Carcinogenic Substances at Work

CARCINOGENIC SUBSTANCES AT WORK 

Facts and features of most relevant carcinogens 

in the industry and how to handle them safely

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 


Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 03 

10 FACTS ABOUT OCCUPATIONAL CARCINOGENS 

The "time bombs" among hazardous substances in the workplace. ------------------------- 04 

ACRYLONITRILE 

C3H3N -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 08 

BENZENE 

C6H6 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10 

1,3-BUTADIENE 

C4H6 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12 

EPICHLOROHYDRIN 

C3H5CIO ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14 

ETHYLENE OXIDE 

C2H4O -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16 

FORMALDEHYDE 

CH2O ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18 

MERCURY 

Hg -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20 

VINYL CHLORIDE MONOMER 

C2H3CI -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22 

MEASURING CARCINOGENS 

Create a safer workplace -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24 

THE RIGHT PPE FOR THE JOB 

Protecting your workers from carcinogens --------------------------------------------------------- 29 

DEAR READER 

Disclaimer ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32 

2 | 30


CARCINOGENIC 

SUBSTANCES AT WORK 

Introduction 

Studies estimate more than 700.000 deaths 

worldwide due to occupational cancer – per 

year. That is more than the number of deaths 

due to global conflict, terrorism and homicide 

combined. 

The culprits are carcinogens: A variety 

of substances that may cause cancer 

after exposure. There are several forms 

of carcinogens, for example chemical 

carcinogens like vinyl chloride or benzene, or 

processes that may cause exposure such as 

fine particles from diesel exhaust. 

Carcinogens may enter the body through 

inhalation or exposure to skin and can spread 

to different organs by way of the bloodstream. 

Once carcinogens enter the body they can 

damage or alter the DNA of cells or the 

way cells work or replicate, which may lead 

to cancer. While everybody encounters 

possible carcinogens in their daily life (like 

UV radiation or car exhaust), occupational 

exposure to carcinogens poses a higher 

risk of cancer development. This is due to 

the recurring exposure and the potentially 

higher levels continuing through the time of 

employment. 

The exposure to carcinogens not only puts 

the health and life of workers in danger, it 

also creates additional negative effects for 

companies and employers by threatening 

the workers productivity levels and work 

participation. This makes protecting 

employees from carcinogens the responsibility 

of every employer and HSE manager. 

The good news is, that occupational cancer is 

avoidable. By taking appropriate measures the 

burden of cancer can be significantly reduced. 

Employees must be protected as effectively as 

possible against cancer risk factors. This can 

be done cost-efficiently by using an intelligent 

measuring strategy, precise measuring 

techniques and by offering employees suitable 

personal protection equipment. 

This paper helps as a starting point, by 

introducing you into the world of carcinogens, 

showing some of the most used carcinogens 

in the chemical industry and providing an 

overview to different measuring approaches 

and suitable protective equipment. 

3 | 30 33


10 FACTS ABOUT 

OCCUPATIONAL CARCINOGENS 

The "time bombs" among hazardous substances in the workplace. 

1 

WHAT ARE CARCINOGENS? 

The Encyclopedia Britannica defines 

carcinogens as any number of agents 

that can cause cancer in humans. They can be 

divided into three major categories: chemical 

carcinogens (including those from biological 

sources), physical carcinogens, and oncogenic 

(cancer-causing) viruses. 1 

2 

HOW CARCINOGENS 

CAUSE CANCER. 

Most Carcinogens cause cancer 

by interacting with cell DNA and thereby 

interfering with normal cellular function, 

causing genetic abnormalities to develop in 

the normal cell 2 . With cancer, cells go out of 

control, multiply without order, and invade 

and destroy the surrounding tissue. 3 This can 

result in the formation of a tumor, an abnormal 

tissue growth that may spread to other parts of 

the body. 

3 

CARCINOGENS POSE 

A LIFELONG RISK. 

Carcinogens do not cause cancer in 

every case. Substances labeled as carcinogens 

may have different levels of cancer-causing 

potential. It is true that a large amount of a 

cancer-causing substance leads to cancer much 

more frequently. But even very small doses 

can develop a harmful effect – although the 

probability is clearly lower. The risk of developing 

cancer due to contact with a carcinogen remains 

throughout one‘s lifetime, since in many cases 

cell damage does not develop until years 

after contact with the substance. The time 

between exposure to a carcinogen and the 

onset of the disease can be up to 50 years. 4 

For any particular individual person, the risk of 

developing cancer depends on many factors – 

including how they are exposed to a carcinogen, 

the length and intensity of that exposure, and 

the person´s genetic makeup. 

How cancer develops 

1 

Boundary 

2 

3 

Lymph vessel 

Blood vessel 

3 

1 

2 

Normal cells 

Abnormals cells 

1.2 million years 

! of life were lost 

due to premature 

death caused by 

past exposure 

to carcinogenic 

substances at work 

in the EU. 5 

Abnormals cells multiply 

Malignant or invasive cancer 

4 | 33


4 

HOW MANY CARCINOGENS 

ARE THERE? 

The International Agency for Research 

on Cancer has classified agents into several 

groups, sorted by the probability of them 

causing cancer. As of April 2020, 120 agents 

have been classified as carcinogenic, with 

another 83 agents probably being carcinogenic 

to humans. 6 

5 

CARCINOGEN, 

YES OR NO? 

Detecting the cancer-generating 

property of a chemical agent is often very 

difficult. It is not ethical to test a substance 

by exposing people to it and seeing if they 

get cancer. That’s why scientists must use 

other types of tests – which may not always 

give clear answers. For example, it is not 

easy to deduce whether or not a substance is 

carcinogenic from animal testing. Rodents and 

humans often react to chemical substances 

in entirely different ways. 19 out of 20 test 

substances that are considered safe for 

humans cause cancer in rodents. 7 However, 

of 19 substances known to cause cancer in 

humans, only seven prove to be carcinogenic 

in rodents. 8 

This is why multiple sources should be used 

and combined, such as: 

• Lab studies in animals and examinations 

• Tests and lab studies of human cell cultures 

• Human case and epidemiologic studies and 

observations from practice 

6 

CANCER IS A MAJOR HEALTH 

HAZARD IN THE WORKPLACE. 

Occupational cancer represents the 

primary cause for work-related deaths globally. 9 

52% of all work-related deaths in the EU and 

27% globally are caused 

by occupational cancer. 10 Every year, an 

estimated 742,000 deaths occur globally 

due to work-related cancer. That is more 

than the total number of deaths caused by 

Malaria in 2017. 11/12 

Agents Classified by the IARC 

Monographs, Volumes 1–125 

Group 1 

Carcinogenic to humans 

120 agents 

Group 2A 

Probably carcinogenic to human 

83 agents 

Group 2B 

Possibly carcinogenic to human 

314 agents 

Group 3 

Not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity 

to humans 

500 agents 

Percentage of all work-related deaths 

Cancer 

Circulatory 

Injuries 

Others 

31% 

*Deaths due to MSDs are 

included in Other illnesses 

14% 

Global estimate 

2% 

22% 

28% 

24% 

27% 

EU28 estimate 

52% 

5 | 33


Certain cancers and associated workplace exposure 13 

12 Nasal Sinus Cancer 

Laryngeal Cancer 5 13 Nasopharynx Cancer 

8 Lung Cancer 

Liver Cancer 

11 

7 

Mesothelioma 

Chlolangiocarcinoma 3 4 Kidney cancer 

14 Ovarian Cancer 

Bladder cancer 1 

7 

THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY IS 

SUBJECT TO A PARTICULARLY 

HIGH RISK. 

From benzene to formaldehyde and acid 

aerosols: Carcinogenic substances are found 

in many areas of the chemical industry. The 

protection of employees from carcinogens is 

therefore one of the central challenges for 

occupational health and safety. 

