2 - Pondicherry University DSpace Portal
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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF WATER<br />
RESOURCES PROJECTS - WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE!<br />
TO SATHANUR RESERVOIR PROJECT, INDIA<br />
Thesis submitted<br />
for the award of the degree of<br />
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY<br />
in<br />
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING<br />
by<br />
Ms. Richa Sharma<br />
Under the guidance of<br />
Professor S.A.Abbasi, P ~D, DSC, FIE, FIIC~E, PE<br />
Senlor Professor 8 Director<br />
Centre for Pollution Control & Energy Technology<br />
<strong>Pondicherry</strong> <strong>University</strong><br />
Pond~cherry 605 014<br />
November 2000
Dedicated to<br />
My loving Parents
PONDlCHERRY UNIVERSITY<br />
m*m<br />
R VeMrlrrrmm Nqm<br />
CENTRE FOR POlLUTlON CONTROL & rnbr<br />
ENERGY TECHNOLOGY KIWI<br />
?mM.
DECLARATION<br />
I hereby declare that the thesis entitled "Envlronmental Impact<br />
Assessment Of Water Resources Projects -With Special Reference<br />
To Sathanur Reservoir Project, India" submitted to <strong>Pondicherry</strong><br />
<strong>University</strong> for the award of the degree of Doctor of Phllo8ophy is a record of<br />
original work done solely by me under the guidance of Senlor Professor S.A.<br />
Abbasi, Director, Centre for Pollution Control and Energy Technology,<br />
Pondlcherry Unlverslty, and that It has not formed the basis for the award of<br />
any other degreelcertificate or any other title by any 'l(niversity1 institution<br />
before.<br />
Date 'I ?K<br />
Place Pond~cherry<br />
1<br />
LL. C;i'LxbMk<br />
(Richa Sharma)
. . ... andthus it happened<br />
It war a memora6le and~ondefile~erience wohng under eminent ptvfcssor, my guidr,<br />
Sr.cprofessor A66a.i ?fe is persona qemphy%dfor his dcdicatwn to nseanh. Ve<br />
taught me, more by his actwnr than w rh, that research tmnsccndr the bourulhnh of<br />
lnrpiratwn andperrpiratwn andis more a6out commitment to ow's wo$andah a4<br />
perseverance. Conrtantly in the punult ofe
Outsde @?Ex unronditwnafsupport andinspiration camcfonn my dcastf.Cndr @ah,<br />
Suja, Sfiajt, Arnnga, Gfiori, Xecna, 'Ven&tesh .. . ....., some of whom, though not near,<br />
wm always around My hje u ennchedfiaving them.<br />
71ie mammoth ta.r(, ~f tranrlbtwn of the datafmm tamz to engfirli wou[il not liavc Grcrr<br />
p~~rrilh ,wtrhoul liir help ujmtidha ,who palic~tlly, aparr jnirt imrlslatir~, clurnd tfie<br />
mtnutcst ofmy doubts.<br />
fils tliesi i a L~Gour of affectwn and care of Chandtra and Nalbthy (N/s. Nan<br />
Computers, xalbpetl who, patwntCy and unfathngCy, spent hours together m g~vlng thu<br />
~hesls afrnalsfiape<br />
Last, 6ut not the Ict~.rt, ~t was the h e of my dearest parents and6mther that motvuatedmr<br />
to accompliih my am6rtwn.
List of Figures<br />
List of Tables<br />
List of Plates<br />
List of abbreviations used<br />
Section I Introduction<br />
Chapter 1 Introduct~on<br />
Chapter 2 Study area<br />
Section Il - Impact upstream<br />
CONTENTS<br />
Chapter 3 Upstream impacts<br />
Section Ill - lmpacts on reservoir and catchment<br />
Chapter 4<br />
4 I lnundat~on<br />
4 2 Se~sm~c~ty<br />
Chapter 5 Sedimentat~on<br />
Chapter 6 Recreation<br />
Chapter 7 . Health<br />
Chapter 8 Aquaculture<br />
4 3 Hydroelectr~c~ty<br />
Chapter 9 . Reservoir water quality
Section IV - Downstream impacts<br />
Chapter 10 Impacts of lrrlgatlon<br />
Chapter 1 1 Land use<br />
Chapter 12 So11<br />
Chapter 13 Agriculture<br />
Chapter 14 Ground water quallty<br />
Chapter 15 Health<br />
Chapter 16 Soc~o economics<br />
Chapter 17<br />
17 1 Forestry<br />
17 2 Industry<br />
17 3 Water supply<br />
Sectlon V - Conclusions and recommendations<br />
Chapter 18 Conclusions and recommendations<br />
Section VI -Bibliography<br />
Bibliography<br />
Appendix<br />
(Publication)
Figure number<br />
LIST OF FIGURES<br />
Chapter 2<br />
Page number<br />
Map showing Sathanur location 81<br />
Ponnaiyar basin 82<br />
Sathanur reservoir water spread map showing 83<br />
arterial streams feeding the reservoir<br />
SRP command area 84<br />
Map representing the current states of SLBC<br />
command region with canal system and tanks<br />
85<br />
Map representing the current status of SRBC<br />
command region with canal system<br />
87<br />
Geological map of Ponnaiyar basin 88<br />
Trend of the annual precipitation in Sathanur<br />
dam<br />
89<br />
Trend of the annual precipitation in uthanagarai<br />
and Krishnagiri<br />
90<br />
Trend of the annual precipitation in Tirupathur<br />
and Singarepet<br />
91<br />
Trend of the annual precipitation in Rayakotta<br />
and Palacode<br />
92<br />
Trend of the annual precipitation in Harur and<br />
chengam<br />
93<br />
Trend of the annual precipitation in Dharmapuri 94<br />
Trend of annual precipitation in SCA 95<br />
(Thiruvannamalai)<br />
Chapter 3<br />
Location of various projects in Ponnaiyar river 99<br />
basin
Chapter 5<br />
Sathanur reservoir contour level va depth<br />
Reservoir contour level vs area<br />
Reservoir contour level vs capacity<br />
Depth vs sediments distribution (%)<br />
Classification of Sathanur reservoir<br />
Sathanur reservoir life by Trap efficiency method<br />
Chapter 6<br />
Tourists visiting the Sathanur dam annually and<br />
revenue generated<br />
Chapter 7<br />
lmpact of precipitation on malarial parasite index<br />
in Sathanur reservoir<br />
lmpact of precipitation on malarial parasite index<br />
in Sathanur village<br />
Chapter 8<br />
lmpact of precipitation on annual fish catch<br />
Sathanur reservoir - CaHa Catla, Labeo rohita<br />
lmpact of precipitation on annual fish catch<br />
Sathanur reservoir - C.mrigal, L.fimbriatus<br />
C.carpio<br />
lmpact of precipitation on annual fish catch<br />
Sathanur reservoir - L.calabasu, C.cirrhosa<br />
Impact of precipitation on annual fish catch<br />
Sathanur reservoir - Wallago attu, Caffish<br />
lmpact of precipitation on annual fish catch<br />
Sathanur reservoir - Others<br />
lmpact of precipitation on annual fish catch<br />
Sathanur reservoir - Total annual fish catch
Impact of water level on annual fish catch in<br />
Sathanur reservoir - Catla catla, Labeo mhita,<br />
C. mrigal.<br />
lmpact of water level on annual fish catch in<br />
Sathanur reservoir - C.Carpio , L,fimbriatus,<br />
L.calabasu<br />
Impact of water level on annual fish catch In<br />
Sathanur reservoir - C.cimhosa, Wallago atfu,<br />
catfish, Others.<br />
lmpact of water level on total annual fish catch in<br />
Sathanur reservoir<br />
lmpact of inflow on annual fish catch in Sathanur<br />
reservoir - Catla catla, L.mhita<br />
lmpact of inflow in annual fish catch in Sathanur<br />
reservoir - C.mriga1, C.carpio<br />
lmpact of inflow on annual fish catch in Sathanur<br />
reservoir - L.fimbriatus, C.cinhosa<br />
lmpact of inflow in annual fish catch in Sathanur<br />
reservior - W. attu, catfish<br />
lmpact of inflow on total annual fish catch in<br />
Sathanur reservoir.<br />
Variation in zoomass perfish - Cata catla, L.mhita,<br />
C.mriga1<br />
Variation in zoomass per fish - L.fimbriatus,<br />
L.calabasu, C.cihosa, Wallago attu, Catfish<br />
Variation in annual catch of ichthyofauna in<br />
Sathanur reservoir<br />
Sathanur reservoir: Fish seed yield vs revenue<br />
Sathanur reservoir fisheries : Total annual catch vs<br />
revenue
Chapter 9<br />
Variation in pH and precipitation in Sathanur 231<br />
reservoir<br />
Variation in electrical conductivity and precipitation 232<br />
in Sathanur reservoir<br />
Variation in akalinity and precipitation in Sathanur 233<br />
reservoir<br />
Variation in total hardness and precipitation in 234<br />
Sathanur reservoir<br />
Variation in calcium hardness and precipitation in 235<br />
Sathanur reservoir<br />
Variation in total solids, suspended solids. 236<br />
dissolved solids and precipitation in Sathanur<br />
reservoir<br />
Variation in chloride and precipitation in Sathanur 237<br />
reservoir<br />
Variation in magnesium, sulphate and precipitation 238<br />
values in Sathanur reservoir<br />
Relationship between outflow, inflow and 239<br />
precipitation in Sathanur reservoir<br />
Variation in turbidity values and reservoir outflow in 240<br />
Pick-up dam.<br />
Variation in pH and oufflow in Pick-up dam 24 1<br />
Variation in E.C hardness and oufflow in Pick-up 242<br />
dam<br />
Variation in alkalinity, total solids and oufflow in 243<br />
Pick-up dam<br />
Variation in chloride and oufflow in Pick-up dam 244<br />
Variation in fluoride, iron and oufflow in Pick-up 245<br />
dam<br />
Vertical gradient of temperature and dissolved 246<br />
oxygen in Sathanur reservoir (June - 99)
Vertical gradient of temperature and dissolved<br />
oxygen in Sathanur rese~oir(duly- 99)<br />
Chapter 10<br />
Irrigation pattern is SCA (block wise) for 1997-98<br />
lrrigation pattern in SCA (1997-98)<br />
Gross irrigated area and gross cultivated area in<br />
SCA (1997-98)<br />
Status of canal irrigation in SCA (1997-98).<br />
Chapter I I<br />
Land use pattern of Thachampattu block (SLBC)<br />
for 1997-98<br />
Land use pattern of Thirukoilur block (SLBC) for<br />
1997-98<br />
Land use pattern of Chengam block (SLBC) for<br />
1997-98<br />
Land use pattern of SLBC command (1997-98)<br />
Land use pattern of Sankarapuram block (SRBC)<br />
for 1997-98.<br />
Land use pattern of Rishivandiyam block (SRBC)<br />
for 1997-98.<br />
Land use pattern of Chengam block (SLBC) for<br />
1997-98.<br />
Land use pattern of SRBC command (1997-98)<br />
Land use pattern of SCA (1997-98)<br />
Land use pattern of Thiruvannamalai (1997-98)<br />
Land use pattern of Tamil Nadu state, India (1 995-<br />
96)<br />
Follow land vs net sown area in SCA (1997-98
Chapbr 13<br />
Annual precipitation in SCA vr annual outflow<br />
from the Sathanur dam<br />
Annual precipitation in Tamil Nadu state, lndia<br />
Distribution of food crops and non - food crops in<br />
SCA<br />
Area under paddy (0.sativa) cultivation during<br />
various seasons in SCA<br />
Cropping pattern (1997098) : Thachampattu block<br />
(SLBC command)<br />
Cropping pattern (1997-98) : Thirukoiiur block<br />
(SLBC command)<br />
Cropping pattern (1997-98) : Chengam block<br />
(SLBC command)<br />
Cropping pattern: SLBC command (1997-98)<br />
Cropping pattern (1997-98):Sankarapuram<br />
(SRBC) command)<br />
Cropping pattern (1997-98): Rishivandiyam block<br />
SRBC command)<br />
Cropping pattern (1997-98): Chengam block<br />
(SRBC command)<br />
Cropping pattern: SCA (1997-98)<br />
Cropping pattern: SCA (1 997-1998)<br />
Cropping pattern: Tamil Nadu state, lndia (1996-<br />
1997)<br />
Area under groundnut (A.hypogee) cultivation in<br />
SCA and the state of Tamil Nadu<br />
Classification of workers in SCA (1991 census)<br />
Gender wise distribution of agricultural labourers in<br />
SCA (1991 census)<br />
Chapter 14<br />
pH values in the ground water in SLBC command<br />
pH values in the ground water in SRBC command<br />
Electrical conductivity values in the ground water<br />
in SLBC command<br />
E.C. values in the ground water in SRBC<br />
command<br />
Alkalinity values in the groundwater in SLBC<br />
command
Alkalinity values in the groundwater in SRBC<br />
command<br />
Total hardneas values in the groundwater in SLBC<br />
command<br />
Total hardness values in the ground water in<br />
SRBC command<br />
Calcium values in the ground water in SLBC<br />
command<br />
Calcium values in the ground water in SRBC<br />
command<br />
Chloride values in the ground water in SLBC<br />
command<br />
Chloride values in the ground water in SLBC<br />
command<br />
Sulphate values in the ground water sample in<br />
SLBC command<br />
Sulphate values in the ground water in SRBC<br />
command<br />
Nitrogen (nitrate) values in the ground water in<br />
SLBC command<br />
Nitrogen (nitrate) values in the ground water in<br />
SRBC command<br />
Phosphate values in ground water in SLBC<br />
command<br />
Phosphate values in ground water in SRBC<br />
command<br />
Sodium values in ground water in SLBC command<br />
Sodium concentration in ground water in SRBC<br />
command<br />
Potassium concentration in ground water in SLBC<br />
command<br />
Potassium concentration in ground water in SRBC<br />
command<br />
Copper concentration in ground water in SLBC<br />
command<br />
Copper concentration in ground water in SRBC<br />
command<br />
Chromium concentration in ground water in SLBC<br />
command<br />
Chromium concentration in ground water in SRBC<br />
command<br />
Zinc concentration in ground water in SLBC<br />
command<br />
Zinc concentration in ground water in SRBC<br />
command
Chapter 15<br />
lmpact of precipitation on malarial annual parasite<br />
index in the villages of SLBC command -Devanur,<br />
Devariyarkuppam<br />
lmpact of precipitation on malarial annual parasite<br />
index in the villages of SLBC command --<br />
Edathanur, Alappanur<br />
Impact of precipitation on malarial annual parasite<br />
index in the villages of SLBC command -<br />
Melandhal, Kangaiyanur<br />
lmpact of precipitation on malarial annual parasite<br />
index in the villages of SLBC command -<br />
Vanapuram, Katampoondi<br />
lmpact of precipitation on malarial annual parasite<br />
index in the villages of SLBC command -<br />
Valavachanur, Sadakuppam<br />
lmpact of precipitation on malarial annual parasite<br />
index in the villages of SLBC command -<br />
Mazhuvarnpattu, Thenmudiyanur<br />
Impact of precipitation on malarial annual parasite<br />
index in the villages of SLBC command -<br />
Vanapuram puddur, Perunduraipattu<br />
lmoact of ~recioitation on malarial annual ~arasite<br />
index in the villages of SLBC command - '<br />
Palayanur, Periyampattu<br />
Malarial annual paraslte index vs annual<br />
precipitation in SLBC command<br />
lmpact of precipitation on malarial annual parasite<br />
index in the villages of SLBC command -<br />
~a~anda~uram,~hirivudathanur<br />
lmoact of oreci~itation on malarial annual oarasite<br />
index in the villages of SLBC command - '<br />
Vadaponparappi, Moongilthuraipattu<br />
lmpact of precipitation on malarial annual parasite<br />
index in the villages of SLBC command -<br />
Puthurcheekady, Elayankani<br />
lmpact of precipitation on malarial annual parasite<br />
index in the villages of SLBC command -<br />
Poravalur, Porasapattu<br />
lmpact of precipitation on malarial annual parasite<br />
index in the villages of SRBC command<br />
Annual precipitation in SCA and oufflow from the<br />
reservoir<br />
lmpact of reservoir oufflow on malarial annual<br />
parasite index in SLBC command<br />
lmpact of reservoir outflow on malarial annual<br />
parasite index in SRBC command
Focal outbreak of malaria in Agarampallipattu<br />
village in SLBC command<br />
Malarial annual parasite index for SCA<br />
Incidence of malaria<br />
Population distribution in various primary health<br />
centres in SCA<br />
Malaria and filaria endemic villages in SLBC<br />
command<br />
Malaria endemic villages in SRBC command<br />
Chapter 16<br />
Water logging in SLBC command<br />
Water logging in SRBC command<br />
Literacy status in SCA (1991 census)<br />
Gender wise literacy status in SCA (1991 census)
LIST OF TABLES<br />
Table number Page number<br />
Chapter 2<br />
Catchment details of Ponnaiyar basin<br />
Village wise proposed area under canal irrigation<br />
(SLBC command) Chengam<br />
Village wise proposed area under canal irrigation<br />
(SLBC command) Thiruvannamalai<br />
Village wise proposed area under canal irrigation<br />
(SLBC command) Thirukoilur<br />
Village wise proposed area under canal irrigation<br />
(SRBC command) Chengam<br />
Village wise proposed area under canal irrigation<br />
(SRBC command) Sankarapuram<br />
Village wise area proposed under tank irrigation<br />
(SLBC command)<br />
Village wise area proposed under tank irrigation<br />
(SRBC command)<br />
Annual precipitation (in mm) recorded in Sathanur dam<br />
Annual precipitation (in mm) recorded in Uthangarai<br />
Annual precipitation (in mm) recorded in Singarapet<br />
Annual precipitation (in mm) recorded in Krishnagiri<br />
Annual precipitation (in mm) recorded in Thiruppathur<br />
Annual precipitation (in mm) recorded in Chengam<br />
Annual precipitation (in mm) recorded in Harur<br />
Annual precipitation (in mm) recorded in Dharmapuri<br />
Annual precipitation (in mm) recorded in Palacode<br />
Annual precipitation (in mm) recorded in Royakotta<br />
Annual precipitation (mm) in SCA<br />
inflow (in cusecs) recorded in Sathanur dam<br />
Outflow (in cusecs) recorded in Sathanur dam<br />
Water level (in feet) recorded in Sathanur dam
Chapter 4<br />
Salient features of the Sathanur hydroelectricity unit<br />
Cost-benefit analysis of the hydro electricity<br />
Chapter 5<br />
Comparison of areas and capacities by various methods<br />
(1 976)<br />
Comparison of areas and capacities by various methods<br />
(1 982)<br />
Area and capacity at different elevations for the years 1957,<br />
1976 and ID82<br />
Depth wise capacity at different elevations<br />
Sediment deposit - depth wise distribution 1976<br />
Percentage of distribution of sediment vs percentage depth<br />
above river bed<br />
Relationship between capacity inflow ratio, trap efficiency and<br />
storage loss<br />
Computing life of Sathanur reservoir<br />
Comparison of specific erosion from Sathanur cathment<br />
with that of Krishnagiri catchment<br />
Loss of annual capacity in reservoir<br />
Comparison of reservoirs based on sedimentation surveys<br />
Comparison of reservoirs based on sed~mentation surveys<br />
Chapter 7<br />
Malaria incidence in Sathanur dam<br />
Malaria incidence in Sathanur village<br />
Chapter 8<br />
Details of commercial exploitation of ichthyofauna in<br />
Sathamur reservoir 167<br />
Coefficients of correlation between the fish catch and<br />
hydrological parameters 169<br />
Coefficients of correlations for the ichthyofauna catch in<br />
Sathanur resewoir 170
Average, 8tandard deviation and corffiolentn of variltlon Of<br />
the fish fauna in Sathanur reservoir<br />
Fish catch per hectare of Sathanur reservoir catchment<br />
Details of total catch, fish seed production and revenue<br />
generated for the past twenty years.<br />
Expenses and profit details (till December 1997)<br />
Chapter 9<br />
Physico-chemical characteristics of water in the Sathanur<br />
rese~oir<br />
Physico-chemical characteristics of water in the Pick-up dam<br />
Total alkalinity values in the Sathanur reservolr<br />
pH values in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
Electrical conductivity values in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
Values of suspended solids in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
Values of total dissolved solids in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
Calcium hardness values in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
Chloride values in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
Total sol~d values in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
Total hardness values in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
Magnesium values in the Sathanur reservolr<br />
Sulphate values in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
Turbidity of water in the Pick-up dam<br />
pH of the water in Pick-up dam<br />
reservoir (07199)<br />
Chloride values in the Pick-up dam<br />
Fluoride values in the Pick-up dam<br />
Electrical conductivity values in the Pick-up dam<br />
Alkalinily values in the Pick-up dam<br />
Total sol~ds values in the Pick-up dam<br />
Total hardness values in the Pick-up dam<br />
Preservation techniques for water sample<br />
Comparison of water quality of Sathanur reservoir and<br />
Pick-up dam with Indian standards for different usages
Physico-chemical characteristics of water in the Sathanur<br />
reservoir (06199)<br />
Productivity of Sathanur reservoir (07199)<br />
Productivity of Sathanur reservoir (06199)<br />
Physlco-chemical characteristics of water in the Sathanur<br />
Chapter 10<br />
Intensity of irrigation in Sathanur reservoir project<br />
Irrigatton potential created and utilized through irrigation<br />
schemes during various five year plans in India<br />
lrrigation pattern: Thatchampattu block (1997-98)<br />
lrrigation pattern: Thirukoilur block (1997-98)<br />
lrrigat~on pattern: Chengam (SLBC command ) - 1997-98<br />
lrrigation pattern: Rishivandiyam block (1997-98)<br />
lrrigat~on pattern. Sakarapuram block (1997-98)<br />
lrrigatlon pattern: Chengam (SRBC command) - 1997-98<br />
lrrigat~on pattern in SCA (1997-98)<br />
Gross cultivated area and gross area under irrigation in SCA<br />
(1997-98)<br />
Proposed area under canal irrigation and actual area ~rr~gated<br />
in SCA (1 997-98)<br />
Chapter 11<br />
Land use (in hectares): Thachampattu block (1997-98)<br />
Land use ( In hectares): Thirukoilur block (1997-98)<br />
Land use (in hectares): Chengam block (SLBC command)<br />
- 1997-98<br />
Land use (in hectares): Rishivandiyam block (1997-98)<br />
Land use (in hectares): Sankarpuram block (1997-98)<br />
Land use: Chengam (SRBC command) -1997-98<br />
Cumulative land use (block wise) in hectares<br />
Cumulative land use in hectares
Chapter 12<br />
Deta~ls of Edathanur soil series<br />
Details of Mudiyanur soil series<br />
Extent of soil serles<br />
Land capability classification<br />
Distr~bution of soils in Chengam<br />
Distr~bution of soils in Thiruvannamalai<br />
Distr~bution of soils in Kallakkaurichi<br />
Distribution of soils in Thirukoilur<br />
Land capability classification of soil with their limitations in<br />
Chengam<br />
Land capability classification of soil with their limitations in<br />
Thiruvannmalai<br />
Land capability classification of soil with their limitation in<br />
Kallakurichi<br />
Land capability classification of soil with their limitations in<br />
Thirukoilur.<br />
Land irrigability classification of soils of Chengam with their<br />
iimitalions<br />
Land lrrigability classification of soils of Thiruvannamalai with<br />
the~r llmitatlons<br />
Land lrrigability classification of soils with their limitations In<br />
Kailakkurichi<br />
Land irrigability classification of soils with their limitations in<br />
Thirukoilur.<br />
Crops grown in various soil types in Chengam<br />
Crops grown in various soil types in Thiruvannmalai<br />
Crops grown in various soil types in Kallakurichi<br />
Crops grown in various soil types in Thirukoilur<br />
Potentiality of the land under different soils for raising various<br />
crops in Chengam<br />
Potentiality of the land under different soil for raising various<br />
crops in Thiruvannamalai.
Potentiality of the land under different soils for raising various<br />
crops in Kallakurichi 320<br />
Potentiality of the land under different soils for raising various<br />
crops in Thirukoilur 321<br />
Productivity rating of soils in Chengam 322<br />
Productivity rating of soils in Thiruvannamalai 323<br />
Productivity rating of solls in Kallakurichi 324<br />
Productivity rating of solls In Thirukoilur 325<br />
Chapter I3<br />
Cropping pattern of study area 3 34<br />
Cropping pattern . Thachampattu block (1997-98) 335<br />
Cropping pattern : Thirukoilur block (1997-98) 337<br />
Cropping pattern : Chengam (SRBC command) block -1997-98 339<br />
Cropping pattern : Sankarapuram block (1997-98) 341<br />
Cropping pattern : Rishivandiyam block (1997-98) 343<br />
Cropping pattern : Chengam (SRBC command) block - 1997-98 345<br />
Cropping pattern: (Cumulative) - 1997-98 346<br />
Divis~on of labour : Thachampatu block (1991 census) 347<br />
Divis~on of labour : Thirukoilur block (1991 census) 348<br />
Divis~on of labour : Chengam (SLBC command ) block<br />
- 1991 census 349<br />
Div~s~on of labour : Sankarapuram block (1991 census) 350<br />
Div~s~on of labour Rishivandiyam block (1991 census) 351<br />
Divls~on of labour : Chengam (SRBC command) block (1991<br />
census) 351<br />
Divis~on of labour (cumulative) 352<br />
Intensity of cultivation and demographic details 353<br />
Chapter I 4<br />
Physico chern~cal characteristics of ground water in SRBC<br />
command (1999 field survey) 380<br />
Physico chemical characteristics of ground water inSLBC<br />
command (1999 field survey) 378<br />
WHO and CPCB drinking water standards 382
Physiw chernlcal characteristics of ground water in SLBC<br />
command (1989-90)<br />
Chapter I5<br />
Malaria incidence in SLBC command<br />
Malaria incidence in SRBC command<br />
Villages along with the respective population under various<br />
Primary Health Centres (PHC) in SCA<br />
Annual parasite index of filaria in SLBC command<br />
Presumptive treatment<br />
Radlcal treatment for malaria single day treatment<br />
Three days radical treatment for malaria<br />
Rad~cal treatment for Chloroquine resistant P.falciparum<br />
La~lcide formulations and their dosages<br />
lnsecticide formulations and their dosage for indoor residual<br />
spray<br />
Insecticide formulations and their dosage for space spray<br />
Chapter 16<br />
We~ghtings ass~gned by the respondents in SLBC command<br />
We~ghtings assigned by the respondents in SRBC command<br />
Cumulative weightings assigned by the respondents in SCA<br />
Envlronmental impact units for various ecological indicators<br />
in SLBC command.<br />
Envlronmental impact units for various ecological Indicators<br />
: SRBC command.<br />
Cumulative impact units for various ecological ~ndlcators SCA<br />
comparison of cumulative impact units of end users and<br />
experts: SCA<br />
Correlation coefficients between various ecological indicators:<br />
SCA<br />
Literacy status:Thachampattu block (1991 census)<br />
Literacy status: Thirukoilur block (1991 census)<br />
Literacy status:Chengam (SLBC command) block<br />
(1991 census)
16.12 Literacy status: Rishivandiyam block (1 091 census) 503<br />
16.13 Literacy status:Sankarapuram block (1991 census) 504<br />
16.14 Literacy status: Chengam (SRBC command) block<br />
(1 991 census) 504<br />
16.15 Literacy status: cumulative (1991 census) 505<br />
16.16 Rank correlations between the villages based on the ElUs of<br />
ecological indicators in SLBC command 506<br />
16.17 Rank correlations between the villages based on the ElUs of<br />
ecological indicators in SRBC command 506
Plate number<br />
Sathanur dam<br />
Pick-up dam<br />
LIST OF PLATES<br />
Chapter 2<br />
Chapter 4<br />
Hydroelectricity generation unit<br />
Chapter 5<br />
Check dam to control soil erosion<br />
Chapter 6<br />
Sathanur dam wlth water gushing down the<br />
spillways<br />
Dam surroundings developed into a beautiful<br />
garden<br />
Crocodile farm<br />
Swimming pool<br />
Ornamental fishes exhibition<br />
Chapter 16<br />
Water logged field next to Thachampattu tank<br />
Peraiyampattu branch canal in a dilapidated state<br />
Weed infested Peraiyampattu tank<br />
Thenkarimbalur branch canal<br />
Sorry state of Agarampallipattu branch canal<br />
Velayampakkam tank - weeds infested and a<br />
grazing ground for cattle<br />
Status of the lined canal<br />
Page number
16,8 Water from Thrnmudlyanur main wnal bring 479<br />
used for washing clothes<br />
16.9 Crmrnt rlsbr micring in Vanapuram canal 481<br />
16.10 Canal mutilated by the villagers of Palayanur to 490<br />
divert more water towards one side<br />
16.11 Hard to believe that the branch canal of 490<br />
Mangalam has been filled up for easy passage<br />
Chapter 17<br />
17.1.1 Eucalyptus plantation right across the Varagur 513<br />
tank<br />
17.2.1 Kallakurichi Cooperative Sugar Mill 517<br />
17.2.2 Sugar mill effluent released into the Ponnaiyar - a 517<br />
drinking water source for the natives of Melandhal
AIU<br />
API<br />
EIU<br />
IIU<br />
LBC<br />
RBC<br />
SLBC<br />
SRBC<br />
SRP<br />
SCA<br />
SIN<br />
TRA<br />
PHC<br />
List of abbreviations used<br />
Agriculture impact unit<br />
Annual parasite index<br />
Environmental impact unit<br />
Irrigation impact unit<br />
Left bank canal<br />
Right bank canal<br />
Sathanur left bank canal<br />
Sathanur right bank canal<br />
Sathanur reservoir project<br />
Sathanur command area<br />
Socio-economic impact unit<br />
Total reported area<br />
Primary health centre
Environmental Impact of water resources projects is arguably the most<br />
contentious environmental issues of our tlmes: particularly so in Indla. Whereas<br />
one set of people warmly welcome new water resources projects as vanguards<br />
of development and progress, another set of people aggressively denounce the<br />
projects as harbingers of environmental destruction and poverty. No sooner a<br />
new dam or barrage is announced, controversy erupts. As we see from the<br />
Narmada and Tehri projects, the controversy keeps snowballing. The<br />
construction work proceeds in fits and starts, taking decades and decades,<br />
because at every step it encounters protests and counter - protests, legal action<br />
and counter - action, bouquets and brickbats. There never seems to be a<br />
consensus on whether a water resource project is a net benefactor or a net<br />
destroyer.<br />
Over the years, tussles between the governments of different states who share<br />
the water of a reservoir, are becoming increasingly more frequent and more<br />
fierce, adding yet another frightening dimension to the controversies that shroud<br />
water resources projects. . . .<br />
From the foreword to the book "Environmental Impact<br />
of Water Resources Projects" (Abbasi, S.A., 2000;<br />
Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi)
SECTION I<br />
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Environmental impact of water resources projects: a<br />
general introduction<br />
ENVlRONMENTALlMPACTOFWATERRESOURCESPROJFCTS<br />
BASED ON RIVER DEVELOPMENT<br />
The effects of rlver development schemes on the env~ronment man~fest themselves<br />
in a number of ways They are felt upstream ~n the storage reservoir downstream<br />
and often over the whole reglon They may be beneficial or detrimental Dealing<br />
w~th detrimental effects means evaluat~ng the degree to wh~ch they are harmful and<br />
f~nding ways of controll~ng them<br />
The physical and b~ologrcal effects of water resources projects based on damming<br />
of a river arlse from the obstacle the dam causes to the natural flow of the river the<br />
climate changes caused by the reservoir ~nteract~ng wrth the overly~ng atmosphere<br />
the effects of the structures on the water In and near the reservoir and the seismicity<br />
Induced or compounded by the stored water
Effect of obstacle caused by the dam<br />
Floating debrls, flsh, boats<br />
A dam IS an obstacle to the passage of trees, Ice and other floating debrls wlldllfe<br />
lnclud~ng flsh, and boats<br />
The adverse effects can be overcome by provldtng t~mber chutes, fish ladders or lifts<br />
and shlpplng locks Overflow spillways also permlt the passage of debrls past a dam<br />
Sediment load<br />
A dam reduces or completely blocks the passage of the sediments conveyed by<br />
the river creating varying degrees of disturbance in the natural conditions. Blocking<br />
the bed load may disturb the balance of delta areas if natural erosion processes are<br />
no longer offset by the arrlval of new material River training works may be necessary<br />
to keep the banks stable as was done on the Damieta branch of the Nile<br />
Reducing the suspended sol~ds load may deprive arable land of the slit brought down<br />
by river floods, an impact brought to sharp focus by the Aswan dam. This is the cost<br />
one may have to pay for extended trrigation, but the harm it does may in fact be<br />
~llusory - silt is not such a good fert~liser as imagined (it contains only 4% by welght<br />
of nitrogen available to plants) and chemlcal fertilizers can be subst~tuted In addlt~on<br />
land formerly fertilized by silt can be cultivated for a greater proportion of the year<br />
with controlled and comparatively silt-free applications of irrigation watet.<br />
The construction of a dam or barrage across a river channel creates a reservoir<br />
which can hold back and retain most of the suspended material normally carr~ed In<br />
the water flowing in the river A water freed from its sediments tends to reacquire the<br />
sediment load. This leads to erosion in the channels in the zone immed~ately<br />
downstream. The zone gradually extends downstream until a new equilibr~um IS<br />
reached, when the slope of channel is once more balanced by the reduced suspended<br />
load. Such erosion can be corrected (or reduced to some degree) by reconstructng<br />
the slope of the channel andlor by changing the discharge from the dam.<br />
Various methods have been used such as building weirs (sometimes also used<br />
lncldentally for power purposes), spreading flood spillage over a longer period of time.<br />
or diverting part of the river flood into an offshoot In times of flood, as is done on the<br />
Nile at Aswan.
Sedimentatton<br />
A reservolr 1s a veritable sedlmentatlon tank The problem of slltatlon due to watel<br />
resources development IS a global phenomenon Countries experlenclng dlfflc~lltles<br />
Include Nepal Paklstan Phllllplnes Burma Columbia Egypt lnd~a lndones~a<br />
Tanzanla and Thalland Twenty one reservoirs In lndla have experienced sedlment<br />
lnflows at least 200% hlgher than antlclpated (Ahmad and Slngh, 1991) The<br />
sediments brought In by the feeder streams and the run-ln from the reservolr<br />
catchment get an opportunity to settle down In the quiescent waters of the reservolr<br />
Thls results In two Impacts of far-reach~ng consequences The flrst 1s that the<br />
settled sediments reduce the storage capaclty of the reservolr The Impact can be<br />
strong enough to drastically reduce the reservolr llfe For example the capaclty of<br />
Nlzamsagar reservolr has been reduced to less than half due to sedlmentat~on and<br />
sufflclent water IS not stored any more to Irrigate 1100 ~ m of ' sugarcane and paddy<br />
for whlch the reservolr was malnly bullt The second Impact 1s caused when the<br />
desedlmented water from the reservolr IS released Into the rlver downstream and In the<br />
lrrlgatlon canals The water tends to reacquire ~ts sedlment load and erodes the<br />
banks of the river or the canal carrylng ~t The erosion can play havoc w~th the canal<br />
stablllty<br />
The catchment area of Chlttaurgarh lrrlgatlon project whlch consisted of dense<br />
natural forests In ~ts upper reaches has been denuded dur~ng dam constructton The<br />
expected rate of sedlmentailon 1s 0 14 mllllon m3yr-I and the llfe span of the dam<br />
is estlmated to be 50 years The vegetation cover upstream of the dam 1s poor and ~t<br />
1s estlmated that after 5 to 10 years a large quantlty of slit and sand will be deposited<br />
at the head of the dam and In the canal system affecting the flsh fauna seriously A<br />
part of thls 1s slowly transferred to the farmers' flelds where ~t will cause congestion<br />
of lrrlgatlon canals and dltches and a 50% reduction In the llfe of dam The canal<br />
embankment 1s devold of any vegetation cover therefore ~t is h~ghly vulnerable to<br />
erosion durlng heavy ramfalls and subject to Increased sedlmentatlon (Ahmad and<br />
Slngh 1991)<br />
Due to geological and cllmatlc pecullarltles the Himalayan rlvers carry some ot<br />
the hlghest sedlment loads In the World (Bandhopadhyay and Gyawall 1994) The<br />
malor Hlmaiayan dams llke Pong In Hlmachal Pradesh or Ramganga In Uttar<br />
Pradesh have been silted up at a rate four or flve tlmes h~gher than the assumed<br />
Ones (Bandhopadhyay 1995)
A turbid layer in the otherwise clear reservoir may flow along the bottom to form a<br />
mud lake just in front of the dam capable of blocking the bottom outlets as it hardens.<br />
or may remain at mid-depth untll ~t rises to surface near the dam, sometimes<br />
entering the intakes or spillway In some reservoirs, turbidity may extend throughout<br />
the rese~oir because of the fineness of the material, India will reap the benef~t of<br />
the Indo-Bhutan Sankosh hydel project by diverting a large volume of the Sankosh<br />
rlver water to the Farakka barrage and consequently clean out siltation of Calcutta<br />
port (Down to Earth, 1996)<br />
Nutrient transport<br />
Deposition of suspended nutrients In the reservoir may have consequences for<br />
the aquatic biota downstream. It has been blamed for the smaller sardlne catches<br />
in the Mediterranean off the Nile delta after construction of the High Aswan dam<br />
On the other hand, however, shallow reservoirs may increase the plankton yleld, as In<br />
the pool on the Selne river near the town of Troyes.<br />
Retention of waters from small and moderate floods<br />
Small floods have a beneficial effect in that:<br />
(a) they prov~de ready access to spawnlng grounds (ponds and lakes) and renew<br />
the water In them<br />
(b) they form small Islands used by mlgratlng blrds to escape from the predators on<br />
the shore<br />
(c) they prevent the rlver banks becom~ng overgrown wlth trees and stop mammals<br />
destroy~ng the r~ver-slde grasses needed to s~lsta~n ln~grat~ng blrds nlid<br />
(d) they brlng nutr~ents Into lakes and ponds<br />
Water can be released through the dam to stimulate such floods by a proper cho~ce<br />
Of tlme durat~on and volume released<br />
Overlarge or untlmely releases can cause harm and the gate operation guidelines<br />
drawn up with reference to ecological requirements downstream must be strictly<br />
followed to prevent ~t<br />
Tidal barriers and barrages<br />
Barriers and barrages constructed In the tldal zone of a river estuary or coastal<br />
embankment may be considered as a spec~al case of a barrlcade.
The chrrrclrrlrtlcr of an rrturry mry br chrngrd In r variety of ways by a barrage<br />
scheme The Inflow of tidal waters may be restricted leading to effect~ve loss (,I<br />
volume and thereby reduced scourlng effect of ebb tldes If thls problem 1s not<br />
considered and dealt wlth bars may form which hand~cap nav~gaf~on The estuar~al<br />
regime of salt and fresh water may change from stratified to m~xed or vice versa<br />
and thls may affect slltatlon and aquatlc life Wave patterns may also be s~gnlfi<br />
cantly modlf~ed Upland drainage In terms of both freshwater rlver run-off and<br />
rlparian land dra~nage in the estuary area have to be dealt with The latter coulo<br />
lnvolve pump schemes Sewage previously allowed to flow to the sea w~th 11mlted<br />
treatment could require full treatment if llable to be trapped behlnd a barrage Docks<br />
may be requ~red for shipping access to up - rlver ports Fish passes may be requlred if<br />
the estuary is a route for migratory f~sh and ice passes if the rlver carrles Ice floes In<br />
w~nter Thought should be glven to the effects on flora and fauna prev~ously<br />
lnhab~t~ng the t~dal range whlch may become permanently inundated<br />
A barrier differs from a barrage ~n that it may not be closed permanently or regularly<br />
In the case of the Thames Barrier at Woolw~ch the intention IS to block only major tidal<br />
fload surges from penetrating upstream and floodlng London This may lnvolve<br />
closure for a few hours on a few occasions per year Thus effects on reglmes and the<br />
environment are only marg~nal In other cases of barr~er the environmental effects will<br />
approach those of barrages as the frequency of closure Increases<br />
Both barrages and barriers have the effect of preventing some upstream tldal flow<br />
Th~s volume of water rebounds downstream Coastal protect~on works need to be<br />
raised agalnst this effect<br />
Effect of Dam on Sea<br />
The large number of dams In operation around the world today could affect the food<br />
web structure and bio-geo-chemlcal cycling of materials ~n coastal seas Th~s 1s the<br />
finding of research conducted by scientists at the Hamburg <strong>University</strong> who studietl<br />
the effect of Danube river dam on the Black sea ecosystem (Science<br />
and Technology, The Hindu, 1997)<br />
The research supports the fact that man-made barr~ers are trapping vltal nutrients<br />
Suspended In the river water and preventing them from reachlng the oceans<br />
Scientists warn that fishes w~ll disappear and rlslng t~des of toxlc algae would float<br />
across ocean waters if what happened in the Black Sea 1s repeated In the other malo1
oceans The long term data on water and nutrlent discharge from the rlver Danube<br />
to the Black Sea revealed a reduction In the dlssolved slllcate load of the rlver by<br />
about two-thlrds slnce dam constructions In the early 1970s A concomitant decrease<br />
~n dlssolved s~l~cate concentrations by more than 60 percent durlng wlnter was<br />
observed ~n the Central Black Sea surface waters The consequent changes ~n silicon<br />
to nltrogen ratlo of the Black Sea nutr~ent load appear to be larger than those caused<br />
by eutrophlcatlon alone and seem to be respons~ble for dramat~c shlfts In<br />
phytoplankton specles composltlon from d~atoms (slllceous) to coccol~thophores and<br />
flagellates (non-s~l~ceous) Human lnterventlons have caused a worldw~de Increase In<br />
rlver Inputs of n~trogen (N) and phosphorus (P) to the coastal seas by more than a<br />
factor of four leadlng to conslderable eutroph~cat~on and to an Increase in the<br />
frequency of unusual andlor noxlous algal blooms<br />
The constructlon of dams ~n rlvers can also cause conslderable reduct~ons In nutrlent<br />
loads owlng to the removal of these nutrients ~n reservolr sediments (the art~f~clal lake<br />
effect) whereas thls removal m~ght be over compensated by anthropogen~c n~trogen<br />
and phosphorus Inputs downstream of the reservolr no such compensation has<br />
been observed for slllcate for example In the Nlle Dr Venugopalan polnted out<br />
According to hlm the lron Gates hydroelectr~c dam on the rlver Danube had captured<br />
t~ny specks of sll~cate eroded from so~ls upstream and carrled ~n the water For the<br />
past 25 years that slllcate has settled In sed~ments on the reservoir floor He<br />
estimates that the dam has so far captured 12 mlll~on tonnes of s~l~cate for 15 years<br />
natural supply to the Black Sea turnlng the seas biochem~stry ups~de down<br />
Results published In Nature revealed that water and sedlment storage In reservoirs<br />
beh~nd the lron Gates have altered the b~o-geochem~stry not just of the rlver and the<br />
adjacent coastal waters but also of the ent~re Black Sea basln (Venk~teswaran<br />
1997) The observed specles shlft towards carbonate producing coccol~thophores In<br />
the coastal waters exert s~gn~flcant control over seawater chemistry Furthermore<br />
the occurrence of potentially toxic flagellate blooms may become more frequent<br />
Slmllar effects may be expected for the Central Black Sea where In contrast to<br />
Pie-dam condlt~ons sll~cate deplet~on appears now to be more frequent<br />
Today more than 36 000 dams are In operation around the world and more ale<br />
belng constructed at an apprec~able rate Though the observed effects of these<br />
dams can be more severe In closed seas (such as the Black Sea) than ~n rlvers<br />
feeding Into open systems these effects could be of global consequence
Effect of flooding on fauna<br />
A new reservoir directly affects the upstream fauna in a number of ways:<br />
(a)<br />
(b)<br />
(c)<br />
many animals die although there may be ways of saving them,<br />
some animals migrate to new areas,<br />
a few animals accommodate to the new environment, particular-ly amph~bians<br />
and riparialn fauna,<br />
(d) birds such as water-fowl and waders move into the new water habitat.<br />
The proposed 141 km long canal to be built across the northern part of West<br />
Bengal in the Tlsta river as a part of the Indo-Bhutan Hydel project would spell total<br />
doom to the wild life of the area The canal 60 m w~de and 6 m deep with a bed width<br />
of 26 m will cut off population of all wild life species from one side to another and w~ll<br />
cut off the gene flow and migratory routes of various endangered species, especially<br />
the elephant (Down to Earth, 1995)<br />
The Three Gorges dam hydroelectric project ~n China once promoted as a major<br />
money spinner for MNCs is has turned out to be a lhab~l~ty for Beijing as the project.<br />
scream the detractors, w~ll spell the doom for the fraglle ecosystem of the Three<br />
Gorges lake (Down to Earth 1995)<br />
The removal of trees and shrubs upstream of the Chittaurgarh dam has led to<br />
wildlife loss. Disturbances caused by heavy machinery and vehicles, used in dam<br />
construction have forced wild life such as sambhar (Cewus duvacel~), cheetal (Axis<br />
axis). Swamp deer (Cewus duvaucelt), tiger (Pai~thera figns) to emigrate from the<br />
area. There is concern that the forest might lose its deer population ent~rely. The<br />
erection of an 11 km long and 15m h~gh dam for water storage in the reservoir is now<br />
act~ng as a major barrler to wild fauna migration (Ahmad and Singh, 1991)<br />
The proposed hydroelectric project across the Rathong Chu river which meanders<br />
through Yuksam in West Sikkim, envisages the channelling of the river near th?<br />
base of Mount Kanchenjunga. Struck by S~kkim's rich flora and several endangered<br />
animals like the snow leopard. Himalayan black bear and red panda, the World Wide<br />
Fund for nature classified it a priority preservation 'biodiversity hotspot'(Balakrishnan,<br />
1995)<br />
It is sometimes possible to carry out rescue and salvage operations, along the<br />
Noah's Ark princ~ple For Instance more than ten thousand tortoises, tapirs, snakes
sloths, armadilloes, etc were rescued from the Afobaka lake on the Brokopondo 111<br />
Surinam, whereas zoologists had estimated that there were no large animals left in the<br />
area<br />
An important secondary effect which can arise is that animals displaced from the<br />
reservoir area must fit into a new habitat which was previously in equ~librium, a<br />
s~tuation which tends to favour short-lived species with high reproduction rates and<br />
whlch are not always the most useful, desirable or attractive. This problem can be<br />
common to both forced migration caused by the rising waters of the lake and to the<br />
re-establishment of the "rescued" animals in the new habitats<br />
The creation of a new water body can establish conditions conducive to a large<br />
Increase in the variety and numbers of birds, particularly water fowl, waders and thelr<br />
predators. The loss of primarily terrestrial habitat is often more than compensated<br />
for, by the large increase in water riparian habitat and the restoration and protect~on<br />
of endangered species of water fowl The effect of flooding on fauna is generally<br />
more pronounced in tropical regions<br />
Effect on climate<br />
Whether and to what degree cllmate can be changed by large reservolrs IS the<br />
subject of controversy The formation of fog by evaporation from a rlver or lake de<br />
pends on alr hum~d~ty the temperature difference between the water surface and<br />
the amb~ent alr and the sallmty of the water<br />
As a very rough rule the alr must be cooler than the water and ~ts relative hum~dity<br />
must be greater than 90 percent to create a fog Thls means that fog occurs In<br />
temperate climates ma~nly on winter nights and the early mornlng In other cl~mates<br />
shallow reservolrs may make the m~st thicker on cool days It has been demonstrated<br />
exper~mentally that large reservolrs produce a new mlcrocllmate A change in the<br />
ralnfall pattern has been detected ~n Ghana around lake Volta the peak hav~ng shifted<br />
from October to July and August, and ram fell for the f\rst tlme at Aswan when lake<br />
Nasser was fllled It IS generally accepted that the capaclty of large natural lakes In<br />
temperate reglons for storing heat and cold is the prlme cause of the part~cular micro-<br />
cllmates in those areas Evsmples are lake Leman le Bourget lake Lake Annecy<br />
the Itallan lakes and the f~ve ' st Lakes
Phyrlcal and chemlcal effects<br />
Water temperature<br />
Effects on reservoir water<br />
In deep rese~oirs, a cold layer underlies a warmer layer of water in summer and<br />
knowledge of such thermal layering is essential for an understanding of the effects<br />
that deep reservoirs might have on water quality.<br />
In warm seasons, the upper layer of the reservoir (the epilimnion) is heated by<br />
sunlight and the warmer inflow, whereas the lower layer (the hypolimnion) remains at<br />
around 4'C,representing the maximum density of water. The two layers are separated<br />
by a sharp thermal gradient zone, the matalimnion<br />
Temperature changes due to the w~nd and changes in alr temperature are confined<br />
to the epillmnion. In colder weather, wind and the lower alr and inflow teniperatli~e<br />
cool down the epilimnion until it is colder than the hypolimnion; vertical currents<br />
appear, causing the metalimnion to disappear and the temperature to even out ~n the<br />
body of water (overturn).<br />
At times when there is no stratification, water drawn off from the bottom of the<br />
reservoir is provided from the whole vertical sl~ce just in front of the intake, but at other<br />
times, the hypolimnion is drawn off f~rst while new inflow ~nto the reservoir stays In<br />
the epilimnion. The abstracted water IS cold<br />
.4 lower water temperature in warm weather is benefic~al as regards supply to<br />
homes and Industry, for thermal power stat~on coollng and f~sh spawnlng at the end of<br />
summer, but harmful when spawning takes place earl~er.<br />
Dissolved gas content<br />
Oxygen defiot<br />
Oxygen is necessary to sustain aquatic b~ota and provide a self-purif~cation capacity<br />
for the water. Dissolved oxygen penetrates the surface layer (detergent or oil films<br />
are obstacles to this process) or is produced by photosynthesis in the phytoplankton<br />
from dissolved mineral salts and carbon dioxlde. Biodegradation of dissolved.<br />
suspended and deposited organic material depends on oxygen, as does of course<br />
respiration of the aquatic biota. Warm water fish needs 4 mg/l to sustaln life and<br />
reproduce.
