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A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents (such
as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic
structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions.
In addition, macroscopic single crystals are usually identifiable by their
geometrical shape, consisting of flat faces with specific, characteristic
orientations. The scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is
known as crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms
of crystal growth is called crystallization or solidification.
Examples of large crystals include snowflakes, diamonds, and table
salt. Most inorganic solids are not crystals but polycrystals, i.e. many
microscopic crystals fused together into a single solid. Examples of
polycrystals include most metals, rocks, ceramics, and ice. A third category
of solids is amorphous solids, where the atoms have no periodic
structure whatsoever. Examples of amorphous solids include glass, wax,
and many plastics.
Crystals are often used in pseudoscientific practices such as crystal
therapy, and, along with gemstones, are sometimes associated with
spellwork in Wiccan beliefs and related religious movements.
The word crystal derives from the Ancient Greek word κρύσταλλος
(krustallos), meaning both “ice” and “rock crystal”, from κρύος (kruos),
“icy cold, frost”.

Ice sculpture is a form of sculpture that uses ice as the raw material.
Sculptures from ice can be abstract or realistic and can be functional or
purely decorative. Ice sculptures are generally associated with special or
extravagant events because of their limited lifetime.
The lifetime of a sculpture is determined primarily by the temperature
of its environment, thus a sculpture can last from mere minutes to
possibly months. There are several ice festivals held around the world,
hosting competitions of ice sculpture carving.
The temperature of the environment affects how quickly the piece must
be completed to avoid the effects of melting; if the sculpting does not
take place in a cold environment, then the sculptor must work quickly
to finish the piece. Some sculptures can be completed in as little as
tenminutes if the carver is using power tools such as chainsaws and
specialty bits fitted to a die grinder.
Ice sculptors also use razor-sharp chisels and hand saws that are specifically
designed for cutting ice. As various technologies are adapted for
use with ice carving, many sculptures are now created largely by machine.
CNC machines and molding systems are now commonly used to create
ice sculptures and complicated logos from ice. Color effects are also
possible by a number of techniques, including the addition of colored
gels or sand to the ice.
Ice sculptures feature decoratively in some cuisines and may be used
to enhance the presentation of foods, especially cold foods such as
seafood or sorbets. At holiday buffets and Sunday brunches some large
restaurants and hotels will use ice sculptures to decorate the buffet
tables. Cruise ship buffets are also famous for their use of ice sculptures.
Ice sculptures are often used at wedding receptions, usually as some
form of decoration or at a bar, in the form of an ice luge, or even the
entire bar may be made of ice. Ice sculptures with high surface area like
in a radiator can be used to cool air to blow on people during heat wave
events when air conditioning is not available.

A tooth (plural teeth) is a hard, calcified structure found in the jaws
(or mouths) of many vertebrates and used to break down food. Some
animals, particularly carnivores and omnivores, also use teeth to help
with capturing or wounding prey, tearing food, for defensive purposes,
to intimidate other animals often including their own, or to carry prey
or their young. The roots of teeth are covered by gums. Teeth are not
made of bone, but rather of multiple tissues of varying density and
hardness that originate from the embryonic germ layer, the ectoderm.
Teeth are among the most distinctive (and long-lasting) features of
mammal species. Paleontologists use teeth to identify fossil species and
determine their relationships. The shape of the animal’s teeth are related
to its diet. For example, plant matter is hard to digest, so herbivores
have many molars for chewing and grinding. Carnivores, on the other
hand, have canine teeth to kill prey and to tear meat.
Mammals, in general, are diphyodont, meaning that they develop two
sets of teeth. In humans, the first set (the “baby,” “milk,” “primary” or
“deciduous” set) normally starts to appear at about six months of age,
although some babies are born with one or more visible teeth, known
as neonatal teeth. Normal tooth eruption at about six months is known
as teething and can be painful. Kangaroos, elephants, and manatees are
unusual among mammals because they are polyphyodonts.