Breakdown of Work-Related Mortality 

by United Nations Geographical Regions in 2015 11 

Europe 

126,127 

Asia 

430,472 

1 

2 

8 

4-Aminodiphenyl, Benzidine, 

beta-Naphthylamine, 

ortho-Toluidine 

Ionizing radiation, Radium, 

Plutonium 

3 1,2-Dichloropropane 

4 Trichloroethylene 

5 Asbestos, sulfuric acid mists 

6 

7 

Leukemia 

Lymphoma, 

Non-Hodgkin 

Melanoma 

Skin Cancer 

Benzene, 1,3-Butadiene, 

Formaldehyde, Ionizing 

radiation 

Aflatoxins, Vinyl chloride, 

Plutonium 

6 

9 

10 

15 

9 

10 

1,3-Butadiene, Lindane, 

Pentachlorophenol 

Radiation, solar and ultraviolet, 

Polychlorinated biphenyls 

11 Asbestos, Erionite 

12 

Nickel refining (nickel oxides and 

sulfides), Leather dust, Wood 

dusts, Radium (dial painting) 

13 Formaldehyde, Wood dusts 

14 Asbestos 

Arsenic and compounds, Asbestos, Beryllium and compounds, Cadmium 

and compounds, bis-Chloromethyl ether, Chloromethyl methyl ether, 

Chromium compounds 

2 

15 

Bone cancer 

Radiation (solar and ultraviolet), 

Ionizing radiation, Arsenic and 

compounds 

America 

128,020 

Africa 

46,494 

8 

OCCUPATIONAL CANCER IS 

MORE COMMON THAN 

PREVIOUSLY THOUGHT. 

Epidemiological studies indicate that 

occupational exposures cause 5.3–8.4 percent 

of all cancers. 14 

2014 37.6% of workers in Australia are 

affected by occupational carcinogens. 11 

Oceania 

7,645 

2019 Carcinogens at the workplace are 

responsible for over 10,000 cancer cases 

diagnosed in Canada each year. 15 

2016 More than 120,000 people in the EU 

are diagnosed with cancer, caused by past 

exposure to carcinogenic substances at work, 

per year. 5 

2017 In 2017 68,396 deaths were attributed 

to occupational cargcinogens in China. 16 

6 | 33


9 

BINDING OCCUPATIONAL 

EXPOSURE LIMITS BRINGS 

GREATER SAFETY. 

Most people know that asbestos is a potential 

cancer threat in the workplace. But what 

about trichloroethylene, benzene, or the 

various chromium compounds? The European 

Trade Institute has listed 71 cancer-causing 

substances that constitute 80 to 90% of the 

carcinogens to which people may be exposed 

in the workplace. 18 

10 

PROTECT YOUR WORKERS. 

Protecting your workers from 

carcinogens is not only the morally 

right decision, it is the financially prudent one. 

In the European Union health care expenditure 

and productivity losses due to work-related 

cancer are estimated to be approximately 

€4.4 billion per year. 5 Companies all over 

the world had to pay settlements of millions 

of dollars, for exposing their workers to 

carcinogens above the legal limit. 

Cancers causally associated with 

occupational carcinogens 19 

Lung cancer 

Skin cancer 

Bone cancer 

Bladder cancer 

7% 

9% 

10% 

23% 

Benefits of Workforce Health Promotion 20 

To the organisation 

To the employee 

reduced staff turnover 

improved morale 

increased productivity 

increased skills 

for health protection 

a well-managed health 

and safety program 

a safe and healthy work environment 

improved staff morale 

reduced stress 

a positive and caring image 

enhanced self-esteem 

reduced absenteeism 

increased job satisfaction 

Cancers of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses 

6% 

reduced risk of fines and litigation 

improved sense of well-being 

reduced health 

care/insurance costs 

improved health 

1 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2019, July 8). Carcinogen. Retrieved May 6, 2020, from https://www.britannica.com/science/carcinogen 

2 Determining if Something Is a Carcinogen. (n.d.). Retrieved May 6, 2020, from https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancer-causes/general-info/determining-if-something-is-a-carcinogen.html 

3 Understanding cancer. (n.d.). Retrieved May 6, 2020, from https://cancerqld.org.au/cancer-information/learn-to-cope/what-is-cancer/ 

4 European Commission & Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion. (2016, May 13). COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT – Impact assessment accompanying 

the Proposal for a DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL amending Directive 2004/37/EC on the protection of workers from the risks related to exposure to 

carcinogens or mutagens at work. Retrieved May 6, 2020, from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:52016SC0152&rid=3 

5 National Institute for Public Health and the Environment. (n.d.). Work-related cancer in the European Union. Retrieved from https://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/2016-0010.pdf 

6 International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). (2020, February 18). Agents Classified by the IARC Monographs, Volumes 1–125. Retrieved May 6, 2020, from https://monographs. 

iarc.fr/agents-classified-by-the-iarc/ 

7 Ennever FK, Noonan TJ, Rosenkranz HS. The predictivity of animal bioassays and short-term genotoxicity tests for carcinogenicity and anon-carcinogenicity to humans. Mutagenesis. 1987 

Mar;2(2):73-78 

8 Salsburg, D. The Lifetime Feeding Study in Mice and Rats – An Examination of Its Validity as a Bioassay for Human Carcinogens. Fundamental & Applied Toxicology 1983;3:63-67 

9 Iavicoli S, Driscoll TR, Hogan M, et al New avenues for prevention of occupational cancer: a global policy perspective; Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2019;76:360-362 

10 EU OSHA. (n.d.). The economics of occupational safety and health – the value of OSH to society. Retrieved May 6, 2020, from https://visualisation.osha.europa.eu/osh-costs#!/ 

11 Hämäläinen P, Takala J, Saarela KL. Global estimates of fatal work-related diseases. Am J Ind Med. 2007;50(1):28-41. http://www.icohweb.org/site/images/news/pdf/Report%20Global%20 

Estimates%20of%20Occupational%20Accidents%20and%20Work-related%20Illnesses%202017%20rev1.pdf 

12 Number of deaths by cause. (n.d.). Retrieved May 6, 2020, from https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/annual-number-of-deaths-by-cause 

13 Causal Agent-Cancer Links in Haz-Map. (2019, December 16). Retrieved May 6, 2020, from https://www.haz-map.com/cancer.htm 

14 Furuya S, Chimed-Ochir O, Takahashi K, David A, Takala J. Global Asbestos Disaster. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018;15(5):1000. Published 2018 May 16. doi:10.3390/ijerph15051000 

15 Occupational Cancer Research Centre. Burden of occupational cancer in Canada: Major workplace carcinogens and prevention of exposure. Toronto, ON: 2019 

16 Li J, Yin P, Wang H, et al. The disease burden attributable to 18 occupational risks in China: an analysis for the global burden of disease study 2017. Environ Health. 2020;19(1):21. Published 2020 

Feb 19. doi:10.1186/s12940-020-00577-y 

17 Global trend according to estimated number of occupational accidents and fatal work-related diseases at region and country level. (2009). Journal of Safety Research, 40(2), 125–139. doi: https:// 

doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2008.12.010 

18 Wriedt, H. (2016). Carcinogens that should be subject to binding limits on workers exposure. Brussels: ETUI, European Trade Union Institute. 

19 Loomis D, Guha N, Hall AL, Straif K. Identifying occupational carcinogens: an update from the IARC Monographs. Occup Environ Med. 2018;75(8):593-603. doi:10.1136/oemed-2017-104944 

20 Workplace health promotion. (2010, December 8). Retrieved May 6, 2020, from https://www.who.int/occupational_health/topics/workplace/en/index1.html 

7 | 33

ACRYLONITRILE 

ACRYLONITRILE 

C 3 H 3 N 

WHAT IS ACRYLONITRILE? 

Acrylonitrile is a colourless liquid with 

a pungent odour. 1 It is utilized in the 

manufacturing of dissolver, emulsifier 

and adhesive, but it is mainly used in the 

production of plastics. 2 

ACRYLONITRILE: FLAMMABLE, 

CORROSIVE, TOXIC AND 

CARCINOGENIC 

Acrylonitrile is a carcinogenic substance with 

acutely toxic effects since it can form deadly 

cyanide. In contact with substances like 

bromine, chlorine or strong bases, there is also 

risk of explosion. 1 

GHS06 

GHS02 

GHS08 

GHS05 

GHS09 

Acrylonitrile is a substance that it highly 

flammable, sensitive to light, very reactive and 

tends to polymerize spontaneously. Exposure 

to acrylonitrile poses acute or chronic hazards 

to health. Carcinogenic substances like 

Acrylonitrile should only be used in closed 

apparatus — any contact with the substance 

should be avoided. 1 The danger of Acrylonitrile 

to the human body and nature is described 

by the H-statements enshrined in GHS/CLP 

regulations. They are internationally valid. 

CAUTION ACRYLIONITRILE 

CAUSES CANCER! 

Acrylonitrile is primarily absorbed by inhalation 

and via skin contact. Even close contact with 

a person who is affected with Acrylonitrile 

can harm others. Lung cancer is associated 

with acrylonitrile exposure at the workplace. 

The EU classifies Acrylonitrile as a human 

carcinogen of the category 1B, while the 

IARC classifies it as "possibly carcinogenic to 

humans". 3 Typical symptoms of acute toxicity 

include eye, airway, and skin irritation, as well 

as neurotoxic effects such as disorders of the 

central nervous system. 