~f the river IS heavily loaded with organic material, the amount of oxygen<br />
consumed to degrade ~t may be more than can be absorbed through the waterla~r<br />
interface, so that the oxygen content quickly falls. Once all the oxygen has been<br />
removed in this way, the river reaches an advanced stage of mal-odorous pollution<br />
with a scum over the surface, and all aquatic life ceases.<br />
Storing of water in deep reservoirs produces a considerable oxygen deficit in the<br />
deeper layers in some periods of the year. No harm is done if little water is abstracted<br />
or spilled in such periods and the oxygen demand downstream is small. The<br />
water recovers its normal oxygen content by contact with the atmosphere very<br />
quickly Only large amounts of water released through the dam have detrimental<br />
effects because of oxygen depletion.<br />
The oxygen content of water released from deep reservoirs depends on four<br />
factors.<br />
1) The extent of thermal layering in the reservoir.<br />
2) The depth of the intakes under the water surface.<br />
3) The amount of organic material present.<br />
4) The amount of decomposition products ~n the reservoir.<br />
The current practice is to build the intakes with several inlets at different heights so<br />
that the water w~th the highest oxygen content is drawn off. Blowing a stream of<br />
oxygen or air through the abstracted water has also been tried.<br />
Nitrogen and oxygen supersaturation<br />
Water below a spillway may become supersaturated w~th nitrogen and oxygen. Th~s<br />
effect decreases with depth but nitrogen contents of up to 130 per cent have been<br />
recorded below high spill-ways.<br />
The mortality threshold for some fish species appears to be about 120%. The<br />
effect was demonstrated on the Columbia and Snake rivers where in 1970, it was<br />
estimated that 90% of the young salmon (fry) making their first passage to the sea,<br />
d~ed<br />
Fries moving close to the surface were noticeably more affected. Numbers of salmon<br />
moving upstream to spawn in the following year were apparently unaffected.
~utrophl~riti~n<br />
The condition known as "eutrophication" (from the Greek "trephein" to nourish)<br />
lnvolves the water and bottom sed~ments becoming enriched with nutrients to a<br />
point where the water quality deteriorates: the nutrient content of the lake rises to a<br />
dangerous level, sometimes known as the "trophic" level.<br />
Until recent times, eutrophication was a slow process, comparable to ageing,<br />
affecting natural as well as man-made lakes, but in the last few decades, more<br />
w~despread use of fertilizers and detergents and growlng quantities of waste water<br />
have speeded it up. Phosphorus and nitrogen are the maln factors.<br />
The flrst symptoms of eutroph~cation are:<br />
I)<br />
Excessive development of bed plankton and macroscopic plants and weeds<br />
near the banks,<br />
il) Displacement of Salmonidae by Cyprinidae,<br />
II~) Reduced water clarlty caused by increase in the number of swimming micro<br />
IN)<br />
v)<br />
VI)<br />
organisms, and changes in the colour of the water due to the red algae,<br />
Reduced oxygen content near the bottom, accompanied by an increase near<br />
the surface,<br />
Swimming mlcroorganlsms, and changes In the coiour of water due to the red<br />
algae.<br />
Reduced oxygen content near the bottom, accompanied by an'increase near<br />
the surface.<br />
vii) Development of luxuriant weed growth,<br />
VIII) Formation of masslve amounts of rotting matter on the bed,<br />
IX) Complete disappearance of oxygen in the deeper layers in summer,<br />
x) appearance of sulphuretted hydrogen, free iron, manganese and ammoniu~li<br />
Ions,<br />
XI) appearance of gas bubbles.<br />
BY this stage, the lake becomes a 'breeder', causing more pollution from what it has<br />
received rather than digesting it.<br />
Impacts of Eutrophication<br />
The impacts of Eutrophication are listed below (Rast and Holland,1988)<br />
i) Taste and odour problems can develop In drinking water taken from a eutrophic<br />
reservoir even though water is treated prior to its use
ii)<br />
The water treatment process itself can also become more expensive and time<br />
consuming for waters taken from eutrophic water bodies.<br />
iii) Excessive algae and aquatic plant growths are highly visible and can detract<br />
IV)<br />
v)<br />
vi)<br />
significantly from the aesthetic quality of a water body.<br />
With dense quantities of algae in a reservoir, the transparency of the water is<br />
greatly reduced and the water body can acquire an undesirable "pea-soup"<br />
green colour.<br />
Excessive algal densities can interfere significantly with swimming and other<br />
recreational activities.<br />
Large masses of dead algae can accumulate on beach with negative aesthet~c<br />
impacts.<br />
VII) As algae and aquatic plants sink to the bottom of a water body their decay by<br />
bacteria can reduce oxygen concentration in bottom waters making it too low to<br />
support fish life, resulting in fish kills.<br />
viii) Excessive levels of iron, manganese and foul smelling hydrogen suiphide in the<br />
bottom waters may also occur as a result of oxygen depletion.<br />
IX) There are also potential negative health impacts, especially in tropical and sub-<br />
x)<br />
tropical regions. Cultural eutrophication can aggravate the occurrence of<br />
paras~t~c diseases such as schistosomiasis, onchocerciasis and malaria by<br />
enhancing the habitats of the organisms responsible for their transmission to<br />
humans.<br />
Eutrophication of water bodles does have some positive aspects. For example<br />
in some countries, control cultural eutrophication is used to enhance flsh<br />
production and other forms of aquaculture for the purpose of producing food.<br />
In such cases, the management goal is to maxim~ze this productivity with a minimum<br />
of cost and effort.<br />
Development of eutrophication management strategies<br />
A basic practical framework for development of a eutrophication management strategy<br />
consists of the following steps (Rast and Holland, 1988):<br />
i) Identify eutrophication problem and establish management goals.<br />
ii) Assess the extent of available information about the reservoir.<br />
iii) Identify available, feasible eutrophication control methods.<br />
iv) Analyse all costs and expected benefits of alternative management strategies.
v)<br />
Anaiyse adequacy of existing institutional and regulatory framework for<br />
implementing alternative management strategies.<br />
vi) Select desired control strategy and disseminate plan to interested parties.<br />
vi~) Use institutional mechan~sms to minimize future eutrophication problems.<br />
Remedy<br />
1) Purifying the inflow and reduction of nutrient inputs<br />
2) Agricultural nonpoint source control measures Include:<br />
i) Conservation tillage<br />
ii) Vegetative buffer strips<br />
iii) Contour cultivation<br />
iv) Correct fertilizer application practices<br />
v) Management of livestock manure<br />
3) In Reservoir control measures<br />
Some treatment procedures can be applied dlrectly to a reservoir,<br />
I) The harvesting of aquatic plants<br />
li) Use of algicides<br />
~ii) Nutrient inactivation in the reservoir<br />
IV) Artificial oxygenation of bottom waters<br />
v) The dredging or covering of bottom sediments<br />
VI) Increasing the water flushing or c~rculatlon rates<br />
vii) Artificial manipulation of in-lake biological communities<br />
4) Use of nutrient rlch waters for lrrlgatlon or aquaculture purposes.<br />
5) Building intercepting ditches:<br />
Purification of inflow oxygen Injection and bu~ld~ng interception ditches have been<br />
used for Nantia, Bourget and Annery lakes in France (Rast & Holland, 1988).<br />
Dissolved solids content<br />
A rese~oir can have a coml :x effect on dissolved solids content of waters, by such<br />
mechanisms as oxidation, rr ~ction and ton exchange, but this can often be turned to<br />
advantage. In the simple ;ase of constant high salinity inflow, there is some<br />
concentration of salts in ti 3 I-servoir as evaporation takes place from an increased<br />
surface area. However, high salinity inflows are normally in the form of concentrated<br />
'slugs' at a particular time of year. In this case the 'slugs' are diluted by fresher water
in the reservoir, and even after allowing for evaporation, effluents are generally at<br />
lower salinity levels than inflows. The same applies when one stream forming part of<br />
a multiple-tributary system has a high salts concentration.<br />
lt has been pointed out that on a global scale, at least 200,000 to 300,000 ha, of<br />
~rr~gated land are lost every year due to sal~n~zation and water-logging. In Pakistan as<br />
many as 11 million ha. to 15 million ha, of irrigated land are already suffering from<br />
salinizat~on and water logging. Afghanisatan, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Sudan and Syria also<br />
have similar problems.<br />
The Chittaurgarh area under Chittaurgarh irrigation project shows high water table<br />
indicating that the area is vulnerable to water-logging and salinization because of clay-<br />
dominated soils. A rise in the water table under s~milar conditions, caused water<br />
logg~ng of 45,000 ha of the Sarda canal in Sarda Sahayak lrrigat~on Project of Uttar<br />
Pradesh and of 30,000 ha area in the Gandak canal in Gandak canal irrigation project<br />
(Ahmad and Singh, 1991).<br />
A further complicating effect exists where reservoir area ground waters are saline<br />
At Chowilla Dam site In South Australia substant~ai seepage flows of highly saline<br />
groundwater were predicted, flushed out by the head of fresh impounded reservoir<br />
water The designs incorporated a comprehensive system of relief wells to intercept<br />
this flow and prevent it from polluting the river downstream. The seepage was<br />
disposed of by pumping to large evaporation ponds.<br />
Biological effects<br />
Health effects for riparian dwellers<br />
New storage reservoirs and their related water systems have repercussions on the<br />
main endemic parasites. In hot, damp regions, certain of the more chronic and<br />
widespread endemic diseases are transmitted through pathogens whose vectors live<br />
In fresh water. Such diseases are endemic even before construction of the dam but<br />
the reservoir increases the si?e of the hosts' habitat, thus promoting their expansion.<br />
The main diseases spread ill :his way are malaria (transmitted through the<br />
Anopheles mosquito), bilharziasis caused by blood flukes of the genus Bilharzia<br />
transmitted through a snail, and onchocerciasis, a very widespread disease of Africa<br />
and tropical America, transmitted by the bite of a small fly of the Simuli~dae family.
Anopheles mosquitoes breed in small puddles and swampy areas rather than<br />
large lakes, so it is not that the full storage reservoirs behind dams that are<br />
responsible for the spread of malaria, but rather the temporary or permanent<br />
marglnal systems created by seasonal water level fluctuations and human<br />
colonisation around the edge of the lake promote malaria disease. lrrigation malaria<br />
breaks out in irrigated agricultural areas with large, medium and small dams or tank<br />
irrigation projects. High malaria endemicity is recorded in Upper Krishna Irrigation<br />
Project in Karnataka and Sardar Sarovar Project on the Narmada in Gujarat<br />
(Jain,1994) A good monsoon and water logging from the lndira Gandhi canal<br />
combined to create an outbreak of cerebral malaria which quickly spread to epidemic<br />
proportions in 1994 and 4000 people were feared dead. Flood irrigation and<br />
stagnant water in the fields breed mosquitoes. Parts of the canal itself have stagnant<br />
water as construction is yet not complete. Seepage from the canal has caused<br />
massive water logging ( Jain, 1994).<br />
The Chittaurgrah project is situated in the Tarai region (foot-hills) which is humid and<br />
has a high water table, 0.43 m below ground level. The area is already suffering from<br />
waterlogging and flood. The construction of dam and the seepage around it will<br />
provide a good breedrng ground for mosquitoes and cause malaria, frlariasis and<br />
pollomyelites epidemics in the area (Ahmad and Singh, 1991).<br />
Bllharzlasis, which flourishes In America, Africa and tropical Asia, affects more than<br />
300 million individuals. Conditions are particularly favourable near storage dams and<br />
reservoirs as the still or slow moving water promotes the growth of swamp plants on<br />
whlch the snails live. The snails' entire life cycle is aquatic, and they, and through<br />
them man, are contaminated in the water. The snails attach themselves to aquatic<br />
plants, and are infected through excrement containing eggs, which hatch into larvae<br />
living several days inside the snail, after which they emerge into the water and enter<br />
human feet, hands or other exposed parts of the body through the skin. Once in the<br />
body, the larvae develop into adults, hooking themselves into the liver, intestine and<br />
bladder. They lay eggs which are excreted, thus returning to the water for the life cycle<br />
to repeat itself. The larvae and pupae of the fly vector for onchocerciasis live in<br />
flowing water, which is better aerated and cooler than stagnant water. As with<br />
malaria, it is not the main lake that constitutes the health risk, but the marginal lands<br />
and auxiliary water systems.
Ghana between 1958 and 1960, constructed 104 small dams in the north-east part of<br />
the country in response to population demand and seasonal hunger. This led to the<br />
prevalence of Schistoma haematobium infection in the local population tripling from<br />
17% to 51% in 38 surveyed areas with some areas reaching 78% (WHO 1993).<br />
Odei (1982) reported a higher prevalence of schistosomiasis following the creat~on<br />
of new reservoirs with some of the riparian communities recording rates as high as<br />
100%. The Weija lake was created by the construction of a dam on the river Densu<br />
In 1977. The creation of the lake to supply piped water and to support irrigation and<br />
f~sheries programmes provided ideal conditions for disease transmission. Water<br />
related diseases such as guinea worm (dracontias~s) and schistosom~asis were<br />
reportedly endemic In and around the river Densu catchment area Odei (1975)<br />
reported that Bulinus globosus and Bulinus truncatus were the proven host sna~ls of<br />
the urinary sch~stosomias~s, in the river Densu and its tributaries, which existed at a<br />
prevalence rate of between 8.3% and 43.3% (Grant 1969). Migration of disease<br />
~nfected fishermen and peasent farmers, flaws in resettlement programmes,<br />
changes in the flow rate of water, proliferation of water weeds and conditions<br />
favour~ng the growth and development of host snails were found to be responsible<br />
for the ~ncreasing incidence of schistosomiasis in the lake basin (Ampofo and Zuta,<br />
1995).<br />
Man induced alterations of many South African rivers have created an<br />
environment which has abundant food supplies and sufficient flow to allow year-<br />
round colonisation by filter feeding invertebrates, of which black flies (Simuliidae) are<br />
of particular concern (Moor, 1997) The majority of the 39 species of black flies<br />
recorded from South Africa (Palmer, 1991) are completely harmless and play an<br />
important functional role in the ecology of streams and rivers. There are, however,<br />
four species (Simultum agersi, Simultum nigritarse, Simulium damnosum and<br />
S~mulium chutter~) that cause problems of sufficient magnitude to man and his<br />
livestock to require remedial intervention. Only one specles, S. chutteri, under certain<br />
circumstances, can attain densities which can be considered to be of plague<br />
Proportional size.<br />
It is the female blackfly that is in all instances, the blood sucking culprit. It feeds<br />
creating large wounds in the victims which often lead to secondary bacterial infection.<br />
In sheep, the loss of parts of the ears and, in cattle, badly damaged teats are often<br />
encountered following severe outbreaks of blackfly attacks
Blackflies have also been implicated In the mechanical spreading of certain disease<br />
bearing organisms. These include Rift-Valley fever vlrus, Wessels Bron disease and<br />
the protozoan Chlamydia, which causes blindness in sheep and enzootic abortion in<br />
cattle (Bath, 1978) Black flies first became a problem along the Vaal river in the early<br />
1960.<br />
The modified approach taken to keep the black fly population, particularly<br />
S, chutted down to a level where it is no longer a serlous threat to riparian livestock IS<br />
achieved by regulating the flow of the river to almost cease at certain times durlng<br />
sprlng. This approach of drying out the river bed, by stopping the flow for short<br />
intervals and then resuming normal flow again, can, unfortunately, only be carried out<br />
within a limited distance downstream of a dam.<br />
The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis var, israclensis ("B.t.iV) has proved successful in<br />
blackfly population size control along the Vaal and Orange rivers (Car and de moor,<br />
1984; de moor and Car 1986: Palmer, 1903)<br />
The reservoirs created by large dams also have effects on parasitic illnesses not<br />
requiring intermediate hosts, such as various types of amoebiasis, and on viral and<br />
bacterial diseases, such as typhoid and intestinal ~nfections. The preventive steps are:<br />
a) before the first filling of the reservoir, clear the area of vegetation, backfill,<br />
b)<br />
deepen, impound or drain any areas liable to become swampy through<br />
fluctuations in the lake level,<br />
during operation of the scheme, increase and lower the lake level a few<br />
centimetres weekly In the egg-laying season,<br />
c) use pesticides judicially.<br />
The Tennessee Valley Authority used these measures and almostcompleteiy<br />
eradicated mosquitoes around their dams The spraying and spreading of larvicides<br />
and pesticides must be repeated at frequent intervals, and the cost may be prohibitive<br />
in developing countries. The chemicals must not be toxic for man or the fish forming<br />
the staple diet of riparian dwellers.<br />
It might seem cheaper and simpler to treat the dlsease rather than attempt to<br />
destroy the vectors, but unfortunately the available drugs have only a limited effect<br />
and in fact are so toxic that they cannot be considered for mass treatment of<br />
riverside population. It is interesting to record that China has now completely<br />
stamped out bllharziasis through health education, discipline and increased community<br />
awareness.
Effects on aquatic flora and fauna<br />
The uncontrolled growth of aquatic plant life in tropical regions may seriously hamper<br />
navigation and fishing, provide breeding places for disease-carrying insects, change<br />
the chemical com~oition of the water and block water intakes. The three most<br />
troublesome plants are the water lettuce Pistia stratiotes, a free floating aquatic herb<br />
of the Arum family; a fern Salvinia molesta and the worst, the water hyacinth<br />
Eichhornia crassipes.<br />
In the more temperate regions, the Eurasian aquatic milfoil Myrcophyllurn<br />
spicatum L., an ornamental aquarium plant, is a great nuisance in shallow lakes.<br />
In the absence of suitabie means of eradicating it, it is contained by lowering the<br />
reservoir level to dry the roots, and spraying selective herbicides by boat or helicopter.<br />
Rushes overrun shallow reservoirs in France. But the most serious difficulties from<br />
aquatic flora arise from weeds whlch invade canals downstream of some large<br />
reservoirr the Durance canals below Serre Poncon dam, and the Drac canals below<br />
Monteynard for example. The reduction in flow capacity may be large, and there is<br />
no known way of overcoming the problem to date.<br />
Reservoirs may also promote considerable development in the aquatic fauna. For<br />
fish, the specles composition often changes after a river is dammed. The indigenous<br />
f~sh populations of both North and South lndtan man-made reservoirs have changed<br />
signif~cantly after their ~mpoundment Transplanted species have established<br />
themselves which were almost nil in 1957-58 in Sathanur reservoir, formed a fishery<br />
constituting 25 per cent of the fish landed in 1964-65 and later gradually increased in<br />
the catches to occupy a predominant position, reaching 91 per cent in 1975-76. In<br />
Stanley reservoir prawns, once abundant on the sandy beds of Cauvery, have<br />
disappeared. River Tapti was devoid of major carps prior to its damming but<br />
accidental transplantation has resulted in the establishment of Catla catla and<br />
Labeo rohite in the lower stretches of the river. The fish community of Ranapratap<br />
Sagar also appears to be in a state of transition after dam formation. There is a<br />
decreasing trend of Cinfiinus mrigala year after year and the smaller size group is<br />
missing, Indications are such that the proper recruitment of Cirrhinus mrigala is not<br />
taking place.<br />
Migratory fishes are of great significance economically and for sporting purposes on<br />
many rivers. For these reasons and to minimise ecological changes, fish passes
are needed in dams constructed on such rivers. These may take the form of<br />
ladders in which the fish swim up steps through a series of connected pools, much<br />
as in nature. In the fish lift alternative, the fish enter a bottom chamber and after an<br />
interval of time the entrance IS shut. The bottom chamber is then filled with water, as<br />
in a conduit connecting to an upper chamber at reservoir top water level. The f~sh<br />
swlm up and out of the top chamber to the reservoir. Both these systems are effic~ent<br />
for fish migrating up-stream to spawn but there is more d~fficulty in passing spent fish<br />
downstream on the way back to the sea.<br />
In association with fish protection works, screens are required to prevent fish entering<br />
water passages harmful to themselves and where they could damage or block<br />
machinery. The screens may be of steel bars or an electrical system can be used<br />
Migratory fish can be directed to preferred streams by erecting fish breaks or barriers<br />
on other streams. Traps can be incorporated to catch fish temporarily and strip them<br />
of spawn for fish hatcheries. Hatcheries can be used to breed fry to stock new<br />
reservoirs for sporting purposes.<br />
In the case of catchment diversions, the transfer of unwanted specles from one<br />
catchment to another should be guarded against, and screens at diversion Intakes<br />
may be required. A particularly difficult task is the prevention of eel migrations over<br />
land saddles close to new reservoirs. The following measures are usually adopted<br />
In water resources projects to maintain and rather increase and'improve fish<br />
quantity and quality.<br />
i)<br />
11)<br />
Fish ladders, fish locks, fish lifts or other special means give positive results.<br />
In case of certain diversion projects involving dams, tunnels or canal aqueducts,<br />
migration of fish species from one river to another can be permitted.<br />
iii) Continuation of fish resources may be ensured by stocking with young fish.<br />
lv) Plantation of the upper surface of a reservoir with a flora similar to that existing<br />
outwards nearby at the same elevation, can help in preserving population of<br />
fish. Such a treatment was tried with success on the Marchlyn Manic dam in<br />
North Wales, U.K., to preserve population of salmon, seatrout, brown trout, eels,<br />
and minnows.<br />
v) Compensation water released through the dam helps in maintaining the f~sh life<br />
downstream.<br />
''1) Eutrophication can be controlled by clearance of new reservoir areas prior to<br />
impounding. Other remedial measures include aeration, purifying inflow and<br />
19
uilding interception ditches to carry away from the reservoir any land run-off<br />
liable to contain traces of fertiliser, particularly compounds of nitrogen and<br />
phosphorus.<br />
vi~) In case of barrages, weirs and small diversion dams, under water stone<br />
revetments can be made which can create conditions of suitable flora and fauna<br />
so vital for the life and growth of fish.<br />
According to Tyson Roberts, an expert with 20 years of research experience on<br />
fresh water fish in Thailand and the Mekong basin, the Mekong river rapids are the<br />
centres of biodiversity akin to coral reefs in the oceans. The river's ecosystem is<br />
described as one of the world's richest in fish biodiversity and productivity.<br />
In the past two years alone, fish biologists have added 3 new species to the list of<br />
1000 indigenous species already known. The region's experts warn that the dams will<br />
deprive biologists of the last chance to study this complex river system in ~ts<br />
relatively undisturbed state. Any reduction in the Mekong's flow could affect the river<br />
rapids disrupting the riverine food chain and fish habitat. The dams w~ll block fish<br />
migration routes cutting off spawning and feeding habitat.<br />
Many Mekong species are believed to take annual migrations up and down the<br />
largest rivers, including the Mekong mainstream. Schools of Pangasius kempfii, a<br />
large economically important catfish reaching more than 1 metre in length and<br />
weighing more than 15 kg, are believed to travel over 1000 km, from the South China<br />
Sea and Mekong Delta (Rajesh, 1985).<br />
The Three Gorges dam billed as the world's largest water control project on<br />
Yangtze river in China will cause damage on important fishing grounds at the mouth<br />
of the river Yangtze by cutting short their nitrogen and phosphorus supply because of<br />
the siltation (Down to Earth,l996).<br />
It is suggested that physiographic and hydrologic complexity plays an important<br />
role in making rivers suitable for dolphins (Reeves and Leatherwood, 1994).<br />
Dams and other artificial constructions degrade dolphin habitat in so far as they<br />
reduce such complexity. Research is needed at project sites, both before and afler<br />
construction of dams, barrages and dikes to document impacts. Specially-designed<br />
"Swlmways" may allow upstream and downstream passage by dolphins and can<br />
mitigate at least one of the adverse effects of dam projects namely population<br />
fragmentation.
Indian sub-continent<br />
I)<br />
ii)<br />
Dams and barrages have long been present on rivers of the lndian sub-<br />
continent and they have had a major impact on dolphins. The lndus dolph~n<br />
(Platanista minor; also known as lndus susu or bhulan) now exists only as a<br />
metapopulation consist~ng of four or five artificially isolated sub populations.<br />
Barrages built by India along the Nepalese border have left Nepal with only a<br />
few sub-populations of Ganges dolphins (Platanista gangetica; also known as<br />
Ganges susu), confined to upstream ends of Ganges tributaries such as<br />
Karnali, Narayani, Koshi and Mahakali.<br />
111) Farakka Barrage, constructed near the lndian border with Bangladesh in the<br />
iv)<br />
v)<br />
early 1970s, mainly to improve navigation in the Hooghly river, partit~oned the<br />
dolphin population in the lower Ganges.<br />
China's Yangtze dolphin Lipotes vexillifer, also known as baiji) may be the most<br />
endangered cetacean In the world, with an estimated population of less than<br />
two hundred<br />
River bed scouring and altered flow caused by the planned high dam at Three<br />
Gorges will degrade about 10% of the habitat currently used by Yangtze<br />
dolphins.<br />
South America<br />
South America has two kinds of river dolphins, the Amazon dolphin lnia geoffrens~s.<br />
(also known as boto, tonina or Bufeo colorado) and Sotalia fluviatilis (known as tueux~<br />
or Bufeo gris). Three large dams (Balbina, CuruaUna, and Tucurui) have already been<br />
built in the Brazil~an Amazon and several others are planned or under construction.<br />
How dams threalen dolphins<br />
A 1986 international workshop on river dolphins identified a number of potentla1<br />
problems caused by waterway obstruction.<br />
i) Fragmentation of populations into genetically isolated subpopulations.<br />
il) Reduction in prey due to blocked migratory routes.<br />
lil) Less diversity and smaller biomass of prey in impoundments upstreams of<br />
dams due to lowered nutrient availability.<br />
Iv) Downstream effects on prey caused by changes in flow rate, sediment<br />
transport, and estuarine salinity.
V)<br />
Limited dispersal of dolphins between river systems due to saline encroachment<br />
in estuaries.<br />
Mitigative measures<br />
Dams should be concentrated as near headwaters as possible. Also a series (or<br />
"sta~rcase") of dams on one tributary is usually preferable, from an ecological<br />
perspective, to having single dams constructed on several rivers.<br />
Sw~mway concept<br />
There is a long history of using fishways to permit anadromous fish to maintain their<br />
upstream spawning migrations but river dolphins were neglected because of the<br />
lack of their economic value. But now for the sake of preserving biological diversity<br />
dolphin swimway concept has gained momentum which can be des~gned and built at a<br />
reasonable cost (Reeves and Leathewood, 1994).<br />
Action on waters other than In the reservoir<br />
Dlylng up of rlvers<br />
The diversion and drying up of mountain rivers is detrimental to fishing and is an<br />
eyesore. It can be remedied by allowing an adequate guaranteed compensat~on flow<br />
through the dam; the amount may be varied in daylight and night hours and from<br />
season to season, as required by tourist amenity considerations. The questlon 1s<br />
part~cularly acute when natural waterfalls, like Niagara, are bypassed.<br />
Changes In water table<br />
The depth of the water table 1s changed by storage schemes. It is a simple matter to<br />
prevent it rising nearer the ground surface generally at the toes of embankments,<br />
which may even be designed o set the level of the water table at the best depth for<br />
farming purposes.<br />
River stretches in alluvial plains that are bypassed by the scheme, and deep<br />
tailrace canals may, on the other hand, lower the water table. Weirs keep ~t at an<br />
acceptable depth while safeguarding the countryside, water, sports and f~shlng,<br />
and construction of a watertight cutoff parallel to the tailrace prevents ground water<br />
draining into it.
Catchment management<br />
In order to protect a new reservoir it is often necessary or desirable to take certain<br />
measures in the catchment area. Following impounding of a new reservoir there is<br />
frequently additional access and development in the catchment upstream.<br />
Uncontrolled deforestation and incautious agricultural development can lead to land<br />
erosion problems, particularly on steep land. If not dealt with properly by such<br />
measures as controlled re-afforestation and contour ploughing such land erosion can<br />
result in rapid siltation of the reservoir as well as loss of good farming soil.<br />
Pollution of reservoirs used for potable water supply must be avoided and controlled<br />
access for human beings and the exclusion of large animals may be necessary.<br />
Landslldes<br />
Landslides typify the interaction between the river development scheme and the<br />
environment. A reservoir may cause a landsl~de on the banks, which may part~ally f~ll<br />
In the reservoir.<br />
The most striking example was at Vajont in the Piava valley in Italy. On the second<br />
filling on 9 October 1963, 250 million cubic metres of rock slipped into the 168 million<br />
cubic metre reservoir and flung the water over the top of the dam, which stood up<br />
without damage. More than 3000 persons in the valley died.<br />
There are other known examples of smaller slides, and adits are sometimes driven<br />
Into the reservoir banks to keep a watch on stability. In new reservoir areas with<br />
steep sides, a geological and soil mechanics reconnaissance should precede<br />
reservoir filling. Any doubtful areas should be thoroughly investigated and analysed<br />
taking account of wetting, new water table, and possible rapid drawdown. Zones of<br />
probable trouble should be stabilised, drained, or flattened. Slope indicators and other<br />
instrumentation such as piezometers should be used for monitoring behaviour of<br />
doubtful areas, and in important cases automatic tele-metered warning Systems<br />
should be incorporated.
Induced earthquakes<br />
The question of whether filling a reservoir will cause earth tremors was flrst ralsed<br />
in 1934 during construction of the Hoover dam in the USA, but interest was only<br />
really awakened among seismologists and dam builders after the earthquakes at<br />
Kremasta (1966) and Koyna (1967).<br />
Kremasta dam In Greece IS 147m hlgh and lmpounds 4 8 km of water The maln<br />
earthquake In 1966 was of magnltude 6 2 wlth its focus 20 km under the reservoir<br />
Koyna dam near Bombay 1s 103m hlgh wlth a reservolr volume of 2 7 km3 The<br />
rnagnltude of the 1967 earthquake was 6 0 wlth the focus 9km under the reservolr<br />
Extensive study durlng the fllllng (1959 to 1971) of the Karlba dam (Rhodesia) a<br />
128m hlgh dam wlth a 175 km reservolr, lndlcated that the colncldence between<br />
reservolr fllllng and ground motlon at Kremasta and Koyna was not chance<br />
Se~smlc actlvlty under the Karlba reservolr was strlklngly parallel to the rlse In water<br />
level over the flve-year fllllng perlod and the maln earth quake of magnltude 6<br />
occurred when it reached top level for the flrst tlme<br />
Concern about selsmlc safety of dams has been growlng In recent years as ~t has<br />
become evldent that the earlier pseudo - statlc deslgn concept IS lnadeq~late (Mnlln<br />
and Welland 1993) The most Intense publlc debate on the Tehrl dam has centered<br />
around the Issue of seismlclty and dam safety<br />
The potentlal of earthquake dlsaster all along the Hlmalayan plate boundary has<br />
been well known and w~dely accepted (Khattri 1987) A debate has been golng on for<br />
years on the adequacy of present deslgn of the Tehrl dam to sustaln the dam<br />
agalnst the maxrmum credlble earthquakes expected In the area The occurrence of a<br />
major earthquake In 1991 In the upper catchment areas of dam further strengthens<br />
the environmental opposltlon It may be the case that the feasibility of reallsing the<br />
hydrologlcal dream of storage In the Hlmalayan rlvers w~ll be cut short by seismo<br />
logical reallt~es As c~ted by Khan and Mlah (1983) to the hydrologlcal possib~l~ties of<br />
storlng 400 MAF of water In Brahmaputra basln, they quote from the<br />
recommendations of the Geological Survey of lndla that the Technical Committee on<br />
Construct~on of hlgh dams In selsmlc zones found that only 30 MAF out of a total of<br />
400 MAF ~e barely 7 percent would be available as potentlal storage In<br />
Brahmaputra basln This is an important Instance of geological factors llrnltlng the
avallabll~ty Of optlmal storage volume Independent of the avallablltty of hydrolog~cally<br />
feasible stor-age sltes<br />
By 1976 the correlation between selsmlc actlvlty and first filling of the reservolr<br />
had been recorded In some twenty cases There are already unambiguous examples<br />
In whlch sensltlve Instruments for recording earthquake actlvlty were installed<br />
some cons~derable tlme before construction of the dam as a reference for subsequent<br />
events At Talblngo dam In Australla for example only one minor earthquake was<br />
detected In the 13 years before the reservolr was fllled whereas one hundred tremors<br />
of comparable lntenslty were recorded In the flrst 15 months afterwards The strongest<br />
tremor occurred just when the reservolr reached ~ts top level with a magnitude of 3 5<br />
All the foc~ were shallow just near the dam<br />
Most large reservolrs impounded by hlgh dams have not caused any slgnlflcant<br />
earthquake actlvlty on fllllng even when they Ile In areas of hlgh selsmlc actlvlty<br />
such as Cal~fornla or Mexlco Condlt~ons conducive to Induced earthquakes ate<br />
not therefore clearly understood However there IS sufflclent ev~dence to demonstrate<br />
that ~t 1s probably true that<br />
I)<br />
the earthquakes are due to the release of pre-exlst~ng stresses whlch are<br />
triggered into lnstabll~ty by the relatively small stresses from the water load or<br />
by weakening of rock by percolating water<br />
ii) the earthquakes are shallow generally less than 10 km deep compared lo<br />
vany natural earthquakes<br />
III) ~t cannot be assumed that attempts to control Induced selsmlclty by lowerlng<br />
IV)<br />
the water level or moderating the rate of filling after the earthquake sequence<br />
has commenced will be successful or even helpful,<br />
there remalns the posslblllty that load Influenced selsmlclty can be reduced In<br />
some sense by malntalnlng as slow a rate of f~lling as practicable and<br />
v) ~t should not be assumed w~thout full study that every selsmlc swarm near a<br />
storage reservolr 1s a case of load Induced selsmtc~ty<br />
Hence, designers of large (more than 100m hlgh) dams or those lmpoundlng large<br />
(more than 1 km) storage reservolrs must examlne the following polnts<br />
a)<br />
What is the current state of tectonlc stress In the whole reglon and wlthln the<br />
shoreline contour of the proposed reservolr7 How does thls vary especially<br />
wlth depth, and how has ~t vaned over recent time say durlng the Holocene?
