The <strong>Constitution</strong> of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville. 19 Ibid. 20 Ibid. 21 Ibid. 22 Ibid. 23 Ibid. 24 <strong>Constitution</strong> of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea. 25 A provision <strong>for</strong> gender equality was proposed <strong>and</strong> rejected in the constitutional process. In<strong>for</strong>mation provided to author by Anthony J. Regan, Fellow, State, Society <strong>and</strong> Governance in Melanesia Project (SSGM) <strong>and</strong> Department of Political <strong>and</strong> Social Change, Research School of Pacific <strong>and</strong> Asian Studies, <strong>and</strong> Fellow at the U.S. Institute of Peace, who has been an adviser to the parties of the peace process in Bougainville since 1994. Mr. Regan was also kind enough to provide a tremendous amount of in<strong>for</strong>mation <strong>and</strong> insight into the 26 SUMMER 2005 constitution-making process <strong>and</strong> the overall situation in Bougainville. I should also note here the similar assistance <strong>and</strong> contribution of Professor Edward Wolfers, University of Wollongong, <strong>and</strong> consultant to PNG government. 26 Bougainville <strong>Constitution</strong>al Commission, “Making a <strong>Constitution</strong> <strong>for</strong> the Autonomous Region of Bougainville: Brief to the Bougainville Joint Assemblies Meeting,”; United Nations, “Beijing Declaration <strong>and</strong> Plat<strong>for</strong>m <strong>for</strong> Action.” Of the 13 highest-ranking countries in terms of women’s representation, nine have quotas <strong>for</strong> representation of women, many of which are high. Rw<strong>and</strong>a, which is considered to have one of the most progressive constitutions (it guarantees 30 percent representation in government), has the world’s highest representation, in fact, 48.8 percent, surpassing even the most representative countries such as Sweden, Norway <strong>and</strong> Denmark. Institute <strong>for</strong> Democracy <strong>and</strong> Electoral Assistance, “The Implementation of Quotas.” 27 Tonissen, 28. In some post-conflict settings, regimes are designed to be representative of the population, but power is confined to a narrow circle. In Rw<strong>and</strong>a, <strong>for</strong> example, which has a progressive constitution <strong>and</strong> the world’s highest level of women’s legislative representation, “loyalty to [President Paul Kagame] remains a prerequisite <strong>for</strong> political survival,” <strong>and</strong> “Parliament does not play an overly confrontational role with the executive branch.” Lacey, “<strong>Women</strong>’s Voices.” 28 Sørensen, 13. 29 Parliament of Australia, Joint St<strong>and</strong>ing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence, <strong>and</strong> Trade, “Bougainville: The Peace Process <strong>and</strong> Beyond.” 30 Iatau <strong>and</strong> Williamson, “Case Study of the L<strong>and</strong> Administration <strong>and</strong> Cadastral Re<strong>for</strong>m in Papua New Guinea.” 31 Komjathy <strong>and</strong> Nichols, et al., “Principles <strong>for</strong> Equitable <strong>Gender</strong> Inclusion”; Boydell, “L<strong>and</strong> Tenure <strong>and</strong> L<strong>and</strong> Conflict in the South Pacific.” 32 The <strong>Constitution</strong> of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville. 33 Ibid. 34 Ibid. 35 Sørensen, 12-14. 36 For the research of this paper, in December 2004 <strong>and</strong> January 2005, it was remarkably difficult, even through official channels, to acquire a copy of the new <strong>Constitution</strong>, despite its completion on December 22. This cannot be a good indicator <strong>for</strong> Bougainvilleans’ access to the document, with limited communications resources. 37 Sørensen, 14.
CRITICAL HALF 27