H225 

H350 

H331 

H311 

H301 

H361 

H335 

H315 

H318 

H317 

H411 

Highly flammable liquid and vapour 

May cause cancer 

Toxic if inhaled 

Toxic in contact with skin 

Toxic if swallowed 

Suspected of damaging fertility or 

the unborn child 

May cause respiratory irritation 

Causes skin irritation 

Causes serious eye damage 

May cause an allergic skin reaction 

Toxic to aquatic life with longlasting 

effects 

8 | 33

ACRYLONITRILE 

Acrylonitrile – chemical and 

physical properties¹ 

CAS no. 

Appearance and colour: 

Odour threshold: 

Melting point: 

Boiling point: 

Flash point/flash point range: 

Flammability: 

Explosion thresholds: 

LEL (lower explosion limit) 

UEL (upper explosion limit): 

107-13-1 

Pungent 

3.7–35.8 ppm 

-82 °C 

77 °C 

-5 °C 

Highly flammable 

2.8 vol.% 

28 vol.% 

SELECTED INTERNATIONAL WORKPLACE EXPOSURE 

LIMITS FOR ACRYLONITRILE (8 HOURS TWA) 

Country/Region Parts per million Mg/m³ 

Europe 0.45 1 

Germany (acceptance level) 0.12 0.26 

Germany (tolerance level) 1.2 2.6 

USA (ACGIH) 2 4.3 

China (PC-STEL CN) – 2 

China (PC-TWA CN) – 1 

Singapore 2 PEL (LT) 4.3 PEL (LT) 

Is your country not included? 

Visit our hazardous substances database VOICE for more 

information: www.draeger.com/voice 

MEASUREMENT OF 

ACRYLONITRILE 

Usually acrylonitrile synthesis and 

processing take place in a closed 

system. For continuous area 

monitoring for timely warning of leaks 

it is advisable to use permanently 

installed gas measurement devices 

with electrochemical sensors. 

Employees working in at-risk areas 

should be provided with a personal 

gas-measuring device that uses 

an OV-A sensor. Regular room 

air samples can be taken with a 

detection tube and evaluated with the 

help of a Dräger-Tube® (Acrylonitrile 

0.5/a) and a pump. 

Dräger X-am® 8000 

Dräger Polytron® 7000 

Dräger Pac® 8000 

Dräger Short-term Tubes 

Find more information about suitable measuring equipment in 

the chapter "Measuring carcinogens". 

1 IFA. (n.d.). GESTIS Substance database - Acrylonitrile. Gestis Substance Database. Retrieved July 3, 2020, from http://gestis-en.itrust.de/nxt/gateway.dll/gestis_en/000000. 

xml?f=templates$fn=default.htm$vid=gestiseng:sdbeng$3.0 

2 Lumitos GmbH. (n.d.). Acrylnitril. Chemie.De. Retrieved July 3, 2020, from https://www.chemie.de/lexikon/Acrylnitril.html 

3 Agency for Toxic Substances & Disease Registry. (2011, March 3). Acrylonitrile. Toxic Substances Portal. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/substances/toxsubstance.asp?toxid=78 

4 European Chemicals Agency. (2018, August). Opinion on scientific evaluation of occupational exposure limits for Acrylonitrile (ECHA/RAC/ O-0000001412-86-188/F). ECHA. https://echa. 

europa.eu/documents/10162/13641/acrylonitrile_opinion_en.pdf/102477c9-a961-2c96-5c4d-76fcd856ac19 

9 | 33

BENZENE 

BENZENE 

C 6 H 6 

WHAT IS BENZENE? 

Benzene is a colourless liquid with a 

characteristic odour. 1 When exposed to air 

it quickly evaporates. The chemical and 

pharmaceutical industries use it primarily as a 

solvent and a starting material or intermediate 

in the production of plastics, lubricants, 

rubbers, drugs and others. 

Furthermore, benzene is a natural component 

of crude oil and gasoline. 2 

BENZENE: FLAMMABLE, TOXIC AND 

CARCINOGENIC 

Benzene belongs to the BTEX family alongside 

toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene. They 

are also called aromatics because of their 

sweet odour, which is often described as 

pleasant. Benzene evaporates easily and can 

be detected due to its distinctive smell at 

concentrations between 2.5 and 5 parts per 

million in air. 

Workers are exposed to benzene in (petro-) 

chemical plants, oil refineries, coke works 

foundries and storage (distribution and use 

of petrol or benzene itself). Benzene is a 

hazardous carcinogen and is subject to very 

strict workplace thresholds. 

Most non-industrial applications of benzene 

have been limited, but it still belongs to the 

largest commodity of organic chemicals. 

Employees must receive the best level of 

protection against any type of exposure. 

Furthermore, benzene vapor and air together 

form a heavy and explosive compound. 

The danger of benzene to the human body 

is described by the H-statements enshrined 

in GHS/CLP regulations, which are 

internationally valid. 

GHS02 GHS07 GHS08 

H225 

H304 

H315 

H319 

H340 

H350 

H372 

H412 

Highly flammable liquid and vapor 

May be fatal if swallowed and 

enters airways 


Causes serious eye irritation 

May cause genetic defects 


Causes damage to organs through 

prolonged or repeated exposure 

Harmful to aquatic life with 

long-lasting effects 

CAUTION BENZENE CAUSES CANCER! 

Benzene has serious effects on the human 

body. Prolonged exposure can cause organ 

damage and genetic defects. Benzene is 

also highly carcinogenic and is classified as a 

group 1 carcinogen. Typical forms of cancer 

caused by benzene exposure are leukemia 

and lymphoma. 

10 | 33

BENZENE 

Benzene – chemical and physical properties 1 


LIMITS FOR BENZENE (8 HOURS TWA) 

CAS no. 71-43-2 


Odour: 





Flammability: 




Liquid, colourless 

Aromatic 

Approx. 5 ppm 

6 °C 

80 °C 

-11 °C 

Liquid and vapour 

highly flammable 

1.2 vol-% 

8.6 vol-% 

MEASUREMENT OF BENZENE 

Detecting aromatic hydrocarbons is not easy – particularly 

in low concentrations or as part of compounds. The choice 

of measurement method (selective or non-selective) 

depends on the measuring task (e.g. leak searches, 

workplace monitoring, pre-entry-measurement) and the 

measuring quality desired. The lower the workplace limits, 

the more challenging the measurement process. 


Europe 1 3.25 


Germany (tolerance level) 0.6 1.9 

USA (ACGIH) 

STEL: 2.5 

TWA: 0.5 

Benzene 

Dräger X-act® 7000 

TWA: 1.6 

TWA: 8 


China (PC-TWA CN) – 6 





Dräger X-pid® 

9000/9500 

Several selective and non-selective methods or an 

intelligent combination of it are suitable. A multi gas 

detector with PID sensor measures the cumulative 

concentration of existing VOCs in a non-selective way. 

For frequent selective random samples the analysis mode 

of the Dräger X-pid® 9000 or if less frequent, several 

Dräger Short-term Tubes like Benzene 2/a can be used. 

Spot measurements of concentrations down to 0.15 ppm 

can be done with the Dräger X-act® 7000. 


Dräger Shortterm 

Tubes 

Find more information about suitable measuring 

equipment in the chapter "Measuring carcinogens". 

1 IFA. (n.d.-a). Benzene. Gestis Substance Database. Retrieved July 3, 2020, from http://gestis-en.itrust.de/nxt/gateway.dll/gestis_en/000000.xml?f=templates$fn=default. 

htm$vid=gestiseng:sdbeng$3.0 

2 The Facts on Benzene. (2020, March 30). Roadmap on Carcinogens. https://roadmaponcarcinogens.eu/benzene/ 

3 Drägerwerk AG & Co. KGaA. (n.d.). Benzene . Dräger VOICE Databank. Retrieved July 3, 2020, from https://www.draeger.com/en_seeur/Applications/VOICE/Substances/37 

11 | 33

1,3-BUTADIENE 

1,3-BUTADIENE 

C 4 H 6 

WHAT IS 1,3-BUTADIENE? 

1,3-Butadiene is a colourless gas with a 

mild aromatic or gasoline-like odour. In the 

chemicals industry, 1,3-butadiene is primarily 

used to manufacture mineral oil products, 

synthetic rubber 1 and other rubber goods, it is 

also used to produce rocket fuel Typical end 

products include vessel linings, tubing and 

car tyres. 2 

1,3-BUTADIENE: FLAMMABLE, TOXIC 

AND CARCINOGENIC 

Concentrated accumulations of 1,3-butadiene 

cannot be recognised by the naked eye due 

to a lack of colour. As it is heavier than air, 

1,3-butadiene accumulates at floor level. 