This can be approached by such means as stress measurements on outcrops,<br />
and by a detailed geological search for Holocene tectonic movements.<br />
b) Are there any recent (tertiary or quaternary) volcanic formations in the<br />
C)<br />
area?<br />
Are there any nearby active faults, which would be signs of recent tectonlc<br />
action, especially where they exhib~t large displacements (more than 1000m),<br />
where they are of great length (more than 100 km), where they are sources of<br />
hot springs, where they bring formations of different stiffness into contact wlth<br />
each other, or where they are subject to a non-compressive hor~zontal stress so<br />
that they tend to open?<br />
Beneficial effects<br />
Soclal Effects<br />
W~th the very w~de sense of the word envlronment used here actlon on the<br />
envlronment Includes all the purposes for whlch a mult~ple purpose dam IS bu~lt In<br />
addltlon to Induced effects All rlver development schemes are bullt to produce<br />
benef~cral effects for soclety the maln ones berng rrrlgatlon land reclamat~on In rlver<br />
flood plalns and t~dal areas domestlc and lndustr~al water supply flood control and<br />
Improved dry weather flow In rlvers hydro-electrlclty navlgatlon recreat~onai<br />
actlvltles and so on Many Induced effects may be benef~clal Some are d~scussed<br />
below<br />
Effects on country sides, tourism and leisure<br />
The beauty of the new countryside created by storage lakes, espec~ally those In<br />
which the water level does not vary to any extent, 1s a favourable effect on the<br />
environment. The same applies where the surrounding area IS developed for<br />
amenity purposes, and parks and camp s~tes are increasingly used as a barrier to<br />
uncontrolled or excessive building. The dam Itself is often a great tourlst attraction<br />
Storage reservoirs near populated areas are increasingly used for water sports and<br />
swimming when they can be kept nearly full in the summer season. Unattractive<br />
reservoir bank areas affected by drawdown can be limited by subs~diary dams<br />
Chittaurgarh 1s a large man made dam situated In the northern region of Sh~val~k
Himalaya with a volume of 100 million m3, height 15.3 m from deep foundation level<br />
and gross catchment area of 194 km2. So the area can be developed for water sports.<br />
tourist lodge, camping sites. huts and shopping centres. Practice of intensive and<br />
extensive farming will provide good employment possibilities (Ahmed and Slngh,<br />
1991) Besides this, the agrobased rural industries, construction, manufacture and<br />
distribution of agriculture inputs and outputs, marketing, transport and land<br />
impr~vement~etc, will provide additional employment Development in the area of<br />
pharmaceutical, cotton, paper and sugar industries will favour the development of<br />
Infrastructure facilities g, banklng, marketing. health care, warehouses, roads and<br />
schools (Ahmad and Singh, 1991)<br />
Roads<br />
Road relocation IS often an opportun~ty for considerably improving the extstlng road<br />
system, whlle dams provide possibilities for cheap road crossings, often a major<br />
advantage on wtde alluvial plain rlvers Roads may also provide access to<br />
otherwlse remote areas for emergency act~vlties such as flrefightlng Thls IS<br />
particularly Important in the prevention and control of bush firs, forest flres and<br />
conservat~on of forest regions<br />
Ftsheries development<br />
Large reservolrs generally have a fovourable effect on the developnient of the aquattc<br />
fauna When the Tennessee Valley Authortty began bulld~ng ~ts cascades of storage<br />
reservolrs there was l~ttle hope for Improved fishlng It was thought that stocks<br />
would be abundant for a short tlme but the reservolrs would afterwards turn Into<br />
biological deserts Yet lndustrlal and sport flshlng have been continually growlng<br />
after the flsh tonnage Increased hfty-fold whlle the restocking statlons built through<br />
fear of natural reproduction In the reservoirs belng lmposslble have been closed<br />
down<br />
Slmllar successes have been recorded at Kariba and Lake Nasser to mentlon only<br />
the larger lakes Lack of facllltles processing Industry and transport do however l11111t<br />
flsherles development In some cases<br />
The only dlsappolntlng results concern the lntroductlon of new specles Thls POIICY<br />
can however glve good results when run by experienced blologlsts maklng sultable<br />
advance studles
Fire prevention<br />
New bodies of water created by dams act as barriers to contain and reduce forest<br />
and bush fires. This is a particularly important effect in regions with prolonged hot dry<br />
summers<br />
Detrimental effects<br />
Population displacement, the drown~ng of arable land and archeological sites and<br />
danger to downstream population must be Included on the debit side of rlver<br />
development schemes<br />
Deforestation<br />
Often good storage sites for dammlng occur In hilly uplands whlch are thlckly forested<br />
Before a reservoir is f~lled up the entlre area to be submerged has to be cleared and<br />
forests often become a casualty<br />
Desplte the increased awareness about the need to protect forest cover Ilttle<br />
attention 1s generally paid to this factor when a slte IS selected for a dam basically<br />
because all forests are state property and no one has to be compensated for the111<br />
Even In cost-beneflt calculat~ons forest loss is grossly undervalued and the<br />
recurring loss In terms of tlmber and firewood yleld per year and soclal costs of<br />
degradation of environment are never taken Into account Undervaluation of<br />
stand~ng forest helps In boostlng the cost-beneflt ratlo for obtainilig Plannlng<br />
Commission approval and f~nance from ~nternatlonal agencies lhke the World<br />
Bank Moreover, the con!ract for clear~ng the forest 1s also undervalued thus leaving<br />
a blgger margin to be shared between the contractors and the forest department<br />
The forest cover bears the brunt of dam constructlon In more than one way In the<br />
Himalayan valleys lndla contractors who come to clear the forest whlch 1s going to be<br />
submerged greedlly cut trees even In unaffected area The forest IS also cleared fo~ approach roads, offlces, residential quarters and for storage of constructlon materlal<br />
and rehabllitatlon<br />
In September 1987 the Mln~stry of Environment and Forests (MEF) sanctioned<br />
the submergence of over 1 360 hectares of reserved forests for Sardar Sarovai<br />
Project under the strlct condition that no forest land will be used for rehabllltatlon But<br />
by June 1990 under pressure from Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh governments MEF<br />
Sanctioned the felling of another 2 769 hactares of reserved forest land In Taloda
for rehabllltatlon Wlth the reduct~on ~n forest cover and the entry of people the<br />
pressure on the remalnlng forest Increases The need for firewood leads to further<br />
denudatlon The constructlon of a dam therefore has a multlpller effect<br />
The 1983-84 annual report of the Department of Env~ronment Government of<br />
lndla reveals that the constructlon of the Idukkl dam over the Perlyar rlver In Kerala<br />
lndla has hastened the degradation of vegetatlon and sharply reduced the forest<br />
cover<br />
It 1s est~mated that durlng the per~od 1951-76 0 49 mllllon hectares of forest has<br />
been lost due to major rlver valley projects Thls IS roughly 10 per cent of the area<br />
that came under canal lrrlgatlon - 5 5 mlll~on hectares The constructlon of<br />
Chlttaurgarh dam affected a vast area (405 hactare) of natural forests In the<br />
Himalayas The removal of vegetatlon Included the felling of valuable tlmber and<br />
frults bear~ng trees and the removal of f~rewood<br />
The h~ghest percentage of damaged trees upstream of the dam Included Khalr<br />
(Acacra catechu) Imp11 (Tamanndus ~nd~ca) Jamun (Syzygrum cumrnl) Teak<br />
(Jeclona grandrs) Sh~sham (Dalberg~a sfssoo) Chandan (Santalum album) etc The<br />
deforestatlon of these specles has caused serlous wood scarclty In the area The<br />
constructlon of the Saryu canal project has also resulted In the denudatlon of 1250<br />
hactare of a valuable tlmber yleldlng area (Ahmad and Slngh 1991)<br />
The Three Gorges project of Chlna will result ~n the drownlng of 238 km2 farmland<br />
and 50 km2 orange groves (Chau Kwal-cheong 1995) The Bakun dam to be bull!<br />
across the Balu~ In Malays~a will submerge 695 sq km of vlrgln ram forests and will<br />
also Inundate the farmlands (lyer 1996)<br />
Env~ronmental damages due to the constructlon of Auburn dam the most<br />
expensive dam ~n the US history to be bullt on the Amerlcan rlver In Callfornla<br />
Include the destruction of upto 80 45 km of deep rlchly forested Canyons that<br />
prov~de hab~tat for wild llfe and support recreation for 50 000 people a year<br />
Degree of deforestatlon lnvolved ~n the 4 060 MW lndo Bhutan Sankosh Hydel<br />
Project will be great deal causlng denudatlon of 700 hectare of prlme forest land<br />
Population displacement<br />
Reservoirs displace a large number of people, the number depending on the reservoir<br />
area and the population density. In India, as elsewhere, rehab~litation is the most<br />
Persistant problem encountered during the development of large dams. Development
elated displacement in India can be traced back to Raj days and the construction of<br />
the flrst State owned Yamuna Canal system in 1789.<br />
I)<br />
The constructlon of the Upper Anlcut dam on the Cauvery 1n1863 rased the<br />
Issue of involuntary dlsplacement<br />
11) Colonlal admln~stratlon came out wlth the Land Acqulsltlon Act In 1894<br />
1111 The Tata power company s burldlng of a dam Mulshl Peta In 1920 near Pune<br />
d~splaced 11 000 people and triggered off the flrst satyagraha agalnst forclble<br />
dlsplacement (M~tra 1995)<br />
Slnce Independence over 1 600 major dams and tens of thousands of nied1~1111 and<br />
smaller lrrlgatlon projects have been bu~lt wlth the attendant canal systems and the<br />
invar~able consequences of water logglng and so11 salln~satlon As a result between<br />
100-120 lakh people have been forc~bly d~splaced(Paranjpye 1990)<br />
In the absence of flrm project wlse data the estlmates of the total numbers<br />
d~splaced by planned development lnterventlons from 1951-90 range from a<br />
conservative 110 lakhs to an overall figure of 185 lakhs (Fernandes and Thukral<br />
1989) These flgures do not Include the sizeable number of people who are not<br />
acknowledged as belng project affected (I e by loss of l~vel~hood caused by natural<br />
resource extraction or degradation) those d~splaced In urban areas and those<br />
vlctlm~sed by the process of secondary d~splacement If these are tallled the<br />
number of those dlsplaced slnce Independence would be as h~gh as four crores<br />
Walter Fernandes estlmates that In the recent past the proportion of tr~bals among<br />
those dlsplaced has been ~ncreas~ng(Fernandes 1991) For example of the 11 6 lakh<br />
persons dlsplaced by 20 representative dams above 50 metres elther under<br />
constructlon or belng planned In the 1990s 59% are tr~bals The flgure wlll obv~ously<br />
Increase for dams planned In predominantly tr~bal areas (Suvarnrekha Pollavaram<br />
etc )<br />
The Central Water Comm~sslon s 1990 Reglster of Large Dams' 1s also lnstructlve<br />
Of the 32 dams of more than 50 metres height completed between 1951 and 1970<br />
only 9 (22 13 percent) were In trlbal areas Between 1971 and 1990 85 addltlonal<br />
dams of slmllar slzes were elther completed or were under constructlon<br />
However, by now not o , were they taller and more soph~stlcated around 60% of them<br />
were In the trlbal regions A recent offlc~al report on the rehabllltat~on of trlbals
ased on a comprehensive study of 110 projects, concludes that of 16.94 lakh people<br />
displaced by these Projects almost 50% (8.14 lakhs) were tribals(G01,1993).<br />
Trauma of D~splacernent<br />
The experience of the post Independence perlod from projects across the country<br />
suggests that the long drawn out process of dlsplacement has caused w~de-sp~eod<br />
traumatic psycholog~cal and soc~o-cultural consequences<br />
These Include the dlsmantllng of production systems desecration of ancestral<br />
sacred zones or graves and temples scattering of Klnsh~p groups and fam~ly systems<br />
d~sorganlsatlon of Informal soclal networks that prov~de mutual support weaken~ng of<br />
self management and soclal control dlsruptlon of trade and market llnks etc<br />
Essentially, what IS established In the acccumulated ev~dence In the country<br />
suggests that except In the rarest of the rare cases forced dlsplacement has resulted<br />
In what Mlchael Cernea calls a splral of rmpoverrshments In add~tlon there IS a loss<br />
of complex soc~al relatlonshlps whlch provlded avenues of representat~on medlat~on<br />
and confllct resolut~on In essence the very cultural ldentlty of the community and the<br />
lnd~v~dual w~thln ~t IS disrupted causlng Immense physlolog~cal and psycholog~cal stress<br />
(Cernea 1991)<br />
The process of dlsplacement IS also dlsempowerlng slnce ~t breaks up soc~o-<br />
pollt~cal organlsatons artlculatlng a crltlque of the project (and of development process<br />
Itself) Actlvlsts of the Tehrl Bandh Vlrodh~ Samlt~ states that there was a consc~ous<br />
strategy of the project author~t~es and the state government to dlvlde the united<br />
resistance to the Tehr~ project (Kothar~ 1996) The other neglected dlmens~on of<br />
dlsplacement IS ~ts adverse Impact on women Thelr trauma IS compounded by the<br />
loss of access to fuel fodder and food the collect~on of wh~ch lnevltably requlres<br />
greater tlme and effort Slmllarly chlldren are adversely affected slnce not only IS<br />
schooling less access~ble In most cases there IS also a dlsrupt~on In the tradlt~onal<br />
soclallsat~on processes<br />
Apalhebc Plannrng<br />
Planners and admlnrstrators ~nvarra~l rapltallse on and manipulate the reiatlvely<br />
Neaker soclo-economlc and po11t1 posltlon of most of the people faclng<br />
displacement The~r numbers are erestlmated they are treated ~nd~fferently and<br />
Only mlnfmal cash compeneatlc ' at all IS pad There IS an extraordinary
over one lakh people of the total and acquis~t~on land, while 10,000 ha, comprise<br />
forests (Down To Earth, 1992).<br />
The Tawa dam built on Tawa rlver ~n Madhya Pradesh was bu~lt for lrrlgat~on<br />
purposes Forty one vlllages were submerged and almost all ~nhab~tants were<br />
adtvasls These adlvasl villages whlch were displaced due to dam have not been<br />
rehabllltsted and they have hardly racelved any compensatlon There was no<br />
attempt to glve them alternative land sultable for agr~culture or glve them su~table<br />
alternat~ve employment They were not given the mlnlmum convenlences l~ke<br />
drlnklng water roads grazlng areas whlch were ava~lable to them before and to top<br />
all these they were forced to clear forests and rebulld the~r homes Some of them<br />
who were ent~tled to compensatlon got amounts of Rs 150 per acre Rs 65 per acre<br />
Rs 35 per acre and Rs 18 per acre The case of Tawa 1s a unlque example of the<br />
~njust~ce Inherent In displacement of people (Sun11 and Sm~tha 1996) After a long<br />
struggle and agltatlon the d~splaced of the Bargi dam have been awarded as part of<br />
the~r rehab~litation the fishing rights on a cooperative bas15 The d~splaced vlllages<br />
formed 54 co-operat~ve soc~et~es whlch were then l~nked to form a co-operat~ve<br />
marketing federat~on whlch now looks over the work of the co-operat~ves They have<br />
ra~sed the wage rate for f~shing glven employment to local people and at the end of<br />
the year have shown a savlng worth Rs 25 lakhs (Sun11 and Sm~tha 1996) The ch~ef<br />
obstacle to the process of resettlement 1s the non-ava~lab~l~ty of land In Gujarat where<br />
maxlmum resettlement 1s planned The eleven dam projects on Mekong rlver In<br />
Tha~land wh~ch will have a total capaclty of 14 000 MW will flood 1 900 sq km and<br />
dlsplace about 60 000 people (Rajesh 1995)<br />
Slnce 1949 some 86 000 water conservancy projects have been undertaken ~n<br />
Ch~na lnvolvlng the resettlement of over 10 million people Many of the displaced<br />
people were resettled In remote border areas far away from thelr home countrtes<br />
resulting In w~despread adaptat~on problems and confl~cts w~th the rnlnortty groups<br />
In add~t~on the relocatees were glven one payment compensation with no otliel<br />
development or~ented ass~stance Roughly 30% of the resettlement schemes falled<br />
and because of this b~tter experience many people are scept~cal of Ch~na s<br />
competence to resettle the huge number of people who will be affected by the Three<br />
Gorges Project (Chan Kwal-Cheong 1995) It 1s a standing practice for the<br />
bureaucracy to issue notices for evacuat~on the moment project 1s announced thougll<br />
the actual sh~ft~ng m~ght not start for years
A Centre for Social Studies, Surat study shows that most of the oustees In the 19<br />
Gujarat villages facing submission due to SSP had been issued notices as early as<br />
1980. The actual shifting is yet to take place from many villages. The 557 households<br />
who had been shifted by 1988 should have been given a total of 1,118 ha, of land,<br />
but only 526.5 ha had actually been handed over (Mitra, 1995). In some cases,<br />
population movements are very extensive - 30 000 persons had to be relocated fro111<br />
the Keban dam area in Turkey, 50000 from Kariba on the Zambesi, 70 000 from<br />
Tsimlian on the Don, and 90 000 for the development of the Volta in Ghana. Tehrl<br />
dam is estimated to displace nearly a lakh people An attempt was made to resettle<br />
the Ghanaian population near the reservoir by providing substitute jobs in tourism.<br />
lrrigatlon and other new activities At Kariba, a flourishing industrial flshlng Industry<br />
has replaced the former subsistence fishing Some grou~d realities that contlnue to<br />
be neglected during resettlement are: In the pre-implementat~on phase<br />
The desirability and justifiability of the project or developmental Intervention<br />
~tself.<br />
Consultation wlth representatives of the local population, particularly and<br />
predominantly those who are more vulnerable and the institutionalisat~on of this<br />
process.<br />
The justifiab~lity of reducing or wlnding down development programmes and<br />
resources for the area facing submergence<br />
The harassment. intimidation and repression of potential oustees<br />
If displacement is inevitable, then the full participation of the affected<br />
communities in definlng a comprehensive rehabilitation package.<br />
In the Implementation phases some of the neglected aspects are.<br />
Effects to bribe community leaders wlth the intention of seeking the consent of<br />
the community<br />
A wide range of human rights violations including threats, harassment, police<br />
actions, firing on peaceful protesters, forced entry into villages and homes<br />
destruction of private property etc.<br />
The disruption of nomadic routes whlch are crucial to the survlval of nomadic<br />
communit~es, and<br />
Land acquisition that in turn displaces those dependent on the acquired land<br />
The post-Implementation stage which, for those displaced, is among the
i)<br />
11)<br />
most traumat~c and undocumented experience, since project authorit~es<br />
move on to the next assignment and government machineries are not orlented<br />
to undertake long-term monitor~ng.<br />
The condition of the displaced in the existing resettlement sites.<br />
Traclng those who were paid cash compensation and who dispersed over a<br />
vast geographical area (as was the case with some of the Pong dam oustees)<br />
(ti) Responsibility for those who were displaced by earher projects but who continue<br />
IV)<br />
to face a grim economic and social predicament<br />
The displacement caused by the intenslve development activity that inevitably<br />
follows an initial developmental intervention.<br />
Drowning of arable land and archeological sites<br />
Reservoir basins are often r~ch rn arable land and pasture sometimes formrng the<br />
only agricultural potential In the reglon Just as some projects are abandoned because<br />
nf the slze of the populat~on they would d~splace other valleys are not developed<br />
because of essential argiculatural interests The decislon to go ahead wlth the<br />
scheme IS only justlfled ~f the benefits largely outwe~gh such upheavals In some<br />
Instances however recla~med land or land completely or part~alty protected by the<br />
scheme aga~nst former devastat~ng floods represents a much larger area than that<br />
drowned by the reservoir The Tennessee Valley Authority reservoirs cover 250 000<br />
hectares but the area protected agalnst rlver floods on the Ohio and Mrsslss~pp~<br />
downstream IS fifteen times larger<br />
On the question of the drowning of archeolog~cal sltes three projects can be<br />
mentioned as examples at lake Nasser Impounded by the H~gh Aswan dam several<br />
monuments ~ncludlng the Abu Slmbel temple were moved hlgher up the banks In<br />
Slberia the Angara rock palntlngs wh~ch would have been drowned by the Bratsk and<br />
Oust-lll~m reservoir were housed in the local museum Valuable archeolog~cal<br />
remains of the second century AD had to be moved out of the reservoir area of<br />
Nagarjunasagar dam The proposed hydroelectric project across Rathong Chu rlver ln<br />
Slkkim is a threat to Yuksam which IS a sacred p~l~grlmage spot Several Buddhlsl<br />
relics have been un-prthed In the area The Dubdl Gompa monastery whlch IS also<br />
an archaelog~cal treasure IS dose to the s~te (Balakrlshnan 1991)
Dam busting<br />
A spate of dam bust~ng 1s sweeplng the U S after the demol~t~on of Newport Number II<br />
dam on the Clyde rlver In Newport Vermont For the last forty years the dam has<br />
been preventing the salmon from reach~ng ~ts spawnlng ground After the dam<br />
dtsappeared with a loud roar and bang wlthln a few weeks the flsh was back jumplng<br />
tn the free runnlng water Following thls lncldent whlch 19 cons~dered a turnlng polnt In<br />
the U S hlstory of hydro-eng~neer~ng ~n Ma~ne several dams on the Rogue rlver In<br />
Oregon and the Snake rlver In Idaho face a slm~lar fate<br />
Plans are also on the anv~l to dismantle two dams on the Elwha rlver In Washington<br />
state Act~v~sts In Tasman~a want the dam on the Frankl~n rlver dismantled so that the<br />
p~nk quartz beaches of Lake Pedder wh~ch were submerged by the reservoir be<br />
uncovered And In France the env~ronmental group SOS Lolre has convinced the<br />
government to remove the Sa~nt Et~enne du vlgan dam on the V~enne rlver to<br />
restore passages for mtgratory f~sh through the upper Lotre Valley For d~smantl~ng<br />
a dam engineers must cons~der the entlre rlver system not just the concrete structure<br />
~tself Although smaller dams l~ke the Newport Number II may pose relatively lesser<br />
problems cost~ng just about $1 m~ll~on to be removed w~th~n SIX weeks large ones<br />
would present several problems and even cause degradat~on to the environment<br />
Researches show that once lhberated the sed~ments In the water may prove to be<br />
tox~c to f~sh spawnlng areas damag~ng aquat~c specles hab~tats and alter~ng water<br />
channels Careful planned strategy for sed~ment removal and restorat~on can<br />
mlnlmlze the Impact of the damage In long term env~ronmental galns should<br />
outwe~gh any losses For Instance report from the Bureau of Reclamat~on showed<br />
that removlng the savage Rap~ds Dam on the Rogue rlver In Oregon could generate<br />
as much as $5 m~ll~on a year from f~sh~ng alone<br />
Interbasin transfer of water<br />
The feaslblllty plan prepared by the experts of the Nat~onal Water Development<br />
Agency for llnklng up the east flowlng rlvers of the south by a canal along the coast<br />
under the nat~onal water pr~d programme has categor~sed the Mahanad~ ~n Or~ssa<br />
and the Godavar~ In Andb adesh as surplus rivers to the extent off 280 tmc fi and<br />
530 tmc fl respecttvely, s the Krlshna and Pennar ~n A P and the Cauvery and the<br />
Vatgal In Tam11 Nadu as deflclt rlvers Accordtng to an assessment made by the<br />
Central Water Comm~ss~on the country would face a shortage of 160 cublc km of
water by 2050 AD w~th the requirement by then being 1 300 cubic km as aga~nst<br />
the present ava~labil~ty of 1 140 cublc km Wh~le an estimated 1 800 cub~c kill of<br />
water is flowlng In the rivers in a year on an average ~t IS belng util~sed only to the<br />
extent of 690 cubic km Based on this the NWG or nat~onal perspective planning<br />
contemplated for equ~table d~str~butlon and opt~mal ut~llsat~on envisages transfer of<br />
water from surplus bass to defic~t ones and has two components the first Himalayan<br />
component almlng at connecting the perenn~al Himalayan born rlvers such as the<br />
Ganga the Yamuna and the Brahmaputra for the benef~t of the drought prone areas<br />
~n north and the second Peninsular component for llning up the east-flowing and<br />
west-flow~ng rivers ~n the south by two separate canals<br />
Under the present ~nter-basln plan of the NWDA wh~ch was subm~tted to the Un~on<br />
M~n~stry of Water Resources for ~ts approval and follow up lncludlng a central<br />
legislat~on 395 tmc ft of water will be d~verted from the Mahanad~ by a 930 km long<br />
canal so that a quantum of 230 tmc w~ll jo~n the Godavar~ at Dowla~s-waram The<br />
Godavarl IS to be linked to the Kr~shna by three canals the flrst (300 km) connecting<br />
Ichamball~ w~th Nagarjuna Sagar carrylng 580 tmc ft but conveylng 501 tmc ft<br />
after wett~ng the f~elds en route the second (270 km) connect~ng lchampall~ w~th<br />
Pulich~ntala carrylng 154 tmc ft but conveylng only 57 tmc ft into the Krlshna aftel<br />
meeting the requirements m~dway ~nclud~ng that of Pullchlntala Project proposed by<br />
the Andhra Pradesh government and the th~rd connecting Polavaram w~th<br />
V~jayawada (174 km) carrylng 173 tmc ft but conveytng 117 tmc fl In the end The<br />
third segment conslsts of three canals connecttng the Krlshna w~th the Pennar<br />
The f~rst canal (564 km) is to dlvert 70 tmc ft from the Alamatt~ dam and convey 33 tmc<br />
ft after meetlng the requtrements en route to the Maddrleru stream The second<br />
canal connecting Srl sa~lam and the Pennar carrles 80 tmc ft but conveys only 70 1111(<br />
after meetlng the needs en route at Ad~nimmayapall~ and the third connect~ng<br />
Nagarjunasagar wlth Somaslla to carry 430 tmc ft The fourth segment has a IIII~ up<br />
canal (535 km) between Somas~la (Pennar) and Grand An~cut (Cauvery) transferrrlrig<br />
302 trnc ft of water ending up as 135 tmc ft after meetlng the needs en route Under<br />
the last segment 1250 km) about 80 tmc ft of water of Cauvery will be d~verted from<br />
the Kattala~ regulator to the Vaiga~ ~n Tam11 Nadu<br />
The NWDA has also prepared t ~eprints to connect the west-flow~ng rlvers on the<br />
western coast according to wh~cl, the Pamba ~n Kerala will be d~verted from<br />
Achankovil to Valppur in Tam11 Nadu to the extent of 22 tmc ft all to be used Ill the
drought prone. Tirunelveli. Chidambaranath and Kamarajar districts in Tamil Nadu.<br />
The Netravati and Hemavati both in Karnataka are to be connected for 6 tmc for<br />
irrigation in Karnataka. The Bedthi and the Wardha, also in Karnataka are to be<br />
linked for transfer of 9 tmc into the Tungabhadra near Raichur.<br />
RELEVANCEOFTHEPRESENTSTUDY<br />
Indla an agricultural economy, irrigation has always been the motive force<br />
behind the construction of dams. Sathanur reservoir was created with the aim of<br />
~rrigating the water scarce regions of Thiruvannamalai and Villupuram. Built on an<br />
interstate river, Ponnaiyar, it is a large dam fulfilling the criteria laid down by the<br />
International Commission Of Larger Dams (ICOLD) with height more than 15m,<br />
storage capacity more than 229.4 ~m~ and maximum flood discharge more than<br />
2000 m3 set'. The Ponnaiyar river basin with its catchment falling between 2000-<br />
20,000 km2 is classified as the medium river basin<br />
Sathanur reservoir project is also significant as ~t is situated in Peninsular lnd~a<br />
where large dams are needed due to the limited capacity of the valleys on account of<br />
the natural topography and configuration. The flow in most of the south Indian rivers IS<br />
lhmited to 3-4 monsoon months of the year. in contrast to the perennial rlvers of north<br />
India. Ponnaiyar river, across which the Sathanur dam is constructed, is one such<br />
river. Tank irrigation has played a major role from time immemorial in the agr~culture<br />
sector in many of the south Indian states, especially Tamil Nadu. Sathanur project<br />
irrigates a major portion of the land in the command area under indirect irrigation vla<br />
90 small and big tanks. The command region lying in the drought prone reglon of the<br />
country wlth the mean annual rainfall less than 1000 mm makes the role of Sathanur<br />
dam more crucial. The story of the Sathanur project has been that of a slow and<br />
steady evolution of a single purpose dam to a multipurpose project fulfilling the<br />
following objectives.<br />
Irrigation<br />
* Hydropower generation<br />
Domestic Water supply<br />
Aquaculture<br />
Recreation.
Organization of the thesis<br />
The thesis has been organised into five sections and eighteen chapters, followed by<br />
bibliography and appendix. In each chapter we have presented a synthesis of the<br />
information we have obtained from the governmental and non-governmental agencies,<br />
and the information generated by us through extensive field work. The beneficial as<br />
well as the adverse impacts have been identified as perceived by the project<br />
authorities, by the end users, and by us. We have also made an attempt to identify the<br />
Impacts of the ecorestoration measures undertaken by the project authorities and to<br />
develop gu~deline for the management of this project, and other similar projects, In<br />
future.
Chapter 2<br />
Study area<br />
PONNAIYAR RIVER<br />
History of Ponnaiyar river<br />
Ponnaiyar, an interstate river, is one of the largest rivers of the state of Tamil Nadu<br />
(TN), India; often reverently called 'little ~anga' of the South'. The river has supported<br />
many a civilizations of peninsular India across the h~story and continues to play a vital<br />
roie in supplying precious water for drinking, irrigation and industry to the people of the<br />
Indian states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Pond~cherry. Ponnaiyar or~ginates from<br />
the south-eastern slope of Chennakesava hills in Mysore state and flows !or 84.8 km in<br />
that state before entering Tamil Nadu at about 4.8 km north-west of Bagalur village,<br />
Dharmapuri district. The Krishnagiri dam was the first one to be constructed across<br />
the river, about 10 km from Krishnagiri town In the Dharmapuri district (TN). The rlver<br />
flows for a distance of 430 km from its point of origin to the sea 35 km in the<br />
Thlruvannamalai district (TN). The total dralnage area of the river is 14,130 km2 of<br />
Which 3608 km2 lies in Karnataka, 95 km2 in Andhra Pradesh and the remaining<br />
10,427 km2 falls in Tamil Nadu. Sathanur dam is about 113 km below the Krishnagirl<br />
dam i.e. 286 km from the origin of the river. The river below the dam runs in a<br />
south-easterly direction through Salem district. In this district, the river meanders<br />
through thick jungle of the Ponnaiyar reserve forest and flows through Cuddalore<br />
distric!, before finally merging with the Bay of Bengal near Cuddalore (TN).<br />
Gangs or Ganges which originates in the Himalayas and traverses large tracts of Northern lnd~a<br />
before<br />
crossing into Bangladesh, is considered a holy river by the Indians and is often called ' mother Ganga'<br />
The river also signifies extreme purity Ihough, in modem times, it has become gross by Polluted
The river flows for a major portion through wooded country, deep ravines and narrow<br />
gorges, with the country at the sides rising steeply to a height of about 90 m above the<br />
riverbed Unlike the other major river of southern India - Cauvery - Ponniyar is not<br />
perennial. There is practically no flow in the river except during north-west monsoon<br />
months (October-December) or the less precipitous south-west monsoon (June-<br />
August), During the rainy spells there are flash flows in Ponniyar. Thls has aptly given<br />
rise to a proverb in the tamil language "the Ponnaiyar will rise and fall even before the<br />
butter melts".<br />
SATHANUR RESERVOIR PROJECT(SRP)<br />
Sathanur Dam<br />
The Sathanur Reservoir Project (SRP) is constructed across the river Ponnaiyar in<br />
reserve forest area near Sathanur village (Plate 2.1). It 1s situated about 32 km from<br />
the Thiruvannamalai town at longitude 78" 51' 10" and lat~tude 12'4' 48" (Figure 2.1).<br />
A brief historical background<br />
Irr~gation facilit~es available in Thiruvannamaiai and Chengam sub-divis~ons were<br />
scanty and not quite dependable. There were no means of harnessing the flash flows<br />
of Ponnaiyar traversing through the district and the major portion of the water was<br />
going waste into the sea Several options were explored from time to,tlme but none<br />
was taken up owing to the drawbacks like the uneconomical return on the outlay.<br />
unreliability of flow data of Ponnaiyar etc<br />
After the Second World War, steps were taken to review all the past propasals, under<br />
Government's ''grow more food" drive. The proposal under which SRP has been<br />
established, was taken up for detailed investigation in 1954. The first stage was swiftly<br />
sanctioned at an estimated cost of Rs.29 millions. The project was inaugurated on<br />
2 10.1954. The dam was constructed in two phases. A capacity of 2,89,940 cusecs<br />
was created in the first phase, which was dedicated to the nation on 10.1 1.1957.lt had<br />
the potential to irrigate an area of 1714 acres. An extent of 14,159 acres was irrigated<br />
In 1958-59. The entire proposed area of 21,000 acres was brought under irrigation<br />
during the year 1959-60. It was further >creased by an additlonal2,978 acres in 1971<br />
The second stage of construct~on led in 1968 and the capacity of the reservoir<br />
was increased to 229.4 ~ rn' by prc. ~.'ing a 12.2 m x 6.1 m shutter. The current full<br />
reservoir depth is 366.3 m over th -'" of river sluice. The right flank saddle, which
was at low level, was converted into vented escapes. Thus, full reservoir level (FRL)<br />
of reservoir was raised to 220.9 m, which was previously maximum water level (MWL)<br />
of 1st stage. The extra capacity thus created was meant to stabilize 5000 acres of<br />
second crop under Thirukoilur barrage system.<br />
Salient featuncr of the dam<br />
The total length of the dam is 779.8 m of which the masonry section is 418.5 m and<br />
rest is the earthen dam. The masonry dam is designed as a gravity structure, 40,Q m<br />
above the riverbed and 44.7 m above the deepest foundation level. The uncontrolled<br />
spillway consists of 9 vents of 12.2 m x 6.096 m each with a maximum discharge of<br />
2,80,940 cusecs. ARCC bridge with.3.6 m clear roadway is provided over the spillway.<br />
The requirement of water, both for existing and new irrigation, is supplied though 5<br />
river sluices of size 1.5 m x 1.5 m located at the left end of the masonry dam. The<br />
earthen dam is zoned, rolled fill type with front slopes of 2:l and 3:1, rear slopes of 2:l<br />
and 2:5:1 and top width of 6 m. A cut of trench is provided for section of more than<br />
3 03 rn wide beams at 6.1 rn vertical intervals. For effective drainage, horizontal and<br />
transverse filters are provided.<br />
Pick-up dam and the canal system<br />
The margin of the river below the dam is rocky and rugged for a considerable d~stance,<br />
thus rendering a direct off-take canal from the reservoir for irrigation purpose<br />
~mpracticable. Water from reservoir is, therefore, let down in the river itself and picked<br />
up about 7.2, km lower down by a dam (Plate 2.2). The length of the Pick-up dam is<br />
121 9 m excluding the 6.1 m bye wash on the right flank. The left and right head<br />
slu~ces have been provided in the pick-up dam itself. They are capable of discharging<br />
400 cusecs of water.<br />
The length of the left bank canal is 35.2 km. It consists of 15 distributaries. The total<br />
length of the canal and distributaries is about 88 km. The system is currently irrigating<br />
about 9,717 hectares of land since 1958 and supplying water to 41 tanks in Chengam<br />
sub-division, Thiruvannamalai sub-division and Thirukoilur sub-d~vision In<br />
Thiruvannamalai and Villupuram districts,TN.<br />
The farmers in Kallakurichi sub-division in South Arcot district (now Villupuram)<br />
experienced severe drought for a long time and the surplus water of Ponnaiyar was<br />
draining off to sea without being harnessed for any use. There was a demand for
plate 2.1 SathanLir darv<br />
Plate 2.2 Pck-up dam
constructing a canal on the right flank of the Pick-up dam. As a result right bank canal<br />
was constructed in 1982 for irrigating about 6610 hectares of land.<br />
The length of the right bank canal Is 28.04 km. The main canal has been lined along<br />
its entire length. There are 22 direct intake sluices and 4 branch canals taking off from<br />
the main canal. There are four sub-canals named Moongildhuraipattu ,Athiyur, Viriyur<br />
and Jambodai . The total length of the branch-canal is about 37.45 km. There are 25<br />
direct distributing gates in the main canal. Around 49 tanks in Chengam and<br />
Sankarapuram (formerly Kallakurich)i sub-division are getting benefit from the right<br />
bank canal. The discharging capacity of the canal is 6.95m3sec "<br />
Water shed<br />
The catchment of Ponnaiyar between Krishnagiri and Sathanur reservoirs is in a roll~ng<br />
country mixed with hills and plains. The hills are Shervarays, Javadi and chit tor^. The<br />
catchment of Sathanur reservoir lies between the latitudes 11' 45' and 12' 45' and<br />
longitudes 78' 0' and 78' 50'. The state, district and sub-division wise catchment area<br />
details are furnished in Table 2.0. The river basin of Ponnaiyar is approximately<br />
12,986 km2. The distribution of the basin at salient points on the river is as below:-<br />
Catchment at Krishnagiri dam site: 5428.6 km2<br />
Catchment at Nedungal dam site: 5603.8 km2<br />
Catchment at Sathanur dam site: 10826 kmz<br />
Catchment atThirukoilur dam site: 12738.6 km2<br />
Catchment below Thirukoilur dam: 248.3 km2<br />
Hence the independent catchment of Sathanur resewoir is 5397.5 km2 (2084 m2).<br />
The total catchment of Sathanur reservoir is 5397.5 km2. The map dep~cting the<br />
Ponnaiyar river basin is given as Figure 2.2. Major tributar~es joining Ponnaiyar river<br />
below Krishnagiri dam till Sathanur dam are as follows:<br />
1 Puliampatty river starts from Chitteri hills and joins Ponnaiyar on it's right bank near<br />
Echampadi, north of Kambainallur.<br />
2. Vaniaru originates from the Shemarays near Yercaud and joins Ponnaiyar on its<br />
right bank near Muthiampatty.<br />
3. Kovil river starts from Chitteri hills and joins Ponnaiyar on its right bank near<br />
Periyapatty and
4. Pamba~ starts near Yelagiri hills and joins Ponnaiyar on its left bank near<br />
Pavakkal<br />
W~thin the waterspread the following tributaries join the Ponnaiyar (a) Vediappan<br />
kovil odai (b) Ramakkal odai (c) Pul~anur aru (d) Mottur aru (e) Anitallam odai and (f)<br />
Valayar odai. Other than these, about 150 minor streams and rivulets feed Ponnaiyar.<br />
The general aspect of the catchment area is one of the cultivated plains and valleys<br />
~nterspersed with sharply rising hills, which are in some cases merely boulders (Figure<br />
2 3).<br />
Water spread<br />
The entire water spread of Sathanur reservoir is about 18.2 km2 (4500 acres) lying<br />
within the Ponnaiyar reserve forest. The river stretches along the deep course from<br />
the dam to the end of the water spread for about 21 km as illustrated in Figure 2.3.<br />
The periphery of the water spread above full reservoir level is surrounded by th~ck<br />
forest.<br />
Command<br />
The 35.2 km long left bank canal is designed to irrigate 9713 hectares of land In<br />
Thiruvannamalai and Villupuram (prev~ously North Arcot and South Arcot) dlstr~cts.<br />
The 28.6 km long right bank canal is designed to irrigate 8,499 hectares of land In<br />
Chengam and Kallakurichi sub-divisions. The list of villages and tanks that are<br />
benefited, their extent of area under irrigation and canal number is presented in Tables<br />
2 1 to 2.7. The Sathanur Command Area (SCA) IS represented in Figure 2.4. The<br />
villages of SRBC and SLBC commands complete with their respective canal system<br />
and tanks are illustrated as Figures 2.5 and 2.6.<br />
Geology<br />
The geological details of Ponnaiyar basin are illustrated in Figure 2.7. The area<br />
is predominantly built up with granite and gneisses rocks of archean period. The<br />
granite is of very good quality and extensive out crops and masses of it are commonly<br />
found. The chief components of rocks are hornblende and feldspar. Foliation IS<br />
seldom seen. In the plains of reserve forest, quartz is found. The diamond granite Is<br />
also found in scattered pockets in the areas of Chitteri hills in Dharmapuri and<br />
Krishnagiri sub-divisions. Charnokite rocks of archean period are also seen in some
area. At the tail end of the basin, pockets of sand stone, clays pebble of tertiary<br />
period, and limestones of cretaceous per~od are found. Alluvium and sand dunes of<br />
quaternary period are also seen.<br />
Temperature<br />
command<br />
Cllmate<br />
SCA falls under the tropical belt. The climate in general is hot, April and May being the<br />
hottest months of the year. The temperature rises to 34'C during these months.<br />
November and December are the coldest months when the ambient temperature falls<br />
to 2Z0C.<br />
Catchment<br />
The catchment is interspersed with several hills. The peak of the catchment is In<br />
Yercaud. The elevation of Shemarays and Javad~ hills are nearly 1000 m, hence the<br />
climate is generally cool for nine months of the year in the upper reaches of<br />
Th~rupathur sub-division. On the plalns, during the months of March to May, ~t is very<br />
hot and dry with occasional gusty storms in the afternoons. The climate generally<br />
becomes deasant after few showers that usually come in ' May. Again,<br />
during the months of October to February the climate becomes cool and pleasant,<br />
supplemented by mist and dew at night. The average maximum temperature recorded<br />
is 3Z°C. The average minimum temperatures recorded in pla~ns and hills are 24OC In<br />
plains and 10°C in hills respectively.<br />
Precipitation<br />
Catchment<br />
The average annual rainfall varies from 800 mm to 1000 mm as recorded In the<br />
several stations in the catchment (Figure 2.8). The whole of the catchment gets<br />
rainfall both from south-west and north-east monsoons. Most of the rainfall received In<br />
this tract is from June to December. October and November are the rainiest of the<br />
months. A considerable amount of dew falls during December to February. The<br />
subsequent months are dry. The Tables 2.8 - 2.17 present the details of the annual<br />
Precipitation recorded in the various stations in the catchment region for varlous<br />
Periods. The average, standard deviation and coemcient of var~ation values have also
Dam<br />
Sathanur rr8rrvoir projrct - morphometric detail8<br />
River at bed level : E1+182.5m<br />
Top of dam : El+222.6 m<br />
Sill of river sluices : E1+1859m<br />
Crest of spillway and FRL 1st stage : Elt216.1 m<br />
FRL II stage and MWL.<br />
Maximum rear water level<br />
Capacity of reservoir 1st stage<br />
II nd stage<br />
Catchment area at dam site<br />
Water spread area I st stage<br />
Water spread area II nd stage<br />
Maximum flood discharge<br />
E1+222 2 m<br />
: Elt195.l m<br />
: 129.3 Mm3<br />
: 229 4 Mm3<br />
: 10826 km2<br />
: 12.5 km2 (3100 acres)<br />
: 18.2 km2 (4500 acres)<br />
: 5663.3 m3 sec"(200000 cusecs)
een presented. Precipitation values show the minimum coefficient of variation thus,<br />
more consistency at Sathanur dam site. The values are maximum in Singarapet and<br />
palacode stations, 48.4% and 43.7% respectively. The trend of annual precipitation in<br />
various regions In the catchment is presented in Figures 2.8-2.14. A slight declin~ng<br />
trend is observed in the annual precipitation at the Sathanur dam site (Figure 2.8).<br />
Declining trend is also observed for the annual precipitation values in Uthanagaral,<br />
Tirupathur Rayakotta, Palacode, Chengam and Dharmapuri regions for the period fo<br />
1960 - 1982. The values recorded in Krishnagiri and Singarapet depict an upward<br />
trend (Figures 2.9 and 2.10 respectively).<br />
Command<br />
The annual precipitation received for the past thirty-six years in the command area<br />
(Th~ruvannamalai region) is presented in Table 2.18. The trend of the amount of rainfall<br />
recorded has been almost constant (Figure 2.14) with variation of 29%. The average<br />
rainfall recorded for the past thirty-six years is 930.1 mm.<br />
Inflow-outflow and reservoir level<br />
The inflow and outflow details (in cusecs) of reservoir for a per~od of 1977 - 1998 are<br />
represented in Tables 2.19 and 2.20. The monthly variations in the water level of the<br />
reservoir for a period of twenty years are illustrated as Table 2.21.<br />
Physiographic relief and drainage<br />
The irrigation command area of the reservoir has a gently sloping and undulating<br />
topography. The areas of SRBC command are at higher elevation compared to most of<br />
the regions in SLBC command. The latter has low-lying slopes, thus posing drainage<br />
related problems. Owing to the elevated slopes, the SRBC command is well drained.
Length af dam<br />
a Length of masonry dam<br />
b. Length of earthen dam<br />
River sluices<br />
Vents<br />
Size of vents<br />
Maximum d~scharge<br />
Spill way<br />
Number of vents<br />
Size of vents<br />
Maximum discharge<br />
Saddle<br />
5 nos<br />
15mx18m<br />
240 69 m3sec ' (8500 cusecs)<br />
9 nos.<br />
: 12.2m x6 1 m<br />
Length of masonry between abutments 161 5m<br />
Vents : I I nos<br />
S~ze of vents 12.2 m x 4.6 rn<br />
Sill level E1+217.6 m<br />
Maximum height of masonry gbove<br />
foundation 16.8 m<br />
3281 89m3sec' (1 15900 cusecs)
FRL and MWL<br />
Flanking bund<br />
Width of the road way between kerbs . 3.7 m<br />
TOP of road way<br />
EIt222 6 m<br />
Length of flanking bund 327 7 m<br />
Top width of flanking bund 7.6 rn<br />
Maximum width of flanking bund 40.2 m<br />
Maximum d~scharge capac~ty 2235 31m3 sec" (78940 cusecs)<br />
Pick-up dam<br />
Location of pick up dam<br />
Length of pick up dam<br />
Bye wash<br />
Bed level<br />
Crest level<br />
MWL front<br />
MWL rear<br />
Maximum flood discharge<br />
7.2 km below dam<br />
E1+174.0 m<br />
7955 26 m3 sec-'(2,80,940 cusecs)
Scour vents<br />
Left s~de s~ll<br />
Vents<br />
Size of vents<br />
R~ght s~de s~ll<br />
Vents<br />
S~ze of vents<br />
Head sluices<br />
Slll<br />
No of vents<br />
S~ze of vents<br />
Full supply d~scharge<br />
: E1+162.2 m<br />
: 3 nos<br />
: 1,5x1.8m<br />
E1+165.0 m<br />
: 3 nos.<br />
1.5mX1.8m<br />
E1+165.0 m<br />
3 nos.<br />
: 2.7 m x 1.8m<br />
11.327 m3 sec" (400 cusecs)
Canal system<br />
Total length of main canal<br />
Length of lines portion<br />
~ull supply depth<br />
Full supply discharge<br />
35.2 km<br />
35.2 km<br />
: 1.5m<br />
11.327 m3 sec .'(400 cusecs)
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2 1
SLBC command<br />
Chengam sub-division<br />
Table 2.1 Village wise proposed area under canal irrigation<br />
S. No Name of the village Area in ha. Canal number<br />
1. Olagalapadi 2.99 Main<br />
2. Edathanur 120.21 DY 1<br />
3. Allapanoor 82 46 DY2<br />
4. Agarampallipattu 205.58 DY 2<br />
5. Sadakuppam 147.69 DY4<br />
6. Unnamalaipalayam 91.57 DY4<br />
7. Thenrnudiyanur 109 98 Matn<br />
8. Radhapuram 37 68<br />
9. Thenkarimbalur 472.74 DY5<br />
10. Valavachanur 157.75 DY4<br />
11. Kottaiyur 353 40 DY4 '<br />
12. Varkkilapattu 9.38 Ma~n<br />
13. Serpapattu 45 53 Ma~n<br />
14. Maluvampattu 110.38 DY7<br />
15. Vanapuram 183.81 Ma~n<br />
16. Kunglianatham 96 72 DY5<br />
17 Perunthura~pattu 122.80 DY 5<br />
18. Edakkal 265.80 DY5<br />
19. Peraiyampattu 118.43 DY9<br />
Total 2815 15
Thiruvannamalai sub-division<br />
Table 2.2 Village wise proposed area under canal irrigation<br />
S. NO Name of the Village Area in ha Canal number<br />
-. -. .-<br />
I. Palayanur 166.47 DY 116<br />
2. Velayampakkam 254.23 DY 116<br />
3. Kallottu 107.21 DY 116<br />
4. Kandiankuppam 272.96 DYIO<br />
5. Thachampattu 133.00 DY11A<br />
6. Allikondapattu 65.93 DYl lA<br />
7 Navapattu 276.59<br />
8. Thalayarnpallarn 315 70 DYIIB<br />
9. Nariapattu 251.93 DYllB<br />
10. Parayampattu 128.87 DY12<br />
11. Sakkarathamadai 56.96 DY12<br />
12. Athipadi 104.28<br />
13. Devanur 38.89<br />
14. Periakallipadi 327.68 DYlla<br />
15. Pavapattu 229.1 1 DY13<br />
16. Kattampoondi 350.34 DY14<br />
17. Pappambadi 72.14 DY15<br />
18. Aradapattu 97.08 DY15<br />
19. Pavithram 269.21 DY15<br />
Total 351 8.17
Thirukoilur sub-division<br />
Table 2.3 Village wise proposed area under canal irrigation<br />
S. No Name of the village Area in ha. Canal number<br />
.-<br />
I. Melandhal 478.49 DY4<br />
2. Kangaiyanur 218.34 DY5<br />
3. Jambai 375.14 DYIO<br />
4. Pallichandal 128.57 DY 10<br />
5. Murukkambadi 186.56 DY11B<br />
6. Kongamnur 99.32 DY5<br />
7. Athiyandal 138.10<br />
8. Devaradiyarkuppam 221.39 DYllB<br />
9. Seilankuppam 92.49 DYlO<br />
10. Sithapattinam 210.94 DYlO<br />
11. Manalurpet 57.72 DYIO ,<br />
Total 2207 06<br />
Chengam sub-division : 2815.2 ha.<br />
Thiruvannamala~ sub-divislon : 3518.8 ha.<br />
Thirukoilur sub-division 2207.1 ha.<br />
Total : 8541.1 ha.