The koala or, inaccurately, koala bear (Phascolarctos cinereus), is an
arboreal herbivorous marsupial native to Australia. It is the only extant
representative of the family Phascolarctidae and its closest living
relatives are the wombats, which are members of the family Vombatidae.
The koala is found in coastal areas of the mainland’s eastern and
southern regions, inhabiting Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria,
and South Australia. It is easily recognisable by its stout, tailless body
and large head with round, fluffy ears and large, spoon-shaped nose.
The koala has a body length of 60–85 cm (24–33 in) and weighs 4–15
kg (9–33 lb). Fur colour ranges from silver grey to chocolate brown.
Koalas from the northern populations are typically smaller and lighter
in colour than their counterparts further south. These populations
possibly are separate subspecies, but this is disputed.
Koalas typically inhabit open eucalypt woodlands, and the leaves of
these trees make up most of their diet. Because this eucalypt diet has
limited nutritional and caloric content, koalas are largely sedentary and
sleep up to 20 hours a day. They are asocial animals, and bonding exists
only between mothers and dependent offspring. Adult males communicate
with loud bellows that intimidate rivals and attract mates. Males
mark their presence with secretions from scent glands located on their
chests. Being marsupials, koalas give birth to underdeveloped young
that crawl into their mothers’ pouches, where they stay for the first six to
seven months of their lives. These young koalas, known as joeys, are fully
weaned around a year old. Koalas have few natural predators and parasites,
but are threatened by various pathogens, such as Chlamydiaceae
bacteria and the koala retrovirus.

A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a
fungus, typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source.
The standard for the name “mushroom” is the cultivated white button
mushroom, Agaricus bisporus; hence the word “mushroom” is most
often applied to those fungi (Basidiomycota, Agaricomycetes) that
have a stem (stipe), a cap (pileus), and gills (lamellae, sing. lamella)
on the underside of the cap. “Mushroom” also describes a variety of
other gilled fungi, with or without stems, therefore the term is used to
describe the fleshy fruiting bodies of some Ascomycota. These gills
produce microscopic spores that help the fungus spread across the
ground or its occupant surface.
The vitamin D content of a mushroom depends on postharvest
handling, in particular the unintended exposure to sunlight. The US
Department of Agriculture provided evidence that UV-exposed mushrooms
contain substantial amounts of vitamin D. When exposed to
ultraviolet (UV) light, even after harvesting, ergosterol in mushrooms
is converted to vitamin D2, a process now used intentionally to supply
fresh vitamin D mushrooms for the functional food grocery market.
In a comprehensive safety assessment of producing vitamin D in fresh
mushrooms, researchers showed that artificial UV light technologies
were equally effective for vitamin D production as in mushrooms
exposed to natural sunlight, and that UV light has a long record of safe
use for production of vitamin D in food.

Champagne is a sparkling wine produced in the Champagne wine region
of France under the rules of the appellation, that demand specific vineyard
practices, sourcing of grapes exclusively from designated places
within it, specific grape-pressing methods and secondary fermentation
of the wine in the bottle to cause carbonation.
Champagne became associated with royalty in the 17th, 18th, and 19th
centuries. The leading manufacturers made efforts to associate their
Champagnes with nobility and royalty through advertising and packaging,
which led to its popularity among the emerging middle class.
Champagne is usually served in a Champagne flute, whose characteristics
include a long stem with a tall, narrow bowl, thin sides and an
etched bottom. The intended purpose of the shape of the flute is to
reduce surface area, therefore preserving carbonation, as well as maximizing
nucleation (the visible bubbles and lines of bubbles). Legend
has it that the Victorian coupe’s shape was modelled on the breast of
Madame de Pompadour, chief-mistress of Louis XV of France, or
perhaps Marie Antoinette, but the glass was designed in England over
a century earlier especially for sparkling wine and champagne in 1663.
Champagne is always served cold; its ideal drinking temperature is 7
to 9 °C (45 to 48 °F). Often the bottle is chilled in a bucket of ice and
water, half an hour before opening, which also ensures the Champagne
is less gassy and can be opened without spillage. Champagne buckets
are made specifically for this purpose and often have a larger volume
than standard wine-cooling buckets to accommodate the larger bottle,
and more water and ice.