If inhaled in large doses it has a narcotic 

effect. Explosive compounds form in the 

presence of air. 

Caution: 1,3-butadiene has a low boiling point! 

The main route of exposure is thus inhalation in 

gaseous form, as an aerosol, or vapour. Special 

respiratory protection filters are necessary. 

The danger of 1,3-butadiene to the human 

body and production equipment is described 



CAUTION 1,3-BUTADIENE 


1,3-butadiene is primarily absorbed via the 

respiratory pathways. There are chronic effects 

from long-term exposure above the defined 

workplace thresholds, including the risk of 

leukaemia and other tumours, such as non- 

Hodgkin lymphoma. 5 

The EU classifies 1,3-butadiene as a human 

carcinogen of carcinogenicity category 1. The 

American EPA also rates the substance as a 

GHS02 GHS04 GHS08 

H220 

H280 

H340 

H350 

Extremely flammable gas 

Contains gas under pressure 

May cause genetic effects 

May cause cancer (category 1) 

human carcinogen; in the ACGIH ranking it is 

Group A2: Suspected human carcinogen. 3 

Skin contact or inhalation of the gas after 

a direct discharge from pressure vessels is 

known to cause symptoms of acute toxicity, 

such as localised frostbite and irritation. In 

very high concentrations, a narcotic effect is 

possible. 6 

12 | 33

1,3-BUTADIENE 

1,3-Butadiene – chemical and 

physical properties⁴ 

CAS no. 106-99-0 


Odour: 





Risk of explosion: 




Gaseous, 

colourless 

Aromatic 

< 76 ppm 

-108.92 °C 

-4.5 °C 

-85 °C 

Upon contact with 

various substances 

1.4 vol-% 

16.3 vol-% 


LIMITS FOR 1,3-BUTADIENE (8 HOURS TWA) 


Germany (acceptance level) – 5 

Germany (tolerance level) 0,2 0,5 

USA (ACGIH) 2 5 

China (PC-STEL CN) 1 2,2 

China (PC-TWA CN) 2 4,4 

Singapore 2 4,4 




MEASUREMENT OF 1,3-BUTADIEN 

Working in an 1,3-butadiene exposed area requires an 

exact measurement, assessment and monitoring of the 

butadiene concentration of the workplace/warehouse 

at floor level, such as via a gas warning system with 

OV, Cat-Ex or IR sensors. For clearance measurement, 

repeated spot measurements and individual workplace 

monitoring several selective and non-selective methods 

are suitable. A multi gas detector with PID sensor 

measures the cumulative concentration of existing VOCs 

in a non-selective way. For selective random samples the 

analysis mode of the Dräger X-pid® 9000 or a Dräger 

Short-term Tube like Chloropren 5/a can be used. Spot 

measurements of concentrations down to 25 ppb can 

be done with the Dräger X-act® 7000. To identify the 

average concentration at a workplace a diffusion tube 

like Butadien 10/a-D is a good choice. 


9000/9500 




Tubes 



1 http://www.chemie.de/lexikon/Butadien.html; accessed: 31.08.2017 

2 http://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/chemie/kautschuk/4818: accessed: 31.08.2017 

3 https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/butadiene/healtheffects.html; accessed: 31.08.2017 

4 Source: GESTIS substance database; www.gestis.de; accessed: 31.08.2017 



7 No indicated threshold due to potential carcinogenic effect. Source: https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/106990.html; accessed: 31.08.2017 

8 https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/106990.html; accessed: 31.08.2017 

9 http://limitvalue.ifa.dguv.de; accessed: 20.06.2016 

10 Source (unless otherwise indicated): GESTIS substance database; www.gestis.de; accessed: 31.08.2017 

11 No indicated threshold due to potential carcinogenic effect. Source: https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/106990.html; accessed: 31.08.2017 

12 https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/106990.html; accessed: 31.08.2017 

13 http://limitvalue.ifa.dguv.de; accessed: 20.06.2016 

13 | 33



C 3 H 5 CIO 

WHAT IS EPICHLOROHYDRIN? 

Epichlorohydrin is a clear colourless liquid 

with an irritating, chloroform-like odour. It is 

used to manufacture epoxy resins, elastomers, 

and synthetic glycerin.1 It is also used in the 

manufacture of other chemicals, insecticides, 

coatings, adhesives, and as a solvent in the 

rubber industry. 

GHS02 

GHS05 

EPICHLOROHYDRIN: FLAMMABLE, 

CORROSIVE, AND CARCINOGENIC 

Epichlorohydrin is a flammable liquid that is 

highly volatile. When heated above its flash 

point, its vapors may cause explosive reactions 

when combined with air.2 

GHS06 

GHS08 

Short-term inhalation exposure in the 

workplace can cause irritation to the eyes, 

respiratory tract, and skin of workers. Nausea, 

vomiting, coughing, labored breathing, 

inflammation of the lung, pulmonary edema, 

and renal lesions may be observed after 

high levels of exposure. Chronic (longterm) 

occupational exposure of humans 

to epichlorohydrin in air is associated with 

high levels of respiratory tract illness and 

hematological effects.1 

The EU and EPA have rated epichlorohydrin 

as a probable human carcinogen.1 The danger 

epichlorohydrin poses to the human body 

and production equipment is described by 

the H-statements as part of the GHS/CLP 

regulations. They are internationally valid 

CAUTION EPICHLOROHYDRIN 


The acute toxicity of epichlorohydrin is 

demonstrated in severe irritant effects on the 

human body. As it has not yet been established 

whether single exposure to the substance can 

lead to an increased rate of cancer, or whether 

H226 

H301 

H311 

H331 

H314 

H317 

H350 

Flammable liquid and vapor 

Toxic if swallowed, in contact 

with skin or if inhaled 

Causes severe skin burns 

and eye damage 



this is more likely to occur in the case of longterm 

exposure, exposure should essentially 

be minimised. 10 According to EU regulation, 

epichlorohydrin is rated as carcinogen class 

1B, meaning it is suspected to cause cancer. 

Animal testing indicates a coherence between 

exposure to epichlorohydrin and tumors in the 

respiratory system as well as in the central 

nervous system (CNS).2 

14 | 33


Epichlorohydrin – chemical and 

physical properties2 

CAS no. 106-89-8 


LIMITS FOR EPICHLOROHYDRIN (8 HOURS TWA) 



Odour: 





Flammability: 




Liquid, colourless 

Pungent, 

like chloroform 

– 

-48°C 

116°C 

28°C 

385°C 

2.3 vol-% 

34.4 vol-% 

Europe – 1.9 


Germany (tolerance level) 2 8 

USA (ACGIH) 0.5 1.9 


China (PC-WA CN) – 1 





MEASUREMENT OF EPICHLOROHYDRIN 

Employees in dangerous areas should be 

equipped with their own gas measuring device 

with an OV sensor. Securely installed gas 

measuring heads with electrochemical sensors 

are used to continuously monitor the areas 

to ensure compliance with the occupational 

exposure limit value. 

If epichlorohydrin is one of a mixture of 

substances, an activated charcoal sampling 

tube can give information about the 

composition. Concentrations above 5 pm can 

be determined with an epichlorohydrin 5/c 

short-term tube. Caution! As a major route 

of entry is via the skin, when working in 

areas with epichlorohydrin, regardless of the 

concentration, the body should be protected by 





Tubes 



a splash suit or a gas-tight chemical protective 

suit. Protective eyewear and protective gloves 

are also recommended. 

1 National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Database. Epichlorohydrin, CID=7835, https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Epichlorohydrin (accessed on July 3, 2020) 

2 IFA. (n.d.-a). Epichlorohydrin. Gestis Substance Database. Retrieved July 3, 2020, from http://gestis-en.itrust.de/nxt/gateway.dll/gestis_en/000000.xml?f=templates$fn=default. 


3 Drägerwerk AG & Co. KGaA. (n.d.). Epichlorohydrin . Dräger VOICE Databank. Retrieved July 3, 2020, from https://www.draeger.com/en_seeur/Applications/VOICE/Substances/200 

15 | 33



C 2 H 4 O 

WHAT IS ETHYLENE OXIDE? 

Ethylene oxide is a gaseous, colourless 

substance that smells like ether at toxic 

levels. 1,2 It is used in the manufacture of 

antifreeze, textiles, solvents, adhesives and 

pharmaceuticals. 