SRBC command<br />
Chengam sub-division<br />
Table 2.4. Village wise proposed area under canal irrigation<br />
S. No Name of the village Area in ha. Canal number<br />
1. Thlruvadathanur 240 82 Ma~n<br />
2. Purthurcheekadl 85.81 Matn<br />
3. Rayandapuram 288.56 Main<br />
4. Thondamanur 113 55 Main<br />
5. Elayankani 7.56<br />
Total 737.30<br />
Sankarapuram sub-division<br />
Table 2.5 Village wise proposed area under canal irrigat~on<br />
S. No Name of the village Area in ha Canal<br />
2. Vadakeeranur 190 53 84<br />
3. Rayasamudram 73.69 Main<br />
4. Mookanur 47.79 Main<br />
5 Pakkam 242.12 82<br />
6. Olagalapadi<br />
7. Kaduvmnur<br />
8. Mangalam<br />
9. Arulambadi 139.26 B 1<br />
10. Vadaponparappi 207.80 B 1<br />
11. Vadamamandur 320.21 B1<br />
12. Arumparampattu 432.87 B 1<br />
. - -- --
13. Sirpathanallur 150.61 B1<br />
14. Jambodai 570.71 B1<br />
15. Thiruvarangam 155.48 B1<br />
10. Maniyandai 15.33 82<br />
17. Sirpanandal 385.58 B 1<br />
18. Arkavadi 22.27 84<br />
19. Athadur 8.65 84<br />
20. Edathanur 42.27 82<br />
21. Kallipadi 28.90 B1<br />
22. Periyakolliyur 208.85 B1<br />
23. Chinnkolliyur 29.51 61<br />
24. Sivapuram 60.44<br />
25. Tholuvanthangal 88.94 B2<br />
26. Athiyur 325.04 82<br />
27. Ariyallur 62 04 82<br />
28. Nagalkudi 25.95 82<br />
29. Vanapurarn 75 47 82<br />
30. Odiyanthal 32.55 82<br />
3 1 Sirupana~yur 0.55 82<br />
32 Kadarnbur 106.30 82<br />
33. Agaraharapandalarn 24.72 83<br />
34. S.Kolathur 207.55 83<br />
35. Varagur 116.69 83<br />
36. Arur 148.35 B3<br />
37. Thimmendal 59.09 83<br />
38. Kidagudayampattu 89.99 83<br />
39. Chellakayakuppam 46 75 83<br />
40. Vir~yur 198.80 B 3
41. Moongilduraipattu 395.80 84<br />
42. Poruvalur 423.09 84<br />
43. Erudayarnpattu 106.53 B4<br />
44. Poraspattu 113 71 84<br />
45. Vadasiruvalur 59.89<br />
46. Ramarajapuram 17.70<br />
47. Olagadayampattu 3.76<br />
48. Elayanarkuppam 36.73 B 1<br />
Total 7680.79<br />
Chengam Sub-division 737.30 ha.<br />
Sankarapuram : 7680.79 ha<br />
Total 8418.09 ha
SLBC command<br />
Table 2.6. Village wise area proposed under tank irrigation<br />
S. No. Name of the tanks Area in ha.<br />
1 Edathanur<br />
2. Allapanoor 18.66<br />
3. Agarampallipattu 14.81<br />
4. Sadakuppam 9.16<br />
5. Kottaiyur 31.86<br />
6. Thenkarimbalur 84.84<br />
7. Melandhal 129.65<br />
8. Serapapattu 31.09<br />
9. Vanapuram 40.32<br />
10. Kunglianatham 20.00<br />
11. Athipadi 10.82<br />
Perayampattu<br />
Palaiyanur<br />
Kandiyankuppam<br />
Maluvarnapttu<br />
Pallichandal<br />
Jambai<br />
Sellankuppam<br />
Manalurpet<br />
Sithapatinam<br />
Athiyandal<br />
Velyampakkarn<br />
Murukkambadi<br />
Konganamoor
25. Kallottu 17.01<br />
26. Navapattu 28.80<br />
27. Allirnundapattuthangal 6.77<br />
28. Sakkarathamadai - 11.62<br />
29. Thalayampallam 37.72<br />
30. Kattampoondi 58.42<br />
31. Parayampattu 16.29<br />
32. Pavapattu 53.79<br />
33. Thachampattu 26.95<br />
34. Periyakallipadi 62.21<br />
35. Pavithram 67.60<br />
36. Aradapattu 27.34<br />
37. Andhapattu 27.34<br />
38. Kolakudi 42.56<br />
Total 1455.61
QRBC command<br />
Table 2.7 Village wise area proposed under tank irrigation<br />
S. No. Name of the tanks Area in ha.<br />
.94<br />
2. Viyappanur 18.29<br />
3. Vettuthangal 31.97<br />
4. Motten 3.26<br />
5. Moongilthuraipattu 35.35<br />
6. Porasapattu 12.18<br />
7 Mananthangal 13 33<br />
8. Melsiruvallur 4 77<br />
9. Thenaporai 4.90<br />
10. Perarnakundarn 11 92<br />
11. Melisiruvallur (mid supply) 57 04<br />
12. Sirpathanallur 17.59<br />
13. Mangalam 32.44<br />
14. Th~ruvarangarn 45.46<br />
15. Olagalapadi 8 59<br />
16. Vadakeeranur 448.62<br />
17. Kallipadi 16.21<br />
Vadarnarnandur new<br />
Arurnparampattu<br />
Vadarnarnandur perta tank<br />
Arularnbad~<br />
Jarnbodai<br />
Maniyandal<br />
Elaiyanarkupparn<br />
Sirpanandal<br />
Pakkam New Tank
27. Chinnakolliyur 29.51<br />
28. Sirupanaiyur big tank 94.61<br />
29. Periyakolliyur 62.99<br />
30. Kadarnbur big tank 106.30<br />
31. Nagalkudi 26.55<br />
32. Odiyanthal 32.55<br />
33. Vanapuram 76.47<br />
34. Athiyur thangal 31.84<br />
35. Tholuvanthangal 31.84<br />
36. Kaduvanur 129.93<br />
37. Athiyur big tank 60.96<br />
38. Ariyalur 28.37<br />
39. Varagur 27.52<br />
40. S.Kolathur small tank 23.47<br />
41. S.Kolathur big tank 48.56<br />
42. Chellakuppam 10.12<br />
43. Arur 47.35<br />
44. Vadasiruvalur 59.89<br />
45. Thimmanndal 17.40<br />
46. Kidakudayarnpattu 28.33<br />
47. Viriyur 36.42<br />
48 Arasampattu 18.21<br />
49. Periyakolliyur thangal 9.14<br />
Total 1824.42
Figure Nap otiowing' Sethanur location
Fig~tre 2.4 SRP col~~~l~alld qrcn<br />
A4
Name of the Villages as indicated 1 to 42 in Figure 2.5<br />
1. olegalapadi<br />
2. Thenmudiyanur<br />
3. Edathaur<br />
4. Allapanoor<br />
5. Agarampallipattu<br />
6. Sadakuppam<br />
7. Unnamalaipalayam<br />
8. Thenkarimbalur<br />
9. Mazhuvampattu<br />
10,Vanapuram<br />
11. Valavachanur<br />
12. Perunthuraipattu<br />
13. Melandhal<br />
14. Kangaiyanur<br />
15. Edakkai<br />
16. Perayampattu<br />
17. Pallichadhal<br />
18. Palayanur<br />
19,Velayampakkarn<br />
20. Kallottu<br />
21. Navampattu<br />
22. Thalayampallam<br />
23. Nariyapattu<br />
24. Parayampattu<br />
25 Pavapattu<br />
26. Kattarnpoondi<br />
27. Aradapattu<br />
28. Koiakudi<br />
29. Sukhampalayarn<br />
30. Jambai<br />
31. Devariyarkuppam<br />
32. Athiyandal<br />
33. Murukkampadi<br />
34. Chinnakallipadi<br />
35. Pappambadi<br />
36. Sithapatinam<br />
37. Sellankuppam<br />
38. Periyakallipadl<br />
39. P.K.Padur<br />
40. Nadupattu<br />
41. Manaiurpet<br />
42. Pavithram
-7 .<br />
.<br />
% (kMIMlwwl Aruv<br />
bn 2.6 Map npresenting cumt &,tw of SRBC command region with canal systan<br />
and (ham on ws OfBmMdauth dim dar by the auth)<br />
V7
Name of the villages as indicated 1 to 43 in Figure 2.6<br />
1. Thiruvadathanur<br />
2, puthurcheekadi<br />
3. Rayandapurarn<br />
4. Moongiithuraipanu<br />
5. Motten<br />
6. Poruvalur<br />
7 Porasapattu<br />
8. Mananthangal<br />
9. Tevaparai<br />
lo. Erudayampattu<br />
I 1. Adanur<br />
12. Vadakeeranur<br />
I 3. Olagalapadi<br />
14. Vadaponparappi<br />
15. Mangalarn<br />
16. Vadarnarnandur<br />
17. Arularnbadi<br />
18. Sirpathanallur<br />
19. Arumpararnpattu<br />
20. Thiruvarangarn<br />
21. Jambodai<br />
22. Kallipadi<br />
23. Elayanarkuppam<br />
24. Sirpanandal<br />
25. Maniyandal<br />
28. Chinnekolliyur<br />
27. Edathanur<br />
28. Periyakolliyur<br />
29. Sirupanalyur<br />
30. Kaduvanur<br />
31. Pakkarn<br />
32. Thoiuvanthangal<br />
33. Odiyanthal<br />
34. Kadampur<br />
35. Vanapurarn<br />
36. Athiyur<br />
37. S.Kolathur<br />
38. Chellankupparn<br />
39. Thimrnanendal<br />
40. Arur<br />
41. Viriyur<br />
42. Kidakudayarnpattu<br />
43. Arausarampattu
1950 1965 1970 1975 1980<br />
Year<br />
Figure 2.10 Trend of the annual precipitation in Tirupathur and Singarapet
0<br />
1960<br />
-Haw<br />
1965<br />
- Chengam<br />
1970 1975<br />
Year<br />
- hnear (Hamr)<br />
1980<br />
- -. -. L~near (Chergam)<br />
Figure 2.12 Trend of the annual precipitation in Harur and Chengam
SECTION II<br />
IMPACTS UPSTREAM
3.0 INTRODUCTION<br />
Chapter 3<br />
Upstream impacts<br />
The environment of a Water Resources Project (WRP) can be significantly<br />
tnfluenced by other WRPs apart from the general environmental factors operating<br />
in the upstream. These would influence the quality and quantity of water that is<br />
dammed downstream.<br />
We have made an attempt to identify the environmental conditions prevailing<br />
upstream of the Sathanur project. The direct and indirect implications of the<br />
upstream environment on the project and the eco-restoration measures adopted<br />
by the authorities have also been evaluated.<br />
3.1 STATUS<br />
Prior to the construction of the Krishnagiri and Sathanur reservoir projects, there<br />
were no storage reservoirs in the Ponnaiyar river basin except for a small barrage<br />
across the tributary Markandanadhi. It was built in 1942 to irrigate an area of 400<br />
ha. The main river and its tributaries had only four barrages across them<br />
Currently two of those,l.e. Aliyalam and Nedungal,are situated upstream of
Sathanur reservoir and the other two Thirukoilur and Ellischoultry are located<br />
downstream, irrigating a vast tract of land under direct (canal) and indirect (tank)<br />
system (Figure 3.1).<br />
Krishnagiri project lies 113 km upstream of Sathanur dam near Krishnagiri town,<br />
Dharmapuri district. It has 3647 ha of land under direct canal irrigation, covering<br />
some thirteen villages and 920 ha under indirect tank irrigation. The supply is<br />
regulated for two crop seasons. Nedungal barrage lies about 16 km below<br />
Krishnagiri project.<br />
The Ponnaiyar river basin is approximately 12986 km2. Total catchment of<br />
Sathanur reservoir is 10826 km2 and the independent catchment is 5397.5 km2,<br />
The basin and catchment details are furnished in Table 2.0 (Chapter 2).<br />
The important projects below Krishnagiri reservoir till Sathanur are Pambar<br />
reservoir on the Pambaru river, a main tributary of Ponnaiyar river, about 3 km<br />
from Uthanagarai and Vanairu reservoir near Harur constructed on the Vanairu<br />
river Vanaru is one of the major tributaries of Ponnaiyar and serves the irrigation<br />
demands of its region.<br />
Paddy (Oryza saliva), ragi (Eleucine coracona), and millets (Pennisetum<br />
typhoides) are the major crops cultivated upstream of the Sathanur reservoir. On<br />
rlver bank betel (Plper betel) vine are grown. Pulses (Phaseolus mungo ,<br />
P.aureus, Cajanus cajan etc.) millets, and mango (Mangifera indica) orchards on<br />
the foot hill slopes are grown as monsoon crops.<br />
The catchment of Ponnaiyar between Krishnagiri and Sathanur reservoirs is a<br />
rolling country mixed with hills and plains. The hills are Shervarays, Javadi, and<br />
Chitteri. The catchment upstream of the Sathanur mostly lies in Ponnaiyar<br />
reserve forest. The forest consists of dense scrub and open mixed tropical trees<br />
like Acacia amara, Acacia initia, Eucalyptus hybrid, Acacia sundra, Azadirachta<br />
imitea, Zizyphus xylophyrus etc. The extreme heat and drought conditions<br />
Supplemented with insufficient rains in the tract have reduced the reserve forest<br />
into a degraded forest, as evident from the thorny trees that abound. The soil is<br />
red gravelly loam to loam in the forest region.
3.2 IMPACTS<br />
The major portion of the independent catchment, upstream Sathanur reservoir,<br />
consists of dry, degraded, deciduous open forest, rocky terrain, uprising hills and<br />
agricultural plains. The soil erosion hazards are thus exacerbated by these<br />
environmental conditions prevailing upstream. Cattle grazing and illegal felling of<br />
the trees in the forest, as confirmed by the authorities, lead to soil loss. The efforts<br />
of the authorities to afforest the denuded natural forest fail due to the extreme hot<br />
and drought-like conditions. The sediment-laden water flows downstream and the<br />
sediments get trapped in the Sathanur reservoir. An increase in the solid contents<br />
In the reservoir has been observed over the past years (Figure 9.6, Chapter 9).<br />
Sedimentation studies undertaken for the Krishnagiri and Sathanur reservoir<br />
(Chapter 5) reveal that the, specific erosion from the gross catchment of Sathanur<br />
reservoir is higher compared to that of Krishnagiri reservoir despite the fact that<br />
Krishnagiri project is situated upstream of the Sathanur hence should trap more<br />
silt than the Sathanur reservoir.<br />
The reservoirs and their command areas upstream Sathanur project indirectly<br />
affect the water quality of the Sathanur reservoir. All the reservoirs upstream<br />
Sathanur reservoir have been constructed to meet the irrigation demands of their<br />
respective commsnds. Thus, the agricultural practices upstream. and the<br />
agricultural runoff draining into the Ponnaiyar river lead to the alterations in the<br />
water quality downstream as evident by the increased value of alkalinity,<br />
chlorides, hardness, phosphorus, nitrogen (nitrate) and other ions in the Sathanur<br />
reservoir (Chapter 9).<br />
3.2.1 Arnellorative steps taken by the authorltles<br />
To check the erosion from the catchment, several silt retention dams have been<br />
constructed upstream of the reservoir. The forest officials often undertake<br />
afforestation programmes but most of them fail to deliver results because of<br />
Prevalling dry and hot conditions. Only thorny, deciduous and sturdy trees with<br />
meagre canopy cover survive in these conditions, as explained by the forest<br />
officials.
SECTION Ill<br />
IMPACTS ON<br />
RESERVOIR CATCHMENT AND DAM
Chapter 4<br />
Inundation, seismicity and hydro-electricity<br />
4.1.0 INTRODUCTION<br />
Inundation<br />
Creation of a new reservoir by damm~ng a river may submerge large tracts of land<br />
wh~ch might earher be inhabited, to a smaller or greater degree. Th~s necessitates<br />
shlfting of people living in the area-to-be submerged before a new dam is<br />
commissioned. The extent and complex~ty of the relocation and the.rehabilitation<br />
mode can vary widely from location to location In some situations, th~s aspect can<br />
become one of the key elements in the popular opposition to a new dam. Likew~se,<br />
the importance of the area to be inundated may vary from location to locat~on.<br />
When such area happens to be of very great ecological significance, the popular<br />
opposition can even successfully stop the project, as happened with the Silent<br />
valley project, Kerala (CSE.1982).<br />
4.1.1 STATUS<br />
The Sathanur Reservoir Project (SRP) is located in the Ponnaiyar reserve forest<br />
(Chapter 2). This entailed clearing of some portion of the forest. There was no<br />
human displacement, as the affected area had no human habitation. It may be<br />
mentioned that the period during which SRP was commissioned (1958 and 1992),<br />
much less attention was bestowed on the ecological damage caused by such<br />
Inundation of reserve forest as is done now-a-days.
Unlike several other dam - based projects where the area-to-be-inundated has<br />
human habitation and a publicowned property, necessitating complex and often<br />
lltigeous acquiring by the government, SRP is situated in the an entirely<br />
government - owned area. There Is no human habitation. The SRP occupied 1066<br />
ha, of forest land and a state - to -state transfer of 0.26 million rupees was made<br />
from the SRP authorities to the state's Department of Forests.<br />
The cleared forest land was utilized for the following purpose.<br />
Major portion of the land was brought under Sathanur saddle surplus course<br />
and river course.<br />
Land was utilized for the development of park in the vicinity.<br />
s An approach road from Sathanur village to the dam was constructed.<br />
A road to the Pick-up dam was laid clearing the thick jungle.<br />
Land was utilized for the development of the site with all government offices<br />
and residential colony coming up at the site.<br />
Compensatory afforestation programme was undertaken in the reserve forest<br />
form 1958 onwards. No endangered species of the flora were reported in the forest<br />
which actually is a tropical dry deciduous forest.<br />
For the construction of hydroelectricity project another 3.85 hectares of the forest<br />
area was cleared. The following number and species of the trees were cut.<br />
Tree<br />
Albizia amara<br />
Casia auriculata<br />
Azadimchta imitea<br />
Ficus banchahsos<br />
Number<br />
1480<br />
312<br />
Total 1797<br />
The officials have taken up compensatory afforestation programme involving the<br />
planting of (Azadimchta imitea) Tamarindus indica and Acacia sp. in the forest.<br />
4<br />
2
4.2.0 INTRODUCTION<br />
SEISMICITY<br />
Creatlon of artlf~clal reservolr leads to the major modlficatlon In hydro-geolog~cal<br />
reglme In and around the dam site Thls, In turn, may br~ng about changes In the<br />
tectonic stress regime, causlng deformation of rocks, and lncreaslng the instablllty of<br />
slopes, eventually leadlng to selsmic~ty, land slides, collapses and land subsidence<br />
More than hundred reservoirs from different parts of the world so far have been<br />
reported to have Induced earthquakes (Guha and Pat~l, 1990) The phenomenon was<br />
flrst noted In lake Mead (Hoover dam), USA In 1936 (Carder, 1945) In lndla selsmiclty<br />
associated wlth the reservolr impoundment had remalned only a subject of academlc<br />
Interest till the disastrous Koyna earthquake occurred (Abbas~, 2000) By now<br />
selsmtclty IS assessed routtnely In most reservolr projects worldwide and has become<br />
an Integral part of standard Envtronmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and<br />
Environmental Management (EM) procedures<br />
The present study 1s an assessment of the potential of Sathanur reservolr In lnduclng<br />
seismlclty and the poss~ble risks ~nvolved<br />
4.2.1 STATUS<br />
Sathanur dam 1s located In Zone II as per selsmlc zone map of lnd~a It is not known<br />
whether the reservoir mapplng prior to the commlsslonlng of the Sathanur Reservoir<br />
Project (SRP) was accomplished, as no map 1s ava~lable, It was not ver~fied whether<br />
there are any major or mlnor l~neaments at or near the dam slte There have been no<br />
Instances of tremors or earthquakes In the past as per the lnformatlon provlded by the<br />
governmental staff mannlng the SRP
The reservoir area 1s In a flat (peneplain) terraln w~th a few rel~ct hills jutt~ng out here<br />
and there Though out crops of boulders are seen on the surface, there have not been<br />
any Instances of landsl~des In the reglon and the posslb~llty of such sl~des occurring In<br />
the future are slim due to the absence of thlck and steep so11 slopes Occasional<br />
release of loose boulders 1s not ruled out but ~t will have no effect on the storage and<br />
safety of the reservoir nm and dam structure as per the assurances of the project<br />
officials<br />
A br~ef note on the pre-project lnvestlgatlon wlth respect to the selsmlc status of the<br />
reglon IS presented In the following sect~on Sathanur dam and ~ts ne~ghborhood IS<br />
located on the archean su~te of rocks conslstlng of granites, gnelsses and<br />
charnockltes These are all cons~dered to be very hard and strong rocks wh~ch form<br />
the basement of the southern peninsula Durlng the pre project lnvest~gat~on stage In<br />
1943 geolog~sts from the Geolog~cal Survey of lnd~a examlned the dam site The<br />
sallent flndlngs are summarlzed below<br />
Geology at the Sathanur dam<br />
The maln rock type In the area 1s charnock~te and ~ts varlants The typlcal charnock~te<br />
IS blue feldspar It undergoes metamorphos~s and assumes granullt~c texture ~n several<br />
places The fol~atlon str~ke Is ENE-WEW wlth a steep d~p (80") towards S by E or SE<br />
lntrud~ng Into these charnock~tes and gnelsses are magnetite-quartZ~te bands, mlnor<br />
pegmatite and quartz velns The charnockltes are jolnted Except for three major sets<br />
of jo~nt systems no structurally weak features such as faults and major shear zones<br />
were reported The mlnor sheared and weathered jo~nts encountered at the s~te durlng<br />
the lnvest~gatlon were treated by backfllllng wlth concrete as descr~bed In subsequent<br />
sectlons<br />
Pre-project investigation in brief<br />
The survey consisted of drllllng forty seven major test plts along the dam alignment<br />
bes~des several other trenches and p~ts over the area The over burden vaned from 0<br />
to 6 m (0 to 20 feet) In fifty percent of the test p~ts, the overburden reported was only 0<br />
to 1 5 m (0 to 5 feet) ~ncludlng the ones on the rlverbed where the spillways are<br />
located About elghteen test p~ts had the depth of weather~ng ranglng from 0-3 m (0 -<br />
10 feet) In the rlght flank All the shear jolnts, so11 f~lled jolnts and weathered pockets In<br />
'he foundat~on were treated adequately w~th concrete Drllllng was done by means of<br />
holes and wagong drill holes for consol~dat~on as well as curtaln groutlng Water
tests were done prlor to grouting The Intake of grout was reported to be minimal in<br />
most cases thereby indicat~ng that the jolnts were t~ght at depths below the foundat~on<br />
Between L S 198 1 m and L S 204 2 m on the left flank, three horizontal jolnts were<br />
reported These were treated by removlng the weathered material and backfllllng w~th<br />
concrete and subsequent groutlng through plpes embedded In the backf~ll concrete<br />
4.2.2 IMPACTS<br />
During the lnspectlon of the dralnage gallery and the dra~ns of the r~ght earthen dam by<br />
a panel In 1989 seepage was found to be very less, the maximum seepage belng 20 4<br />
lltres per month at full reservoir level (FRL) Less seepage was reported to be<br />
~ndicatlve of the effectiveness of the consolidat~on and curtaln groutlng and also the<br />
good qual~ty of the masonry No leachlng of l~me was reported In the rear face of dam<br />
housing the dra~ns The panel suggested that the seepage water from the masonry<br />
port~on be analysed per~od~cally for hardness, part~cularly the l~me fract~on to conf~rm<br />
that no leach~ng of llme takes place at any tlme The masonry dam was reported to be<br />
In a good shape by the experts No eroslon, scour or damage of any k~nd on the<br />
masonry port~on due to the splllway energy d~ss~pat~on arrangements In the maln da~n<br />
and the r~ght flank was reported It was decided durlng the panel review that the GSI<br />
would be approached for better understand~ng of the selsmlc status of the reglon The<br />
criterla for des~gn of sol~d gravlty dams has undergone drast~c changes Since 1958, the<br />
year when the Sathanur dam was comm~ssioned The panel therefore had suggested<br />
that the des~gn of the dam be rechecked as per the latest relevant lnd~an Standard<br />
Institut~on (now Bureau of lnd~a standards BIS) codes w~th emphas~s on the selsmlc<br />
cons~derat~on<br />
The selsmlc status of the Sathanur reservoir IS unclear as no deta~led stud~es w~th<br />
modern assessment techn~ques have been undertaken The BIS has class~f~ed lnd~a<br />
Into f~ve types of zones v~s a vls s~esm~clty (IS 1893 - 1984) 1 to V, the ascending<br />
order represent~ng an Increased r~sk of selsm~c~ty The locat~on of the Sathanur dam In<br />
the zone II reflects moderate suscept~b~lity of the area to the slesmlc hazard
4.3.0 INTRODUCTION<br />
India belng endowed wlth numerous perennial and seasonal water resources, has<br />
mmense potentlal for the hydro-electr~clty development It ranks flfth in the world In<br />
terms of exploltlng non-convent~onal hydropower (Prasad, 1999) However the growth<br />
~n the hydro power sector has not been as phenomenal as antlc~pated due to several<br />
constraints, the note-worthy belng the apprehensions regarding ~ts' feaslblllty and ut~l~ty<br />
In the long run The controversy on the ecological impacts and soclal justlce seem to<br />
be never endlng (Abbasl et al, 2000) Yet hydropower IS, to th~s adate, the only<br />
renewable energy source, whlch has proved to be econom~cally and env~ronmentally<br />
viable<br />
Thls sectlon brlefly evaluates the Impact of the hydro-electricity unit of the Sathanur<br />
Resewolr Project (SRP) In terms of ~ts potent~al, economy and environmental Impacts<br />
4.3.1 STATUS<br />
The 7 5 MW hydro-electr~c~ty un~t of the Tamll Nadu Electr~c~ty Broad (TNEB) 1s bu~lt<br />
near the Sathanur dam at an estimated cost of Rs 300 mlll~on (plate 4 3 1) It was<br />
commlss~oned In September '99 The constructlon work on the project had started In<br />
1995-96 The sallent features of the project are represented In Table 4 8 I and an<br />
account of cost-benefit analysis 1s presented In Table 4 8 2 Sulzer Flovel Prlvate<br />
Llmlted In ~olnt venture wlth Sulzer of Germany had setup the unlt
Plate 4.3.1 Hvdro-electrcty generation unt
4.3.2 IMPACTS<br />
During the construction phase of the hydroelectricity unit, the health officials had to<br />
work very hard in preventing out break of malaria in the region. This aspect has been<br />
discussed in chapter 7. The details regarding the clearing of the forest land for the<br />
construction purpose have been presented in section 4 1<br />
The 7.5 MW project fulfils a mere 0.2% demand of the state's electricity generation<br />
(5000 MW) and 0.8% of the hydro-electricity generation. The generation period is<br />
expected to last for four to five months during the tlme when water is released from the<br />
reservoir for irrigation purposes downstream. According to the arrangements, the water<br />
from the two of the five river sluices will run the turbine before being let downstream.<br />
The Pick-up dam being situated 7 km downstream of the Sathanur dam, the warm<br />
waters exlting from the turbine shall have ample time to reach amblent temperature<br />
There shall, thus, be no adverse impact on the aquatic flora or fauna due to water<br />
temperature. According to the officials, owing to the sound proof arrangement in the<br />
power house, the noise made by the turbrne won't affect the fauna of the reservoir The<br />
SIX to seven months perrod of no generation will be devoted to the maintenance and<br />
repalr works of the power house. The hydro-electricity has been prrced at Rs 1 48 per<br />
unlt which is a lot cheaper than the conventional thermal electricity. The electr~crty will<br />
be rn~tially suppl~ed to meet the demands of Sathanur, Pachal and Thandarampet<br />
reglons
Table 4.3.1 Salient features of the Sathanur hydro-electricity unit<br />
power house<br />
Installed capacity<br />
Turbine type<br />
Maximum gross head<br />
Design head<br />
Maximum discharge<br />
Full reservoir level<br />
Max~mum tail water level<br />
Minimum tail water level<br />
Keel of centerline of distributor<br />
Intake<br />
Number of rlver sluices to be<br />
ut~l~zed for power generation<br />
S~ze of rlver sluice<br />
Velocity inside the sluice<br />
barrets for peak discharge<br />
Velocity in pen stock for peak discharge<br />
: 1 x 7.5 MW<br />
: Vertical kaplan<br />
: 36.20 m<br />
: 27.74 m<br />
: 32.54 cumecs<br />
: 222.20 m<br />
: +184.95m<br />
: +183.60 m<br />
: +183.25m
Number of penstock pipes upto 'y' junction : 2<br />
Length of penstock pipes upto 'y' junction : 30 m<br />
Maxlmum discharge through penstock : 32-54 cumecs<br />
Length of steel liner inside the sluice : 30 m<br />
Table 4.3.2 Cost-benefit analysis of the hydro electricity<br />
Total cost of the project : Rs. 3 billion<br />
Annual hydro-electric~ty generation : 15.03 million units<br />
Hydro-electricity generation expenses per unit : Rs. 1.20<br />
Cost per unit : Rs. 1.48<br />
Annual return : Rs. 22.2 millions<br />
Annual expenses : Rs. 18.03 millions<br />
Profit incurred annually : Rs. 4.21 millions
5.0 INTRODUCTION<br />
Chapter 5<br />
Sedimentation<br />
A reservoir is a veritable sedimentation tank (Abbasi, 1997a). The sediments brought<br />
n by the feeder streams and the run-off from the reservoir catchment get an<br />
opportunity to settle down in the quiescent waters of the reservoirs. This results in two<br />
~mpacts of far reaching consequences. The first is that the settled sediments reduce<br />
the storage. The second impact is caused when the de-sedimented water from the<br />
reservoir is released into the river down stream and in the irrigation canals. The water<br />
tends to reacquire its sediment load and erodes the banks of the river or the canal<br />
carrylng ~t (Abbasi, 1991).<br />
Sed~mentation also affects the chemistry, biology and the thermal characteristics of<br />
the reservoir water Hlgh concentration of suspended matters result in low primary<br />
production because of restricted l~ght penetration The availability of dissolved oxygen<br />
may be limited due to high sediment oxygen demand either as COD or BOD.<br />
The importance of the sedimentation studies was felt when the reservoirs<br />
constructed in Egypt, India, Japan, China, USA, Australia and elsewhere showed a<br />
tendency to silt to varying degree depending upon a number of factors. Records show<br />
that the rate of silting in some reservoirs is alarming. For example, the Yamoka<br />
reservoir on the Teuryh river in Japan, having an original capacity of 176.6 ~m~ has<br />
silted to as much as 85% of it capacity in just 13 years (Bhatia et al, 1993). The Nlzam<br />
Sagar reservoir across the river Manjira has lost more than 60% of ~ts live storage In<br />
about 50 years of its operation. The reservoir across the Tungabhadra near Hampl, is<br />
supposed to be fast losing its live storage as a result of which the utilisation from the
[eservoir has fallen to 100 TMC from the original 170 TMC, i.e., nearly 35% in about 45<br />
years (Mutthy 1997).<br />
The various hydraulic aspects to be considered and determined in connection with<br />
an exhaustive study of sediment motion have been established long back and include<br />
selll~ng velocity (Rubey, 1033), surface drag on the streall1 bed, bnr roslslnnccr<br />
velocity distribution on a sediment bed (Keuiegan, 1B38), suspension, bed ioad,<br />
interrelation between bed and suspended load, bed ioad function, tract~ve force<br />
equations, similarity, saltation (Bagnold, 1936), etc Methods for conducting<br />
sedimentation surveys have been reported by Gottschalk (1952).<br />
No two reservoirs behave in alike manner in the context of sedlmentatlon. Very high,<br />
normal and very low rates of sedimentation are observed in reservoirs. Some of the<br />
natural factors affecting sediment yield of water sheds and reservoir sedimentation are<br />
water spread area, topography of the water shed, vegetative cover density, intensity of<br />
ralnfall In the catchment and the trap efficiency of the reservoir.<br />
Studies conducted in 1976 and 1982 on the Sathanur project had revealed that ~t had<br />
started to lose its live storage capacity, though not in an alarming way. A brief account<br />
of the studies is presented in the following section. An assessment has been made to<br />
bring out the relevance of the studles in the current scenario. The eco-restorahon<br />
measures adopted by the authorities to check siitatlon and the effectiveness of those<br />
measures have also been evaluated.<br />
5.1 STATUS<br />
Study on the sedimentation of the Sathanur reservoir is based on the sedlmentatlon<br />
reports acquired from Institute of Hydraulics and Hydrology. Poondi, and other related<br />
data collected from PWD, Sathanur dam. To conduct sedimentation stud~es In the<br />
reservoirs of the Tamil Nadu, the Tamil Nadu Government had formed a Water Shed<br />
Management Board in the year 1975. Detailed sedimentation studies of the Sathanur<br />
reservoir were conducted done in the years 1976 and 1982 wlth the following<br />
objectives.<br />
1 Determining the current capacity of the reservoir and thus the loss in storage<br />
capacity.<br />
2 Determining the rate of sedimentation and the current trap efficiency of the<br />
reservoir
3 Finding out the distribution pattern of sediment and to prepare current depth-area-<br />
capacity relationship.<br />
4 Determining the probable useful life of reservoir,<br />
5. Determining the characteristics of sediment deposit.<br />
6. Comparing the results obtained with other reservoirs.<br />
5.2 IMPACTS<br />
5.2.1 Procedures adopted for sedimentation studies in brief<br />
It may be pertinent to briefly recapitulate the various methodologies followed for the<br />
sedimentatton survey 1972 and 1966.<br />
As a first step, for conducting sedimentation studies of the Sathanur reservotr, an<br />
accurate water spread map prepared at the t~me of construction, was collected. A<br />
reconnaitry survey of the whole water spread was made so as to mark a paper location<br />
of stlt ranges In sufficient numbers In the available water spread map in wh~ch cross<br />
sectlons were taken to assess the current capacity of reservoir and thereby the volume<br />
of sediment deposited The ends of the ranges were monumented in the field above<br />
the full reservoir level so that range monuments could be traced even after a<br />
considerable period of time. For locating the position of range pillars in the water<br />
spread map, triangulation survey of water spread connecting all the range pillars was<br />
conducted. By conducting check level survey from a permanent bench mark, the<br />
reduced levels of the range pillars were fixed. The cross section of the range lines<br />
were found out by echo sounder and ground survey by levelltng depending upon the<br />
water level In the reservoir. From the cross sect~ons, the current bed level was worked<br />
out, plotted in the map, and contours were drawn from which the current capacity was<br />
calculated by different methods.<br />
Thus, the sedimentation survey of Sathanur reservoir, conducted in 1976 and 1982<br />
Involved the following steps:<br />
1 Reconnaissance and layout of ranges.<br />
2 Preparation, casting and erection of range monuments.<br />
3 Check level survey.<br />
4 Plane table survey,<br />
5. Range survey - hydrographic and ground survey.<br />
6 Collection of sediment samples.
Reconnaissance and layout of ranges<br />
A reconnaitry of the whole water spread covering a length of about 21 km was initially<br />
made. In the available water spread map, 28 ranges were marked on the main river<br />
course, to the extent possible parallel to each other and perpendicular to the river. The<br />
spacing between the ranges were also marked across the mouths of the important and<br />
cons~derable streams joining the main river, with it the water spread.<br />
preparation, casting and erection of monuments<br />
To identify the ranges in the field, the ends of the ranges were monumented with a<br />
permanent type of monument. As the water spread is bounded by thick and tall forest<br />
growths, the range monuments were of R.C.C 1 24 pillars with base concrete of 1:4:8<br />
and considerably high above the ground. Totally 80 range pillars were precast at the<br />
dam s~te<br />
Check level survey<br />
Check level survey was carried out from the Public Works Department bench mark<br />
along the peripheries of both the flanks of reservoir watershed, covering a total<br />
dlstance of about 40 km and bench marks were established on the range p~llar bases<br />
whlch were very useful for tak~ng topographic survey along the ranges at later stage<br />
I<br />
Plane table survey<br />
In the absence of completion plan showing the correct dam alignment, plane table<br />
survey was found necessary for transferring the triangulation station points from the<br />
f~eld to the map for the further mapping purposes. Hence plane table survey was<br />
carr~ed out along the centre line of dam alignment starting from the saddle to the end<br />
of masonry dam and also the field triangulation station points<br />
Triangulation survey<br />
Tr~angulation survey is employed to accurately determine the relative positions of a<br />
system of widely separated points on the surface of the earth and also their absolute<br />
Posit~on. To determine and fix up accurately the location of range pillars In the map<br />
and to get exactly the horizontal distance between the range pillars, Triangulation<br />
survey was carrled out connecting all the range pillars from a base line. Altogethel.
184 triangles were formed In the system of survey for fixing the accurate position of the<br />
range pillars.<br />
Range survey<br />
Survey along the ranges were conducted to get the cross sections between range<br />
pillars. This consists of hydrographic survey and ground survey. Hydrographic survey,<br />
in combination with ground survey, 1s necessary if the survey is conducted during low<br />
water level. For the ranges where there is no water, ground survey alone suffices to<br />
get the cross sections between the range pillars.<br />
Hydrographic survey by echo sounder<br />
Due to low water level in the reservoir dur~ng December 1976, i.e. between El 687. 45<br />
feet and 688.70 feet as to against full reservoir level, EL 729.00 feet, it was necessary<br />
to conduct both hydrographic and ground survey. Out of 28 ranges along the maln<br />
river, 16 ranges were covered by hydrographic survey and the remaining ranges by<br />
ground survey.<br />
Collection of sedlmenf samples for ar~alysis<br />
Altogether 64 sediment samples were collected along the ranges from various<br />
representative places. Normally along a range 3 samples were taken, one at centre of<br />
rlver course and two other at left and r~ght side of river course. At the tall end of the<br />
rlver course, one representative sample along ranges was collected, fhese sedlment<br />
samples were collected using "Grab type" sed~ment sampler where there was water<br />
and by digging pits where there was no water. The collected samples were sent to<br />
Soil Mechanics and Research Division, Madras, to assess the mechanical properties<br />
and agricultural properties.<br />
5.2.2 Computation of reservoir capacity and sediment volume<br />
After the preparation of contour map, map pillar location map and grid maps In d~fferent<br />
years, the capac~ty of the reservoir below full reservoir level and thereby the volume of<br />
deposited sediment was proposed to be worked out using the following different<br />
methods,<br />
1 Contour area interval method<br />
2 Modlfied prismoidal method
3 Grid method<br />
Contour urea Interval method<br />
~n this method, from the contour map already prepared to a scale of 1 cm = 100 m, the<br />
successive areas enclosed by the contours, starting form the contour, were calculated<br />
by counting the full and partial squares and converting to the scale of map. From this,<br />
the capacity between the successive unit elevations were worked out arithmatically by<br />
taklng the average contour areas and multiplying by unit height i e , contour interval<br />
From the successive cumulative volume starting from the lowest elevat~on, the<br />
elevation capacity relationship was established up to the full reservoir level. The<br />
difference between the original and present capacity was the total volume of sed~ment<br />
deposited for intervening period. The capacities at different elevations arrived by th~s<br />
method are shown in Table 5.1.<br />
Modified prismodial method<br />
In this method, the volume below the lowest contour was worked out by end area<br />
method Using the foilowlng formula, for each succeedtng higher contours, the<br />
volumes were worked out as:<br />
where<br />
Vx - volume between contour B&C<br />
H - contour interval<br />
B - area of mtd surface<br />
A - area of bottom surface<br />
C - area of top surface<br />
VY - volume between contours A and B previously determined<br />
The cumulative volumes at different area elevations till full reservoir level, worked out<br />
by this method during 1976 survey and 1982 survey, are presented in Tables 5.1 and<br />
5 2
Grid method<br />
1" th~s method, the accuracy of the result depends the size of the grid. As far as<br />
po~s~ble, smaller the size of grids, greater the accuracy. This method is widely<br />
followed for the following advantages:<br />
1 By adopting this grid system, the coordinates of range pillars can be worked out<br />
wh~ch will be very much useful for plotting the range pillar location more accurately<br />
and quickly, avoiding plotting error by usual methods.<br />
2. Only by this method details of location of silt and scour can be marked In the map<br />
while by other methods, the net effect only can be obtained<br />
3 For calculat~ng the capacity by range method using general formula and by<br />
constant factor method, it was essential that the ranges in the field should be<br />
parallel, a condition which is very difficult to obtain normally.<br />
Due to the above mentioned advantages over other methods, the capacity arrived by<br />
gr~d method was considered to be accurate and adopted for further analysis. However<br />
lo justify the effectiveness of grid method, capacity worked out by the contour area<br />
Interval method and pr~srnoidal formula methods had been compared. The Tables 5 1<br />
& 5 2 glve the comparison of the results obtained by various methods, during the year<br />
1976 and 1982 surveys.<br />
Sediment volume<br />
The comparison of the results obtained by varlous methods (presented as Tables 5 1<br />
8 5.2) illustrated that the grid method possessed certain advantages over the other<br />
methods. Thus, the capacity worked out by this method had been considered for<br />
further calculations and to work out the sediment volume. The original capacity was<br />
calculated from the contour map for the year 1957 by contour area interval method (as<br />
worked out for 1st capacity survey and the capacities arrived at by the grid method<br />
were used for the years 1976 and 1982 for further calculations.<br />
Original capacity of the reservoir for the year 1957 : 234.828 Mm3<br />
Capacity of reservoir for the year 1976 (1st capacity survey) : 211.651 Mm3<br />
Capacity of reservoir for the year 1982 (Ilnd capacity survey): 207.302<br />
Loss in storage capacity<br />
1976 - 23.177 Mm3<br />
1982 - 27.526 Mm3
percentage of loss in storage capacity i.e.. percentage of silt deposition,<br />
1976 - 9.87%<br />
1982 - 11.72%<br />
percentage of annual silting rate for<br />
1976 - 0.519%<br />
1982 - 0.4688%<br />
Total original capacity - 234.8280 Mm3<br />
Dead storage capacity - 0.1232 Mm3<br />
Llve storage capacity - 234 70 6038 Mrn'<br />
Loss in llve storage - 9 82%<br />
Depth.area-capacity relationship<br />
Depth wlse capacltles and areas for the years 1957, 1976 and 1992 are furn~shed ~n<br />
Tables 5 3 5 4 & 5 5 and represented as F~gures 5 1 5 2 and 5 3 The capaclty of<br />
the reservoir IS reduced from 234 825 Mm3 to 211 651 Mrn3 In 1976 and st111 to<br />
207 302 Mrn3 In 1982 The total loss In storage capaclty IS 11 72% and annual<br />
average loss ln storage capaclty IS 0 4688%<br />
Table 5 3 shows that there IS a gradual Increase in reduct~on of capaclty till El +<br />
201 00 and cons~derable varlat~on up to full reservolr level The dead storage of<br />
0 1232 Mrn3 has been fully lost whlle the loss ~n l~ve storage 1s 27 4028 ~ r I e n ~<br />
11 67%<br />
5.2.3 Classification of reservoir types<br />
Based on the analysis of 30 reservoirs in the United States of America, Boreland and<br />
M~llor have classifled the reservoirs into four standard types This class~ficatlon IS<br />
based on the depth to capacity relationship and is presented as follows:<br />
m Reservo~r type Standard class~ficat~on<br />
-- - - - - - - - -<br />
1-15 Gorge- Iv<br />
15-25 Hill 111<br />
2 5 - 3 5 Flood pla~n Foot Hill Il<br />
35-45 Lake I
Where. m is the reciprocal of the slope of the line obtained by plotting reservoir depth<br />
as ordinate and reservoir capacity as abscess in log-sheet (Figure 5.5).<br />
Applying this classification criteria to Sathanur reservoir in the year 1957, two slopes<br />
are formed. 'm' value being 2.13 and 3.05 respectively indicating that the reservolr was<br />
In transition from the hill type to the flood plain - foot hill type; vis a vis standard<br />
classification, Ill to II.<br />
For the year 1976. the values of 'm' being 3.86 and 4.27 for lower and upper<br />
elevations respectively indicate that the Sathanur reservoir has become the lake type<br />
(standard classification I) For the year 1982 also the value of 'm' was 4.76, which<br />
ndlcates that the reservoii has finally attained classification I (Figure 5.5)<br />
5 2 4 Sediment distribution<br />
The Figure 5 4 dep~cts that at 25% of depth there IS 9% sedlment deposition (1 1% for<br />
1976) and at 50% of depth there is 80% depos~tlon (73% in 1976) This indicates that<br />
more of the Incoming sediments are depos~ted at h~gher depths of reservolr The data<br />
IS furn~shed as Table 5 6<br />
The factors favouring deposition In the higher depths of the reservoir were considered<br />
to be<br />
1 Reservoir storage at hlgh elevation<br />
2 Outlets at low elevation<br />
3 Much vegetation at the head of the reservolr<br />
4 Heavy sed~ment concentrat~on and large portion of the sed~ment load of the sand<br />
size particles.<br />
5.2.5 Computation of sedimentation rate by different methods<br />
Khosla's method<br />
Khosla analysed the data from various reservoirs in India and abroad and observed<br />
that the annual rate of sediment deposition decreased with the age of reservoirs. He<br />
plotted the annual sediment deposited against the cathchment area and suggested<br />
following relationship (Mutreja 1985).<br />
(2s - 0 . 3 2 3 1 ~ ~ ~ ~<br />
Where<br />
(2s - annual silting rate from 100 km2 of water shed areas
A . catchment area (km2)<br />
Based on his findings an average silting rate of 0.036 ~i-17~ 100 km.2 at catchment<br />
ales was adopted for design of reservoirs In lndla Sathariur reservoir data, wltel~<br />
assessed with this method, shows less extent of silting:0.02 Mm3 100 km.2.<br />
Hachiro klra's method<br />
Ktra's formula IS:<br />
Where,<br />
Ch - sediment rate in percent<br />
c - original capacity in Mm3<br />
I - average annual inflow in Mm3<br />
When applled to Sathanur reservoir. ~t ylelds the sedimentation rate<br />
Trap efficiency estimation<br />
Trap efficiency was estimated by different methods and they are presented as follows<br />
a GottaChak's curves<br />
Accordlng to this method, the trap efficiency of Sathanur reservoir which was 89% In<br />
1957 is reducing by 1% every 12 years<br />
b Brune's curve<br />
Brune has related the trap efficiency of storage type reservoir to the rate of capacity to<br />
annuai ~nflow after analyzing data from 44 reservoirs. According to this curve, trap<br />
efficiency of Sathanur reservoir which was 95% in 1957 was reduced to 94.3% In 1976<br />
and by the same extent in 1982
5.2.6 Llfe of Reservoir as computed by various methods<br />
Hachlro Klra's method<br />
The equation using capacity - inflow ratio developed by Hachiro Kira is glven as<br />
(c)04<br />
ys = 467 [ 1 ---;-<br />
Where<br />
ys - average number of years during which the silt fills up the reservoir<br />
c . original capacity of the reservoir<br />
I - average inflow into the reservoir<br />
According to thls method the life of the Sathanur reservoir 1s about 305 years<br />
Taylor method<br />
The equation given by Taylor to find out the capacity of reservoir after 'n' years of life.<br />
Vn - VR"<br />
Where,<br />
Vn - capacity after n years<br />
V - original capaclty of the reservoir<br />
R - ratio of the reservoir capacity at the end of one year to that of the<br />
previous years which is assumed to be constant<br />
Accord~ngly. capacity after 100 years is worked out to be 146.6055 ~m~ which IS<br />
62.43% of its or~ginal capacity.<br />
Similarly, capacity after 200 years has been computed to be 91.527 ~m~ which is<br />
38.98% of its original capacity. Normally, the useful life of a reservoir is taken till ~ts<br />
capacity is reduced to about 30% of it origlnal capacity. The useful life of the Sathanur<br />
reservoir, before its capacity recluses to 30% . has been computed to be 255.56 years<br />
Varshney's method (Varshney, 1986)<br />
Varshney has analysed the data of Indian reservoirs and given the relationship among<br />
CaPaclty inflow ratio, trap efficiency and storage loss in a tabular form as presented in<br />
Table 5.7.
