Rolling Revision of the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality ...

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Vertretern der Umwelt- und der Agrarministerkonferenz (UMK/AMK-AG), NNA-Berichte der Akademie für Naturschutz, 10. Jahrgang, Heft 4. Umweltbundesamt Deutschland (German Federal Environmental Agency) 1994b Stoffliche Belastung der Nordsee durch die Landwirtschaft und Maßnahmen zu ihrer Verringerung. -Projektgruppe des Umweltbundesamtes: "Stoffeinträge aus der Landwirtschaft (Eutrophierung der Gewässer, insbesondere der Nordsee)".- UBA-Berichte 2/94, Erich-Schmidt-Verlag, Berlin. Umweltbundesamt Deutschland (German Federal Environmental Agency) 1997 Stickstoffüberschüsse in der Umwelt.- Eine Zusammenfassung des Umweltbundesamtes. UNICEF, The State of the Worlds Children, 1989. Oxford University Press, pp48. Wang, H.K. 1984 Sewage Irrigation in China.- In: Intl. J. Dev. Techn. Bd. 2/1984, S. 291-301. Weiskel, P.K. and Howes, B.L. 1992 Differential Transport of Sewage-Derived Nitrogen and Phosphorus through a Coastal Watershed.- In: Environmental Science Technology, 26/2, 352-360. Wendland, F., Albert, H., Bach, M. and Schmidt, R. (Eds.) (1993) Atlas zum Nitratstrom in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland.- Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg. WRI (World Resources Institute) 1992 World Resources 1992-93. Oxford University Press, New York. 159-173. WRI (World Resources Institute) 1995 Water Resources and Water Quality. Internet source; http://www.teriin.org/reports/rep02/rep0204.htm Yang, Y., Lerner, D.N., Barrett, M.H. and Tellam, J.H. 1999 Quantification of groundwater recharge in the city of Nottingham, UK.- Environmental Geology (in press). Zhang, W.L., Tian, Z.X. and Li, X.Q. 1996 Nitrate pollution of groundwater in northern China. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 59, 223-231.
Chapter 2 Human Exposure and Risk assessment 2.1 Environmental levels and human exposure 2.1.1 Air Atmospheric nitrate concentrations ranging from 0.1- 0.4 µg m- 3 have been reported, the lowest concentrations being found in the South Pacific (Prospero and Savoie, 1989). Mean monthly nitrate concentrations in air in the Netherlands range from 1-14 µg m- 3 (Janssen et al., 1989). Indoor nitrate aerosol concentrations of 1.1- 5.6 µg m– 3 were found to be related to outdoor concentrations (Yocom, 1982). Hoek et al. (1996) measured concentrations of atmospheric pollutants in three urban and five rural sites within the Netherlands. High ammonia concentrations (above 10 µg m -3 ) were recorded at a site with intensive livestock farms. Daily average nitrous acid concentrations up to 20 µg m -3 were observed at sites with high traffic density. The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) Air Quality Report 1996, reports stable concentrations of nitrogen dioxide since 1995 at all sites statewide. These levels remain below the air quality standard of 0.05 ppm, the highest mean concentration (0.042 ppm in both 1995 and 1996) occurring in upper Manhatten. Nitrate concentrations were found to fluctuate year to year with no distinct trend. 2.1.2 Water Concentrations of nitrate in rainwater of up to 5 mg l –1 have been observed in industrial areas (van Duijvenboden and Matthijsen, 1989). In rural areas, concentrations are somewhat lower. The nitrate concentration in surface water is normally low (0-18 mg l –1 ), but can reach high levels as a result of agricultural runoff, runoff from refuse dumps, or contamination with human or animal wastes. The concentration often fluctuates with the season and may increase when the river or stream is fed by nitrate-rich aquifers. Nitrate concentrations have gradually increased in many European countries in the last few decades and have sometimes doubled over the past 20 years. In the United Kingdom, for example, an average annual increase of 0.7 mg l –1 has been observed in some rivers (Young and Morgan-Jones, 1980). Strebel et al. (1989) and Fried (1991) both observed a rising trend in groundwater nitrate concentrations in Europe including Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, The Netherlands and England. The highest concentrations (above 50 mg nitrate l –1 ) were found in sandy soils beneath intensely managed crops. Fertilisation and livestock manure are believed to be the principal sources of groundwater nitrates (Hudak, 2000). The natural nitrate concentration in groundwater under aerobic conditions is a few milligrams per litre and depends strongly on soil type and on the geological situation. In the USA, naturally occurring levels do not exceed 4-9 mg l –1 for nitrate and 0.3 mg l –1 for nitrite (US EPA, 1987). As a result of agricultural activities, the nitrate