A primary use of ethylene oxide is as a 

chemical intermediate in the manufacture of 

ethylene glycol. 2 More than 40,000 workers 

in the European Union have potentially been 

exposed to ethylene oxide. 2 

GHS02 

GHS06 

GHS04 

GHS08 

ETHYLENE OXIDE: FLAMMABLE, TOXIC, 

AND HAZARDOUS TO HEALTH 

Danger of explosion: Ethylene oxide is 

extremely flammable, chemically unstable and 

may react explosively in the presence of an 

ignition source, even without oxygen. 1 

H220 

H230 

H280 

H331 


May react explosively even in 

the absence of air 

Contains gas under pressure; 

may explode if heated 

Toxic if inhaled 

Acute effects and early symptoms of exposure 

to ethylene oxide include: eye pain, sore 

throat, difficulty breathing, blurred vision, 

dizziness, nausea, headache, convulsions, 

blisters, vomiting, coughing, increased risk of 

miscarriage in females, testicular degeneration 

and reduced sperm concentration in males. 

Prolonged exposure may cause leukaemia, 

lymphoid or breast cancer. 2 

Caution: Ethylene oxide has a low boiling 

point! The main route of exposure is thus 

inhalation in gaseous form, as an aerosol, or 

vapour. Special respiratory protection filters 

are necessary. 

The dangers of ethylene oxide to the human 




H315 

H319 

H335 

H340 

H350 

H372 


Causes serious eye irritation 


May cause genetic defects 


Causes damage to organs through 

prolonged or repeated exposure 

CAUTION ETHYLENE OXIDE 


Ethylene oxide is a carcinogen (classified as 

group 1 by IARC) which may cause leukaemia, 

lymphoid and breast cancers. Latency period 

between exposure and ethylene oxide-related 

cancer varies between 9 and 20 years. 2 

16 | 33


Ethylene oxide – chemical and 

physical properties 1 


LIMITS FOR ETHYLENE OXIDE (8 HOURS TWA) 

CAS no. 


Odour: 




75-21-8 

Gaseous, 

colourless 

Sweet, ethereal 

>500 ppm 

-112.55 °C 

10.5 °C 


Europe 1 1.8 


Germany (tolerance level) 1 2 



Risk of explosion: 




-57 °C 

Chemically unstable, 

highly reactive; 

risk of explosion 

2.6 vol-% 

100 vol-% 

China – 2 





MEASURING ETHYLENE OXIDE 

Monitoring of the Ethylene Oxide concentration 

of the workplace/warehouse should be done 

at floor level via a gas warning system with an 

OV sensor. A multi-gas detection device with 

OV sensor is suitable for continuous personal 

workplace monitoring. Spot measurements of 

concentrations down to 25 ppb can be done 

with the Dräger X-act® 7000. For frequent 

random samples the use of the analysis mode 

of the Dräger X-pid® 9000 is a good choice. 

For less frequent measurements short-term 

tubes such as Ethylene Oxide 1/a are able to 

measure concentrations of as low as 0.2 ppm. 

For workplace samples, the use of an active 

charcoal sampling tube is especially useful 

where there are mixtures of substances. 


9000/9500 






1 IFA. (n.d.-a). Ethylene oxide. Gestis Substance Database. Retrieved July 8, 2020, from http://gestis-en.itrust.de/nxt/gateway.dll/gestis_en/000000.xml?f=templates$fn=default. 


2 The Facts on Ethylene Oxide. (n.d.). Roadmap on Carcinogens. Retrieved July 8, 2020, from https://roadmaponcarcinogens.eu/ethyleneoxide3 

17 | 33

FORMALDEHYDE 

FORMALDEHYDE 

CH 2 O 

WHAT IS FORMALDEHYDE? 

Formaldehyde is gaseous, colourless and has 

a pungent odour. 1 It is often found in waterbased 

solutions. Formaldehyde is used in the 

manufacture of a wide variety of products 

like chemicals, glues, fibreboard adhesives 

and sealants, coating products, polymers 

and laboratory chemicals. 2,3 It is also used 

as a preservative in medical laboratories and 

mortuaries. 2 

FORMALDEHYDE: EXTREMELY 

FLAMMABLE, EXPLOSIVE AND 

CARCINOGENIC 

According to the harmonised classification and 

labelling approved by the European Union, 

formaldehyde is toxic in contact with skin, 

causes severe skin burns and eye damage, 

is toxic if inhaled, may cause cancer, and is 

suspected of causing genetic defects. 3 

Acute exposure to formaldehyde is highly 

irritating to the eyes, nose, and throat. 

Subsequent exposure may cause severe 

allergic reactions of the skin, eyes and 

respiratory tract and can cause asthma-like 

respiratory problems and skin irritation. 2 

GHS05 

H301 

H311 

H331 

H314 

H317 

GHS06 

Toxic if swallowed, in contact 

with skin or if inhaled 

Causes severe skin burns 

and eye damage 

GHS08 


The danger of formaldehyde to the human 




CAUTION FORMALDEHYDE 


Prolonged, repeated exposure to formaldehyde 

concentrations above the applicable 

occupational exposure limits can lead to 

cancer. In the industrial sector, these are 

primarily tumors in the nasopharynx and 

leukemia. Irritation of the sensory organs 

caused by formaldehyde can promote the 

H335 

H341 

H350 

H370 


Suspected of causing genetic defects 


Causes damage to organs 

development of precancerous stages. 4 The 

IARC classifies formaldehyde as a group 1 

carcinogen, meaning it is carcinogenic to 

humans (nose-cancer). 2 

18 | 33

FORMALDEHYDE 

Formaldehyde – chemical and 



LIMITS FOR FORMALDEHYDE (8 HOURS TWA) 

CAS no. 

50-00-0 



Pungent 

USA (ACGIH) 

STEL: 0.3 

TWA: 0.1 

STEL: 0.37 

TWA: 0.12 





Flammability: 




0,05–1 ppm 

-117 °C 

-19 °C 

50 °C–85 °C 

Highly flammable 

7 vol-% 

73 vol-% 

Europe 0.3 0.37 

Germany 0.3 (AGW) 0.37 (AGW) 

USA (ACGIH) 

STEL: 0.3 

TWA: 0.1 

STEL: 0.37 

TWA: 0.12 

Singapore 0.3 PEL (ST) 0.37 PEL (ST) 

China – 0.5 




MEASUREMENT OF 

FORMALDEHYDE 

If there is a risk that the workplace 

limit values might be exceeded, 

possible exposure must be 

monitored and documented. 

Employees in dangerous areas 

should be equipped with their 

own gas measuring device with an 

OV sensor. Spot measurements 

of concentrations down to 5 ppb 

can be done with the Dräger 

X-act® 7000. 





Tubes 

Find more information about suitable measuring equipment in 

the chapter "Measuring carcinogens". 

1 IFA. (n.d.-b). GESTIS Substance database - Formaldehyde. Gestis Substance Database. Retrieved July 3, 2020, from http://gestis-en.itrust.de/nxt/gateway.dll/gestis_en/000000. 


2 The Facts on Formaldehyde. (n.d.). Roadmap on Carcinogens. Retrieved July 10, 2020, from https://roadmaponcarcinogens.eu/formaldehyde 

3 ECHA. (n.d.). Formaldehyde - Substance Information - ECHA. European Chemicals Agency - Substance Database. Retrieved July 10, 2020, from https://echa.europa.eu/de/substanceinformation/-/substanceinfo/100.000.002 

4 European Commision. (2018, April 5). Kommission setzt sich weiter für den Schutz der Arbeitnehmer vor krebserregenden Chemikalien ein: Häufig gestellte Fragen (FAQ) zur dritten 

Überarbeitung der Richtlinie über Karzinogene und Mutagene. Kommission Setzt Sich Weiter Für Den Schutz Der Arbeitnehmer Vor Krebserregenden Chemikalien Ein. https://ec.europa.eu/ 

commission/presscorner/detail/de/MEMO_18_2661 

19 | 33

MERCURY 

MERCURY 

Hg 

WHAT IS MERCURY? 

Mercury, also known as quicksilver, is a silver 

shining, odourless liquid. 1 It is a naturally 

occurring element, found in water, air, and soil. 2 

Mercury is contained in many products such 

as batteries, thermometers, electric switches, 

dental amalgam, pharmaceuticals and lamps. 