For a capacity-inflow ratio of 35.56% nearer value of storage loss from the Table 5.7<br />
is 0 5% which is very close to the loss of capacity actually worked out 0.4680%.<br />
According to this method the life of the Sathanur reservoir is 200 years i.e. 10010.5<br />
~ut considering the reservoir will not serve ~ts purpose if the capacity is reduced to<br />
30% of its original capacity, the life of Sathanur reservoir is 140 years 7010.5,<br />
Trap efficiency ratio for different reservoir capacities<br />
In this method, for different capacities, the capacity-lnflow ratlo and hence by the use<br />
of Brune's curve, trap efficiencies are determined. Using the average trap efficiency,<br />
annual sediment load trapped is calculated; dividing the value interval (reduction In<br />
voiume by the annual sediment load trapped) will give the number of years required to<br />
fill up this volume interval. Likewlse all the volume interval years are summed up to<br />
get the total life of reservoir. The average annual ~nflow of silt of Sathanur resewolr IS<br />
taken as 1 1633 ~m~ and average annual sediment deposition IS 1,1010 Mm3<br />
The average annual inflow is taken as 577 431 Mm3 and useful life of reservoir is<br />
worked out on the assumption that the reservoir will not serve 11s purpose when the<br />
capaclty IS reduced to 30% of its original 1976 capaclty,<br />
Average annual inflow of silt 1 289 Mm3<br />
Average annual inflow (I9 years) 596.422 Mm3<br />
According to thls the life of the Sathanur reservoir 1s 153 years as depicted in Table<br />
5 8 and represented in Figure 5.6<br />
As per the 1982 sedimentation survey, the annual loss of reservoir capaclty IS<br />
04988% The trap efficiency of a reservoir decreases with age, as the reservoir<br />
capacity is reduced. Thus, the percentage loss of storage capacity will also be<br />
reduced with age. Even then the life of the Sathanur reservoir has been calculated to<br />
be 140 years keeping the fact in view that he reservoir will not serve its useful purpose<br />
after 70% loss In its original capacity<br />
The 1976 survey had established the life by the similar method to be 135 years<br />
5.2.7 Characterlstlcr of ssdlment samples analysed<br />
The results of the analysis of sediment samples have indicated that the sediments up<br />
to 11 06 km from dam are more clay-loamy type followed by silt- loamy in some<br />
Places. Beyond 11.06 km, up to the tail end the sed~ments are sandy. These facts are
also in correlation with the results obtalned by mechanical analys~s. The samples were<br />
found to display the following agricultural properties:<br />
Electrical conductivity - normal<br />
pH value - normal<br />
N~trogen - 50 percent samples depicted low values and<br />
another 50 percent high<br />
~hosphorous - high<br />
Potash - medium<br />
5.2.8 Comparison of Sathanur reservoir sedimentation to that of<br />
Krlshnaglrl reservoir<br />
Krlshnagiri dam was the first dam constructed across Ponnaiyar river in the Ponnaiyar<br />
basln and is situated 112 km (70 miles) upstream of Sathanur reservoir project.<br />
From the Table 5.9 it can be concluded that the independent and gross catchment of<br />
areas of the Krlshnag~ri reservolr are the same 1.e 5428 km2 whereas Sathanur<br />
reservolr has an independent catchment of 5397 55 km2 and gross catchment of<br />
10826 0 km2<br />
The loss in the capacity over a period of 19 years in the Krishnagiri reservoir is 11.74<br />
~ rwhile n ~ that of Sathanur reservolr for the same period is 23.177 Since the s~lt<br />
produced from the gross catchment of Sathanur reservolr is trapped In both the<br />
reservoirs so the volume of silt produced from the catchment of Sathanur is actually<br />
the sum total of the volume of silt deposited in both the reservoir. Therefore the<br />
specific erosion from the gross catchment of Sathanur reservoir is calculated as 3.23<br />
mrn m'2 and that from the Krishnagiri reservoir IS 2 16 mm m'2. Thus it can be inferred<br />
that the catchment of Sathanur gets more silt than that of Krishnagiri catchment.<br />
It 1s generally believed that most of the sllt carried by the river gets trapped in the<br />
upper reaches of the reservoir, but in the case of Sathanur reservoir, which 1s<br />
downstream of the Krlshnagiri reservoir, ~t gets more silt than the Krishnagiri reservolr<br />
This phenomenon stems from the land use pattern of the Sathanur catchment whlch<br />
calls for an extensive soil conservation measures in the area.<br />
5.2.9 Salient flndingr of the studlrs<br />
1 The current capacity of Sathanur reservoir as on 1982 survey has been reduced<br />
from 234.82 Mm3 during the year 1957 to 207.302 Mm5. The loss in total capacity
over 25 years is 27.526 MmYi.e. 11.72%. The average annual loss in capacity 1s<br />
0.4688% Average annual silting rate is ,217 mm1100 sq, km. which is less than the<br />
siltlng rate adapted for design purposes in India i.e. 0.036 mmllOO sq, km.<br />
2 Classification of Sathanur reservoir with standard classification of reservoir indicate<br />
~t to be lake type (Type-I) while based on sediment distribution pattern to be flood<br />
plalns foot hill type (Type 11).<br />
3 Sedlment deposition is more in the higher depths than in the lower depths. At 50%<br />
depth 42% of deposition and at 75% depth 80% of deposltlon are seen.<br />
4 Capac~ty-water shed ratio has decreased from 43.5~1000 m3 m.2 to 39.2~1000 m3<br />
km2 over 19 yrs in 1977 and still reduced to 38.080~1000 m3 m" in 1982 over 25<br />
years<br />
5 Trap efficiency estimation by several methods does not show good correlation<br />
According to Brune the trap efficiency which was 95% during 1957 has reduced to<br />
94 3% durlng 1976 and was constant in 1982.<br />
6 The usual life of reservoir also estimated by different methods does not depict show<br />
good correlation. By trap efficiency method, the reservoir life is worked out to be<br />
153 years<br />
7 The rate of silting has been the same from the time of completion of reservolr.<br />
8 Comparison of specific erosion of Sathanur reservoir with that of Krishnaglrl<br />
reservolr reveals that reservoir gets more annual silt because of its locatlon and<br />
specific landuee pattern<br />
5.2.10 Present scenarlo<br />
Central Water Commlsslon (CWC) guldellnes<br />
After cons~derable discussions and deliberat~ons, the water planners in lndla reached a<br />
consensus that the reservoirs do not have a single welldefined life (CWC, 1991)<br />
They show a gradual degradation of performance without any sudden I non functional<br />
stage. Thus, sedimentation, hence consequent reduction in the capacity of the<br />
reservoir, is a gradual process which occurs in the following phases.<br />
Phase I The reservoir show no adverse effects and is able to deliver the full<br />
planned benefits.<br />
Phase II The reservoir delivers progressively smaller benefits, but ~ts'<br />
continued operation for the reduced benefits is economically
eneficial<br />
phase Ill The sedimentation causes difficulties in operation such as jamming<br />
and passage of flow in canals or turbines.<br />
phase IV The phase Ill difficulties become so serious that the operation<br />
becomes impossible.<br />
Phase V The benefits are reduced to such an extent that it is no longer<br />
beneficial to operate the reservoirs<br />
Indian planning for resewolr sedlmentatlon<br />
The earlier assumption by the planners and engineers of the water reservo~r projects<br />
that sediment would settle within in the dead storage, provided at the time of<br />
construction, was not supported by the experiences of the performances of the dams<br />
In lndla and elsewhere. The results indicating considerable differences from the earller<br />
computations started flowing in by 1965. After 1965, the Central Water Commiss~on<br />
(CWC) started insisting that the sediment inflow rates be based on the basis of<br />
reservoir survey data. It also brought out the need for distributing the sediments .<br />
uniformly throughout the reservoir. However no clear guidelines were given<br />
At around 1974, it was decided that the 50 years sed~mentatton status should be<br />
used In the simulation of sedimentation pattern. In 1982, CWC made mandatory to the<br />
state governments to adopt the above said procedures for sedimentation surveys of<br />
the major, and medium reservoir projects, in its report of the work~ng group on the<br />
guidel~nes for the preparation of detailed project report of major and medium irrigatton<br />
projects. For very serious cases of siltation, re-distribution and re-estimation of<br />
trapping efficiency in 10 years block was indicated.<br />
In 1987, CWC made all the regulations a national practice (CWC, 1987) where the<br />
general guidelines and the concept of multiple life related terms for an eff~cient<br />
management of water resources projects was spelt out.<br />
Management issues<br />
Siltation studies of the 44, Indian reservoirs undertaken by the CWC indicate that 43%<br />
have serious problems another 43% have significant, if not very serious, problems<br />
Only 14% of the reservoirs do not have any significant siltation problem. These<br />
studies illuminated the following significant points.
1 For a majority of reservoirs the rate of sedimentation has been more than the assumed at<br />
the tlme of planning.<br />
2 No large reservoir in India has completed its feasible service time.<br />
3 For many Himalayan streams, which carry very heavy loads of sediments, planning of the<br />
project with a feasible sewice time of 75 or 100 years becomes difficult. For hydroelectric<br />
projects in particular, it is possible to repay the development costs in few years, and a<br />
project can be planned effectively for a shorted period In Pakistan for example, the Tarbela<br />
project has perhaps been planned to lose most. of its capacity in about 50 years.<br />
4 A large number of hydro-electric and even irrigation projects are planned as pondages<br />
where the capacity inflow ratio or detenbon period can be of the order of a few days to a<br />
month. For many such projects, most of the capacity is against crest gates. There is a<br />
belief amongst planning engineers that for such structures, where the gates would be kept<br />
open during the high flow-high sediment inflow period, no sedimentation would occurs<br />
above the crest of the gates. Although there is enough empirical evidence to ~ndlcate that<br />
sedimentation does occur above the crest level, simple methods to indicate the new regime<br />
of the lives upstream of the dam, and the ultimate pondage available for regulation In sp~te<br />
of sedimentation, are not available For the Gauriganga Hydroelectric project in the<br />
Himalayas, India, for which the capaclty IS of the order of 5 million m3 with a sediment inflow<br />
of 3 2 million m3 a general stabilization of the mill~on m3 was seen after 10 years<br />
5.2.11 Sathanur reservoir<br />
The dead storage space provided in the Sathanur reservoir was a meagre 0.1232 ~m~<br />
1 e.. merely .05 percent of the reservoir capacity considering the fad that at the tlme of<br />
design of reservoir taking 100 years as the life of the reservoir dead storage space<br />
equivalent to the estimated silt depos~tion for the entire period is provided. From the<br />
project report it is understood that there was a proposal for providing five numbers of<br />
high level sluices at El t 208.788 m in addition to the sluices, at present functioning at<br />
El + 165.928 m in which case the dead storage capacity would have been higher<br />
These hlgh level sluices were not a part of final construction for some unknown<br />
reasons.<br />
Trap efficiency of the reservoir is defined as the ratio of sediment retained in the<br />
reservoir to the sediment brought in by the river i.e, the percentage of lncomlng<br />
Sedlrnent trapped (Ponce, 1990). Trap efficiency is a function of the ratlo of storage
capacity to inflow. TO a lesser degree, it is also a function of sediment characterist~cs<br />
as texture, density currents, shape of reservoir, method of reservoir operations<br />
,tc As the reservoir is filled with sediments its' storage capacity and hence the<br />
capactty-infl~~ ratio decreases with time. Sathanur reservoir confirms to the pattern<br />
as the capacity-inflow ratio and hence the trap efficiency marks a gradual decrease<br />
over a period of 25 years. The capacity inflow ratio of the Sathanur reservoir is also<br />
very less (0.35) which points towards the fact that it is a seasonal storage reservoir<br />
Since capacity to inflow ratio, indirectly provides an index of the residence time of the<br />
sediment laden water in the reservoir (Reddy, 1998), small capacity-inflow ratlo<br />
ensures that much of the sediment will be discharged over the spillways.<br />
The average silting rate of Sathanur reservoir is 0.022 ~ r 100 n knY2 ~ as worked out<br />
by Khosla's discussed earlier. Based on Khosla's analyses of the sedimentation data<br />
of various reservotrs in India and abroad and his subsequent findings, an average<br />
silting rate of 0.036 ~m~ 100km" at catchment area was adopted for the design of<br />
reservoirs in India. Compared to it Sathanur reservoir depicts less value of siltation<br />
rate<br />
K~ra's method computes the siltation rate of Sathanur resevoir as 0:3275% which is<br />
31 02% less than the observed value of 0.4688%. According to the CWC guidel~nes.<br />
the silting rate of Sathanur reservoir at 0 46% can be bracketed as 'signiftcant but not<br />
serious' Splash erosion and overland velocities are greater on steeper slopes than on<br />
flat slopes (Reddy, 1998). Sathanur catchment is surrounded by sleep hillocks wtth<br />
meagre, thorny vegetation cover provides ample scope for erosion. The vegetation<br />
comprises of dry, deciduous trees because of the extreme hot climate. Prolonged<br />
drought periods because of scarcity of rains, have the degraded reserved forest of the<br />
Sathanur catchment to a considerable extent. Coupled with this the poor cropping<br />
Practices upstream, cattle grazing in the absence of enough pasture land cuttlng of<br />
trees provide an agreeable environment for specific erosion which is observed to be<br />
3 23 mm m".<br />
The rate of sedimentation observed for the per~od of 1976 - 82 was comparatively<br />
less One of the reasons for their may be attributed to the declining trend in the rainfall<br />
in the catchment as inferred from Figures 2.8 to 2.14 Chapter 2).
ota\ solids<br />
Reservoir total solids are on a constant increase for the past years as indicated tn<br />
Figure 9.6 (Chapter 9). Thus the reservoir is still getting silted. A comparison w~th<br />
(Isome other reservoirs (Table 5 11 a and b) points out that sedimentation rate of<br />
Sathanur reservoir is comparable to that of several others. This points to the generally<br />
distressful condition of Indian resetvolrs vis a vis siltation.<br />
5.2.12 Eco-restoration measures adopted to bring down sedimentation<br />
Since not much can be done to lower the trap efficiency of the reservoir, the only<br />
course to decrease the rate of reservoir sedimentation is to adopt effective soil<br />
conservation measures. It has been established that the major portion of the sit<br />
rece~ved in the reservoir is due to the practices upstream of the catchment.<br />
Soil conservation measures taken for the catchment<br />
Afforeslat~on<br />
Afforestation programmes in the form of planting various economical tree species, with<br />
large canopy cover such as Tamaflndus indrca, Azadirachta imifea have been taken up ,<br />
by the forest officials. Cutting and felling of the trees is prohibited and the cases are<br />
booked under prevailing forest laws<br />
Silt detentation dams<br />
Silt detentat~on dams in the form of check dams have been built upstream of the<br />
Sathanur reservoir to check the flow of sediments into the river (Plate 5.1).<br />
The fact that rate of siltation of the Sathanur reservoir is comparable or higher than<br />
many other Indian reservoirs, points towards the need for the intensification of the<br />
control measures stated above. The studies also reveal that even as these measures<br />
have controlled siltation to some extent. There is an obvious need to implement these<br />
measures much more effect~vely in future because the rate of siltatton of the Sathanure<br />
reservoir is still substantial.
Plate 5.1 C1-~ech cisrli to control 5c !I erosl'm
Table 5.1 Comparison of areas and capacities by varlous methods (1976)<br />
5 Capac~ty ~n Mm 5<br />
water level ~ m '<br />
In meters Contour area Modlfled Grid Method<br />
interval prismo~dal<br />
Method<br />
0.00000<br />
formula method<br />
0 00000<br />
0 04261<br />
0.66946<br />
Table 5.2 Compar~son of areas and capacltles by varlous methods (1982)<br />
-<br />
S No Reservotr Area ~n Capactty ~n M I ~ ~<br />
water level ~ m '<br />
~n meters Contour area Mod~fled Grld<br />
lnterval pr~smo~dal Method<br />
Method fortnula method<br />
1 186 0 0000 0 00000 0 00000 0 0031<br />
2 189 0 0004 0 00600 0 00060 0 0000<br />
3 192 0 3839 0 69585 0 66585 0 0000<br />
4 195 0 7778 2 43240 2 41345 0 1059<br />
5 198 17180 6 18210 5 90895 1 1860<br />
6 201 2 7209 12 84045 12 78410 4 7690<br />
7 204 3 9718 22 87750 22 48235 11 4262<br />
8 207 5 4582 37 02450 36 85040 23 0080<br />
9 210 76159 5663565 55 90285 40 8612<br />
10 213 89702 81 51480 81 74240 66 2228<br />
11 216 126610 11391160 11206055 101 0096<br />
12 219 16 3475 15747435 15770410 1460765<br />
13 222 2 204517 216 33947 217 55475 207 3019
Table 5 3 Area and capaclty at different elevat~ons for the years 1957, 1976<br />
and 1982<br />
s<br />
NO<br />
Contour<br />
&el<br />
Area ~n ~ m '<br />
-- - - - - - - -<br />
1957 1976 1982 1957<br />
Capac~ty ~n ~m~<br />
- -<br />
1976 1982<br />
I 186 0 1060 0 0000 0 0000 0 1382 0 0031 0 0009<br />
2<br />
3<br />
189<br />
192<br />
0 3175<br />
0 5785<br />
0 0531<br />
0 3648<br />
0 0004<br />
0 3839<br />
0 7684<br />
0 1123<br />
0 0379<br />
0 1659<br />
0 000d<br />
0 0000<br />
4 195 13231 0 6993 0 7778 4 9838 1 1727 0 1059<br />
5 198 2 0003 14448 1 7180 9 9795 3 8470 1 18GO<br />
6 201 3 0516 2 5599 2 7209 17 5811 8 7399 4 7690<br />
7 204 4 0740 3 7755 3 9718 28 2915 17 8276 11 4262<br />
8 207 5 9268 5 4113 54582 43 3340 28 5980 23 0080<br />
9 210 72876 74044 76159 631865 471110 408612<br />
10 213 10 2333 9 5386 8 9702 89 5265 724059 66 2228<br />
11 216 139254 128917 126610 1253320 1043729 1010096<br />
12 219 175372 166797 163475 1731563 1509227 14807GS<br />
13 2222 21 5079 204517 204517 2348279 211 6510 207 30192<br />
Table 5.4 Depth wise capacity at different elevations<br />
S Contour Depth Capacity Capacity Capacity31982 in<br />
No level in in 1957 ~n Mm3 1976 ~n Mrn3 Mm3<br />
.. meters -.<br />
183.5<br />
meters<br />
0<br />
--<br />
0<br />
-<br />
251 138x10~<br />
551 768x10'<br />
851 211x10~<br />
1151<br />
1451<br />
1751<br />
2051<br />
498x10~<br />
998x lo6<br />
176x lo7<br />
2 93x lo7<br />
2351 433x 10'<br />
2651<br />
2951<br />
632x10'<br />
895x lo7<br />
3251 125x10'<br />
35 51 1 73x 10'<br />
38 71 2 35x 10'
Table 5.5 Sediment deposit - depth wise distribution 1976<br />
7 Contour level ~n Depth ~n Sed~ment Sed~ment<br />
No<br />
I<br />
-<br />
meters<br />
183<br />
meters depos~ted volume depostted volume<br />
- x 10'm?1976 -__ __x10' rn3 1982<br />
0 00 0 0000 0 0060--
Table 5.6 Percentage Of d~str~but~on of sedlment vs percentage depth above rlver bed<br />
$0 Contour level Depth In meters Percentage Sedlment Percentage<br />
~n meters (Cumulat~ve) depth quant~ty of sed~ment<br />
(Cumulat~ve) (Cumulat~ve) (Cumulat~vel<br />
1 183 0 00 0 00 0 0000 U 00<br />
2 186 2 51 6 48 0 1382 0 50<br />
3 189 5 51 14 23 0 7684 2 79<br />
4 192 8 51 21 98 2 1123 7 67<br />
5 195 11 51 29 73 4 8779 17 72<br />
5 198 14 51 37 48 8 7935 31 95<br />
7 201 17 51 4525 128121 46 55<br />
8 204 20 51 52 98 11 8653 43 11<br />
9 207 23 51 60 73 20 3260 73 81<br />
10 210 26 51 68 48 22 3193 81 08<br />
11 213 29 51 76 23 23 3037 84 66<br />
12 216 32 51 83 90 24 3242 88 37<br />
13 219 35 51 91 73 27 0798 98 38<br />
14 222 2 38 71 10000 275260 100 00<br />
Table 5.7 Relationship between capacity inflow ratlo, trap effic~ency and storage loss<br />
- S No Capac~ty Inflow In % Trap efflclency In % Annual loss of reservolr c=clty<br />
In %<br />
1 2 45 0<br />
2 10 87 0<br />
3 20 93 0 3 0<br />
4 50 97 0 0 5<br />
5 100 98 0 0 14<br />
[able 5.8 Comput~ng life of Sathanur reservolr<br />
Capacity<br />
in Mm"<br />
234.828<br />
21 1.651<br />
175.000<br />
150.000<br />
125.000<br />
100 000<br />
70 450<br />
Capacity<br />
inflow<br />
ratlo<br />
0.40667<br />
0 367<br />
0.363<br />
0 260<br />
0.216<br />
0.173<br />
0.122<br />
Trap<br />
efficiency<br />
in %<br />
95<br />
94 29<br />
93 93<br />
93.21<br />
92.41<br />
91 43<br />
87.14<br />
Average trap<br />
eff~ciency<br />
in %<br />
94.625<br />
94.110<br />
93.570<br />
92.675<br />
91 785<br />
89.285<br />
Annual<br />
Sed~ment<br />
trapped In MmJ<br />
Reduct~on<br />
In volume<br />
in Mm"<br />
23.177<br />
36 651<br />
25 000<br />
25 000<br />
25 000<br />
29 550<br />
Total<br />
-.<br />
Years<br />
to flll
Table 5.9 Comparison of specific erosion from Sathanur catchment with that of<br />
Kr~shnagiri catchment<br />
Name of Catchment Orlglnal Present Loss In Percent Percentage Spec~l~c<br />
reservoir area capacity capaclty capaclty age average erastoll<br />
In Mm Mm3 In 19 loss In annual rate In<br />
vears caDacltv . . of slltat~on mm rn '<br />
Gross 8 5428:6 66.0 54.26 1174 1779 0.94 2.16<br />
Independent kmz<br />
Sathanur<br />
1 Independent 5397 55 234 828 211 651 23 177 9 87 0 519 3 2.i<br />
km2<br />
2 Gross 10826<br />
km2<br />
Table 5.10 Loss of annual capacity in reservolr<br />
- Range of annual loss of Number of reservoirs within Range of dataGil<br />
range<br />
Less than 1% 6 10-56<br />
1 to 5% 19 j0-81<br />
More than 5% 19 6-73
Table 5.11a Comparison of reservolrs based on sedimenlat~on surveys<br />
S Reservoir Catchment Llve storage Year of Perlod of Annual<br />
No ~ m ' CapaClly survey record storage loss<br />
(M!!') (Years) ck)<br />
1 Mangalam 48 55 24 67 1985 29 0 30<br />
2 Peruvannamuzhi 108 8 11345 1986 13 1 66<br />
3 Malampuzha 47 63 226 96 1985 22 0 16<br />
4 Peecht 107 00 109 00 1985 26 0 97<br />
5 Neyyar 140 00 101 15 1997 38 o 71<br />
6 Sathanur 5397 5 207 3 1982 24 0 50<br />
Table 5.11 b Comparison of reservolrs based on sedlrnenlal~on surveys<br />
S No Name Year of Calchmenl Gross Sedlmenlat~on 50% L~fe of<br />
constructlon area (krn') capaclty rate capaclty reservoir<br />
-- LM~',! - (~my~ear) lost (year) (years)<br />
1 Srlramasagar 1970 91750 3172 062 1998 58<br />
4 H~rakud 1956 83395 8105 0 86 2030 147<br />
5 Gtrna 1965 4729 609 0 80 2045 161<br />
6 Tungabhadra 1953 28179 3760 ! 01 2019 132<br />
7 Panchel h~fl 1956 10966 1497 1 05 2021 130<br />
8 Bhakra 1958 56980 9800 0 60 2101 287<br />
9 Malthon 1955 6294 1369 1 43 2031 152<br />
10 Lower bhavan~ 1953 4200 931 0 44 2205 604<br />
11 Mayurakshi 1954 1860 608 163 2054 701<br />
12 Gandhisagar 1960 23025 7740 0 96 2135 350<br />
'3 Koyna dam 1961 776 2988 1 52 3228 2533
Figure 5.2 Reservoir contour level vs area
Year<br />
4-Capauly -Trap efkency<br />
Figure 5.6 Sathanur reservoir life by Trap efficiency method
6.0 INTRODUCTION<br />
Chapter 6<br />
Recreation<br />
The art~ficial lakes and hydraulic structures created for the water resources projects<br />
are potential recreational sites. The Bhakhra Nangal project (Punjab, Ind~a), Hoover<br />
dam (USA), Aswan dam (Egypt) and scores of other dams attract millions of tourists<br />
world-wide The Vrindavan Gardens (downstream of Kr~shnaraj Sagar reservoir,<br />
Karnataka, India). Ja~kwadi Gardens (Ja~kwadi project, Ind~a) and Ukai Tourlsl Resort<br />
Nka~ dam, Gujarat, India) represent well-known dam-based recreational sites in Ind~a.<br />
Avifauna and wildlife has been reported to increase in several cases. The<br />
phenomenon was witnessed after the completion of artificial lakes by Ramganga dam<br />
(UP India) Rihand dam (U.P, India) and Matatila dam, U.P, India (Goel and Ma~tra,<br />
1992)<br />
Whereas Water Resources Projects (WRPs) have the potential of boostlng the<br />
tourism Industry, thereby contributing significantly to the regional or national economy,<br />
their recreational and aesthetic resources are sensitive to human disturbances.<br />
~llhout a harmonic balance between the volume and type of tourist activity on one<br />
hand and the sensitivity and carrying capacity of the resources on the other, the<br />
'ecreational side of the project may prove to be environmentally harmful and, in the<br />
~"g.run, economically self-defeating.<br />
Among several reports on the impact of tourism on WRP, (Abbasi, 2000) we may<br />
the report of Tiegland (1999) who has reported on the manifested impacts of<br />
'Ourlsm due to hydroelectric project and a major road development project when the<br />
environmental quality of the area began to deteriorate due to the access to the remote
area tourism development generated. A well-planned eco tourism project combines the<br />
essentials of conservation of natural sites with economic and recreational benef~ts<br />
(Llndberg, 1991).<br />
An assessment of the tourism potential of the Sathanur Reservoir Project (SRP) IS<br />
presented in this chapter. Its contribution to the regional economy is also evaluated.<br />
6.1 STATUS<br />
6.1.1 Sathanur dam -a tourist spot<br />
Sathanur dam and rese~oir are located in a sparsely inhabited natural terratn<br />
providing an attractive site for tourists to visit. The dam is flanked on either s~de by<br />
wooded hills presenting a picture of serenity and tranquility. Due to these reasons<br />
Sathanur has become one of the favourite getaway spot for the people of the nearby<br />
bustl~ng towns and cities<br />
Not as easily visible to the tourists as the trees (predominantly Azadirachta im~tea<br />
Acaoa nilotica, Albizia amara etc), but extremely important, is the wildlife sheltered by<br />
the Sathanur catchment. deer, boar, tigers, rabbits, snakes, lizards, etc.<br />
6.1.2 Main tourist attractions<br />
1 Sathanur dam - The 40 m high Sathanur dam presents an imposing example of<br />
engineering skills, both formidable and admirable. The spillways over which the<br />
water cascades down present a hypnotic sight (Plate 6.1).<br />
2 Ponnaiyar reserve forest - The hills surrounding the dam, resplendent with the<br />
greenery of the flora of Ponnaiyar reserve forest, give a majestic as well as a<br />
serene look to the place. Two temples situated on the hills beckon the faithful ones<br />
The reserve forest provides an opportunity to the natural scientists to study b~o-<br />
diversity<br />
3 Scenery and park - Plate 6.2 illustrates the lush green grass, grown and maintained<br />
by the dam authorities, with beautifully crafted statues, stairs and swings placed In<br />
the back drop of reservoir.<br />
4 Crocodile farm - A crocodile farm is maintained inside the dam by the Tamil Nadu<br />
Forest Department and has mostly the lnd~an muggar (Cmcodylus palustrls)<br />
species, the fresh water crocodiles. The crocodiles were brought to the reservoir<br />
from the Crocodile Rehabilitation Centre, Hogenekal, Tamil Nadu. Eggs are taken<br />
from the reservoir and incubated in the farm. Every alternate day, the crocodiies<br />
are given a feed of fresh meat, procured from the near by villages The farm is a
Plate 6.1 Sathan~lr dam w~th water gusl~~ng down the sp~llways<br />
Plate 6.2 Dam surround~ngs developed Into a beaut~ful galden
major tourist attraction at the dam site as tourists throng to watch these majestic<br />
formidable reptilian creatures tamed by man and put in captivity (Plate 6.3).<br />
5 Swimming pool- A swimming pool (Plate 6.4) has been constructed inside the dam<br />
premises for the swimming and diving enthusiasts. One needs to hardly point ~t out<br />
that the pool is very popular especially during the summer.<br />
6 Ornamental fishes exhibition -Approximately thirteen species of ornamental fishes<br />
procured from Chennai have been kept for exhibition inside the dam premises. The<br />
species are sucker cat, colour gold, blue gold, black m.t, scat, angel, blue moop,<br />
owratas, red castle, flying saucer, belloon, skel, and light houser (Plate 6.5).<br />
7 Mini-zoo-There is a mini zoo at the entrance of the Sathanur dam, which displays<br />
monkeys, deer and other animals in captivity.<br />
6 2 IMPACTS<br />
6 2 I Management and revenue generation<br />
The Public Work Department (PWD) Government of Tamil Nadu in assoc~at~on w~th<br />
Tam11 Nadu Forest Department solely manages the tourism part of the SRP and<br />
Tamil Nadu Flsherles Development Corporat~on Lawns are by and large kept well<br />
maintained and clean Water in the swimmlng pool IS changed once every flfteen days<br />
The sol~d waste generated by the tourlsts 1s incinerated The drinklng water facilities<br />
are adequate F~gure 6 1 gives the detalls of the revenue generated (based on the<br />
entrance to the dam over the past 10 years The revenue fluctuates within 0 2 to 0 3<br />
million rupees The revenue 1s charged from the tourlsts in the form of entrance fee to<br />
the dam premlses (Rs 0 50 per person) and to the f~sh exhlbit~on and crocodile farm<br />
The annual revenue generated from crocodile farm 1s around Rs 70-80 thousand which<br />
IS enough for the upkeep and maintenance of the crocod~les as reported by the<br />
TNFDC officials The major chunk of the total revenue generated goes towards the<br />
maintenance of the dam premises as a whole The Sathanur dam has not been taken<br />
up by the Tam11 Nadu Tourism Development Corporation and 1s completely under the<br />
control of PWD Sathanur dam<br />
6.2.2 Public oplnlon<br />
Fifty tourists, including a few foreigners, were interviewed by us to assess the tourists'<br />
"Iews on the present status of the SRP. Suggestions were sought towards the<br />
betterment of the Sathanur dam as a tourist spot.
Plate 6.3 Crocod~le farrn<br />
Plate 6.4 Swmnllng pool
Plate 6.5 Orrlan>ental fishes exhib~tion
Seventy flve percent of the people vlsltlng the Sathanur dam are generally the rural<br />
folks from In and around the place mostly from Thlruvannamalal Thlrupathur<br />
vlllupuram Cuddalore Glngee Pondlcherry etc Educational trlps are also arranged<br />
for school and college students to the dam site Slnce there IS no other recreation<br />
Source In the near by areas the dam proves to be a major tourlst destlnatlon<br />
~pproxlmately 0 8 mllllon people vlslt the dam slte every year (Figure 6 1) A very<br />
sight declining trend In the Influx of the tourlsts IS observed from the F~gure<br />
The general publlc oplnlons were<br />
Though Sathanur dam IS attractlve for slght-seelng certaln Infrastructure fac~ittles<br />
are lack~ng especially adequate transportatlon eaterles and hotels There is no<br />
faclllty at all for transportatlon form the entrance gate to the dam slte The uphlll<br />
journey proves tiresome to several tourlsts<br />
There IS no provlslon of recreational boating In the reservolr<br />
. There IS a small hillock In the mlddle of the reservolr It can be developed Into an<br />
attractlve vlsltlng spot for the tourists boatlng In the reservolr<br />
Water sports and other fun games shouid be ~ntroduced for the children<br />
More specles of anlmals and blrds should be displayed In the mlnl-zoo<br />
Park and lawns need more attention In terms of cleanliness and Infrastructure<br />
As of now In the absence of boat~ng and other actlvlt~es whlch requlre tlme a<br />
typlcal tourlst vlslt to Sathanur gets over In a matter of a few hours<br />
6.2.3 Officials' comments<br />
Based on the comments of the general public, follow up vlslts were made to the<br />
concerned authorities and public demands were presented to them. According to them.<br />
Based on the inflow of the tourists and the carrying capacity of the dam site the<br />
transportatlon facilities have been developed.<br />
Steps are being taken by the management to introduce more of the attractions and<br />
to develop and better the Sathanur dam further.<br />
* The officials have barred boating in the reservoir because the water level of the<br />
reservoir peaks at 119 R, during monsoon and storage months and it is never<br />
allowed to go down below 46n. So it is risky boating In this deep reservoir. The risk<br />
from crocodiles in the reservoir is also always there.
7.0 INTRODUCTION<br />
Chapter 7<br />
Health<br />
The assessment of the impact of major Water Resources Projects (WRPs) on the<br />
human health has become one of the essential components of the overall<br />
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) procedure. This has been prompted by<br />
several reports implicating some of the major WRPs in the outbreak of epidemics or In<br />
aggravating the risk of water borne diseases in other forms. Malaria: filariasis and<br />
sch~stosomiasis are known to have proliferated following water resources development<br />
in several areas (Abbasi, 2000). Creation of some 104 small dams in Ghana. led to the<br />
prevalence of Schistosorna haematobiurn infection in the local population tripling from<br />
17% to 51% in 38 surveyed areas (WH0,1993) Incidence of schistosomiasis was also<br />
reported around the Aswan dam in Egypt (Shalaby and White, 1988). In<br />
NagarjunaSagar dam area, A.P. India, flurosis was found to be endemic and the<br />
reason was attributed to high percentage of fluoride in the reservoir water (Varshney,<br />
1986). The dam has also been implicated in the 'knock-knee' disease, called genu<br />
velgum in the Telugu language (CSE, 1982 Abbasi, 2000), which was believed to be<br />
caused by molybdenum. The metal is believed to have reached the humans in large<br />
quantities via water and food that became enriched with molybdenum after water<br />
logging and resulting anaerobic conditions had caused luxury release of the metal from<br />
the soil to overlying water and crops.
In this chapter we have assessed the possible role of Sathanur reservoir, under the<br />
current environmental and geo-climatic settings, in exacerbating the hazards of malaria<br />
and elephantiasis. These two diseases are known to be caused by the mosquitoes in<br />
the region. The study also discusses the preventive measures taken by the authorities<br />
In reducing the inc~dence of water-borne diseases in the reservoir area.<br />
7.1 STATUS<br />
The lnformatlon on the lnc~dence of malarla In the populatlon resldlng by the dam slte<br />
and ~n the village nearest to lt over the perlod 1994-1999 IS presented In Tables 7 1<br />
and 7 2 respectively Data and other related lnformatlon were collected form the offlce<br />
of the Directorate of Publ~c Health Servlces Th~ruvannamala~ The malarial cases<br />
lnvolvlng long term res~dents orlglnatlng solely due to the environmental condltlons<br />
preva~llng at the s~te have been tabulated as local and those ~nvolving mlgrants elther<br />
labourers who come to the area for a short perlod for work or the f~shermen employed<br />
wlth Tam11 Nadu Flsher~es Development Corporation (TNFDC) have been tabulated as<br />
Imported<br />
The populatlon as per the latest census records of the health department has been<br />
put as lndlcatlve populat~on There would be fluctuations wlthln a range of -t5% due to<br />
blrths deaths and some movement of people to or from the village durlng the SIX<br />
years for whlch the data IS presented<br />
7.1.1 Annual parasite index<br />
In order to bring the entire Information to a common frame of reference, the data on<br />
population and malarial cases has been converted to annual parasite index (API). The<br />
Index represents the number of malarial cases per thousand of population<br />
Number of malaria cases<br />
API = ................................ * --------- x 1000<br />
Population<br />
The annual parasite indices for the Sathanur dam and the Sathanur village are<br />
Plotted along with the annual precipitation, for a period of six years, as Figures 7.1 and<br />
7 2.
7.2 IMPACTS<br />
7.2.1 At the dam site<br />
The annual parasite index (API) values and the annual rainfall of the command region,<br />
as functions of time, are depicted in Figure 7.1. It may be seen that eventhough the<br />
average rainfall has fluctuated over the years, the API hasn't followed that pattern:<br />
rather it has steadily declined. The API was 120 in 1994. It marginally fell in 1995.<br />
more sharply in 1996 and even more sharply there after.<br />
If no other factor is operatlve, incidence of malaria should naturally be a direct<br />
function of the extent of area under lentic habitats. It is in lentic habitats that<br />
mosquitoes get an opportunity to breed and go through the~r larval and pupal stages<br />
Commissioning of large water resources projects are known to cause increase in the<br />
~ncidence of water- borne diseases primarily by this mechanism Such projects<br />
suddenly make available new lentic habitats leading to proliferat~on of disease vectors<br />
such as mosquitoes, house fl~es and snails.<br />
In Sathanur too, one would have expected a continuous increase In the incidence of<br />
malaria and other water-borne diseases. As detailed earlier (Chapter 2), the reservoir<br />
IS encompassed by the hills housing the Ponnaiyar reserve forest. Also a water-spread<br />
area of 18.2 km2 is available at full reservoir level. This area shrinks during the<br />
summer months but is never totally dry. Hence extra habitat for the breeding and the<br />
early growth stages of mesquites IS made available by the reservoir all through each<br />
year The forest also offers a potential s~te for breeding and proliferation of mosquitoes<br />
especially during the monsoon months. The marshy and swampy grounds littered with<br />
human faeces and cattle dung transform into mesquites harbouring sites. Low lying<br />
areas of the forest form soakage pits, ditches and other semi-permanent pools of<br />
water. where mosquitoes can thrive and breed easily. Yet, the API indicates that there<br />
is no consistent trend of increase in the incidence if malaria in the region<br />
Table 7.1 reveals that 22% of the malaria instances in 1994,28% in 1995 and 42% in<br />
1996 were 'imported'. The parasites were feared to be brought in the blood of the<br />
migrant labourers or fishermen working on the site. These parasites, on finding the<br />
deal Combination of vectors and hosts, led to the transmission of malarla in the reglon<br />
As discerned from Figure 7.1, the API peaked during the years 1994 and 1995.<br />
lncldentally these were the years when the construction work on the hydro-electricity<br />
Senerating unit began with the aid of hired labourers from the nearby regions. These<br />
migrant labourers are believed to spread the malaria in the region in Such hlgh
proportions during these periods. This is similar to what had happened at the site of<br />
Aswan dam (Bhargave et al, 1992). There was a northward migration of vectors from<br />
Sudan towards dam site in this particular case and it is believed that the Sudanese<br />
fishermen brought the disease with them in the Aswan dam area. There have been no<br />
Incidences of filariasis at the dam site as per the health officials.<br />
7.2.2 At the Sathanur village<br />
Sathanur village (population 6775), which is 11 km from the dam site, has<br />
comparatively low rate of malarial incidence as IS evident from Table 7.2. All the<br />
Incidences of malaria in the population during 1994 and 1995 were imported. API<br />
values, depicted as Figure 7.2, also recorded low rates when compared to the API<br />
values of dam region (Flgure 7 1). There is no consistency between the patterns of<br />
annual precipitation and the API values during the study period (Figure 7.1).<br />
The reason for low incidences of malaria in the village population can be attributed to<br />
the absence of the environmental conditions conducive for the growth and proliferat~on<br />
of disease vectors as encountered in the reservoir. According to the villagers, there is<br />
in general scarcity of water, in spite of the village being located in the proximity of the<br />
dam The village doesn't get water for irrigation purposes from the dam. Thus the<br />
location and the geo-environmental conditions of the village offer l~ttle scope for the<br />
breeding and thriving of mosquitoes.<br />
The 'import' of malaria during the years 1994 and 1995 can be attributed to the<br />
temporary residents who work as labourers in the near by places. With the introduction<br />
of better transportation and communication facilities, following the development of the<br />
region as a tourist spot, more and more of the villagers started to earn their livelihood<br />
working as hired labourers or fishermen. The nature of thelr work, the unhygienic<br />
surroundings and their soc~o-economic status, makes them easily susceptible to<br />
malarial attacks.<br />
7.2.3 Measures adopted by the health officials in combating water<br />
borne diseases<br />
As discussed in the earlier section there is a steady decline in the API values over the<br />
Years (Figure 7.1). Even though unusually high rainfall was recorded in the year 1996,<br />
there was no unusual increase in API in that particular year. The decline in the API for<br />
the Period 1994-95 was marginal 4.16% and in 1996 it reduced sharply to 25.69%<br />
After 1996 again there was a significant reduction of 63.89% and the value continued
falling till 1999 when it finally reached 95% of it's 1994 value. This remarkable<br />
phenomenon of the reduction of API over the years is largely due to the mitigating<br />
measures adopted by the health officials in checking the disease from becoming an<br />
ep~demic. A primary health centre is located at the dam site offering health services to<br />
all the nearby villages.<br />
Once the nature of the malaria and its intensiveness was established, the health<br />
officials vigilantly started monitoring the whole situation. The health officials became<br />
even more vigilant after the construction work of hydroelectricity generation unit started<br />
in 1994-95 and there was an influx of migrant labourers at the dam site. The API<br />
recorded in that particular year reached exceptionally high i.e. 120. The steps<br />
undertaken by them In controlling the spread of the malaria are briefly described as<br />
follows,<br />
Periodic blood smear tests are performed on the work force employed at the<br />
Sathanur dam slte.<br />
The h~red labourers from the near by regions are screened for any unusual<br />
symptoms before their entering the work point.<br />
Anti-malarial drugs (mostly chloroquines) are dlstrlbuted free of cost to the<br />
residents at the dam site.<br />
DDT, BHC and other chemicals are sprayed regularly indoors and outdoors at<br />
the dam area to check the menace of mosquitoes.<br />
The mosquito larvae in the ponds and drains are killed using various larvicide<br />
formulations.<br />
Borrow p~ts, soakage pits and other semi-permanent water pools in the forest.<br />
hills and in the vicinity of the reservoir are periodically monitored and closed.