The Palace of Domitian was built as Roman emperor Domitian’s official
residence in 81–92 AD and was used as such by subsequent emperors.
It was designed by the architect Rabirius. Its remains sit atop and dominate
the Palatine Hill in Rome, alongside other palaces. It has not been
fully exposed as parts lie under more recent buildings.
The Palace is a massive structure separated today into three areas, in
part following the way business matters and private life were separated
so they could be conducted in parallel. The modern names used for
these parts are the Domus Flavia, the Domus Augustana, and the
garden or “stadium”.
The palace was built on top of earlier buildings, notably Nero’s Domus
Transitoria and the Republican House of the Griffins, significant
remains of which have been discovered.
Under Severus a large extension was added along the southwestern
slope of the hill overlooking the Circus Maximus, but otherwise the
bulk of the Palace as constructed under Domitian remained remarkably
intact for the remainder of the Empire. The Palace functioned as the
official residence of the Roman Emperors until the fall of the Western
Roman Empire in the 5th century AD.
Brick stamps show that Hadrian reinforced the structure of the porticos
and that in the Severan era the exedra was reduced to a quarter circle
externally when the adjacent Severan Baths were built. The small oval
enclosure in the southern end dates to the time of Theodoric (early 6th c.)
when it was perhaps used as a private amphitheatre (certainly not as a
training ground for gladiators, as this type of show was abolished since
the time of Honorius).
The complex was discovered and excavated in the 18th century which
was soon followed by looting which irreparably compromised the state
of the building.

Basketball is a team sport in which two teams, most commonly of five
players each, opposing one another on a rectangular court, compete
with the primary objective of shooting a basketball (approximately 9.4
inches (24 cm) in diameter) through the defender’s hoop (a basket
18 inches (46 cm) in diameter mounted 10 feet (3.048 m) high to a
backboard at each end of the court) while preventing the opposing
team from shooting through their own hoop. A field goal is worth two
points, unless made from behind the three-point line, when it is worth
three. After a foul, timed play stops and the player fouled or designated
to shoot a technical foul is given one, two or three one-point free
throws. The team with the most points at the end of the game wins,
but if regulation play expires with the score tied, an additional period
of play (overtime) is mandated.
Players advance the ball by bouncing it while walking or running
(dribbling) or by passing it to a teammate, both of which require
considerable skill. On offense, players may use a variety of shots – the
layup, the jump shot, or a dunk; on defense, they may steal the ball
from a dribbler, intercept passes, or block shots; either offense or
defense may collect a rebound, that is, a missed shot that bounces from
rim or backboard. It is a violation to lift or drag one’s pivot foot without
dribbling the ball, to carry it, or to hold the ball with both hands then
resume dribbling.
The five players on each side fall into five playing positions. The tallest
player is usually the center, the second-tallest and strongest is the power
forward, a slightly shorter but more agile player is the small forward,
and the shortest players or the best ball handlers are the shooting guard
and the point guard, who implements the coach’s game plan by managing
the execution of offensive and defensive plays (player positioning).
Informally, players may play three-on-three, two-on-two, and one-on-one.