Mercury is often found as an undesirable byproduct 

in the oil and gas industry, for example 

in drilling mud. 3 The WHO considers mercury 

as one of the top ten chemicals or groups of 

chemicals of major public health concern. 2 

MERCURY: TOXIC, FATAL IF INHALED, 

POSSIBLY CARCINOGENIC 

All humans are exposed to some level of 

mercury, most are exposed to low levels, often 

through continuous or intermittent long-term 

contact. Some people are exposed to high 

levels of mercury, including acute exposure, for 

example due to an industrial accident. 2 

After inhalation, ingestion or dermal exposure 

of different mercury compounds neurological 

and behavioral disorders may be observed. 

Symptoms include insomnia, tremors, memory 

loss, headaches, and cognitive and motor 

dysfunction. Mild central nervous system 

toxicity can be seen in workers exposed to 

elemental mercury in the air (20 μg/m 3 or 

more) for several years. 2 

Due to its toxicity, mercury must be handled 

with extreme care at the workplace. 

The substance must not be present in 

quantities higher than required for work to 

continue and any contact when handling the 

substance must be avoided. 1 The danger of 

mercury to the human body and production 

equipment is described by the H-statements 

outlined in GHS/CLP regulations. They are 


GHS06 

H330 

H360D 

H372 

H410 

CAUTION MERCURY 


There is inadequate 

available for all 

chloride has caused 

of tumors in rats 

has caused kidney 

EPA has determined 

and methylmercury 

carcinogens. 4 GHS08 

Fatal if inhaled 

May damage the 

Causes damage 

prolonged or repeated 

Very toxic to aquatic 

long-lasting effects 

POSSIBLY 

human 

forms of mercury. 

increases 

and mice, 

tumors in 

that mercuric 

are possible 

GHS09 

child 

through 

exposure 

with 

data 

Mercuric 

several types 

methylmercury 

mice. The 

chloride 

human 

unborn 

to organs 

life 

cancer 

in 

and 

male 

20 | 33

MERCURY 

Mercury – chemical and 


SELECTED INTERNATIONAL WORKPLACE EXPOSURE LIMITS 

FOR MERCURY (8 HOURS TWA) 

CAS no. 7439-97-6 

Country/Region 

Parts per 

million 

Mg/m³ 




Silver shining 

-38.87 °C 

356.72 °C 

Europe – 0.02 

Germany – 0.02 

USA (ACGIH) – 

TWA 0.1 (aryl) 

TWA 0.025 (inorg.) 

China – 

Singapore – 

0.04 (PC-STEL CN) 

0.02 (PC-TWA CN 

PEL (ST) 0.03 (Alkyl compounds) 

PEL (LT) 0.01 (Alkyl compounds) 

PEL (LT) 0.1 (Aryl compounds) 

PEL (LT) 0.025 (Inorganic forms + metal) 




MEASUREMENT OF MERCURY 

Measuring mercury or mercury vapour is 

a challenge for the industry. Due to its 

very specific properties, special measuring 

instruments are usually required for clearance 

measurement or regular spot measurements. 

Now this is fast and easy possible with a new 

analysis system. The Dräger X-act® 7000 

analysis device with MicroTubes measure 

mercury in the range of 0.005–0.25 mg/m 3 . 

It is able to replace a conventional laboratory 

analysis and delivers exact results on site. 

The Dräger tube for mercury vapor with a 

measuring range of 0.05–2 mg/m 3 can also 

be used. 

Dräger 

X-act® 7000 


Tubes 

Find more information 

about suitable measuring 

equipment in the chapter 

"Measuring carcinogens". 

1 IFA. (n.d.-a). GESTIS Substance database - Mercury. Gestis Substance Database. Retrieved July 14, 2020, from http://gestis-en.itrust.de/nxt/gateway.dll/gestis_en/000000. 


2 https://www.who.int/news-roomWorld Health Organization: WHO. (2017, March 31). Mercury and health. WHO - Mercury and Health. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mercuryand-health/fact-sheets/detail/mercury-and-health 

3 Ines Rutschmann, I. R. (2016, June 2). Giftiger Bohrschlamm - Reinigen statt in der Erde verbuddeln. Deutschlandfunk. https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/giftiger-bohrschlamm-reinigen-statt-inder-erde-verbuddeln.676.de.html?dram:article_id=355974 

4 CDC. (n.d.). ATSDR - ToxFAQsTM: Mercury. Toxic Substances Portal - Mercury. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/tf.asp?id=113&tid=24 

21 | 33



C 2 H 3 CI 

WHAT IS VINYL CHLORIDE MONOMER? 

Vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) is a gaseous, 

colourless substance with a sweetish odour. 1 

It is mainly produced to make polyvinyl 

chloride (PVC) products like pipes, wires, 

and packaging materials. 2 Vinyl chloride does 

not occur naturally and must be industrially 

manufactured for its commercial uses. 3 

VINYL CHLORIDE: EXTREMELY 

FLAMMABLE AND CARCINOGENIC 

Vinyl chloride is an extremely flammable gas, 

that forms explosive mixtures with air. It is 

heavier than air and chemically unstable at 

increased temperatures. 1 Exposure to vinyl 

chloride poses the risk of acute or chronic 

health hazards. Devices for detecting and 

reporting the presence of hazardous gases 

should be present. 3 

Acute exposure to vinyl chloride can lead to 

symptoms that include weakness, dizziness, 

weight loss, numbness and tingling of the 

extremities, and in severe cases to coma 

and death. It can also irritate the eyes, skin, 

mucous membranes and respiratory tract. 

The body is able to metabolize vinyl chloride 

and excrete it in urine at low exposure levels. 

Chronic exposure can cause permanent liver 

injury and liver cancer, neurologic or behavioral 

symptoms and changes to the skin and bones 

of the hand. 3 

GHS02 

H220 

H280 

H350 

GHS04 


Contains gas under pressure; 

may explode if heated 


GHS08 

Caution: Vinyl chloride monomer has a low 

boiling point! The main route of exposure 

is thus inhalation in gaseous form, as an 

aerosol, or vapour. Special respiratory 

protection filters are necessary. The danger 

of VCM to the human body and production 

equipment is described by the H-statements 

outlined in GHS/CLP regulations. They are 


CAUTION VCM CAUSES CANCER! 

Vinyl chloride is classified as a group 1 

carcinogen by the IARC, meaning it is seen 

as a definite cause of cancer in humans. 3 

Occupational vinyl chloride exposure has been 

associated with both malignant and benign liver 

disease. VCM can also cause a rare form of 

liver cancer (angiosarcoma). 2 

22 | 33


Vinyl chloride momoner – chemical 

and physical properties 1 

SELECTED INTERNATIONAL WORKPLACE EXPOSURE LI- 

MITS FOR VINYL CHLORIDE MONOMER (8 HOURS TWA) 

CAS no. 75-01-4 



Odour: 





Flammability: 




Gaseous, colourless 

Slightly sweet 

3,000 ppm 

-153.7 °C 

-13.4 °C 

-78 °C 

Ignition 

temperature: 415 °C 

Explosion group: IIA 

3.8 vol-% 

31 vol-% 

Europe 1 2.6 

Germany 1 2.6 


China – 10 

Singapore 5 PEL (LT) 13 PEL (LT) 




MEASUREMENT OF VCM 

Working in a VCM exposed area 

requires an exact measurement, 

assessment and monitoring of the 

vinyl chloride concentration. For 

clearance measurement, repeated 

spot measurements and individual 

workplace monitoring several 

selective and non-selective methods 

are suitable. A multi-gas detector 

with PID sensor measures the 

cumulative concentration of existing 

VOCs in a non-selective way. For 

selective random samples, the 

analysis mode of the Dräger X-pid® 

9000 or a Dräger Short-term Tube 

like Vinyl Chloride 0.5b can be used. 


9000/9500 




Tubes 



1 IFA. (n.d.-b). Vinyl chloride. Gestis Substance Database. Retrieved July 13, 2020, from http://gestis-en.itrust.de/nxt/gateway.dll/gestis_en/000000.xml?f=templates$fn=default. 


2 ScienceDirect. (n.d.). Vinyl Chloride - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. Vinyl Chloride. Retrieved July 13, 2020, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-andpharmaceutical-science/vinyl-chloride 

3 The Facts on Vinyl Chloride. (2020, March 30). Roadmap on Carcinogens. https://roadmaponcarcinogens.eu/vinylchloride/ 

23 | 33



Create a safer workplace 

An important step towards minimising health 

risks and protecting employees against the 

long-term effects of exposure is the setting 

of stricter limits on carcinogenic hazardous 

substances. Because the employer's duty 

of care extends beyond the actual time of 

employment, companies face the challenge 

of continually complying with the strict limits 

and maintaining long-term records of their 

test results. 