Page 1 and 2: WHO/SDE/WSH/04.08/56 Rolling Revisi
Page 3 and 4: List of contents Chapter 1 Origin o
Page 5 and 6: 7.3 Soil and organic matter 7.4 Sit
Page 7 and 8: Table 1.1 Trend in nitrate concentr
Page 9 and 10: NH4 + + 1.5 O2 --> NO2 - + H2O + 2
Page 11 and 12: In developed countries, urban groun
Page 13 and 14: Saharan Africa correlate with popul
Page 15 and 16: through microbial denitrification a
Page 17 and 18: Figure 1.7 From overproduction to r
Page 19 and 20: total emissions is between 0.2 and
Page 21 and 22: 1999 Marker species for identifying
Page 23: NEERI 1991 Water Mission Report on
Page 27 and 28: of nitrogen fertiliser or manure. O
Page 29 and 30: nitrate and nitrite concentrations
Page 31 and 32: methaemoglobinaemia observed in inf
Page 33 and 34: 2.3.4 Reproductive and development
Page 35 and 36: Accidental human intoxications have
Page 37 and 38: of nitrates, nitrites and N-nitroso
Page 39 and 40: McKnight et al. (1999) suggest that
Page 41 and 42: nitrate in the etiology of the hype
Page 43 and 44: Gonzalez, C.A., Sanz, J.M., Marcos,
Page 45 and 46: Lagerstedt, E., Jacks, G. and Sefe,
Page 47 and 48: thyroids of rats.] Schrifte für Ge
Page 49 and 50: Northern China. Agriculture, Ecosys
Page 51 and 52: top soil ⎫ ⎫ ⎫ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
Page 53 and 54: nitrate is not of significance. Den
Page 55 and 56: Figure. 3.4: Nitrate concentration
Page 57 and 58: observed in various parts of the wo
Page 59 and 60: groundwater recharge as a result of
Page 61 and 62: oxygen, are quickly displaced to gr
Page 63 and 64: Chapter 4 Treatment and disposal of
Page 65 and 66: 4. Formulation and implementation o
Page 67 and 68: the sludge. Table 4.3 Permissible a
Page 69 and 70: sewage quality, higher requirements
Page 71 and 72: In all types of organic fertilisers
Page 73 and 74: • Use of maintenance-free enginee
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(Chan and Guterstam, 1996). Constru
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Staatsministeriums für Landesentwi
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und Grundwasserbeschaffenheit bei n
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Figure 5.1 Calculation of the nitro
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in an accumulation of organic nitro
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EF = (PW/FKRZ) * 100 Where EF = exc
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groundwater zone, due to capillary
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This information may help to optimi
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Figure 5.7 Potential rate of minera
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Figure 5.8 Cumulative NH3 emissions
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5.3.5 Grassland farming Compared wi
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In order to calculate the optimum a
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5.5 References Arbeitsgemeinschaft
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21. Belastungen der Oberflächengew
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Rejesus, R.M. and Hornbaker, R.H. 1
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Chapter 6 Water treatment processes
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Nitrate-selective resins also add l
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6.2.2 Heterotrophic denitrification
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small reactor volumes and areas. Th
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2. NO - 2 + 2AL + 3H2O → NH3 + 2A
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denitrification in cooler climates
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Chapter 7 Problem evaluation and ma
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inputs from point sources, land run
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most commonly used methods for anal
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sulphuric acid to 1 litre of sample
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The nitrite produced is determined
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concentrations of NO - 3-N, dilutio
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Figure 7.4 Actions required in the
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7.5 References Ballance, R. 1996a P
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ions. Part 1: Method for water with
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