Table 7.1 Malaria incidence in Sathanur dam<br />
lnd~cative<br />
Name Of darn Population<br />
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999<br />
32 98" 46'<br />
Sathanur 1198 144 138 107 52 19 7<br />
' Imported<br />
# Local<br />
112 "0' 61'<br />
Table 7.2 Malar~a inc~dence In Sathanur v~llage<br />
lnd~cat~ve<br />
Name of v~llage Population 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999<br />
Sathanur 6775 4* 1' - 8 , 2 2<br />
' Imported<br />
# Local
1'144 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999<br />
Year<br />
Figure 7.1 Impact of prectp~tation on rnalar~al annual parastte index in Sathanur<br />
reservotr
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999<br />
Year<br />
-t Salhanur vlllags --t Precpltaton<br />
Figure 7.2 Impact of preclpttatlon on malar~al annual paraslle ~ndex In Sathanur<br />
village
8.0 INTRODUCTION<br />
Chapter 8<br />
Aquaculture<br />
Aquaculture is the aquat~c counterpart of agriculture (Beveridge, et al., 1994).<br />
Product~on of food by this means has increased significantly over the past two decades<br />
and currently accounts for some 15 million tonnes or 17% of the world fisheries<br />
(capture and culture) production (FAO, 1993). Reservoir fisheries in south-east Asia<br />
are considered oldest in the world based on the fact that the irrigation schemes in<br />
south-east Asia has an older tradition, going back farther in history, than in any other<br />
region of the world. Aquaculture in reservoirs has been identified as one of the indirect<br />
benefits of water resources projects otherwise aimed primarily at generating irrigation<br />
facilities and hydropower (Abbasi, 1991,2000).<br />
A study on the icthyofauna of the Sathanur reservoir has been presented in this<br />
chapter. The study assesses the annual commercial production of the fishes over a<br />
Period of twenty years. An attempt has also been made to establish the impacts of<br />
various hydrological factors operating in the reservoir on the annual fish catch.
8.1 STATUS<br />
8.1 .I PI8ciculture In Sathanur reservolr<br />
The piscifauna of the Sathanur reservoir, during the period of impoundment, consisted<br />
of a very few species of Cyprinus.carpio (carps) and cat-fishes. In the year 1959, the<br />
Tamil Nadu Fisheries Department took charge of reservoir fishery. Seeds of fast<br />
growing species of fishes such as Catla calla (catla), Labeo rohita (rohu), Cirrhinus<br />
mrigala (mrigal) etc., were stocked in the reservoir and the Indian fisheries act was<br />
enforced in the reservoir thus barring fishing other than organised by the government<br />
in the reservoir. Due to all these steps, the commercial catch which was 700 kgs in<br />
1962-63 increased to 214 tonnes in 1976-77 as reported by the Tamil Nadu Fisheries<br />
Development Corporation Limited (TNFDC), functioning at the dam site.<br />
The Corporation came into existence in 1977 preceded by the establishment of a fish<br />
seed production centre and a fish farm at the dam in 1959 for the purpose of the<br />
production of flsh seeds for stocking other similar reservoirs in the state. Consequently<br />
the fishery rights of the Sathnur reservoir were transferred to the Corporation and the<br />
f~sh farm was also placed under ~t.<br />
8.1.2 Functioning of TNFDC<br />
The mandate of Tamil Nadu Fisheries Development Corporation Limited (TNFDC)<br />
pertain~ng to the pisciculture in Sathanur reservoir constitutes the following:<br />
Exploitation of the fishery of the reservoir<br />
* Marketing the fishes at fixed prices through the retail outlets esteblished in the<br />
nearby towns.<br />
* Stocking the reservoir with seeds of major C.carpio (carps).<br />
Production of major C.carpio (carps) seeds in the fish farm and supplying the<br />
surplus seeds to stock other waters in the state.<br />
Paid employees and private fishermen are engaged in the exploitation of the fisheries<br />
from the reservoir. Each fishing unit consists of two fishermen, one coracle and 20 gill<br />
nets. The units operate under the close supervision of the Deputy Manager. While the<br />
units are paid regular monthly wages by the corporation, the private<br />
fishermen units engaged for fishing are paid one third of their daily catches as wages.<br />
The nets used by TNFDC, called 'Rangoon nets', are basically gill nets of mesh size<br />
l5 cm without bottom rope and sinkers. The stretched length and depth of each net<br />
are 30m and 6m respectively. The fishermen are not permitted to use nets of smaller
mesh size to avoid capture of fingerlings i ' adolescent animals. Operation of nets in<br />
the upper reaches of the reservoir during the breeding season is prohibited:<br />
8.1.3 Marketing<br />
The f~sh catches from the Sathanur reservoir are sold to the public through various<br />
retail outlets at the rates fixed by the TNFDC. Currently there are fourteen such outlets<br />
funct~onlng at the following places.<br />
Sathanur dam<br />
(during government holidays)<br />
Thiruvannamalai - I<br />
Thtruvannamalai - II<br />
Thiruvannamalal - 111<br />
Polur<br />
Chengarn<br />
Authoor<br />
Kallakurichi<br />
Vandavasl<br />
Cheyyar<br />
Th~rupatthur<br />
Chetpet<br />
Arakkaulur<br />
Sankarapuram<br />
The data pertaining to the annual fish catch of various species and the annual<br />
revenue incurred for a period of twenty years was collected from the office of TNFDC.<br />
The details of the annual catch of :he ichthyofauna for the period 1978-1998 are<br />
presented in Table 8.1. The catch is represented both in terms of numbers and<br />
zoomass. Correlations between the catch of the various species of fish and also<br />
between the catch and other hydrological parameters are worked out and the results<br />
are given as Tables 8.2 and 8.3 respectively. The statistical analyses of the fish catch<br />
are given in Table 8.4.<br />
Table 8.5 presents the average zoomass per fish and the fish catch per hectare of the<br />
reservoir for the period of twenty years. The details regarding the annual flsh seed<br />
Production and the annual total catch along with the revenue generated are furn~shed<br />
In Table 8.6. Table 8.7 presents an account of the expenses and profit incurred from<br />
the reservoir fishery<br />
The species wise annual catch and the cumulative catch of the ichthyofauna of the<br />
Sathanur reservoir as a function of time, for a period of twenty years, is illustrated In<br />
Figures 8.1 to 8.6. The Figures also depict the influence of annual precipitation, if any,<br />
the fish catch,
Figures 8.7 to 8.10 illustrate the correlation between the mean water level of the<br />
reservoir and the fish catch. The relationships betrveen the total inflow into the<br />
reservoir and the fish catch for various sp s are illustrated in Figures 8.11 to 8.15.<br />
The variations in the zoomass per fish 1' ,le piscifauna of the reservoir over the<br />
per~od of twenty years are depicted in Figures 8.16 and 8.17.<br />
F~gure 8.18 illustrates the percentage wise distribution of the ichthyofauna for a<br />
period of twenty years. Figure 8.19 presents the trends of the fish seed production and<br />
the revenue earned over the years. The total annual catch of the fishes and the<br />
revenue earned there from as a function of time are represented as Figure 8.20.<br />
8.2 IMPACTS<br />
There are some fifteen species of fish in the Sathanur reservoir. The dominant once<br />
are Catla catla (catla) Labeo rohita (rohu), Cirrhinus mrigala (mrigal), Cyprinus carpio<br />
(carp), Labeo firnbriafus. Labeo calabasu, Cyprinus cirrhosa, Wallago attu,<br />
Heteropneustes sp and Clanus batrfchus Except for some specles of Cypr~nus carpro<br />
(carp) and the cat f~shes all the other specles are exotlc brought to the reservolr In<br />
1977-78 Some specles l~ke Argenbous carpio (s~lver catla) Mlrfrnl sp Trlnpm<br />
r~~osarnbica and few other uneconom~cal catf~shes are also present In the reservolr ~n<br />
low numbers and they have been categor~sed as 'others The category also ~ncludes<br />
some un~dent~f~ed f~sh specles<br />
A detailed study of the catch of the piscifauna of the reservoir from the Figures 8.1 to<br />
8 6 points out towards the fact that the annual catch per specles of the fish has<br />
undergone wide fluctuations over the years.<br />
The yield of Catla catla (catla) after assaylng an inittal decllne durlng the years 1978-<br />
79, atta~ned a peak in 1982 before coming down drastically in 1984 by 93% of its 1982<br />
weld The yield was steady thereafter t~ll 1986 and 1987 onwards there was a gradual<br />
Increase in the yield till 1990 which again became low during 1991-92, p~cked up In<br />
1993 before falltng yet again till 1995 From 1995 onwards there has been a marglnal<br />
Increase in the catch. Overall there has been a declining trend in the catla catch<br />
(Figure 8.1).<br />
In contrast, the yield of L.rohita doesn't display the widely ranging fluctuations as<br />
that of Catla catla (Figure 8.1). The yield after indicating a downward trend till 1980,<br />
Picked Up in 1983 before drooping down in 1984. The yield was more or less constant<br />
'Iii I987 and picked up in 1988. The curve representing L.rohita yield after illustrating
mlnor fluctuations from 1989 to 1996 depicts an upward trend from 1996 onwards<br />
There is a slight increasing trend in the rohu yield as inferred from the trendline<br />
(Figure 8.1).<br />
There is no significant correlation between the annual precipitation and the annual<br />
catch of Catla caHa and L.rohita, though at some stages rainfall does depict subtle<br />
influence over the catch. After 1983 there was a fall in the annual precipitation<br />
recorded in the study area which continued till 1986, Incidentally the annual catch of<br />
the Calla catla and L.rohita also depicted a fall for the above said period but the trend<br />
reversed in 1987 when rainfall In the catchment again registered a fall which continued<br />
through 1988 to 1990. In contrast there was a rise in the catch of the CaHa calla and<br />
L.rohita for the above said period.<br />
Figure 8 2 depicts the annual catch of C. mrigal, L.fimbriaties and C.carpio as a<br />
function of annual precipitation. The yield of C.mrigal registered an upward trend till<br />
1981 when ~t recorded the maximum yield of 80 tonnes for the entire study period. The<br />
y~eid came down drastically by 83% of its 1981 value in 1982, picked up in 1983 before<br />
falling in 1984. These well marked fluctuations continued till 1998 when the recorded<br />
y~eld was 77% of the 1981 value. Thus overall there is a downward trend in the yleld of<br />
C mrigalover the years, as is observed form the trend line (Figure 8.2).<br />
The y~eld pattern of L.fimbriatus depicts a downward trend after 1981. The yield d~d<br />
p~ck up slightly In 1984 which continued till 1986 but thereafter there had been a<br />
gradual and steady decline in the yield. The yield in 1996 registered mere 2.8% of its<br />
value in 1978, the year that had the maximum yield of L.fimbiatus. There was a very<br />
sl~ght Increase in the annual catch in the years 1997 and 1998. There is a marked<br />
declining trend in the annual catch (Figure 8.2). The annual catch of C.carpio was very<br />
low durlng the entire study period whlch paramounts to almost negligible when<br />
compared with the catch of other fished (Figure 8.2).<br />
The yleld curve of C.mrigal emulates precipitation curve during the initial years. Both<br />
curves depict a peak in 1981 and fall sharply in 1982. Both the curves illustrate a<br />
declining trend till 1986. After 1986 there is no significant correlation between the yield<br />
Of C.mriga1 and annual precipitation. A reversed trend is noticed during most of the<br />
Years afterwards. The yield curve of L.fimbriatus emulates rainfall curve and the yield<br />
of C.mrigal during the initial years till 1985 and thereafter it becomes<br />
(Figure 8.2)
The annual yields of L.calabasu and C.cirrhosa and the influence of annual<br />
thereupon are depicted in figure 8.3. The yield of C.cirrllosa attained its<br />
maximum in 1980 and thereafter fell by almost 52% in 1981 and continued thus in<br />
1982 when the y~eld registered a fall of 86% of its 1980 value. The yield did pick up<br />
S~~ghtly In 1981 but thereafter it steadily declined registering nil yield from 1988 to 1991<br />
and again from 1995 to 1998. There is a declining trend in the catch as inferred from<br />
the trend line (Figure 8.3).<br />
In contrast, the yield pattern of L.calabasu illustrates wide variations over the study<br />
The y~eld curve depicts an upward trend till 1987 (with minor fluctuation in<br />
between) when it registered 86% increase in the yield its 1978 value. Thereafter the<br />
y~eld declined sharply till 1991 when it recorded 90% reduction of its 1987 value. There<br />
was a continuous Increase in the yield afler 1991 till 1994. There was a slight decline<br />
n 1992. The yield showed an increasing trend t~ll 1998. There is a marked ascending<br />
trend In the catch of L calabasu over the study period as ind~cated by the tredline<br />
(F~gure 8 3).<br />
Annual precipitation in the catchments seemed to influence the catches of C.cirrhosa<br />
and L, calabasu during the ~nitial periods as is evident from the Figure. From 1991 to<br />
1996 the yield curves and the precipitation curve depict a similar pattern of rise and<br />
fall After 1996 there is no relationship between C.cirrhosa and rainfall while the y~eld<br />
curve of L calabasu seems to emulate the rainfall curve in a subtle manner till 1996<br />
w~th the exceptions of years 1990 and 1992.<br />
Figure 8.4 illustrates the y~eld pattern of Wallago attu and the cat-fishes and the<br />
nfiuence of rainfall on the same. As Indicated by the Figure, yield of cat - fishes show<br />
a w~de fluctuations, dep~cting an upward trend till 1988 and thereafter a declining trend<br />
1998. The yield of the cat-fishes in 1988 registered increase in their value in 1978<br />
which was the highest recorded over the study period. Thereafter, the y~eld in 1998<br />
was reduced to 88% of their 1988 value. Yield pattern of Wallago attu, in contrast.<br />
ddn't depict marked variations over the years and was more or less steady. The years<br />
I984 to 1987 registered low yield of Wallgo attu. The yield was almost steady from<br />
'988 to 1992, came down slightly in 1993, picked up in 1994, reducing agaln in 1995<br />
and 1996 picking up marginally thereafter. The annual catch of both the fish species<br />
Ieglster a declining trend for the entire study period (Figure 8.4).<br />
There is no significant correlation between the annual precipitation and the yields Of<br />
waValfago att~ and cat-fishes throughout the study period. The yield curve of cat-fishes
emulakes tile rainratl cuwe rrom 1980 to 1984 and yet agaln In 1YUa-81 an0 agaln ~n<br />
1993-97 (Figure 8.4). The yield curve of Wallago attu follows the rainfall pattern from<br />
1981-85 and again from 1991-95.<br />
Figure 8.5 illustrates the yield pattern of fish fauna bracketed as 'others'. There has<br />
been a remarkable increase in their yield over the years. The yield which was nil In<br />
1978 increased to sixty eight tonnes in 1994 before coming down to seven tonnes In<br />
jg98,There is a sharp increasing trend in their catches as indicated by the trendlines<br />
(Figure 8.5). The yield pattern is similar to the pattern of annual precipitation recorded<br />
In the catchment There was an increasing trend form 1978 to 1993 in the rainfall<br />
received in the catchment and during this period the yield of the fishes started picking<br />
up The rainfall and fish yield peaked in 1983 as indicated in the Figure. There was a<br />
sl~ght downslide in the rainfall from 1993 to 1998 and so also in the yield. From 1989 to<br />
1993 there is no marked similarity In the pattern of rainfall and yield curves (Figure<br />
8 5). Again the patterns of the variations of the curves are similar form 1994 to 1996<br />
and thereafter the patterns are reversed. There was a sharp decline of 31.6% from<br />
1997 to 1998 In the y~eld of the fishers.<br />
The cumulative catch of the piscifauna is depicted in Figure 8.6. The catch was<br />
tnaximum in 1981 and came down sharply in 1982 and the decline continued further till<br />
1984 when the annual yield was reduced by 76% of ~ts 1981 value. The yield was<br />
almost constant during 1984 - 86 period and thereafter depicted a rising trend till 1989<br />
before falling in 1990-92. The mild fluctuations in the yield continued till 1998,<br />
F~gures 8.7 to 8.10 illustrate the relationship between the water level and the<br />
p~scifauna yield As evident from the Figures the water level curve doesn't depict wide<br />
range of fluctuations over the study period and the water level hasn't gone down<br />
below 60 feet during the entire study period. It is evident from Table 8.4 that there is no<br />
slgnif~cant correlation between the water level and the catches of various fish species.<br />
Cat-flshes show negative correlation coefficient of -0.6 which suggests the increase in<br />
yield when water level was low and vice versa Figure 8.9 substantiates this fact. The<br />
water level curve illustrates a downward trend from 1979 to 1989 while the curve<br />
revresent~ng cat-fishes depict an upward trend and this trend reverses after 1990<br />
when the water level curve indicates a rising trend and the cat fishes yield depicts a<br />
downward slide. As per the reservoir operating regulations the water level of the<br />
has to be maintained at 46 feet for the aquaculture purpose.
The relationship between the inflow to the reservoir and the yield of the indivrdual<br />
species of fishes is indicated in Figures 8 11 to 8.15. The inflow Illustrates wide range<br />
of fluctuations over the years. The inflow depicted a declinrng trend from the years<br />
1979 to 1990 and registered a rising trend thereafter till 1996 -year of maximum inflow<br />
during the study period. The catches of Catla catla and L.rohita depict a downward<br />
trend till 1986 and thereafter there is an increasing trend till 1993 in case of Catla catla<br />
and till 1998 in case of L.rohita (Figure 8.11). Similarly, the minrmum yield in case of C.<br />
mrigal was observed during the period when, total inflow recorded in the reservoir was<br />
minimum (Figure 8 12). Figure 8.13 lllustrates the similar phenomenon of gradual<br />
decrease in the yield of L.fimbiatus and C.c~nhosa during the period of decrease In<br />
the total inflow. While, after 1990, the total inflow to the reservoir picked up, the<br />
catches of the above mentioned species continued slrding down. No signlflcant<br />
relationship IS observed between the inflow and the catches of Wallago attu and cat-<br />
f~shes<br />
Table 8.2 presents the correlation coefficients between the commercial catches of<br />
plsclfauna in the reservoir and the hydrological parameters. There is no significant<br />
correlatlon of the catches with the annual rainfall. Catches of Catla catla, L.rohita, L.<br />
hmbriatus, C, cirrhosa and Wallago attu depict a negative correlations while that of<br />
9 . . A mild positive b~it<br />
C carpro and cat-fishes have n correlation at all.<br />
,> 0isp"'<br />
insignificant correlation between the catches of the fishes categorised as others and<br />
/<br />
C.mrrga1, w~th the annual precipitation. Catches of C.mriga1, C. carpio, C.orrhosa,<br />
wattu and cat-fishes illustrate negative correlatlon with water level while that of<br />
1 hmbrialus registers nc correlation.The yields of Call; catla, L.rohita L.caiabasu and<br />
others depict mild positive but insignificant correlation with reservoir water level<br />
(Table 8.2)<br />
No slgnrficant correlation between the catches and annual rnflow to the reservorr 1s<br />
discerned. Catches of C.carpro, L.fimbriatus, artd L.calabasu are negatively correlated<br />
while those of C.mrigal and C.cirrhosa are independent of the influence of the inflow.<br />
Annual yields of Catla calla and L.rohila have very slight insrgniflcant correlation whlle<br />
the species categorised as others have slight (0.4) correlation with reservoir inflow.<br />
The coefficients of correlation between the catches of various fish species for the<br />
Perrod are depicted as Table 8 3. The annual yields of Catla catla correlates<br />
Positively with L.rohita C.mrigal, L.fimbiatus, C.cirrhasu and W.attu and negatively<br />
W'th C carpio, L.calabasu, cat-fishes and others. The correlations are insignificant
except that for with L.fimbriatus (0.6) and C.cirrhosa (0.6). Catch of L.rohita does not<br />
deplCt any significant correlation with the catch of other species except for C.carp10 (-<br />
0.6) Yield of C.mrigal correlates positively with L.fimbna1us L.calabasu, C.cirrhosa,<br />
WaHu and cat-fishes. The correlations are slight and insignificant. Catch of C.ca,pio<br />
does not illustrate any significant correlation with the catches of other species. The<br />
yield of L.fimbriatus shows strong correlation w~th that of C.cirrhosa. Yield pattern of<br />
other fish species (others) correlates negatively with most of the fishes except with that<br />
of L.roh~ta, L.calabasu and cat-fishes but the correlations are insignificant.<br />
The average zoomass perfish of the various species of fish is represented in Figures<br />
8 16 and 8 17. The zoomass of Catla catla followed a steep downslide from 9.7 kg in<br />
1979-80 to 2.9kg in 1998. L.rohita ~llustrated a steady zoomass of 1.5-1.7kg after a<br />
sharp fall in 1983 to 0.3kg. C, mrigal also had a steady zoomass over the years while<br />
the zoomass of C.carpro was, gradually reduced to 1.5-1.6 kg in 1997-1998 from 4.9<br />
kg In 1979- 80 (Figure 8 16). Walago attu specles featured a slight increase in its<br />
zoomass durlng the initial periods till 1982 and thereafter marked a slight reduct~on<br />
before picking in 1987 and falling back in 1988. The zoomass was almost steady<br />
thereafter. L hmbriatus marked a steady zoornass over the years (Figure 8 17)<br />
L calabasu registered a steady decline in its zoomass from Ikg in 1980 to 0.6 kg in<br />
1998. Zoornass of cat-fishes was steady over the years while that of C.cirrhosa<br />
illustrated slight fluctuations reducing to 0.9 kg In 1994 from 2 kg in 1986. With the<br />
exception of CaHa calla, L.rohita, C.carpio and Wallago attu rest of the piscifauna<br />
Illustrated more or less constant zoomass per fish.<br />
Figure 8.18 depicts the distribution patterns of the piscifauna catch from the reservoir<br />
over the years. Years 1978 and 1979 were marked by the dorn~nance of Calla catla,<br />
whlch comprised of more than 50% of the total piscifauna catch followed by L.fotllta.<br />
Years 1980-81 featured an increase in the C. rnrigal catch but the pattern reverted In<br />
'$82 when again the Catla calla yield was the highest (69%). There was an even<br />
dlstrlbut~on of the catches in 1983, when Calla calla yield fell to 27% and C. mrigal and<br />
Lfohita yields increased to 25.4% and 18.6% respectively. L.calabasu also had an<br />
yield of 9.8% of the total catch in the same year.<br />
From 1984-87 there was an increase in the catch of L.calabasu and decrease In<br />
calla yield. Cat-fishes also recorded increased yield during these periods. In<br />
lge8 cat-fishes had 19.8% of the share in total catch. After 1989 again there was<br />
Increase in Catla catla yield and the cat-fishes declined. Other unidentified, small
flshes like Tilapia and some cat-fishes also illustrated a slight increase in their catch<br />
and became predominant in 1996 when the catches of the other fishes were very low<br />
L rohita and C mrigal maintained appreciable catch during the entire study period.<br />
Catch of L.ro11ita was highest In 1995 (31.6%). With all these variations in catch, the<br />
pattern ~n 1997-98 is marked with the dominance of Calla calla, followed by L.rol~ita,<br />
C mrigal and L.calabasu. Yields of other species have been reduced to almost nil, thus<br />
h~ghllghtlng the fact that these four species have established themselves well in the<br />
reservolr.<br />
Introduction of exotic species is an important casual factor in threats to some native<br />
or endemlc species because the Invaders usually have fast growth rate, strong<br />
resistance to extreme environments, a wide food spectrums and high reproduction rate<br />
(Xie and Chen. 1999; D~amond and Case, 1986).<br />
The variation in the production the fishes over the years can also be explained due to<br />
alteration in the physlcal and chemical environment of the habitat which may lead to<br />
tertlary Impacts on flshes through trophlc, host paraslte, food, habitat competition or in<br />
other ways (Ruggles & Watt, 1975; Jessop, 1990b.) Phys~olog~cal changes in blota<br />
may be ~nduced by fluctuations in water level, sediment ioading, transparency, draw<br />
down, precipitation etc (Baxter and Glaude, 1980; Bernacsek 1984)<br />
From the preceding ~mpact studies it is clear that these hydrological conditions are<br />
IIO! the only factors influencing the flsh yield. Water quality plays a major role In<br />
deterrnlning the production of fisher in a particular area. The sediment released in to<br />
the reservolr increases turbidity and can settle out on the eggs and can be detrimental<br />
to ernbryonlc development as confirmed by other authors too (Zhong and Power. 1996;<br />
Fudge and Bodily, 1984) The increase In the total sollds over the years as depicted In<br />
Figure 9 6 may thus have a profound impact on f~sh production. Rise in pH, alkalinity,<br />
hardness, total dissolved solids and other ions also affect the fish y~eld. The pH and<br />
alkalinity concentrations of the reservoir water exceed the standards for permissible<br />
limits specified for fish culture (Table 9.23).<br />
Depletion of dissolved oxygen is the main parameter governing the survival of the<br />
fishes in a lake (Bodaly and Rosenberg, 1990; Ruggles and Watt, 1975). The vertlcal<br />
gradients of the dissolved oxygen during the survey period is depicted in Figures 9 16<br />
and 9.17. Tables 9.24 and 9.26 present an account of the D.0 concentration various<br />
Sites and limnions during the study period. The maximum epilirnnetic D.0 recorded<br />
Was 6 2 mgl.' in June and minimum hypolimnetic D.0 was recorded as 1.3 mgl' in
july An ambient D 0 level of 3 mgl ' IS recommended for the su~lval of flsher (Table<br />
g 23) Fish kills generally over due to the shortage of oxygen and this was confirmed<br />
by some local fishermen that during the past four - five years many fishes and<br />
ftngerlrngs were found dead and some were suffering from some mysterious disease<br />
Over fishing also contributes greatly to the changes in the fish community (Xle and<br />
Chen 1999 Zhang et al 1991 Chang et al 1995 Nikolskii 1969) Though the officials<br />
vehemently denied this phenomenon taking place in Sathanur reservorr the talks wlth<br />
the local fishermen did reveal that illegal flshlng does take place especially In the upper<br />
reaches of the reservoir<br />
Table 8 2 presents the average sta dard deviation and coefficient of variation for the<br />
y eld of individual fish species C carpio has the maximum coefficient of variation<br />
followed by L hmbnatus and C c~rrhosa referring to maximum fluctuations In their<br />
yields C carpio and L c~rrhosa registered nil ylelds during the study period Wallago<br />
attu and L rohita depict the least flueetuatlons signifying more or less steady yield In<br />
the hydrological parameters water level depict least fluctuat~on followed by rainfall<br />
Inflow registers the maximum C V of 91 4%<br />
Catch per hectare of the reservoir catchment (~n kg) of the pisclfuana is represented<br />
in Table 8 5 Ttte total catch per hectare in 1998 stood at 84 kg The contributton in<br />
dominantly from Calla calla (29 3 kg) L roh~ta (24 4 kg) C mrigai (99 kg) and<br />
L calahasu (12 6 kg) (Table 8 5)<br />
Figure 8 19 illustrates the trends between the fish seed production and revenue<br />
earned Revenue marks a h~gher trend line compared to the flsh seed production<br />
which came down heavily after 1989 and after displaying a sllght rise after 1993 again<br />
fell sharply in 1998 In contrast revenue kept climbing up after a steep decllne ~n 1990<br />
Figure 8 20 illustrates the relationship between total fish catch and revenue<br />
generated The trend llne for fish catch registers a down slide while that for revenue<br />
marks an ascent Though the total catch of the reservoir has come down In the recent<br />
Years there has been a steady rise In the revenue due to increased prlce of the<br />
Produce The details are represented in Table 8 6 Table 8 7 furnishes the detalls<br />
'egardlng the expenses rncurred and profit earned from the Sathanur reservotr<br />
fsherles (till 1997) There has been a remarkable revenue of RS 1 3 millions (till 1997)
Table 8.6 Detalls of total catch, fish seed productlon and revenue generated for the<br />
past twenty years<br />
Total hsh catch Flsh seed product~oti<br />
Year Quantlty Value auantlty Value<br />
(Tonnes) (mllllon rupees) (Tonnes) _(mn!lon rupees)<br />
1977-78 182 00 10 152 40 08<br />
1978-79 128 00 0 9<br />
1979-80 158 00 10<br />
1980-81 237 14 15<br />
1981 -82 156 81 12<br />
1982-83 156 75 12<br />
1983-84 53 14 0 4<br />
1984-85 52 56 0 4<br />
1985-86 53 83 0 5<br />
1986-87 102 99 0 9<br />
1987-88 126 02 11<br />
1988-89 169 64 15<br />
1989-90 145 32 15<br />
1990-91 105 69 12<br />
1991 -92 105 72 13<br />
1992-93 165 05 2 3<br />
1993-94 140 48 2 2<br />
1994-95 80 06 15<br />
1995-96 142 64 2 3<br />
1996-97 133 82 3 0<br />
1997-98 11376 2 8<br />
(Till Dec' 97) -<br />
Table 8.7 Expenses and proflt detalls (till December 1997)<br />
Income Expenditure ~~erat~ng
Year<br />
--Total catch +Inflow<br />
Figure 8.15 Impact of inflow on total fish catch In Sathanur reservoir
9.0 INTRODUCTION<br />
Chapter 9<br />
Reservoir water quality<br />
Artific~al lakes which result from the impoundment of water behind a dam are<br />
Iininologically d~fferent from natural lakes in several respects The hydrology 1s<br />
tll'ferent Firstly in natural lakes water goes out as overflow of the epilininic layers but<br />
in reservoirs made for irrigation it IS the hypollmnic water that is generally released<br />
from the sluices to the irrigation canals Secondly the water level fluctuat~ons In such<br />
reservoirs are incessant and sharp compared to slow and steady changes in water<br />
levels that occur in natural lakes. In terms of chemistry and biology, too, man-made<br />
reservoirs are different from natural lakes In the former an essentially lotic habitat is<br />
Suddenly changed to a lentlc one. This has far reaching impacts on the chemistry the<br />
water and the biota.<br />
Studies on the water quality of man-made reservoirs are important because they<br />
reflects the impacts of the hydrologic regime associated with the operation of the<br />
leservoir. They also reflect the impacts of what is happening to the feeder river<br />
'pstream, and of the land-use in the catchment Above all, a study of the water quallty<br />
Of Ihe reservoir is essential to assess the fitness of the water for various purposes -<br />
, ""gation, drinking, other domestic use, and industry.
In this chapter we present a study of the water quality of Sathanur reservoir on the<br />
basls of our analysis of the historic data obtained from Public Works Department<br />
,pWD) as well as extensive experimentation undertaken by us<br />
g I STATUS<br />
Data pertaining to the water quality of the Sathnur reservoir, for a period of e~ght years<br />
(1990 - 98). was collected from the SRP author~t~es and IS presented as Table 9 1 The<br />
water quallty data for the Pick-up dam was sought from the office of Thiruvannamalai<br />
Muii~crpallty and is presented as Table 9 2 The mlnirnum and maximum values of<br />
various limnological parameters for the study periods for Sathanur reservoir have been<br />
ylven In Tables 9 3 to 9 13, and that for Pick-up dam in Tables 9 14 to 9 21 Table<br />
9 22 presents the details of various preservation techniques for physico-chemical<br />
parameters Table 9 23 presents a comparative account of the water quality of<br />
reservoir and Pick-up dam with that of the permissible limits of various phys~co-<br />
cliern~cal parameters as specrf~ed In lnd~an standards of water for varrous usages<br />
Stratification studies for the reservoir were conducted during the months of June 99<br />
and July 99 when the outflow from the reservoir was nil Normally the water is<br />
released downstream from the reservoir till the middle of the May Thus, June and<br />
July were considered the ideal months to study the stratification pattern of the<br />
leservoir along w~th other limnological parameters Primary productivity studres were<br />
also undertaken during this time The results are represented in Tables 9 24 to 9 27<br />
rigures 9 1 to 9 9 depict the variations in tile Iimnological parameters of the reservoir<br />
The impact of preciprtation, ~f any, on the concentration of the parameters, has also<br />
been assessed F~gure 9 10 indicates the relatronship between the outflow, iciflow and<br />
precipltatlon for the reservoir for the study period The physico-chemical parameters of<br />
Pck-up dam as function of outflow from the reservoir, over a period of time, have been<br />
Plotled as Figure 9 11 to 9 15<br />
The parameters and the time scale thus selected for study~ng the trend were chosen<br />
3' '0 represent the influence of varioLis hydrological features viz inflow, o~rtflow<br />
level and precip~tatlon on them The reservoir operation In terms of ~mpoundlng<br />
"'rluw and releasing water downstream has been dealt in detail In chapter 10
9.2 IMPACTS<br />
9.2.1 Sathanur reservoir.<br />
pH<br />
Figure 9 1 presents the variation in pH values and the Impact of rainfall on the values<br />
There is a slight Increasing trend in the pH values and so also in the rainfall recelved in<br />
tile reservoir site during the study period. The pH values range form 7.2 (12194) to 8.0<br />
(7198) over the study perlod (Table 9 4) There is no marked consistency between the<br />
patterns of rainfall and pH values (Figure 9 1).<br />
Electrlcal Conductrvrty (E.C)<br />
The E C values as a function of tlme and preclpltatlon have been plotted In F~gure 9 2<br />
There has been an Increasing trend ln the E C values of the reservoir as ind~cated in<br />
the Flgure The values range from 336 11 mhos cm' (11192) to 812 1, mhos cml<br />
(6'97) as inferred from the Table 9 5 The E C values and ralnfall correlate negatively<br />
as iridicated ~n the Figure 9 1 When the rainfall rece~ved In the tract was hlgh the E C<br />
ialues in the reservolr were recorded to be low and vice-versa This is an expected<br />
tiend as the ra~nfall wh~ch IS low in E C (60) causes d~lut~on of the reservolr water<br />
Alkalrnrty<br />
The alkalinity values as a funct~on of t~me are presented in Figure 9 3 Impact of rainfall<br />
on the alkalinity concentrations are also dep~cted There is a rlse ~n the alkalin~ty values<br />
as inferred from the trend The values range from 26 mg 1 ' (12196) to 420 mg 1 '<br />
111196) The values correlate negatively w~th that of the amount of ra~nfall received in<br />
'lie tract The values were hlgher when the ra~nfall recorded at the site was less and<br />
lower when the rainfall registered was more<br />
Total hardness<br />
The total hardness of the reservoir water is also on a rise as indicated by the trendline<br />
(rlgure 9 4) There IS no marked consistency in the patterns dep~cted by the total<br />
Ilardness values and the amount of ra~nfall received In the tract The values range from<br />
'25 mg I' (1 1190) to 275 mg l ' (12196) as Inferred from Table 9 11<br />
Calcium hardness<br />
A slight increasing trend in the values of calcium hardness is observed in Figure 9.5<br />
values de~ ct a slight consistency w~th the amount of rainfall received the region
(Figure 9 5). the values range from 826 mg 1" (1192) to 38 mg 1.' (11195) (Table 9.8).<br />
~11ght reduction in the concentration of calcium hardness has been observed for the<br />
past three years (Table 9.1)<br />
Solids<br />
The concentrations of total dissolved solids, total suspended solids and total solids as<br />
a function of time are depicted in Figure 9.6 An increasing trend is observed in all the<br />
three parameters The total solids and rainfall values correlate negatively as inferred<br />
fiom the Figure The values were recorded to be less when the aniount of rainfall<br />
lecelved ~n the tract was more. Values of TDS were also observed to be less when<br />
the ralnfall recorded in the tract was more. The values of suspended solids (Table 9 6)<br />
fanged from 2 mg 1' (6194) to 267 mg 1.' ( 6198) and that of dissolved solids from 175<br />
mg I ' (1 1192) to 438 mg I ' (6197) as evident from the Table 9 7. The minimum value of<br />
total solids was recorded as 238 mg 1.' (1 1192) and maxlmum 626 mg 1.' (6198) as<br />
alesented In Table 9 10<br />
Chloride<br />
There has been a steady increase In the chloride values as evident from the trend line<br />
(Figure 9 7) The chloride concentratlon correlates negatively with the rainfall values<br />
thouqh the correlatlon IS incons~stent over the st~ldy perlod The chlorlde concentratlon<br />
varies from 28 4 mg I' (1 1192) to 152 4 mg I ' (7197) as observed in Table 9 9<br />
Magnes~um and sulphate<br />
There IS a marked rise ~n the magneslum concentration as Inferred from the<br />
magnesium trend lhne (Figure 9 8) The sulphate values also feature a slight uprislng<br />
trend There is a r~egatlve correlatlon between the magneslum concentration and the<br />
alnount of rainfall recelved at the reservoir site A slight posltive correlation is observed<br />
lje'ween the sulphate concentration and the ralnfall values The magnesium<br />
concentration in the reservoir ranged form 10 8 mg I' (1 1190) to 50 4 mg I ' (9196) whlle<br />
tile sulphate values varied from 6 7 mg l ' (10194) to 32 6 mg l ' (6195) as presented in<br />
rabies 9 12 and 9 13 respectively The Flgure 9 9 illustrates the relationship between<br />
the Patterns of inflow outflow and rainfall In the reservoir durlng the study perlod<br />
The rEservolr water depicts an alkaline nature wlth alkaline pH throughout the study<br />
period AS the pH 1s a function of carbonates bicarbonates and total alkal~nitles<br />
'Gu~ta 1992), the values of total alkalin~ty above 60 ppm indicate nutrlent rlch
cor~dition (Spencer, 1964) The alkalinity in the reservoir is lnainiy due to bicarbonates<br />
and the values are more than 100 mg I' throughout the study period. High bicarbonate<br />
alkalinity values are also ind~cative of eutrophic nature of water body (Moss, 1973,<br />
Munawar 1970). Thus, the Sathanur reservoir is 'high' category of nutrient types after<br />
the classification of Philipose (1960), having values >I00 mg I-'. According to Moyie's<br />
cr~teria (1946) the reservoir is a hard water body due to alkalinity above 40 ppm The<br />
alkaline nature of the water can also be attributed to the presence of h~gh<br />
concentration of calcium due to calcium rich rocks ~n the study area. Similar studles<br />
[lave been reported by Zutshi et al (1980) Seasonal fluctuat~ons in water level 1s<br />
reported to have a significant effect over pH and alkalinity (Holden and Green, 1960,<br />
Tallng and Rzoska, 1967 and Adibisi, 1981)<br />
Eiectr~cal conductiv~ty IS a function of total dissolved sollds wl-~ich are further<br />
nfluenced by the catlons and anions present in the water body.High values of E C<br />
reflects h~gh level of enrichment (Berg et.al. 1958) Rawson (1960) categorized the<br />
water bodies hav~ng E.C above 200 11 mhos cm.' as eutrophic which su~ts Sathanur<br />
ieservotr as well The steady Increase in the E C. values ~n the reservoir over the<br />
peiiod are the direct manifestations of the increase in the concentrations of chloride,<br />
~alcurn. sulphate and magnesium ions Hlgh level of chloride is an index of organic<br />
pollution (Munawar. 1970) Similar concept has been presented by other authors too<br />
An Increase ~n the amount of excreta laid by various aquatic fauna may account for<br />
"crease In chlor~de concentration. (Cole. 1979, Pandey and Mishra, i991). The roles<br />
of chlor~de based fertilizers and chemicals have also been discussed by several<br />
workers (Pawar and Shaikh, 1995)<br />
The Sathanur reservoir IS an actlve site for aquaculture which is practiced mainly in<br />
tile form of fisheries (Chapter 8). The reservoir also supports crocodiles (C pallrslrls)<br />
and several other fauna. The upstream of the reservoir is an agrarian site w~th many<br />
ofher major and minor projects in operation (Chapter 3). Thus, the chlorides and other<br />
Ions such as sulphates may be a result of agricultural run - off too. Several factors<br />
SLIcll as depth, sedimentation, deforestation, agricultural practices, so11 erosion. and<br />
other anthropogenic factors influence the l~mnitlc loading rate of the reservoir as<br />
by other such studies on the water quality of water bodies (Whitemore et al.<br />
'997: Jin et.al, 1990; Golterman et.al, 1983)
9.2 2 Pick-up dam<br />
Turbidity<br />
he ti~rbld~ty values of the P~ck-LIP dam ranqed from 4 NTU (7185) to 40 NTU (10186)<br />
(Table 9 14) There is a declin~ng trend In the values over the study period (F~gure<br />
9 10)<br />
P"<br />
Tlie pH values of the Pick-up dam varied form 7.6 (12190 to 8.6 (8190) as presented in<br />
Table 9 15. The pH values dep~ct a slight decltnlng trend (Figure 9.11). No sign~f~cant<br />
correlat~on between the pH and the reservolr outflow IS observed (Figure 9.1 1).<br />
Electrical Conductivity (E.C) and total hardness<br />
Tile values of E C and total hardness also dep~ct a decl~ning trend and there IS a sl~glit<br />
negatve correlat~on between the E C and hardness concentration w~th that of reservolr<br />
outflow (F~gure 9 12) The E C value In the P~ck-up dam var~ed from 310 11 mhos cm '<br />
(12 92) to 680 11 mhos cm' (12195) as observed from Table 9 18 The hardness<br />
values range between 102 mg I' (1 1191) to 176 mg l'(5186) as Inferred from Table<br />
9 21<br />
Alkalm~ly and total solrds<br />
Tlie conceritrat~ons of alkaltnity and total sol~ds are plotted as a funct~on of tlme and<br />
reservolr outflow in Ftgure 9 13 As Inferred from the Figure there are declining trends<br />
In the concentrattons of both the parameters even though they were on the rlse flom<br />
1993-95 Values of reservolr outflow correlates negatively with that of the<br />
concentrattons of alkal~n~ty and total solids<br />
AS lnd~cated In Table 9 19 the alkalintty values ranged w~thln 122 mg 1 ' (12 90) to<br />
240 mg I' (12195) The values of total soltds vary from 210 mg I' (10188) to 460 mg I'<br />
15/86] (Table 9 20)<br />
Chloride<br />
Tile chlor~de values as a function of reservoir outflow and time are depicted in Flgure<br />
l4 There is a slight increasing trend observed in the chloride concentration and the<br />
values Correlate negatively with that of reservoir outflow The minimum and maximum<br />
chloride values fluctuated from 31mg 1.' (12192;11/94) to 92 mg 1.' (12195) (Table 9.16)
,quoride and iron<br />
The fluoride and iron values over the study period as a function of reservoir outflow are<br />
esented In Figure 9 15 There is a marked decline In the concentrations of both the<br />
as inferred from the respective trendl~nes The values correlate negat~vely<br />
.,ti1 the reservolr outflow but at many point of time the cons~stency is lost (F~g~ire<br />
q 151 The fluoride concentration In the Plck-up dam for the study period ranged from<br />
0 2 ing l ' (6193) to 0 8 mg l ' (3185,6185 5186) as indicated in Table 9 17<br />
Tile lron values var~ed form 0 05 mg I' (10188 11/93 8194 and 12/95) to 1 6 mg I'<br />
(10186) (Table 9 2)<br />
The relat~vely low values of all the limnolog~cal parameters In Pick dam compared to<br />
ieservolr can be explained due to the dllution factor The P~ck - up datn IS s~tuated<br />
' kin downstream of the reservoir thus the water qual~ty changes because of<br />
itrat~on settl~ng and other natural processes Table 9 23 presents a comparat~ve<br />
account of the water quality of reservolr and Pick-up dam with lrid~an Standards for<br />
d~fferent usages of water The pH level of both reservoir and Plck-lip dam are more<br />
:han the desirable lhmit for drlnklng water fish culture and swlmming purposes The<br />
alkal~n~ty values of reservoir also exceed the lhmits set for drinking water and f~sh<br />
culture Other parameters are well within range for all the usages (Table 9 23)<br />
9.3 STRATIFICATION STUDIES OF THE RESERVOIR<br />
Materials and methods<br />
Maleiials<br />
The rnater~als used for various analytical purposes were as follows<br />
t'eoycrils<br />
Ihe reagents used were analyt~cal grade and had an assay of moie than 95%<br />
urless otherwise mentioned De~onized and doubly distilled water were used for all the<br />
anaytlcal work All the reagents were prepared fresh and standardlsed as and when<br />
Wred, except for SnC14, which has a consistency of over 6 months<br />
(APHA 17th ed.)<br />
Pi2slfc-ware aiid glassware<br />
Plast~c ware used for sample collection were made up of temperature and scratch<br />
as well as odour - free material. Alkali and temperature resistant vensii and<br />
borosll glassware were used for estimation purposes.