Monozygotic (MZ) or identical twins occur when a single egg is fertilized
to form one zygote (hence, “monozygotic”) which then divides
into two separate embryos. The chances of having identical twins is
relatively rare – around 3 or 4 in every 1,000 births.
Monozygotic twins are genetically nearly identical and they are always
the same sex unless there has been a mutation during development.
The children of monozygotic twins test genetically as half-siblings (or
full siblings, if a pair of monozygotic twins reproduces with another
pair or with the same person), rather than first cousins. Identical twins
do not have the same fingerprints however, because even within the
confines of the womb, the fetuses touch different parts of their environment,
giving rise to small variations in their corresponding prints and
thus making them unique.
Another cause of difference between monozygotic twins is epigenetic
modification, caused by differing environmental influences throughout
their lives. Epigenetics refers to the level of activity of any particular
gene. A gene may become switched on, switched off, or could become
partially switched on or off in an individual. This epigenetic modification
is triggered by environmental events. Monozygotic twins can have
markedly different epigenetic profiles. A study of 80 pairs of monozygotic
twins ranging in age from three to 74 showed that the youngest
twins have relatively few epigenetic differences. The number of epigenetic
differences increases with age. Fifty-year-old twins had over three
times the epigenetic difference of three-year-old twins. Twins who had
spent their lives apart (such as those adopted by two different sets of
parents at birth) had the greatest difference. However, certain characteristics
become more alike as twins age, such as IQ and personality.
In January 2021, new research from a team of researchers in Iceland
was published in the journal Nature Genetics suggesting that identical
twins may not be quite as identical as previously thought. The four-year
study of monozygotic (identical) twins and their extended families
revealed that these twins have genetic differences that begin in the early
stages of embryonic development.

Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted coffee beans, the seeds
of berries from certain Coffea species. From the coffee fruit, the seeds
are separated to produce a stable, raw product: unroasted green coffee.
The seeds are then roasted, a process which transforms them into a
consumable product: roasted coffee, which is ground into fine particles
that are typically steeped in hot water before being filtered out, producing
a cup of coffee.
Coffee is darkly colored, bitter, slightly acidic and has a stimulating
effect in humans, primarily due to its caffeine content. It is one of the
most popular drinks in the world and can be prepared and presented
in a variety of ways (e.g., espresso, French press, caffè latte). It is usually
served hot, although chilled or iced coffee is common. Sugar, sugar
substitutes, milk or cream are often used to lessen the bitter taste or
enhance the flavor. It may be served with coffee cake or another sweet
dessert, like doughnuts. A commercial establishment that sells prepared
coffee beverages is known as a coffee shop (not to be confused
with Dutch coffeeshops selling cannabis).
Clinical research indicates that moderate coffee consumption is benign
or mildly beneficial as a stimulant in healthy adults, with continuing
research on whether long-term consumption reduces the risk of some
diseases, although some of the long-term studies are of questionable
credibility.

A macaroon is a small cake or biscuit, typically made from ground
almonds (the original main ingredient), coconut or other nuts (or
even potato), with sugar and sometimes flavourings (e.g. honey, vanilla,
spices), food colouring, glacé cherries, jam or a chocolate coating; or a
combination of these or other ingredients. Some recipes use sweetened
condensed milk. Macaroons are sometimes baked on edible rice paper
placed on a baking tray.
The name “macaroon” comes from the Italian maccarone or maccherone
meaning “paste”, referring to the original almond paste ingredient;
this word itself derives from ammaccare, meaning “to crush”
Culinary historians write that macaroons can be traced to an Italian
monastery of the 8th or 9th century. The monks came to France in
1533, joined by the pastry chefs of Catherine de’ Medici, wife of King
Henry II. Later, two Benedictine nuns, Sister Marguerite and Sister
Marie-Elisabeth, came to Nancy seeking asylum during the French
Revolution. The two women paid for their housing by baking and
selling macaroons, and thus became known as the “Macaroon Sisters”.
Italian Jews later adopted macaroons because it has no flour or leavening
(macaroons are leavened by egg whites) and can be eaten during the
eight-day observation of Passover. It was introduced to other European
Jews, and became popular as a year-round sweet.
Recipes for macaroons appear in recipe books at least as early as 1725
(Robert Smith’s Court Cookery, or the Complete English Cook), and
use egg whites and almond paste. Mrs Beeton’s Book of Household
Management includes a typical traditional recipe. Over time, coconut
was added to the ground almonds and, in certain recipes, replaced
them. Potato starch is also sometimes included in the recipe, to give
the macaroons more body.