RISK-ACCEPTANCE CONCEPT 

For carcinogenic substances, there are typically 

no definable maximum levels that would 

completely exclude the possibility of health 

impairment if not exceeded. 

Germany is a pioneer in the implementation of a 

strict directive on carcinogenic substances and 

mutagens (2004/37/EC). The safety concept 

for workplaces using carcinogenic substances 

is derived from the so-called "risk acceptance 

concept", which is a traffic light model; this 

differentiates between a high (•Red), medium 

(•Yellow), and low risk (•Green). 

RISK-MANAGEMENT MEASURES MODEL 

(GERMAN HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES 

ORDINANCE) 1 

Acceptance risk – cause of concern: this is 

an area for all substances which indicates 

a > 4:100,000 statistical chance that exposure 

to the substance will result in cancer over the 

course of a worker's life. 

Acceptance concentration: substancespecific 

value. This refers to the concentration 

of a substance in the air at a worksite that 

when exceeded is associated with a low, 

acceptable risk. 

Tolerance risk – danger threshold: this is 

an area for all substances which indicates 

a > 4:1,000 statistical chance that exposure to 

the substance will result in cancer. 

Tolerance concentration: substancespecific 

value. This refers to the concentration 

of a substance in the air at a worksite that 

when exceeded is associated with a high, 

unacceptable risk. 

Risk-acceptance concept 

Increasing health risk 

Low risk 

Acceptance risk 

cause for concern 

Medium risk 

Tolerance risk 

danger threshold 

High risk 

• Green: Go! 

Health risk ist acceptable: 

Duty of care remains in force 

• Yellow: Warning! 

Health risk is undesirable: 

communicate via active risk management 

• Red: Stop! 

Health risk can no longer be tolerated: 

ban on use, if no significant 

exposure reduction follows. 

4:100,000 

4:10,000 4:1,000 

24 | 33


CHALLENGES IN EVERYDAY WORK 

Precisely measuring carcinogenic substances 

in the field has always been difficult. 

Until recently, the sensor technology has been 

based on photo ionisation detectors (PIDs) 

or electrochemical sensors. However, these 

methods also detect hydrocarbons, such as 

styrene or butene. These types of associated 

substances distort the assessment of the 

gas hazard. A selective and therefore exact 

measurement of for example a 1,3-butadiene 

concentration was so far only possible with 

a specific short-term tube or by separating 

1,3-butadiene from its associated substances in 

a laboratory via gas chromatography. 

The challenge therefore lies in devising a 

measurement technique that can be performed 

in the field. It requires features such as: 

"usable in EX areas", "usable by gas analysts" 

and "simple functional check by the user". 

MEASUREMENT DIRECTLY ON SITE 

With on-site measurement technology, the 

measured value is directly available – a 

tank entry operation, for instance, can thus 

be performed immediately after testing. In 

addition, the gas analyst, who generally grants 

clearance for the work in areas polluted with 

explosive and toxic gases, can also verify the 

concentration of carcinogenic substances. 

This also results in significant improvements 

in workplace monitoring. Using "on-site 

measurement technology", any given task 

can be monitored using random sample 

measurements as the measured value is 

directly available without delay. This results in a 

much higher level of safety and efficiency. 

LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY 

IN THE FIELD 

As a manufacturer of field-suitable gas 

measuring technology our goal is to make lab 

technologies suitable for the field, allowing 

safety officers react more quickly to peak 

exposure values. In many industries, volatile 

organic compounds – VOCs – are often 

a combination of gas and vapour made up 

of various compounds. For example, the 

carcinogenic compound that can cause longterm 

health damage in petrol is benzene. In 

the laboratory, the selective measurement 

of benzene in petrol vapour is performed 

using gas chromatography, which first acts 

by separating the vapour compounds into 

individual gases. Making this technology 

suitable for the field involves two important 

aspects in addition to miniaturising the testing 

device: firstly, it needs to be simpler to use, 

since it will be a gas analyst performing the 

pre-entry measurement, not laboratory staff. 

This means that a simple operating concept 

for using and calibrating the device is required. 

Secondly, it generally needs to be suitable 

for use in EX zones. The devices must be 

industrially robust and have ATEX approval. 

These new types of solutions are available now 

after a decade of research. 

25 | 33


STRICT REQUIREMENTS FOR 

WORKPLACE MONITORING 

Requirements for detection processes 

• The detection system must be sensitive 

and precise enough to reliably detect 

concentrations in the range of under 1 ppm. 

• Test results must be conclusive within the 

shortest amount of time possible, typically 

within a few minutes. 

• The detection system should essentially be 

free of cross sensitivities. 

Requirements for detection performance 

• The sensitivity of the testing device must 

comply with the latest requirements. In the 

case of carcinogenic substances, this is even 

more critical in the low measuring ranges. 

• When a pump is used, the quality of the 

hose is particularly important. If the pump 

hose is made from a material in which 

deposits of the measured substances might 

form, it can distort the test results. 

SUITABLE MEASUREMENT METHODS 

Ongoing methods are most suitable for 

workplace monitoring in hazardous situations, 

such as measurement with a non-selective 

OV sensor (OV = organic vapour) or a 

PID sensor. Where there is any doubt, a 

selective measurement can then be taken. 

For timepoint-related analysis, regular spot 

measurements using a selective measuring 

method would be a typical approach. To better 

assess the risks within the context of a hazard 

assessment, workplaces can also be controlled 

at irregular intervals. These selective spot 

measurements methods need to be precise in 

low ppm or even ppb ranges. The measuring 

data should be very easy to read, interpret 

and, if possible, further process in software 

solutions. 

Requirements for documentation 

• The measurement results generally need to 

be documented, assessed, and archived by 

the employer. 

CLOUD BASED DOCUMENTATION 

Through the use of cloud-based 

solutions data exchange from various 

sources, such as measured values from 

authorisation measurements, people 

in the workplace, work assignments, 

company doctor examinations etc. 

will become far easier to aggregate, 

evaluate and document. 

The result: seamless job overviews, 

resulting in fast decisions and high 

working efficiency. 

26 | 33


THE RIGHT MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT FOR YOUR APPLICATION 

Dräger X-pid® 9000/9500 

The selective PID gas measurement device is ideal for users who 

frequently test for hazardous toxic substances. Benzene, butadiene 

and other volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are carcinogenic 

even in the smallest concentrations. Since other gases and vapours 

are also often present, selective measurement is necessary. The 

gas measurement device allows for short test times and laboratoryquality 

results. 


Clearance measurement has never been so easy and convenient: 

the 1 to 7 gas detector detects toxic and flammable gases as well 

as vapours and oxygen all at once – either in pump or diffusion 

mode. For benzene-specific measurements, the X-am® 8000 

can be used with a pre-tube. The advantage: only one measuring 

device is needed for this application, which significantly reduces 

the costs of purchasing, maintaining, and transporting devices in 

use. The use of the pre-tubes is supported by a built-in assistant. 

Dräger X-am® 5000 and X-am® 5600 

The Dräger X-am® 5000 and X-am® 5600 belong to a generation 

of gas detectors, developed especially for personal monitoring 

applications. This 1- to 5- respectively the 1- to 6-gas detector 

reliably measures combustible and explosive gases and vapours, as 

well as oxygen and harmful concentrations of toxic gases, organic 

vapours, odorant and amine. 


With the robust Dräger Pac® 8000, you'll be well equipped 

for tough conditions: this non-disposable, personal single-gas 

detection device is a reliable and precise instrument, which detects 

hazardous concentrations of 29 different gases, including special 

gases like NO2, O3 or COCl2. The Pac® 8000 logs concentrations 

and events along with date and time. Its download interface means 

that exposure monitoring is even easier. 


The innovative Dräger X-act® 7000 analysis system consists of 

Dräger MicroTubes and an opto-electronic analysis device that lets 

users precisely measure gases in the low ppb range. It provides 

precise results right on site, replacing slow, expensive lab analyses. 

It's extremely easy to use insert the Dräger MicroTubes, start 

measuring and then read out the test result. 

27 | 33


Dräger Short-term Tubes 

Tried and tested a million times: worldwide, the Dräger Short-term 

Tubes have proven to be a very cost-effective and reliable method 

for the measurement of gases. Decreasing occupational exposure 

values, special customer requirements and new legal regulations 

made it necessary to develop even more sensitive Dräger-Tubes. 

With low use frequency (around 50 measurements/year), selective 

tests with detection tubes are an appropriate measurement method. 