Eq~~pment<br />
?he following equlpments were used for all the analyt~cal work<br />
I<br />
I 1<br />
pH EP - pH electron~c paper Hanna ~nstruments range 0-14 0 pH resolr~t~ori<br />
0 IpH accuracy +O 2 pH<br />
Systronics Grlph 'D' pH meter 327 range 0-14 pH relat~ve accuracy !: 0 05 pH<br />
readab~l~ty + 0 01 pH<br />
Na~na digital f~eld conduct~v~ty meter NDC 730 range '00 11 rnhos - 100 11<br />
mhos in 3 ranges automatic temperature compensat~o~ from 10°C - 60°C<br />
v Systronics d~ssolved oxygen meter a battery operated portable Instrument for<br />
tile estlmatlon of DO and temperature measurement DO IS ind cated in ppm<br />
and temperature ~n OC The DO ranges are automatically temperature<br />
compensated for the solubll~ty of oxygen rn water and permeabirty of the probe<br />
~nembrane Salinity compensat~on IS manual Probe IS clark type memberanc<br />
covered polarograph~c sensor DO accuracy +I% of full scale at callbration<br />
temperature or 0 1 ppm temperature accuracy +O 5°C<br />
I Anamed Top Pan electron~c balance MX 7301A capac~ty 100gms resolut~on<br />
+ 0 001gms<br />
\I Roy top pan balance KTP - 200 CSI capaclty 2kg Senslt~v~ty 0 Igm<br />
VI Systronics UV - v~s~ble spectrophotometer 108 photometric range accuracy +<br />
0 005 absorpt~on at 1 absorpt~on repeatabtl~ty 0 002 absorpt~on at 1<br />
absorpt~on cuvettes 10 mm<br />
,111 Hemco oven range 30°C - 50°C<br />
y Tarsons vaccum f~lter 250ml capac~ty<br />
X Van dohr sampler<br />
kllrods<br />
Seech~ disk<br />
tt'ater quality sampling<br />
'be sampl~ng for the stratification stud~es was done in the months of June and July<br />
There IS no oufflow during these months . These months were ideal for stratifcation<br />
Studies because monsoon breaks only during the last week of July or the first week of<br />
The water from reservoir is let downstream for irrigation purposes till the<br />
"Iddie of the May.
samples were collected from the nine spots. Three parallel spots at the confluence of<br />
and reservoir (sites A D and G), three parallel sites at the middle of the reservoir<br />
jstes B,E and H) and three parallel sites near ttie dam structure (sites C,F, and I). Site<br />
c (tile ni~d po~nt of the reservoir) was selected for vertical gradient sampling.<br />
A motor boat, courtesy Tamil Nadu Fisheries Development Corporation (TNFDC).<br />
Sathanur dam, was employed for collecting samples with the help of a Van - dohr<br />
sampler The surface samples were collected just below sub - surface (0.5m from the<br />
,,i,fnce), at the column depth and just above the bottom of the reservoir avoiding the<br />
sed\iiienls At the site E, samples were collected at the depth of every two meters All<br />
tl?p samples were collected in the plastic water cans of 2 litre capacity and preserved<br />
for furtt~er analyses (Table 9 22). The most changeable and sensitive parameters like<br />
iemperature, dissolved oxygen and electrical conductivity were analysed 'in - situ'<br />
:,11aiytrci11 i~iethods<br />
ior this study, the most advanced methods were utilized. The bulk parameters were<br />
analysed following the latest and internationally accepted techniques (APHA,1992,<br />
AShasi 1995) The metal contents of the samples were analyzed by the state - of the<br />
all !,c.cliique of AAS-GF (Graphite furnace) for copper, chromium and cadm~um and<br />
.;SS-Flanie for zlnc in collaboration with Geological survey of I~dia, Chennai Sod!um<br />
~I!:I I~otossium were analysed by flame pliotometer teclinique. Tile folloviing iiietliods<br />
#]ere used for est~mating varlous water quality parameters<br />
Esiri~iabor~ of pH<br />
oil was est~mated potent~ometr~cally uslng the pH meter cal~brated with freshly<br />
Prepared bu'fer solut~ons As pH IS a function of temperature temperature of samples<br />
$,ere also recorded The samples were st~rred wh~le record~ng the results for<br />
malntalnlng the un~formity<br />
Es~ll17alior~ of susperlded solids<br />
liiese were estrmated gravimetrically. A well mixed sample was filtered through a<br />
Dlevou~ly weighed standard glass fibre filter paper and the residue retarned on the<br />
''Iter Paper was dried to a constant weight of 103OC - 105°C. The increase in weight of<br />
filter paper represented the total suspended solids. Care was taken to exclude<br />
Iaige sample sizes to prevent formation of water - entrapping crust on the filter paper<br />
due excessive residue.
-,limation of total dissolved solids<br />
These, too, were estimated gravimetrically. a well mixed sample was filtered through a<br />
glass fibre filter paper and the filtrate was evaporated to dryness in a pre-<br />
w,lghed porcelain dish and dried to constant weight at 180°C. The increase in dish<br />
w,lght represented the total dissolved solids. Care was taken to exclude large sample<br />
sizes to prevent formation of water - entrapping crust on the filter paper due to<br />
residue.<br />
Estimation of acidity<br />
~cldlty was estimated by volumetric method using acid - base titration, where the<br />
sample was titrated against a strong base, generally, sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The<br />
amount of base used to ralse the pH of the sample to designeated levels was taken as<br />
a measure of acidity of the sample.<br />
Estirnat~on of alkalinity<br />
Aikalln~ty was estimated by volumetric method using acid - base titration, where the<br />
sample was t~trated against a strong mineral acid, generally hydrochloric acld (HCI)<br />
The amount of acid used to raise though pH of the sample to designated levels, was<br />
taken as a measure of alkalinity of the sample lnd~cator titration's with coloured or<br />
turb~d samples was avoided. In such cases, alkalinity was estimated potentiometr~cally<br />
Esbmation of hardness<br />
Hardness was estimated by complexometric titration method, where the sample was<br />
tltrated against di - sodium salt of EDTA with suitable metallochromic indictors like<br />
camag~te Heavy metal ions which interfere during hardness estimation was inhibited<br />
using sodium sulphide (Na2S).0rganic matter interference was also removed by<br />
dr~lng the sample and then heating in muffle furnace.<br />
Esfrrnatron of chloride (CI)<br />
Chloride was estimated through argentometric precipitation titration of neutral or<br />
Sllghtl~ alkaline samples against standard silver nitrate solution. On highly coloured<br />
where the endpoint could not be identified easily, aluminum hydroxide [*I<br />
(OH,)] was added and this mixed solution was allowed to settle and then filtered. This<br />
''Itrate was then used for further estimation.
~~t~mafion of dissolved oxygen (DO)<br />
DO was estimated by Winkler's iodometric method based upon redox reaction of<br />
manganese salt. It was reacted in the presence of oxygen with potassium iodide and<br />
the l~berated iodine was titrated against standard sodium thio-sulphate (NA2S203). In<br />
order to remove the effect of interfering mater~als, the azide modification of the<br />
W~nkler's method was used.<br />
Esfrmabon of sulphates (Sod)<br />
Sulphate in samples was estimated by turbidimetric method, where sulphate ion was<br />
prec~pitated in an acetic acid medium with barium chior~de (BaCI2) to form barium<br />
sulphate (BaSo4) crystals. The light absorbance of the (BaSo,) suspension was<br />
measured by a spectrophotometer at 420 nm and the sulphate ion concentration was<br />
then determined by comparing the reading with a standard curve.<br />
Estrrnaliori of phosphorus<br />
Phosphorus was determined as phosphates (P04) by stannous chlor~de method.<br />
Dissolved phosphorus was analysed after filtering the samples through a 0.45 11<br />
membrane filter. The glasswares were rinsed w~th warm HCI. The membrane filters<br />
were soaked for more than 24 hours in 500 ml, distilled water and further their<br />
contribution of PO4 to the samples was checked for and corrections were made for all<br />
the determination of dissolved phosphates.<br />
Estimation of nitrogen<br />
Nitrate nitrogen was determined by phenol-di-sulphonic ac~d method<br />
9.3.1 Results and discussions<br />
pH<br />
The pH ranged from 8.2 to 8.7 during June (Table 9.24) and 7.9 to 8.7 during July<br />
(Table 9.26). The maximum gradient in pH was observed at site 'E' in June and<br />
Site and F in July. The hypolimnetic zone at most of the sites had less alkallne pH<br />
to epilimnion but the gradient was just one or two units. At site E, though a<br />
fall In pH is observed but it is not uniform at the depth of every two meters. The<br />
decline in PH is obvious only after 14m or 16m.
The EC values ranged from 670 p mhos cm" to 740 1, mhos cm" In both June and<br />
july month (Tables 9 24 and 9 26) Hyplol~mnetic EC values are hlgher than the<br />
eplllmnlon at all the sites, except slte G dung July where EC was observed to be<br />
higher In the e~lllmnlon (740 11 mhos cm") The dlfference between the eptlimnlnon<br />
and hypollmnlon EC 1s not slgnlficant as lt varles only from 10 - 40 unlts There IS also<br />
,, marked unlform rlse In the EC values at every two metres depth as observed at s~te<br />
E during June and July The EC values Sl~ghtly fall at a depth of 12 - 14 m before<br />
picking up sharply at 18 m depth<br />
Temperature<br />
The ep~l~mnion temperature ranged from 23" C - 24 5 OC and the hypol~mn~on<br />
temperature ranged from 14 5°C - 22°C during June month (Table 9 24) During the<br />
iiionth of July the epllmnion temperature recorded at varluos sites vaned from 26 2°C -<br />
27'C while the hypollmnet~c temperature var~ed from 19 4°C to 24°C (Table 9 26) The<br />
h~ghest thermal grad~ent observed durlng the June month was at slte 'E' followed by<br />
s~te 'F' where the eptllmnion and hypoltmn~on temperature d~fference was 10% and<br />
9 5 C for a depth of 18m and 21 m respectively The mlnlmum thermal grad~ent, of<br />
2 6'C was at slte 'G' (5m deep) the h~ghest grad~ent of 7 5°C was observed at slte E<br />
In July followed by s~te 1 (7 4°C) The mlnlmum thermal grad~ent was observed at slte<br />
G (2 2")<br />
The fall ~n the temperature w~th depth from does not follow a un~form pattern as<br />
inferred from slte 'E' (Table 9 24) The decllne ~n temperature IS markedly prominent<br />
from 6 to 10 m depth In June (Table 9 24) The decllne ~n temperature observed to be<br />
homogenous In July (Table 9 26) when no sharp decltne IS notlced at any particular<br />
depth at s~te E Flgures 9 16 and 9 17 illustrate the trends of vertlcal gradient of<br />
temperature at site 'E' for June and July months The temperature was almost<br />
t~ll the depth of 4 m afler whlch ~t registered a fall fill the depth of 10 m<br />
Thereafter the temperature was more or less constant (Figure 19 6) In July a slight fall<br />
IS registered after a depth of 14 m whlch continued t~ll 18 m (Flgure 9 17)<br />
Dissolved oxygen<br />
The ePilimnlon DO was observed to vary between 5 6 mg 1.' to 6 1 mg 1.' during June<br />
24) and the hypollmnlon DO was recorded to fluctuate between 3 1 mg I ' to
5 1 mg I ' The lowest value of DO were recorded at the hypol~rnn~on of site 'F' (3 1 rng<br />
1 followed by Slte 'E' (3 2 mg 1") Highest hypolimnetlc DO was recorded at slte G<br />
(5 I rng I ') followed by Site A (4 3 mg I ') and slte D (4 1 mg I ') Maxlrnum epl~lmn~on<br />
DO was recorded at slte H (6 1 mg fl) as Inferred from Table 9 24<br />
In July the DO values were observed to vary from 5 mg I" to 5 3 rng I" In the<br />
epilimnion and 1 3 mg I" to 4 9 mg I.' In the hypollmn~on at various sites (Table 9 25)<br />
The h~ghest hypollmnetlc DO value was recorded at slte D and G (4 9 mg I.') The<br />
lowest value of hypollrnnetlc DO was observed at site E (1 3 mg I") followed by slte F<br />
(1 4 mg I ') The decllne In DO values was unlform till the depth of 14 m - 16m after<br />
which a sharp decllne was observed by a gradlent of 1 mgl" as Inferred from the<br />
values at site E (Tables 9 24 and 9 26)<br />
The vertlcal gradients In dissolved oxygen are graphically lllustrated as Flgure 9 16<br />
and 9 17 for June and July months respectively In June the DO fell by one unlt at a<br />
depth of 4 m and sharply agaln at a depth of 16 rn (F~gure 9 16) The pattern 1s un~form<br />
otherwise In July a sharp fall In DO value by more than two unlts was observed at a<br />
depth of 14 m whlch fell further at a depth of 16 rn recording 1 3 mg I" at 18 m depth<br />
(F~gure 9 17)<br />
Alkalinity<br />
Alkallnlty In the form of bicarbonates lllustrated a maxlrnum gradlent of 48 mgi ' at site<br />
H In June (Table 9 24) and that of 30 mg 1" at slte G In July (Table 9 25) The<br />
epllimnion alkalinity values in June varied from 260 mg I" to 300 mg I.', rnaxlmurn<br />
belng at slte G The hypol~mnlon alkalin~ty value vaned from 280 mg 1.' to 320 rng l '<br />
with maxlmum value observed at slte I (Table 9 24)<br />
In July the maximum gradlent observed was 16 mg I" at slte D (Table 9 26) The<br />
eplllmn~on values var~ed from 252 rng l ' to 276 rng l ', the rnax!murn being at Site B<br />
and C The hypollmnet~c alkallnlty values varled from 268 mg 1.' to 284 mg l ' The<br />
h~polirnnlon values were higher at all the sltes The values don't show a uniform<br />
Pattern of gradlent wlth depth as Inferred from slte 'E' (Tables 9 24 and 9 26)<br />
Acidity<br />
The acldlty values were less, pointing towards the alkaline nature of the water body<br />
The eplllmnlon values in June varled from 16 mg I.' to 38 mg I.' the maxlmum belng at<br />
'Ite E (Table 9 24) The hypollmnlon values ranged from 22 mg l ' to 42 rng I ', the
maximum value observed at site E. The maximum gradient obse~ed was at sites A<br />
and I, with 8 mg 1.'.<br />
There was a slight increase in the acidity values in July, with the epilimnetic, values In<br />
JUIY, with the epilimnetic values ranging from 56 mg I'' to 60 mg I". The hypolimnetlc<br />
values ranged bemeen 64 mg 1.' to 72mg I.', maximum observed at slte A<br />
(Table 9.26).<br />
There was a pattern of increasing gradient from epilimnion to hypolirnnion at all the<br />
s~tes except at site 'C' in June (Table 9.24). There was no uniformity in the pattern of '<br />
the increase or decrease in the values depth wise as inferred from site E (Tables 9.24<br />
and 9 26)<br />
Hardness<br />
The eplllmnetlc total hardness concentration In June var~ed from 180 mg I' to<br />
186 mg I' and that of hypol~mnlon from 180 mg I ' to 198 mg I' maximum belng In the<br />
hypolmnlon slte I (Table 9 24) The maxlmum gradlent of 12 rng I ' for a depth of 18ni<br />
was observed at slte I S~mllar values of hardness were observed In July as well<br />
(Table 9 26) There was an Increase In the value vert~cally from eplllmnlon to<br />
hypol~mn~on at all the sites.<br />
Calclum hardness values in June ranged from 100 mg 1.' to 164 mg 1.' in the<br />
eplllmn~on and 148 mg I" to 188 mg I " in the hypolimnion (Table'9.24). The high<br />
calcium hardness values reflect their contribution in the total hardness values. There<br />
1s a marked fall in the calcium hardness values In July (Table 9.26). The epilimnion<br />
values ranged from 90 mg I-' to 105 mg I" wh~le the hypolimnion concentration varied<br />
from 82.5 mg I" to 135 mg I". An Increasing vertical gradient is observed, in the<br />
hardness values at all the sites but there is no marked pattern as evldent from the<br />
depth wise values at site E (Tables 9.24 and 9 26). A vertical gradlent of 8 mg 1.'<br />
observed at site E in June while in July it was 45 mg I" for the calcium hardness<br />
values. For total hardness the gradients were 16 mg 1.' and nil at site E in June and<br />
July respectively.<br />
Calcium<br />
The epilimnion concentration of calcium varied from 40 rng 1.' to 65.6 mg I.' and<br />
hy~olimnlon from 59.2 mg I-' to 75.2 mg 1.l in June (Table 9.24). In July the epilimnlon<br />
calcium values recorded ranged from 31 mg I.' to 42 rng 1.' and in hypolimnion the,<br />
values ranged from 33 mg I.' to 54 mg I.'. The lowest recorded values were at site I
(Eble 9.26). No marKea panern In tne vertcal graalent or tne calcium vzmmmr<br />
&served at Site 'E' at various depths (Tables 9.24 and 9.26). Hypolimnetic<br />
chloride<br />
of calcium was more than epilimnion concentration at all the sites.<br />
The epilimnetic chloride values ranged from 40 mg I" to 64 mg I" in June and that of<br />
hypollmnion varied from 50 mg f1 to 60 mg I". The values showed a marked Increase<br />
from epilimnion to hypolimnion at all the sltes except for sites C. G and I. The<br />
maximum gradient of 14 mg I" is observed at site G where the values decrease with<br />
depth (Table 8.24).<br />
In July, the epilimnetic chloride values were observed to range from 58 mg 1.' to 74mg<br />
I ' whlle that of hypolimnion from 72 mg 1.' to 80 mg I" (Table 9.26). There is a rise in<br />
the chlor~de concentration in the reservoir water in July month. The vert~cal gradients<br />
observed th~s particular month also less compared to the ones in June at various sites<br />
The maxlmum gradient of 14 mg I" for a depth of 10 m was observed at site A wh~le at<br />
other sltes the difference ranged from n ~l to 6 mg I" (Table 9.26).<br />
The change in the values from epilimnion to hypolimnion do not occur in a un~form<br />
fashlon as discerned from the depth wlse chloride values at site 'E'<br />
(Tables 9.24 and 9.26).<br />
Solids<br />
The total dissolved solids in the epilmnion at various sampling sites ianged froni 340<br />
mg l ' to 380 mg I" during the month of June (Table 9.24). The hypollmnet~c values<br />
ranged from 330 mg I" to 390 mg I" the maximum being at site E. The maximum<br />
vertical gradient of 30 mgl-' was also observed at site E. TDS values registered an<br />
increase in the hypolimnion except for site C whlch had higher value (340 mg 1.') in the<br />
eplllmnion<br />
In July also more or less similar values were observed (Table 9.26), the TDS values<br />
ranging from 350 mg I" to 380 mg I".<br />
Suspended solids have less contribution to the total solid contents of the reservoir as<br />
evident from their low values. The epilimnetic values in June varied from 18 mg 1.' to<br />
38 mg I.' while the hypolimnetic values varied from 10 mg I" to 36 mg 1'. (Table<br />
$.24). Similar values were observed in July too (Table 9.26)<br />
There is no strong stratification, in the reservoir in terms of the total solids as<br />
Observed at site E (Tables 9.24and 9.26). After a depth of 8 rn a continuous increase
the total solids at site E, in June, is observed (Table 9.24) but in July there is no<br />
such pattern (Table 9.26).<br />
sulphates<br />
The epillmnion sulphate values at various sltes in June varied from 10 mgl-' to<br />
18 3 mg 1.' while that in hypolimnion 17 mg I" to 40.8 mg I", the highest hypolimnion<br />
value recorded at site F at a depth of 21 m (Table 9.24). There was a slight decrease<br />
I" the values in July with epilimnetic values 10 mg I" to 13.7 mg I" and hypolimnet~c<br />
values 11.8 mg 1.' to 29.2 mg I' (Table 9.26). The hypolimnion sulphate values are<br />
higher at all the sites. There is no pattern in the vertical gradient of the sulphate<br />
concentration, as observed from the depth wise values at site E (Table 9.24 and 9.26).<br />
Nitrates and phosphates<br />
The epllimnion nitrate concentration ln June was recorded to range between<br />
0 09 mg 1.' to 0.9 mg 1.' while the hypolimnion nitrate concentration varied from<br />
1 1 mg 1.' to 2 7 mg 1.' (Table 9.24). Hypolimnetic concentration was recorded higher<br />
at all the sites Similar values were recorded in July (Table 9.26). There IS no marked<br />
pattern ~n the vertical gradient of the nitrate concentration as observed at site E<br />
(Table 9 24).<br />
Ep~l~minion phosphate concentration varied from 0.09 mg 1.' (Site C) to 0 9 mg I"<br />
(S~te G) durlng June (Table 9.24) Hypol~mnion concentration ranged frdm 0.3 mg I.' to<br />
2 Img I" (Site H). Similar concentrations were observed during July too (Table 9.26).<br />
Higher values of hypolimnetic concentrations were observed at site G. H and I<br />
(Tables 9 23 and 9.25).<br />
Though the concentration of the hypollmnlon phosphate was higher at all the sites st111<br />
no pattern of vertical gradient at various depths was observed (Site E, Table 9.24)<br />
Potassium and sodium<br />
Potassium values at the epiiimnion of sites B, E and H ranged from 2.7mg 1.' to<br />
2 9 mg 1.' during the month of June, (Table 9.24). In July the epilimnlon value at site E<br />
was 3 mg I" (Table 9.26).<br />
The hypolimnion values in June varied between 2.9 mg I" to 3.2 mg 1'' (Table 9.24)<br />
while in July the potassium value obtained at site E was 3.6 mg I-'. No consistency in<br />
the Pattern of the vertical gradient of potassium values was observed as evident from<br />
E (Table 9.24).
- The eplllmnion sodium values at sites B E and H ranged from 23 mgr to 24 5 mg I<br />
during June and that of hypolmnlon var~ed from 24 2 mg I' to 25 2 mg I' (Table 9 26)<br />
The values observed at slte E In July were 25 1 mg I ' (ep~limnlon) and 25 3 mg I '<br />
,hypolimnlon) There 1s no much of difference between the ep~llmn~on and hypol~mnion<br />
concentrations of sodium and potasstum at various s~tes<br />
Heavy metals<br />
Heavy metals wlth the eXCeptlOn of zlnc were present In a very trace amount<br />
Ep~l~mnlOn copper values were recorded to range between 4 ppb to 9 ppb maxlmum<br />
being at sltes E and H (Table 9 24) Hypol~mnion values were 11 ppb and 8 at sttes E<br />
and H Copper concentratton was more at a depth of 16 m than at 18 m as ev~dent<br />
from the values of slte E (Table 9 24) Chromium concentratlon vaned from 2 ppb to 9<br />
ppb at d~fferent llmnetlc zones (Table 9 24) The h~ghest concentratlon was recorded<br />
at the hypolimn~on of slte E (9 ppb)<br />
Cadm~um was present In trace amounts except for In some depths at stte Eyhere 2<br />
ppb concentratlon of cadm~um was recorded (Table 9 24)<br />
The eplllmnet~c ztnc values ranged from 45 ppb to 87 ppb h~ghest belng at slte E<br />
(Table 9 24) The hypoltmn~on values varied from 48 ppb to 89 ppb the hlghest<br />
concentration recorded at s~te E At the stte E at 16 m depth 92 ppb and at 8 m depth<br />
102 ppb concentration was recorded<br />
Prrmary productrvity<br />
In June the seecht depth was 95 cm and euphot~c zone was 2 4 m Gross prlmary<br />
product~v~t~es recorded at ep~llmn~on and euphot~c zones were 159 375 and 28 125 mg<br />
C f~xed m day ' (Table 9 25) The cllmate prevatl~ng on that particular day was wlndy<br />
and cloudy<br />
The particulars of primary product~v~ty for the month of July are presented In Table<br />
9 27 The seech~ depth was only 70 cm and euphot~c depth 1 75 m The productivities<br />
recorded at varluos zones were hlgher compared to the values In June<br />
The Sathanur reservior depicts a very weak strattficiat~on as IS evident from the<br />
foregOlng sect~ons For a true thermocline development a gradlent of 3°C per metre<br />
has been suggested (Ruttner 1963) In Sathanur reservoir the h~ghest gradlent was<br />
lo C for a depth of 21 m The gradtents reported In other lnd~an reservolrs vary from<br />
C to as much as 8 OC (Dav~d et al 1969 Devasundaran and Ray 1954)
The gradients in the chemical parameters also are quite narrow, supporting the<br />
absence of well marked stratification. The reservoir water is nutrient rich as inferred<br />
from its phosphate and nltrate concentrations. Phosphate concentration between 30-<br />
100 ,, mg 1.' points towards the eutrophic and hyper-eutrophic status of the reservoir<br />
(Wetzel, 1975) Further seechi depth of less than I m (95 cm and 70 cm in June and<br />
juiy respectively) also reflects towards the eutrophic condition of the reservoir<br />
(Huber et al, 1982). The DO is generally low perhaps due to low photosynthetic<br />
act~vlty The DO values were lower in July compared to June because of the h~gher<br />
water temperature in July. The hypolimnetic DO concentrat~on was only 1.3 mgl.' at a<br />
depth of 18 m Slnce, there is a very weak summer stratification in the reservoir, there<br />
IS apparently some mixing between the various zones. This m~xing prevents the<br />
p~evalence of complete anoxic condit~ons in the hypolinion The lowest DO value<br />
recorded was 1.3 at slte E. There have been reports of low productlv~ty and large water<br />
volume of deep lakes sustaining mlld oxygenated hypollmnion during summer<br />
stratlficatlon (Moore et al, 1988). The low DO value in the reservoir is alarming In the<br />
wake of f~sher~es being practised in the reservior.b~tdt~b *fish life a m~nimum of<br />
3 0 ppm of DO IS essential in the water (Abbasi. 1997).<br />
H~gh concentratlon of ions in the hypolimnion suggests a nutrient rlch sedlment in the<br />
Sathanur reservoir. Release of major ions from such sediments is enhanced by<br />
oxygen deficit In the hypolimnlon (Abbasi, 1997) and these maintaln a hlgh<br />
concentration of nutrients in the water mass that may lead to problematic internal load<br />
(Salonen and Varjo, 2000). Studies illustrate that metals at high pH sink down to<br />
sediments (Dean et al, 1972).<br />
The presence of high concentration of phosphate, nitrate, chloride, zinc and sulphate<br />
may be attributed to the agricultural practices. and land use pattern upstream of the<br />
reservoir The agr~cultural runoff consists of several fertilizers, pesticides and other<br />
chemicals which are transported downstream to the reservoir. Chlorides, nltrate and<br />
Phosphate based fertilizers are considered to be the princ~pai source of these ions In<br />
areas under intensive agriculture (Rao et al, 1997).
Table 9.3 Total alkalinity values in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
Year Maximum value Minimum value<br />
(in mg I") (in mg I-')<br />
1990 190 160<br />
1991 185<br />
1992 140<br />
1993 165<br />
1994 210 83<br />
1995 235 150<br />
1996 420 26<br />
1997 285 105<br />
1998 280 230<br />
Table 9.4 pH values in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
Year Maximum value Minimum value<br />
1990 8.04 7.67<br />
1991 8.7<br />
1992 8.3<br />
1993 7.8<br />
1994 8.8 7.2<br />
1995 8.6 7.9<br />
1996 8.2 7.6<br />
1997 8.5 7.6<br />
1998 8.9 7.8
Table 9.5 Electrical conductivity values in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
Year Maximum value Minimum value<br />
(in p mho cm") (in p mho cm")<br />
Table 9.6 Values of suspended solids in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
Year Maximum value Minimum value<br />
(in rng 1.') (in mg I.')<br />
1990 85 60<br />
1991 22<br />
1992 168 63<br />
1993 36<br />
1994 162 2<br />
1995 195 11.7<br />
1996 123 86<br />
1987 I16 66<br />
1998 267 10
Table 9.7 Values of total dissolved solids in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
Year Maximum value Minimum value<br />
(in mg I") (in mg I-')<br />
Table 9.8 Calcium hardness values in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
Year Maximum value Minimum value<br />
(in mg I.') (in mg I-')
Table 9.9 Chloride values in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
Year Maximum value Minimum Value<br />
(In rng fl) (in mg r')<br />
Table 9.10 Total solid values in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
---<br />
Year Maximum value Minimum value<br />
(in mg I") (in mg I")
Table 9.1 1 Total hardness values in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
-- - -- - - - - - -- - -<br />
Year Maxcmurn value M~nirnum value<br />
(~n mg r') (~n mg I ')<br />
1990 145 125<br />
1991 175<br />
1992 190 125<br />
1993 150<br />
1994 250 160<br />
1995 210 175<br />
1996 275 225<br />
1997 250 175<br />
1998 215 175<br />
Table 9.12 Magnesium values in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
Year Maximum value Minimum value<br />
(in mg I") (in mg 1.')
Table 9.13 Sulphate values in the Sathanur reservoir<br />
--<br />
Year Maxlrnurn value<br />
(~n<br />
mg 1')<br />
M~nirnurn<br />
value<br />
(in rng I")
Table 9.14 Turbidity of water in the Pick-up darn<br />
Year Maximum value Minimum value<br />
(in N.T.U) (in N.T.U)<br />
Table 9.15 pH of the water in Pick-up dam<br />
- --<br />
-. Year Maximum value Minimum value
Table 9.16 Chloride values in the Pick-up dam<br />
--<br />
Year Maximum value Minimum value<br />
(in mg I") -(ih.%g I")<br />
Table 9.17 Fluoride values in the Pick-up dam<br />
Year Maximum value Minimum value<br />
- (in mg I.') (in mg I-')
Table 9.18 Electrical conductivity values in the Pick-up dam<br />
-<br />
-- -- -<br />
Year Maxlmum value - Mlnl~num value '<br />
(in p mho cm") (~n )i mho cm ')<br />
Table 9.19 Alkalinity values in the Pick-up dam<br />
Year Maximum value Minimum value<br />
(in mg I") (in mg I")
Table 9.20 Total solids values in the Pick-up dam<br />
Year Maximum value Minimum value<br />
(in mg I") (in mg I")<br />
Table 9.21 Total hardness values in the Pick-up dam<br />
-- Year Maximum value Minimum value<br />
(in mg r') (in mg I-')
able 9.22 PreSeIVation techniques for water sample<br />
Parameter Recommended Type of Preservation Allowable<br />
NO sample volume container holding<br />
Acidity<br />
Alkalinity<br />
Chloride<br />
DO: Winkler<br />
Hardness<br />
Phosphorous<br />
periods<br />
100 ml P,G 4OC 24 hrs<br />
refrigeration<br />
100 ml PIG 4OC 24 hrs<br />
refrigeration<br />
50 ml P,G Not required 24 hrs<br />
300 ml P,G Fix on site<br />
100 ml P,G 4OC 6 hrs<br />
refrigeration<br />
100 ml P,G Determine unstable<br />
on site<br />
100 mi P,G 40mg H,CI2 7 days<br />
1 -4OC<br />
refrigeration<br />
8 Electrical 100 ml P,G 4OC 24hrs<br />
conductivity refrigeration<br />
9. Solids 100 ml P,G 4OC 24 hrs<br />
(TS,TDS & refrigeration<br />
TSS)<br />
10 Sulphate 50 ml P,G 4OC 7days<br />
refrigeration<br />
11 Heavy metals 200 ml P(A), G(A) HNo3 6 months<br />
5mlllitre<br />
P Plastic G.glass P(A) 1 G(A); rinsed w~th 1 + 1 HNOj<br />
PH-2
Table 9.24 Physlco-chern~cal character~st~cs of water In the Sathanur reservoir (06199)<br />
I I Site A I Site B 1 Sate C I Slte D Site E<br />
NMes mg I '<br />
Phmphales<br />
mlr<br />
Pasnum ppm<br />
S&m ppm<br />
Copper P P ~<br />
Chmoum ppb<br />
Zmc PPb<br />
Cadm~um ppb-<br />
Seeclu depth - 95 cm<br />
Clmals - Wndy* Cloudy
Water depth rn<br />
pH<br />
ECu mho cm<br />
Temp** -C<br />
DOmgl<br />
Hardness mg I '<br />
I Cabum hardneswngl '<br />
Cabum mg I '<br />
ssmgr'<br />
' Total M(lds mg ! '<br />
1 Sulphates mg I<br />
Nlbates mg I<br />
I Phosphates mg 1 '<br />
I Potassrum ppm<br />
SOdlUm ppm<br />
Copper P P ~<br />
Chromium ppb<br />
Zinc D D ~<br />
cadmkm ppb 1 - 1 -<br />
EC - Electrical candudw!ty<br />
D 0 - D~ssalved oxygen<br />
- not analysed<br />
S -surface<br />
T D S - Total Dnssolved solids<br />
C column<br />
S S Suspended sal~ds<br />
8 - Bottom<br />
Table 9.27 Productivity of Sathanur reservoir (07199)<br />
Seechm depth - 70 cm<br />
Euphot~c depth - 1 75 m<br />
Depth Net pnmary produd!vtty Gross pnmary produdlvlty<br />
Surface 25 5 un 810 mg C fixed 1 350 mg C fixed<br />
m3day' rn3day'<br />
lA~ddle 70 cm 720 mg C fixed 1 170 mg C fixed<br />
m ' day ' m 'day '<br />
Eslc;rn 1 75 cm 18 mg C hxed 350 rng C fixed<br />
m dav m'da,
omasa1 Inueqleg u! uoqqd13a~d pue h!u!leyle ui uot)eueA ~ 'alnl!j 6<br />
MUU~I~~IV) leauli - uoqevdpa~d + 41u11q1w +<br />
osz<br />
OOE
J!owasaJ Jnueqles UI uogel!dnald pue ssaupJeq lelq u! uo!leueA p'6 am6! j
JloiuasaJ Jnuemeg u uogqdpa~d pue ssaupJeq 1unplw u! uome~ s.6 mn6y
lea-
J!oNasa lnuelaeg u! sanlen uo!lq~ipa~d pue a]e~dlns'~un!sau6eyy UI UOIIelJe/\ 8.6 a~nb! j
wep dn ~31d UI MOUJ~O pue uoll'apuonl) UI uoqeueA sb.6 a1n6!+<br />
(~011) ieauli.<br />
(a-uonljl leauq - mowo--e<br />
UOIJ - apuon14 -t
SECTION IV<br />
IMPACTS DOWNSTREAM
10.0 INTRODUCTION<br />
Chapter 10<br />
Impacts of irrigation<br />
The largest demand for world's water comes from the agriculture sector. More than<br />
two-thirds of the water withdrawn from the earth's rivers, lakes and under ground<br />
aqu~fers is utilized for irrigation. Agriculture has turned out to be not only the largest<br />
user in terms of volume, but also relatively low value, low efficiency and highly<br />
subsidized water user. These facts are forclng governments and donors to reanalyze<br />
the economic, soc~al and environmental implications of large, medium and small<br />
Irrigation projects operating across the world.<br />
in China, Pakistan and Indonesia irrigation has absorbed over half of agricultural<br />
Investment. In India, about 30% of all public investment has gone into development of<br />
lrrlgat~on facilities. Despite such huge investment and subsidies, the lrrigat~on<br />
performance indicators have been found to fall short of expectations in terms of yleld,<br />
area lrr~gated and technical efficiency.<br />
With this backdrop, we have conducted a study on the Sathanur irrigation project.<br />
The project caters to the irrigation demands of 18,000 ha of agricultural land. The<br />
study highlights the key features of the irrigation practiced in Sathanur Command Area<br />
(SCA) with major thrust on Sathanur canal irrigation. The study also brings out the<br />
Impacts of the irrigation, beneficial and adverse, on the environment.
10.1 STATUS<br />
irrigation facilities, before the construction of Sathanur reservoir project, were scanty<br />
and undependable in the Thiruvannamalai and Villupuram districts, Tamil Nadu, India<br />
The ponnaiyar river being seasonal and flashy (Chapter 2), there were no means of<br />
utilizing its waters. Farming was completely dependent on monsoon in these areas.<br />
10.1.1 Sathanur reservoir and canal system<br />
The details regarding the commissioning and operating of the Sathanur project and the<br />
network of canal system have been furnished in chapter 2. The project was deslgned<br />
to Irrigate more than 18,000 ha of land downstream through two canal systems: the<br />
Sathanur Right Bank Canal (SRBC) and the Sathajur Left Bank Canal (SLBC). The<br />
extent of command area under SRBC and SLBC is illustrated in Tables 2 1 to 2.5,<br />
chapter 2 The area under Indirect tank irrigation (vlllage wise) in SRBC and SLBC<br />
commands IS detailed in Tables 2.6 and 2 7, chapter 2.<br />
10.1.2 Regulation of release of water from the Sathanur reservoir<br />
The regulation of the supply of water from the reservoir IS under the control of Sub-<br />
Divlslonal Officer, Public Works Department (PWD), Thiruvannamalai. The person IS<br />
generally referred as Controlling Officer. The various provisions for scheduling and<br />
allocat~on of water from the reservoir to the downstream command areas are llsted<br />
below<br />
Sathanur leff bank canal and old deltaic regions<br />
It has been stipulated that inflow in excess of the limit specified hereunder against<br />
each month is to be impounded in the reservoir.<br />
1 January -15 April 2.00 cusecs<br />
16 April - 15 June Nil<br />
16 June - 30 September<br />
1 - 31 October<br />
1- 30 November Nil<br />
1 - 31 December<br />
2.00 cusecs<br />
1,500 cusecs<br />
1500 cusecs<br />
During the period 16 June - 15 July, if necessary the inflows less than 2.000<br />
cusecs may temporarily be impounded to facilitate the execution of repair works<br />
of sluice gates, stilling basin etc. The quantity so impounded shall be correctly
2<br />
assessed and let down immediately depending upon the requirement of lower<br />
down command areas.<br />
The natural flows between 16June - 3OSeptember that are usually released in<br />
small quantities below the limit flows, if impounded temporarily. should be<br />
released on or before 30 th of September<br />
(Amendment in G.0 MS NO. 1220, PWD, dt . 16'~ ~une 1984)<br />
3 Inflow in excess of those specified above thus impounded in the reservoir<br />
shall not be claimed at a later date for the benefit of the existing irrigation lower<br />
down<br />
4 Whenever the Sub-Divisional Officer, PWD Cuddalore anticipates good ramfall<br />
in the old deltalc area, he may suggest the Controlling Officer to reduce the<br />
release from the reservoir. It shall be the responslbllity of the Sub-Divisional<br />
Officer, PWD, Cuddalore to see to it that no water is wasted at Cuddalore<br />
bridge.<br />
5 The Controlling Officer may, In exceptional cases when heavy rains are<br />
antlctpated in the neighbourhood of the reservoir, reduce or increase the<br />
d~scharge from the reservoir on his own understanding and responsibility.<br />
6 In the event of the failure of monsoon the water requirement, for the period 16<br />
Apr~l - 15 June and 1 - 30 November for the existing cultivable land below the<br />
Sathanur dam, may be fulf~lled from the Impounded storage, rf any In the<br />
reservoir, with the prior approval of the Chief Engineer (Irrigation Department)<br />
7 Water allocation for the command area under the SRP shall normally be<br />
allowed from 15 December - 30 Apr~l. If there is no sufficient storage In the<br />
reservoir in any year for irrigating the entire command area under SRP canal<br />
system, the Executive Engineer, PWD, Thiruvannamalai, shall, In consultation<br />
with the Collectors of North Arcot and South Arcot districts (now<br />
Thiruvannamalai and Villupuram respectively) f~x the extent that can be irrigated<br />
Wltl.1 and the probable date from which the release could be made. The<br />
beneficiaries will be informed not later than middle of November.<br />
The supply for the command irrigation under the SRP canals shall normally be<br />
allowed at the duties specified below for each period for the area proposed to<br />
be under irrigat~on. It shall be in additlon to the quantities let down for the<br />
irrigation of old deltaic regions till 15 April
8<br />
15 - 31 December 100duty<br />
1 January -14 February 50duty<br />
15 February - 31 March 60duty<br />
1 - 30 April 80duty<br />
The duties proposed are for the general guidance and the Controlling Officer<br />
can alter the duty for the purposes of regulation according to the extent of wet<br />
and dry crops raised in the command area. It should however be noted that the<br />
total quantlty should not normally exceed that provided for as per the duty<br />
above<br />
Stab~lization of 5000 acres of second crop under the command area of<br />
Thlrukollur barrage shall normally be allowed from 1February - 3OApr1l (at<br />
55 dutles) depending upon the storage position of the reservoir. This will be in<br />
addltton to the quantities let down for the command area under the SRP canal<br />
and old delta regions till 15 April A total quantity of not more than 1200 McR will<br />
be let down for the 2 crop under Thirukoilur barrage system in three spells.<br />
If any year there is no sufficient storage for irrigating the entire 5000 acres of second<br />
crop under the Thirukoilur barrage, the Executive Engineer. PWD, Villupuram distrtct,<br />
n consultation with the Executive Engineer, PWD, Thiruvannamalai district, shall f~x<br />
the extent that can be brought under canal irrigation The probable dates from whlch<br />
such supply would be made will be duly informed to the beneficlarles downstream not<br />
later than the middle January.<br />
The Executive Engineer, PWD, Villupuram district and Sub-Divisional Officers,<br />
PWD. Thirukoilur should intimate the Controlling Officer, the quantity that has to be let<br />
down from the reservoir for stabilization of the second crop area under the Thirukol~lur<br />
barrage subjected to the maximum fixed amount.<br />
9 The Sathanur reservoir shall not be normally depleted below level plus 46.00 feet.<br />
since this storage available will be required for supplying water to the colony and<br />
maintenance of parks and for aquaculture in the reservoir.<br />
Safhanur right bank canal<br />
' The rules and regulations already approved for the Sathanur reservoir in G 0.<br />
Ms. 1074, PWD, dt. 20 July 1976 hold good for the command area under rlght<br />
bank canal system. The current rules form part of these existing rules, as the
2<br />
3<br />
right bank canal is only an additional source of irrigation from the same<br />
reservoir.<br />
Release of water for irrigation under SRBC shall normally be allowed from 1<br />
October - 15 February.<br />
A m~nimum impounded storage of 1000 M.cft, should be available in the<br />
reservoir on 1" October to open the canal. Earlier opening of the canal can be<br />
done in case the storage position of the reservoir is good.<br />
4 The Executive Engineer, Thiruvannmalai, can either postpone the opening date<br />
of the canal or restrict the command area to be irr~gated after reviewing the<br />
storage position of the Sathanur reservoir.<br />
5 For the wet Irrigation under the tanks, the supply may be given for filling up the<br />
tanks at suitable intervals and the total quantity to be allowed may be limited to<br />
650 M.cft<br />
6 For the dlrect dry irrigation the water may be released intermittently at an<br />
Interval of about 10 days or as per the designed period The supply may be<br />
allowed at a duty of 70 and the total quantity to be allowed may be limited to<br />
1450 M cft<br />
10.1.3 Water deliveries to the farmers<br />
lrr~gation systems are jointly managed by the authorities and the farmers. At the macro<br />
level, till the outlets to the villages through the canals and branch canals the<br />
distribution of water is the responsibility of the authorities. At the micro level, the field<br />
wlse distribution of water is managed by the beneficiaries based on their mutual<br />
consent and understanding.<br />
lrrlgatlon waters are supplied to the downstream farmers as per the rules. The major<br />
outlets are manned and operated by the canal inspector as per the schedules. Water is<br />
allocated on rotational basis of seven days in the branch canals as per the norms laid<br />
down<br />
As per the present scenario, there are no measuring devices at the outlets to check<br />
'he discharge and there are no means to account for the seepage losses. Many such<br />
ProP0sals are underway, though, awaiting funds, accord~ng to the authorities.