Dräger Sampling Tubes 

For workplace samplings the Dräger Sampling Tubes and Systems 

are very reliable in use even with complex compounds and mixtures 

of substances. 


The Dräger Polytron® 7000 is a gas detector that can satisfy all 

toxic and oxygen gas measurement applications on a single platform. 

It meets the requirements of the compliance market as well as the 

high specification requirements of customised solutions. 

WHAT MEASURING EQUIPMENT DETECTS WHICH SUBSTANCE? 

X-pid® 

9000/ 

9500 

X-am® 

8000 

X-am® 

5000/ 

5600 

Pac® 

8000 

X-act® 

7000 

Short-term 

Tubes 

Sampling 

Tubes 

Polytron® 

7000 

Measuring 

threshold 2 

Acrylonitrile • • • • • • 0.2 ppm 

Benzene • • • • • • 1 ppb 

1,3-Butadiene • • • • • • • • 25 ppb 

Epichlorohydrin 

(1-Chlor-2,3-epoxypropan) • • • • • • • 0,67 ppm 

Ethylene oxide • • • • • • • • 25 ppb 

Formaldehyde • • • • • • • 5 ppb 

Mercury • • 

0.005 

mg/m³ 

Vinyl Chloride • • • • • • • 0.33 ppm 

1 Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (BAuA). (2013, January). The risk-based concept for carcinogenic substances developed by the Committee for Hazardous Substances. 

https://www.baua.de/DE/Angebote/Publikationen/Praxis/A85.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=2 

2 This value shows the lowest concentration of the respective substance, that one of the devices can detect. For detailed information about the measurement range of the equipment please visit our 

homepage www.draeger.com or contact our sales department. 

28 | 33



Protecting your workers from carcinogens 

If exposure at a workplace is unavoidable in spite 

of all the precautionary measures, then personal 

protective equipment (PPE) must be used. 

Chemical-resistant protective clothing prevents 

carcinogenic vapours and particles from 

being absorbed through the skin. Respiratory 

protection equipment (RPE) and filters protect 

the lungs from carcinogens. 

For more information and an extensive 

list of substances and relevant 

measuring and protection equipment 

visit our VOICE substance database: 

www.draeger.com/voice 

Half masks, e.g. Dräger X-plore® 3300/3500 

A perfect combination: modern design and light weight offer you 

extra protection and comfort. Choose from the low-maintenance, 

cost-effective Dräger X-plore® 3300 half mask or Dräger X-plore® 

3500 version for long lasting protection under tough conditions. 

Dräger X-plore® 5500 and X-plore® 6300 

The DrägerX-plore® 5500 and 6000 series full face masks are the 

right solution for environments where not only increased respiratory 

protection is required, but a clear vision is mandatory. These lowcost 

full face breathing masks are intended for price-conscious 

users not wishing to compromise comfort or quality. We offer 

single-filter or twinfilter versions. 

Dräger X-plore® Filters 

The Dräger X-plore® Rd40 filter series offers various filter types 

for major applications and protects against many hazardous 

substances. The Dräger X-plore® Bayonet filter series offers a new 

dimension of comfort and safety in respiratory protection. 

Caution: As the carcinogens 1,3 butadiene, ethylene oxide 

and vinyl chloride have low boiling points special respiratory 

protection filters are necessary. The recommended PPE to 

protect against inhalation is a half or full face mask with an 

original AX-P filter, which must be disposed of post-shift. 

29 | 33


Dräger X-plore® 8000 

Low limit values classify even more workplaces as environments that 

compromise the quality of air. The Dräger X-plore® 8000 PAPR offers a new 

level of intuitive handling combined with intelligent electronics. The result? 

The highly reliable personal protection you need to focus on the task at hand. 

At very high concentrations, independent air supplying breathing protection 

should be used. This can be a self-contained breathing apparatus or a 

compressed airline system which can be chosen either as belt unit or as Self- 

Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA). 

Dräger X-plore® 9000 and PAS X-plore® 

The new Dräger X-plore® 9000 series is designed for light duty industrial 

applications and provides comfortable and reliable respiratory protection. 

Thanks to such features as the patented safe-flow reducer and autotest 

function, wearers can enjoy more operating convenience, safety, and 

flexibility. 

Dräger PAS® Lite 

For use in industrial applications where a simple, robust, and easy-to-use 

breathing apparatus is required, the Dräger PAS® Lite combines reliability 

with comfort and performance. 

Splash-tight suits, e.g. Dräger SPC 4X00 

These suits are used when a person’s skin has to be protected from the 

harmful effects of carcinogenic liquids. If there is a risk that the entire body 

may come into contact with solid or liquid chemicals, complete coveralls are 

the only way to ensure full protection. 

Gas-tight suits, e.g. Dräger CPS 5800 or CPS 6800 

A wide range from disposable to reusable gas-tight chemical protection 

suits are available for industrial applications and operations that involve 

gaseous, liquid or solid substances. If you are looking for protection 

against cryogenic substances like 1,3-butadiene, ethylene oxide and 

vinyl chloride, then the Dräger CPS 6800 chemical protective suit is the 

right choice. 

Caution: The explosive nature of substance like 1,3-butadien, 

acrylonitrile, ethylene oxide, and vinyl chloride means special 

attention must be paid to the anti-static properties of the PPE, 

especially of the suit, gloves and shoes. In explosion-prone areas, 

the protective equipment must be adequately earthed to ensure it 

does not act as an indirect source of ignition. When removing any 

clothing that may be contaminated, care must be taken to avoid 

contact with the harmful substance. 

30 | 33


SUITABLE PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT BY SUBSTANCE 

Protective equipment 

Substances 

Respiratory protection 

Dräger X-plore® 3300/3500 

Acrylonitrile, Benzene, Epichlorohydrin, Formaldehyde, Mercury, 


Acrylonitrile, Benzene, Epichlorohydrin, Formaldehyde, Mercury 


Acrylonitrile, Benzene, 1,3-Butadiene, Epichlorohydrin, Ethylene oxide, Mercury, Vinyl chloride 


Acrylonitrile, Benzene, Epichlorohydrin, Formaldehyde, Mercury 

Dräger X-plore® 9000 and PAS X-plore® 


Filter 

Dräger X-plore® Bayonet Filters 

Dräger X-plore® Rd40 

Dräger X-plore® 8000 Filter 

Acrylonitrile, Benzene, Epichlorohydrin: filter type A1 or A2 

Formaldehyde: filter type B1 or B2 


1,3-Butadiene, Ethylene oxide, Vinyl chloride: filter type AX 


Mercury: filter type Hg 



Mercury: filter type Hg 

Self-contained breathing apparatus 

Dräger PAS® Lite 


Protective suits 

Dräger SPC 4X00 CLF 

Dräger CPS 5800 

Dräger CPS 6800 

Acrylonitrile, Benzene, Formaldehyde, Mercury (only in liquid form) 

Acrylonitrile, Benzene, 1,3-Butadiene, Epichlorohydrin, Ethylene oxide, 

Formaldehyde, Vinyl chloride 

Acrylonitrile, Benzene, 1,3-Butadiene, Epichlorohydrin, Ethylene oxide, 

Formaldehyde, Mercury, Vinyl chloride 

31 | 33

DEAR READER 

Disclaimer 

DEAR READER, 

This paper functions as a starting point to 

introduce you to the topic of carcinogenic 

substances in the chemical industry. 

All the information has been compiled to the 

best of our knowledge. However, no liability 

can be accepted for the information provided. 

The information and data are subject to 

technical changes and may not always be up 

to date. The information provided in this paper 

does not serve to evaluate the circumstances 

of individual cases and does not draw any 

binding conclusions with regard to condition 

or scientific insights, and it contains no 

assurances with regard to products of the 

Dräger Group or other manufacturers. 

If you are interested to learn more about 

specific substances, how to measure them 

and what protective equipment is suitable, 

please visit our hazardous substance 

database VOICE: 

www.draeger.com/voice 

It offers information on more than 

1,700 substances, including workplace 

exposure limits. 

More information about our products and 

services can be found on our homepage 

or get in touch with our local sales team at 

www.draeger.com 

32 | 33

Not all products, features, or services are for sale in all countries. 

Mentioned Trademarks are only registered in certain countries and not necessarily in the country 

in which this material is released. Go to www.draeger.com/trademarks to find the current status. 

PDF-10639 | Subject to modification | © 2020 Drägerwerk AG & Co. KGaA 

CORPORATE HEADQUARTERS 

Drägerwerk AG & Co. KGaA 

Moislinger Allee 53-55 

23558 Lübeck, Germany 

www.draeger.com

Carcinogenic Substances at Work

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