10.1.4 Status of Sathanur canal rystem and tanks In the Sathanur<br />
command area (SCA)<br />
mar canals - SLBC and SRBC were lined along the~r entire lengths under the<br />
scheme of National Water Management Project (NWMP) funded by the World Bank<br />
Under another scheme, Sathanur-sub-project implementation worth Rs. 16.8 millions,<br />
ilnlng works of some branch canals and distributaries were executed. Major portion of<br />
the arterial system of sub-branch canals, distributaries, and drains in various villages<br />
remains unlined due to the paucity of funds. The unlined canals and tanks are heav~ly<br />
silted and ~nfested with weeds and other vegetation (Chapter 16).<br />
The data pertalning to the irrigation was collected from the offices of the D~rectorate<br />
of Statistics and Economics, Thiruvannamalai and Villupuram. The block wise intensity<br />
of ~rr~gat~on In SCA is presented in Table 10.1, Intensity of ~rrigat~on is calculated as the<br />
ratlo of gross irrigated area to net irrigated area. The Table 10.2 gives an account of<br />
the ~rr~gation potential created and realized in India during the five-year plans. The<br />
details of the irrigation patterns in various villages are furnished in Tables 10.3 - 10.8<br />
Cumulat~ve account of the irrigation patterns in various blocks, command reglons and<br />
Saihanur project is given in Table 10.9. Table 10.10 presents the cumulative details of<br />
the gross cultivated area and gross irrigated area in SCA. The details pertaining to the<br />
proposed area under canal irrigation and the actual potential realized for the year<br />
1997 - 98 are presented in Table 10.1 1<br />
Flgure 10 1 is the graphical representation of the irrigation patterns in various blocks<br />
In SCA. The cumulative account of the patterns in SCA is presented in Figure 10.2.<br />
Figure 10.3 illustrates the gross irrigated area in SCA while the efficiency of the canal<br />
irrigation In SCA is reflected in Figure 10.4.<br />
10.2 IMPACTS<br />
lrrlgation In SCA is practiced with the conjunctive use of surface water through canals<br />
and tanks, and ground water in the form of dug-wells and bore wells. All the villages in<br />
the command area are electrified enabling the farmers to install motor pumps in their<br />
d4-wells The Figure 10.1 depicts the extent of area (block wise) under varlous<br />
categor~es of irrigation. As is obvious from the figure, ground water-based well<br />
Irr19at10n assumes the major share of irrigation in all the blocks with the exception of<br />
Thlrukoilur (served by SLBC), Indeed SLBC command has better proportion of land<br />
under canal irrigation as compared to the SRBC command. Canal irrigation constitutes<br />
12%, 17% and 18% of the gross irrigated area in Rishivandiyam, Sankarapuram and
Chengam blocks respectively, in SRBC command areas. More than 50% of the land is<br />
irrigated by groundwater in these blocks. Tanks claim 12% - 25% of the share in the<br />
gross lrrlgated area.<br />
The patterns of irrigation for SRBC command, SLBC command and cumulatively for<br />
the Sathanur project are presented in Figure 10.2. The figure reiterates that ground<br />
water is the major source Of irrigation in SCA followed by canal irrigation and tank<br />
lrrlgatlon.<br />
The contribution of canal irrigation is very low in SRBC command (14%) and is not<br />
even 25% In the SCA. SRBC comrnand has its 65% of land under ground water<br />
based lrrigatlon and SLBC command has 50% of the cultivated land under ground<br />
water based irrigation, thus highlighting the role of groundwater in irrigation process in<br />
SCA<br />
The higher utilization of groundwater as compared to surface water for irrigation in the<br />
SCA is a manifestation of a nationwide phenomenon. Since 1950-51 considerable<br />
~mportance has been attached to the provision of canal irrigation nationw~de as the<br />
canal lrrlgated area increased from 8.3 million hectares to 16.9 million hectares during<br />
the last four decades. But, still, it is groundwater-based irrigation, particularly tube-well<br />
lrrlgatlon which has intensified to a very great degree and has made spectacular<br />
progress (Dutt and Sundharam, 1999). Groundwater based irrigation in 1990-91<br />
accounted for 51% of the total Irrigated area as compared to only 29% in 1950-51 In<br />
SCA 58% of the irrigated land is under groundwater irrigation while only 25% under<br />
canal Irrigation (Figure 10.2). Higher proportion of area under groundwater utilization<br />
In SRBC command (65%) is due to irregular flow of water in these canals, either due to<br />
damaged reaches or faulty regulations, which have made the cultivators of the region<br />
more dependent on the groundwater which according to them is a more reliable source<br />
of water for irrigation than surface water As inferred from the extensive field survey of<br />
the comrnand area backed up by the interactions with the authorities concerned, the<br />
SLBC comrnand enjoys the maximum benefits of the canal irrigation: a fact confirmed<br />
by the statistics of canal irrigation (Figure 10 1) which depict that 50% of the irrigated<br />
area is under canal irrigation in SLBC command as compared to 21% in SRBC<br />
Under the present scheme of regulation of the water allocation (2.10.2),<br />
SLBC Command has priority over SRBC command. The groundwater level<br />
substant~ally increases during the flow of water in the canal and the Thiruvannamalal<br />
region receives good rains during the monsoons. Thus, availability of surplus water IS
the reason behind the fact that gross irrigated area is more in SLBC command (75%)<br />
while 67.6% of the gross cultivated area is irrigated in SRBC command (Figure 10.3)<br />
~n stark contrast, the SRBC command, in the Villupuram district, is mostly a dry land<br />
~n fact SRBC was Introduced to divert excess water of the reservoir (as per the<br />
regulat~on) to these regions. Many a ttmes when the water is below the prescribed lim~t<br />
in the regulation of water release, water for irrigation is either not released at all (with<br />
prior notice) or is released in controlled fashion as per the availability in the reservoir.<br />
The groundwater level of these regions is generally low but when the reservoir iS full<br />
nlid water IS released, an increase of 10-14 feet has been reported by the villagers and<br />
durlng these times groundwater is exploited to the maximum for irrigation purposes.<br />
Flgure 10.3 lllustrates the total area irrigated as against the total area cultivated (in<br />
percentage). Gross irrigated area was high in all the SLBC blocks with Thachampattu<br />
block having the highest (86.1%) followed by Chengam (68.6%). SRBC blocks<br />
regtstered less area under irrigation compared to SLBC with Chengam block dismally<br />
low at 49.3%, Sankarapuram block had the highest irrigated area of 72.3% in the<br />
SRBC command.<br />
The gross irrigated area from all the sources In the Sathanur project was 70.2%. In<br />
the SRBC and SLBC commands the gross irrigated area was 67.6% and 72.8%<br />
respectively<br />
Table 10 1 provides the intensity of irrigation In varlous blocks in the SCA, individual<br />
command areas and cumulatively for Sathanur project It is evldent that both the SLBC<br />
and SRBC commands have almost similar intensity of irrigation, 1.32 and 1.33<br />
respectively. This implies that both the command regions are way short of the irrigation<br />
facilities for double cropping. Chengam block (SRBC command) has the maximum<br />
Intensity with 1.76 and Rishivandiyam block has the least with mere 0.98. Thus, the<br />
lrrlgatlon facilities are just enough for a single crop, Irrigation lntensitles for all the<br />
remaining blocks are in a narrow range of 1.32 to 1.35. Cumulative Intensity of<br />
Irrigation for of the Sathanur project is 1.33. This could also mean the heavy shift<br />
towards cultivating water intensive perennial crops like Paddy (Olyza saliva),<br />
Sugarcane (Saccharurn officinarum) or banana (Musa paradisiaca)which prevents<br />
double and triple cropping (Chapter 13).<br />
Flgure 10.4 Illustrates the extent of irrigation actually realized through the canal as<br />
against the irrigation potential created in the SCA. All three blocks under SLBC<br />
command have higher percentages of canal irrigated land ranging from 41%-58% as
to the blocks under SRBC irrigation where the areas irrigated range from a<br />
mere 19% to 30%. SRBC command registered only 21% of the proposed area under<br />
canal irrigation where as the situation was better in SLBC command where 50% of<br />
proposed area was brought under canal irrigation. Cumulatively for Sathanur project,<br />
the flgure stood at a mere 36%, which projects that only one-third of the potential<br />
created for canal irrigation in SCA was actually realized (as per the statistics of 1997-<br />
98) The gulf between irrigation potential created through major, medium and minor<br />
lrrlgatlon schemes and actual utilization is also a countrywide phenomenon as<br />
furnished in Table 10.2.<br />
The situation is even more dismal in SCA where a meagre 36% of the irrigation<br />
potentla1 created through canals is actually being utilized (Fig.lO.4). When compared<br />
to other projects such as Ukai-kakrapur project across Tapi which has realized the<br />
rrlgatlon potential of 88% and the Mahi Kadna project across Mahi river in Gaujrat,<br />
nd~a (Purohit et a1,1992), the situation seems to be particularly worrisome.<br />
The Inefficiency and unreliability of the canal irrigation can be attributed to the unlined<br />
sub-canals and distributaries and to the faulty drainage. Not only the flow of water in<br />
these canals gets reduced, they also give rise to the problems of seepage, water<br />
logging and weed infestation, in the command area as evident from the various studies<br />
accomplished worldwide (Dixon et al, 1987. Singh, 1989; Purohit et al, 1992). In SCA<br />
water logging problems were reported mostly In the fields adjacent to the canals and<br />
tanks. Even the lined canals in some places were potential source of water logging<br />
because of the poor quality of cement used (Chapter 16). The seepage loss shoots up<br />
the water table of the area and reduces the surface flow The tanks of the command<br />
area are silted and full of weeds thus leading to reduction in their storage potential and<br />
mak~ng the adjacent fields water logged. Sadakuppam, Valavachanur.<br />
Velayampakkam, Parayampattu, Pavapattu, Palayanur, Kallottu, Pudur, Pakkam,<br />
Arundhatiar colony and several other villages had seepage and water logging problem<br />
Owing to the unlined canals and silted and weed-infested tanks.<br />
Introduction of perennial irrigation springs forth the hazards of water logging,<br />
salinity and alkalization as evident from the case studies of all-major and<br />
Irrigation projects worldwide. Tarbela dam, In lndus basin, Pak~stan; Aswan dam<br />
On Nile river, Egypt (Dixon et al, 1987); pravara and Mula dams in Maharashtra, lndia<br />
1992); Ukai-Kakrapur irrigation project, lndia (Sahai et al, 1985): Krishnaraj<br />
Project, Karnataka, India (Rao et al, 1990); Nizam Sagar command area, lndia
(venkatratnam et a\, 1991) and numerous other projects have been reported to have<br />
their command areas degraded leading to loss of agricultural lands.<br />
introduction of surface irrigation and availability of surplus water in SCA have<br />
resulted In the general tendency of the farmers to switch over to paddy (Oryza saf~vo)<br />
or sugarcane (Sschharurn officinarurn) which requlre high water applications. Very<br />
irrigation by the farmers also tends to cause alarming rise in water table of<br />
the command area. This trend has also been reported by many authors for other major<br />
projects viz. Aswan dam, Egypt (Zeid, 1990); Tawa reservoir, lndia (Sahu, 1992), Ukai-<br />
Kakrapur project across Tapi, India (Purohit et al, 1992) Krishanaraj Sagar project,<br />
India (Rao et al, 1990).<br />
lnterest~ngly many farmers in the Sathanur command area weren't aware of the<br />
phenomenon of water logging and they considered it to be a boon as the paddy crops<br />
requlre standing water. So the water logged fields adjacent to the canals and tanks<br />
have also been devoted to paddy cultivat~on.<br />
The Government of Gujarat, India, in 1991-92 decided not to sanction the planting of<br />
perennial crops such as sugarcane in its major reservoirs command areas (Purohit et<br />
al 1992). Master plans to line the canals were formulated and successfully<br />
mplernented to check the menace of water logging and seepage in the major and<br />
medium irrigation project under cornmand area development (CAD) scheme. All these<br />
lneasures towards efficient water use and better water management can be<br />
successfully applled to Sathanur irrigation project as well.<br />
There exists no w8ll.defined policy or management framework for irrigation<br />
scheduling for effective and efficient water management in the Tamil Nadu state<br />
(Pundarikanthan and Santhi, w.fao.org), The adverse implications of this drawback<br />
are more than obvious in Sathanur irrigation project.<br />
10.2.1 Cropping pattern<br />
There is an accepted practice to include all the cultivable land in command area under<br />
(rugation. This has led the beneficiaries to assume that they have the freedom of<br />
choice of the crops to be cultivated in their fields. There is a heavy tilt towards<br />
Perennial, cash crops of paddy, sugarcane and groundnut (Arachis hypogea)<br />
(Chapter 13) which suggests a cropping pattern driven entirely by commercial<br />
considerations with little regard to sustainability of the land for long-term output. The<br />
l'Utewortlly fact is that Sathanur irrigation project in SLBC co~nmand is meant for dry
~~t villagers devote their fields to water intensive paddy cultivation (Chapter 13).<br />
10.2.2 Water allocation and distribution from the reservoir<br />
the canal irrigation Systems are jointly rhanaged by the Governmental agencies and<br />
the cultivators, very often clashes are witnessed in the absence of proper<br />
commun~cation. At the village level and field level, there is a general complaint that<br />
tail - enders suffer the most. They don't get their due share because of the location of<br />
village or the farm towards the end, as also due to most of the water having been<br />
utiilzed by the farmers of the head reaches (Chapter 16)<br />
There was a general complaint by the farmers that the water is not enough for thelr<br />
crops, especially towards the end of the main season (April) when it is the time for<br />
harvesting the crops. According to the Agricultural Officers and Irrigation Engineers,<br />
there is a tendency to over-irrigate their fields by the cultivators downstream. So some<br />
:lmes when due to less inflow and less storage,even when the water is adequatgthere<br />
IS a panlc among the farmers that water is inadequate for their crops.<br />
Studies done on the farmers of Nathiyunni command in Tamiravani system, Tam11<br />
Nadu reveal that in farmer's perception stagnating water in the paddy fields is like<br />
building up stock of water and when it is not possible they have a sense of inadequacy<br />
The relative water supply (RWS), a measure of water adequacy, durlng the same<br />
season was computed to be 110% of the water requirement(Rajan,l993) The<br />
allegations of bribery for releasing water in the canals by the cultivators were<br />
vehemently denied by the officials.<br />
10.2.3 Conflicts between the users of the SRBC and SLBC commands<br />
The two canal systems have bifurcated the SCA not only in terms of supplying the<br />
water through the separate canal systems but also by way of pattern of utilization in<br />
'he command regions.<br />
Originally the project was constructed to serve SLBC command, but it deprived the<br />
other tradit~onal and productive delta areas of irrigation water. The rights of the<br />
downstream irrigators are recognized in the dam's operating rule, but most of the<br />
regulated flow below the dam is diverted into the upper channels. Losses have greatly<br />
Increased in the wide sandy bed and no surface water has reached the sea for over<br />
years.
continued spills to the extent of 50%, were the reasons used to justlfy the<br />
subsequent construction of the right bank irrigation command, further aggravating the<br />
shortages in the delta and producing endless conflict between the two commands.<br />
The tnhabitants of SLBC command had the complaint that after the construction of<br />
sRBC the~r privilege of getting water for irrigation was reduced from six months to<br />
mere three months. On the other hand residents of SRBC command complained that<br />
due to the regulatlon policy and also due to faulty and mismanaged canals, they never<br />
got thelr due share of water except for flrst five years or so after the opening of the<br />
r~ght bank canal. They maintain that it's the cultivators of the SLBC command who<br />
enjoy the maxlmum benefits of canal irrigation.<br />
Further, there 1s an apprehension among the farmers downstream that after the<br />
construction of one more (Nandan) canal, the share of water allocated to them may<br />
further go down Moreover, additional storage dams on tributaries upstream are<br />
ncreaslng the evaporation losses in what was earlier a fully developed basin.<br />
Fragmented management of water resources in south India is exemplified in case of<br />
Chittar rlver and Amravati dam too. Constructing the storage dam without adequately<br />
considering downstream users and the storage capacity prevailing in the basin causes I<br />
great deal of economic losses and social problems to the end users downstream.<br />
10.2.4 Seepage and conveyance losses<br />
There are no considerations based on the crop water requirement at various stages<br />
There are no means to measure seepage or conveyance losses and neither is there<br />
any framework regarding the nighttime utilization of water. The cultivators tend to<br />
lrrlgate the fields only during daytime and the water remains unutilized in the canals<br />
during the nights<br />
Wlth a view to narrow the gap between the potential created through the major and<br />
medium works and its ground level utilization, the government has started Command<br />
Area Development (CAD) program. The basic objective of the CAD is to maximize<br />
Productivity in the irrigation commands through an Integrated approach covering the<br />
developmental works of the supply channels and provide equitable and assured<br />
distribution of water to individual farm holdings.<br />
unfortunately SRP was not covered in thls CAD program, as confirmed by the<br />
authorit~es, for a long time. It is only very recently that with the help of World Bank<br />
and other independent schemes the llntng and developmental works of tne
and branch canals has been undertaken and is an ongoing process. There are<br />
,, schemes to reclaim the damaged and silted tanks as yet<br />
The lrr~gation Engineers and project authorities blame the cultivators for their lack of<br />
,,rganization and mutual understanding. The cultivators In the head reaches are not<br />
supposed to take water till it reaches the tail - end farmers' fields but the cultivators at<br />
head reaches disregard this and utilize the maximum available water thus depr~ving<br />
Ihe others from getting their share. Also the cult~vators who own pump sets ought to let<br />
the poorer cultivators to use more of surface water but this seldom happens, according<br />
to the authorities. There is a pressing need for a proper balance between the<br />
~nfrastructure, water flow and organizational dimension of the canal irrigation.
~~bielO.1 Intensity of irrigation in Sathanur reservoir project<br />
Block Intensity of irrigation<br />
Thachampattu (SLBC command) 1 32<br />
Th~rukollur (SLBC command) 1 35<br />
Chengam (SLBC command) 1 33<br />
R~sh~vand~yam (SRBC command) 0 98<br />
Sankarapuram (SRBC command) 1 34<br />
Chengam (SRBC command)<br />
SLBC command<br />
SRBC command<br />
SC A<br />
Table10.2 lrrlgation potential created and utilized through irrigation<br />
schemes during various five year plans in India<br />
Plans lrrlgatlon potentla1 lrrlgatlon i~til~zat~on<br />
Pre - flrst<br />
F~rst SIX<br />
Seventh<br />
Eighth<br />
(Mllllon hectares) (Mtlllon hectares)<br />
- -. --
Table 10.3 lrrlgation pattern: Thatchampattu (SLBC command) block (1997-98)<br />
- Area-~der -_<br />
Villages Canal ~rrlgatlon Tank lrr~gat~on Well lrrlgat~on<br />
(In hectares) - (Ln hectares) Qn h-ec&res_)<br />
Thatchampattu 51 160 9 82 0 214 75 5<br />
~ll~hondapattu 52 85 0 0 58 5 56 92 0<br />
~alampoondl 127 63 0 57 61 0 243 53 5<br />
per~yakalllpadl 186 64 0 5211 5 128 08 0<br />
~h~nnahall~padl 22 50 0 118450<br />
Navampattu 166 58 5 74 42 5 31 02 5<br />
Devanur 90 20 0 105 27 0<br />
velayampakkam 171 190 57 165 149 21 0<br />
Kallothu 102 37 0 70 29 0<br />
Ath~padl 148 34 0 39 49 5<br />
Palayanur 108 62 0 60 89 0 155 23 5<br />
Kand~ankuppam 228 21 0 32 73 0 87 42 5<br />
Thalayampallam 138 67 5 192 42 5<br />
Chakkarathamada~ 27 55 0 8 73 0 34 54 5<br />
Nar~yapattu 227 99 0 36 55 0 227 23 5<br />
Parayampattu 131 69 0 33 120 131 38 5<br />
Pavapattu 199 00 5 149 47 5<br />
Par~thram N A NA NA<br />
A~adapattu N A NA NA<br />
NA - Not available<br />
Table 10.4 lrr~gat~on pattern Thlrukollur (SLBC command) block (1997-98)<br />
Area under<br />
V~llages Canal lrr~gat~on Tank lrrlgatlon Well lrrlgatlon<br />
(In hectares) @hecJares) (In hectares)<br />
Melandhal 373 51 5 86 50 5 94 37 0<br />
Kangayanur 202 22 0 105 17 0<br />
Pall~chandal 91 47 5 15420 121 54 5<br />
Kongamanur 40 45 0 25 87 5 69 28 5<br />
Murukhambad~ 10440 43 75 0 178 99 0<br />
fith~andhal 76 33 0 40 07 5 54 125<br />
Devarad~arkupparn 119 61 5 69 38 5<br />
Jamba~ 159 17 5. 54 09 5 87 87 5<br />
Chellankuppam 25 24 5<br />
Slthapat~nam 25 43 0 93 05 0 102 06 0<br />
Fanalurpet 50 85 0 36160 -
Table 10.5 Irrigation pattern: Chengam (SLBC command ) - 1997-98<br />
Area under -<br />
Vtllages Canal lrrlgatlon Tank trrlgatton Well trrlgatton<br />
- (~n hectaresL (~n hectares) (tn hectares)<br />
Jambadal 196 42 0<br />
blgalpadl 3 00 0<br />
Thenmudlyanur 78.75.0<br />
Edalkanur<br />
Allappanoor<br />
100.75.0<br />
Vanapuram 152.95.5<br />
Kunglinatham 21 68.5<br />
Perunthuraipattu 42.28 5<br />
Valavackanur 22.79.0<br />
Kottaiyur 115.03.5<br />
Agarampallipattu 21 54.5<br />
Thenkar~mbalur<br />
Radhapuram<br />
298 72.0<br />
Varagur 16.25.0<br />
Serapapattu 2 10.5<br />
Vakiliapattu 20.00.0<br />
Sadakuppam 25 00 0<br />
Unnarnala~palayam 25.00.0<br />
Edakkal 168.26.5<br />
Mazhuvampattu 52 22 5<br />
Peratyampattu 30.70.0
Table 10.6 Irrigation pattern Rishivandiyam (SRBC command) block (1997-98)<br />
-<br />
Area under<br />
V~llages Canal lrrlgatlon Tank lrrlgat~on Well lrrlgatlon<br />
(In hectares) (ln hectares) (in hectares)<br />
Athtvur 96 30 0 242 45 0<br />
AdaiIan~r O.IO.O 156 52.5<br />
Erudayampattu 12.19.5 100.86 0<br />
Man~aandal 164 33.0<br />
Vanapuram 136.69.5 322.57.0<br />
Od~yanthal 24.68.5 31.26.0<br />
Edalhanur 47 34 0 85 41 0<br />
Kadambur 112.58 5 194.88 0<br />
Arambarampattu 42.27.5 21 43 0 304.33 5<br />
Thiruvarangam 47.01.0 67 38.5<br />
S~rpanandal 26 33.5 160.03.5 237.35 0<br />
Jambadai 28.46.5 61.39.0 222.42.5<br />
Per~yakolliyur 6.02.5 92.04.0 390.74.0<br />
S~rupanaiyur 98.25.0 185.33.0<br />
Ch~nnakolliyur 20.07.0 113.71 5<br />
Theluvanthangal 112.47.5 74.26.0<br />
Kadavanur 260.43.0 336 96 0<br />
Pakkam 139.99 0 391 20 5<br />
Vadamamandur 79.46.5 93.19 0 115 53 5<br />
Nagalkudi 51.73.0 61.12.0
Table 10.7 Irrigation Pattern Sankarapuram (SRBC command) block (1997-98)<br />
- Area under<br />
Villages Canal lrrlgatlon Tank irrigation Well lrrlgatlon<br />
(In hectares) (In hectares) (In hectare&-<br />
~avasamudram ,- ,<br />
~rulampadi 51.44.0<br />
47 21 0 136 27 5<br />
~oongilthuraipattu<br />
porasapattu<br />
153.82.5<br />
olgalapadi 119.87.5<br />
~oravalur 113.88.5<br />
~elsiruvalur<br />
Vadasiruvaiur<br />
185.65.5<br />
Varagur 2 03.5<br />
Arur 2.69.0<br />
Moonanur<br />
Thirnmendhal<br />
13 67.0<br />
Chellakakuppam<br />
Viriyur<br />
Arasampattu<br />
13.24.5<br />
S Kolathur 21 46.5<br />
Vadakeeranur 21 41.5<br />
Vadaponparappi 98.21.5<br />
Kldagudayampattu 1 08 5<br />
S~vapuram 16 27.5<br />
Table 10.8 Irrigation pattern, Chengam (SRBC command) - 1997-98<br />
Areaunder -<br />
V~liages Canal lrr~gat~on Tank ~rr~gat~on Well lrr~gatlon<br />
(~~hegare_s) (In hectares) (In hectares)<br />
Rayandapuram 90 56 0 137 21 0 283 35 0<br />
Thlruvadathanur 87 81 0 0 160 230 97 0<br />
Thondamanur 119 30 5 165 30 5<br />
Puthurcheekad~ NA N A N A<br />
NA - Not available
Table 10.9 lrrlgalion pattern In SCA (1997-98)<br />
Area under Area under tank Area under well<br />
Blocks canal lrrlgatton<br />
II! hectares)<br />
~rrlgatlon<br />
(In hectares)<br />
lrrlgatlon<br />
(In hectares)<br />
~h~champattu (SLBC command) 2068 80 5 570 98 0 4775 34 0<br />
~h~ruko~lur (SLBC command) 1098 65 0 409 62 0 2452 48 0<br />
Chengam (SLBC command) 1172060 857 29 0 5294 24 0<br />
~~~hlvandlyam (SRBC command) 734 46 0 1305 23 0 5987 21 0<br />
Sankarapuram (SRBC command) 814 77 5 752 04 0 4755 80 9<br />
Lherlgam (SRBC command) 228 37 0 306 67 5 1264 67 0<br />
SRRC command 1777 60 5 2364545 12007805<br />
SLBC command 4339 51 5 1837890 12522150<br />
SCA 6117 12 0 4202435 24529955<br />
Table 10.10 Gross culttvaled area and gross area under lrrlgatlon In SCA (1997-98)<br />
Blocks Gross sown area Gross ~rrlgated area<br />
(~n heclares) (111 Iieclalcs)<br />
l lrd~hampaltu (SLBC command) 5545 47 5 4775 34 0<br />
Thlruko~lur (SLBC command) 3930 70 0 2452 48 0<br />
Chengam (SLBC command) 7719 52 0 5294 33 0<br />
R~sh~vand~yam (SRBC command) 8597 09 0 5987 24 0<br />
Sankarapuram (SRBC command) 6581 23 0 4755 89 5<br />
Lhengam (SRBC command) 2563 75 0 1204 (37 0<br />
SRBC command 17742 07 0 12007 80 5<br />
SLBC command 17195.69 5 12522.15.0<br />
SC A 34937 76.5 24529 95 5
Table 10.11 Proposed area under canal irrlgatlon and aclual area ~rrtgated In SCA (1997-98)<br />
. -<br />
Proposed area under Aclual alea utidey<br />
Blocks canal lrrlgatlon canal trrlgatlon<br />
(~n hectares) (~n hectares)<br />
~hachampattu (SLBC command) 3518 78 0 2068 80 5<br />
ThlrukollUr (SLBC command) 2207 06 0 1098 65 0<br />
Chengam (SLBC command) 2815 150 1172060<br />
R~shlvandlyam (SRBC command) 3445 51 5 734 46 0<br />
Sankarapuram (SRBC command) 4235 27 5 814 77 5<br />
Chengam (SRBC command) 737 30 0 228 37 0<br />
SRBC command 3418 09 0 1827 GO 5<br />
SCA 16959 08 0 6167 12 0
11.0 INTRODUCTION<br />
Chapter 11<br />
Land use<br />
'Land use' may be defined as 'a dynamic pattern of human utilization of the land<br />
resources for various purposes'. Such pattern is the manifestation of the influence of<br />
geo-morphology, availability of natural resources, climate and socio - cultural and<br />
techno-economic factors operating in an area. The present study evaluates the current<br />
status of land use in the Sathanur Command Area (SCA). The possible impact of<br />
Sathanur Reservoir Project (SRP) and other related environmental factors on the<br />
evolut~on of the land use pattern in the area has also been assessed.<br />
11.1 STATUS<br />
Offsially, the following land - use classification is employed by the Government of<br />
Tamil Nadu; it applies to Sathanur as well:<br />
Forests<br />
Barren and uncultivable land<br />
Land for non-agricultural usage<br />
Cultivable waste<br />
Permanent pastures and grazing land<br />
Land under miscellaneous trees and groves<br />
Current fallow land
Other fallow land<br />
Net sown area<br />
The data pertalnlng to the land-use was collected from the offices of the D~rectorate of<br />
Statlstlcs and Economics Thlruvannamala~ and V~llupuram The patterns of land use<br />
varlous blocks under the SCA, In the ~ndlvldual command areas and SRP overall<br />
are illustrated In the Flgures 11 1 to 11 9 The cumulat~ve percentage f~gures have<br />
been arrlved at based on the land-use data for the years 1997-98 for the lndlvldual<br />
villages In the SCA The data has been furnished In Tables 11 1 to 11 6 The land use<br />
pattern of the Th~ruvannamala~ dlstrlct IS dep~cted In F~gure 11 10 and that of Tam11<br />
Nadu (TN) state In F~gurell 11<br />
11.2 IMPACTS<br />
11.2.1 Forest<br />
The forest cover in the study area 1s mere 1 1% of the total reported area (TRA) of<br />
84219 3 ha. (Figure.ll.11). Thiruvannamalai district, which encompasses most of the<br />
Sathanur Left Bank Canal (SLBC), has its 24.28% of the total land under forest (Figure<br />
11 10) SLBC command has 2% of the total land as forest cover (Figure 11.4) as<br />
against 0 3% in Sathanur Right Bank Canal (SRBC) command (Figurell.8)<br />
Th~ruko~lur block (SLBC command) has the highest share of 7.7%, in the command<br />
reglon (Figurell.2) followed by Sankarapuram block (SRBC command) with 0.9%.<br />
Thachampattu block (Figure 11.1) has mere 0.5% of Total Reported Area (TRA)<br />
There is no forest cover at all in the blocks of Rishivandiyam (Figure 11.6), Chengam,<br />
iSLBC command) (Figure 11.3) and Chengam (SRBC command) blocks<br />
[Figure 11.7).<br />
The only villages in the SCA with forest cover are Nariyapattu, Parayampattu.<br />
Pavapattu and Manalurpet in SLBC command with their 3.8% 1.2% and 49.9% of the<br />
respective TRA under forest. In SRBC command, Kadambur, Moongilthuraipattu and<br />
Vlriyur are the only villages with forest cover, the forest constituting 1% 9.3% and<br />
0 2% of their total lands respectively.<br />
In the absence of forest cover the villagers face acute shortage of fuel wood.<br />
especially the women who have to either traverse long distances in search of it or have<br />
to shell out lumpsum to buy. Else they use crop-residues and local weeds as fuel<br />
Source.
I .2.2 Barren and uncultlvable land<br />
Barren and uncultivable land constitute 7.5% of the TRA in SCA (Figure 11.9) which IS<br />
double of the state's proportion of 3.7% (figure 11.1 1). The SLBC command has 6.6%<br />
of ~ts land under the category barren and uncultivable (Figurell.4) while SRBC<br />
command's proportion is 8.3% (Figure 11.8) Rishivandiyam block has the highest<br />
percentage ( I 1 4%) of barren land (Flgure 11 6) in the SCA followed by Tliir~~ko~lu~<br />
wh~ch has 9 0% of its land classifled as barren and uncultivable (Figure 11 2)<br />
Sankarpuram block (Figure 11.5) has 6.9% of ~ts land barren and uncultivable whlle<br />
Chengam block (SLBC command) (Figurel 1.3) and Thachampattu block (Figure 12.1)<br />
have 7 1% and 4% of their total land as barren and unfit for cultivation.<br />
Amongst the villages, Devariyarkuppam has more than 30% of its land designated as<br />
barren and uncultivable Moongilthuraipattu, Sirpanandal, Kadavanoor and<br />
Pallichandal have more than 20% of their total land under the category barren and unflt<br />
for cultivation<br />
SRBC command has the highest proportion of its land classified as barren and unflt<br />
for cultivation This is because the land terrains of Rishivandiyam and Sankarpuram<br />
blocks and also of Thirukoilur block, are rocky with the soil of kankar and nodules type<br />
(Chapter 12). These sorts of lands are not suitable for growing crops. By employ~ng<br />
proper measures these lands can be reclaimed for other usages thus easing the<br />
pressure on the land.<br />
11.2.3 Land not available for agriculture uses<br />
Land for non-agricultural usage consists of such land, which are put to other econorirlc<br />
use such as human settlements, industrial structures, roads etc. The land not ava~lable<br />
for agricultural uses form 9.7% of the TRA in the study region as against the state's<br />
Proportion of 14.9% and Thiruvannamalai distrid's 14.39% as inferred from Figures<br />
11 10 and 11.1 1 respectively.<br />
11 2.4 Cultivable waste<br />
The category 'cultivable waste' includes those lands, which were under agricultural use<br />
Previously but have been discarded currently, hav~ng been lald to waste due to ovel<br />
using or water logging, salinity or alkalinity problems. In SCA 2.3% of the TRA 1s<br />
under the classification of cultivable waste (Figurel 1.9) which is almost equal to that of<br />
Tam11 Nadu state's proportion of 2.7% (Figure 11.1 1). SLBC command has 3.3% of it's<br />
land designated as cultivable waste (Figure 12.4) while SRBC command's share IS
mere 1.4%. Thachampattu block (Figure 11.1) has the maximum proportion of the land<br />
, 5 3% of TRA delineated as cultivable waste in the command region followed by<br />
Chengam (SLBC command) block with 3% (Figure 11.3). Chengam (SRBC<br />
command), Sankarapuram, Rishivandiyam and Thirukoilur blocks have more 2.06%.<br />
1 1%,1.5% and 1% of their land categorised as cultivable waste, as illustrated in<br />
Figures 11.7, 11.5, 11.6 and 11.2 respectively.<br />
The villages Poraspattu, Erudayampattu, Tholuvanthangal, Agarampallipattu,<br />
Narlyapattu and Athipadi have more than 10% of the~r TRA classified under cult~vable<br />
waste<br />
SRBC command has less proportion of ~ts land as cultivable waste because of<br />
lesser availability of water for irrigation as compared to SLBC command, as discussed<br />
elaborately in chapter 10.Lesser water for irrigation means lesser problems by way of<br />
water logging salinity and alkalinity. The lands of SRBC command are high lying which<br />
further negates the possibility of such problems. By employing suitable remedial<br />
measures such lands can be reclaimed and put to appropriate usage.<br />
3.11.5 Permanent pastures and grazing land<br />
Permanent pastures and grazing lands constitute a mere 0.1% in the land use pattern<br />
of study area (F~gure 11.9). The share of T.N, state under this category IS also a<br />
meagre 0.9% of its total land (Figure 11 .I 1). Thirukoilur, Chengam (SLBC command)<br />
R~shivandiyam, Sankarapuram and Chengam (SRBC command) blocks have almost<br />
nil pastures and grazing lands as illustrated in Figures 11.2, 11.3, 11.6, 11.5 and 11.7<br />
respectively Thachampattu, Kandiankuppam, Pavapattu, Jambai, Sithapatinam and<br />
Pakkam are the only villages having marginal amount of their total land under fodder<br />
cultivation. In the absence of pastures and grazing lands there is almost nil cattle<br />
rearlng In SCA. V~llagers f~nd it profitable to sell the cattle for thelr flesh rather than<br />
maintaining them at a considerably high cost. As a result the cattle population has<br />
dwindled to one -fourth in the recent five years as confirmed by the villagers of the<br />
command area.<br />
Agricultural Officers and Forest Officers though put the blame squarely on farmers for<br />
this loss of forests and pasture lands. According to one official, in the greed of growing<br />
more and more crops, the farmers have started encroaching upon the burial grounds<br />
also
11.2.6 Land under miscellaneous trees and groves<br />
Land under miscellaneous trees and groves constitutes 0.24% of the TRA in the study<br />
area (Figure 11 9) T.N state and Thiruvannamalai district have 1.73% and 1.38% of<br />
thelr respective lands under the cover of miscellaneous trees and groves (Figures<br />
11 I I and 11.10 respectively).<br />
11.2.7 Fallow lands<br />
The current fallow and other fallow lands for the year 1997-98 in SCA were reported to<br />
be 17 62% (Figure 11.9) which are comparable to state's share of 17.35% (Figure<br />
I I 11). The situation is better for Thiruvannamalai district with only 11.25% of the total<br />
land lefl as fallow (Figure 11.10). The situation is dismal in Chengam (SRBC<br />
command) block which has 33.12% of its total land lefl as fallow followed by<br />
R~shivand~yam (21.55%). Chengam (SLBC command) (20.32%) and Sankarapuram<br />
(15.37%) blocks. Thachampattu and Thriukoilur blocks have 11.5% and 11.6% fallow<br />
lands respectively<br />
Ararnbarampattu (40.44% of 655.45 ha!, Jambadi (43.89% of 762.43 ha).<br />
Vadamamandoor (34.95% of 485.02 ha ), Edathanur (52.28% of 642.56 ha ).<br />
Th~ruvadathanur (34.30% of 689.40 ha). Thondamanur (48.36% of 83695 ha),<br />
Rayasamuchan~ (32.53% of 387.42 ha ), Sithapatinm (34.59% of 157.94 ha.) are the<br />
vllages that had more than 30% of their land under the fallow category.<br />
The SLBC command had 15.5% of the TRA left as fallow while SRBC command had<br />
21 6% of the land left fallow during 1997-98 as depicted in Figures 11.4 and 11.8<br />
respectively These are the lands that have not been brought under cultivation either<br />
due to Insufficient irrigation facilities or are left fallow afler being used continuously<br />
over the perlod of time, Irrigation facilities are under developed in SRBC command<br />
(Chapter 10) as compared to SLBC command. This results in more and more of land<br />
being lefl without cultivation. The absence of proper management of land in relatlon to<br />
fertilizer application, soil-water balance and choice of suitable cropping pattern also<br />
results In the land being unfit for cultivating any type of crops and thus being left as<br />
faliow Suitable management steps are needed to check the loss of cultivable land to<br />
the fallow land.<br />
A comparative account of the fallow land and the net sown area. In various blocks for<br />
'he Year 1997-98 is depicted in Figure 11.12. The Figure indicates that as the<br />
Proportion of fallow land rises there is a fall in the net cultivated area. Chengam (SRBC<br />
Wrnand) had more of fallow land and thus less area under cultivation while
~hachampattu block had more of the land under cultivation and less percentage of the<br />
TRA left as fallow<br />
11.2.8 Net sown area<br />
The net sown area in the SCA was 60% of the TRA which was higher than the T.N<br />
state's contribution of mere 42.2% (Figure 11.1 I), and Thiruvannmalai district's 42.9%<br />
(F~gure 11 10) The SLBC command had 59.8% of the total land as net sown area<br />
(Figure 11.8) Thachampattu block's contribution in the command region in the highest<br />
w~th 66 6% of TRA under cultivation as illustrated in Figure 11.9 followed by<br />
Sankarapuram block with 64.8% (Figure 11.5). All the other blocks with the exception<br />
of Chengam (SRBC command) had more than 50% of their land under cultivation as<br />
ndcated by the Figures. Chengam block (SRBC command) had 49% of ~ts total area<br />
under net cultivation, which, even though lowest in the SCA, was higher when<br />
compared to Thiruvannmalai and Tamil Nadu State's figures. With the introduction of<br />
canal irrigat~on and year round availability of water there has been a tendency to bring<br />
more and more of land under cultivation by the farmers of SCA. This IS apparent from<br />
the fact that almost 60% of the total land is under cultivation and another 17% is left as<br />
fallow, thus making the total cultivable land to be 79% which is h~gher than the total<br />
cult~vable land reported in other basins like Tapi basin (62%). Krishna basin (61%)<br />
Sabarmati basin (56%) Yamuna (51.9%) and Brahmani - Baitarni (39 7%)<br />
(CPCB, 1994).<br />
As a result of the more of the land being under cultivation, the forest cover and land<br />
under miscellaneous trees or groves of grows and the pastures and grazing lands are<br />
under tremendous pressure as discussed in preceding section. Poverty of the villagers<br />
downstream is an important factor that drives them to desperately bring more and<br />
more of land under cultivation in the hope of earning revenues with little or no<br />
considerat~ons for any other fact related to planned agriculture, as put by an<br />
Agricultura~ Officer, Illiteracy also adds to their miseries as most of the cultivators are<br />
unaware of the scientific side of the irrigation and agricultural practices.
12.0 INTRODUCTION<br />
Chapter 12<br />
Soil<br />
The properties of soil - physical, chemica!, as biological - indicate the potential as well<br />
as past hlstory of the utilization of the corresponding land, ranging from texture to<br />
chemical and biological, are the indicators of the land utilization of an area. The<br />
physical properties of soil v~z, texture and structure directly affect the soil erodibility<br />
and sediment transportation and also form a basis for the classification of the land, for<br />
various usages. The soil also determines the productivity irrigability and potential~ty of<br />
the land for suitable cropping pattern.<br />
In this chapter we have presented an assessment of the soil of the Sathanur<br />
Command Area (SCA) with special reference to its irrigatility and potentlal for<br />
agriculture.<br />
12.1 STATUS<br />
* soil survey with respect to was conducted by the Soil Survey and land use<br />
Organization, Thanjavur. The survey covered most of the Sathanur Left Bank<br />
Command (SLBC) and some part of the Sathanur Right Bank Command (SRBC)<br />
command. The sub-divisions Thiruvannamalai, Chengam, Thirukoilur and Kallakurichl<br />
which were earlier a part of North Arcot and South Arcot districts are not more SO
a recent administrtative reorganization of the districts of Tamil Nadu (T.N) state.<br />
Thruvannamalai is now a fullaedged district and encompasses most of SLBC and<br />
po,-j,ons of SRBC commands.<br />
The soil of SCA has been classified into. Edathanur series and Mudiyanur series<br />
Edathanur series comprises of moderately deep to deep gravelly soils of very dark<br />
grayish-br~Wn, brownish-yellow to dark yellowish-brown surface, with sub soil ranging<br />
from dark reddish brown to reddish brown and yellowish red in colour. The texture<br />
ranges from loamy sand to sand-loam and gravelly-loam at the surface and sandy-<br />
clay-loam to gravelly-clay-loam at the sub surface. The soils are well drained and<br />
gravelly are seen at the sub surface. The parent materlal is laterite over gneiss~c rock<br />
Mud~yanur series consists of grey to very dark greyish-brown and deep to very deep<br />
solis The top soil texture ranges from sandy-loam to sandy-clay-loam, and clay-loam<br />
to gravelly-clay-loam. Soil is developed from gneissic parent materials. Lime<br />
concretions are seen at the sub-surface. Soils are poorly to imperfectly drained and<br />
water logging is commonly noticed.<br />
Tables 12 1 and 12.2 present the details of the Edathanur and Mudiyanur soil<br />
series The extent of area under, both the soil series had been indicated in Table<br />
123 Land capability classifications based on the soil series of the SCA are<br />
represented as table 12.4. Details regarding the soil distributions In Chengam,<br />
Thlruvannamalai, Kallakurichi and Th~rukoilur, Tamil Nadu are presented in Tables<br />
12 5 -12.8. Information regarding the land capability classification of soils with their<br />
llrnltatlons in various blocks is presented in Table 12.9 - 12.2. Land irr~gability<br />
classification of soils in various block is presented in Table 12.13 - 12.16. The<br />
cropping patterns of the area under types of soil are presented in Tables 12.17 -<br />
12 20.<br />
Tables 12.21 - 12.24 are indicated the details pertaining to the suitability of crops<br />
under various soil types in various blocks. The productivity ratings of the different<br />
Solis In the various blocks under SCA are presented in Tables 12.25 - 12.28.<br />
12.2 IMPACT<br />
Soil distribution<br />
In Chengam though the soils belong to 3 to 4 orders, mostly they are fine loamy. Out<br />
Of the total extent of 68,950 ha, soils constitute 55.25% hills 0.5 %. forests 39 9%<br />
water bodies 4.48% and settlements sites 0.09% of the total area.
ln ~hlruvannmalai too the soil orders are 3 to 4 and the soils are mostly fine loamy<br />
of the total extent of 96,992 ha, the soils constitute 89.1%, reserve forest 9.2%.<br />
1. I%, and hills 0.6% of the total area.<br />
AS regard to Kallkurichi the total extent of the area is 1,48,300 ha, and the so~ls are<br />
rhodustalfs, ustrochrepts, haplustalf and ustorthents, etc. The soil vary from fine<br />
loamy to coarse loamy. Similarly in Thirukoilur the soils orders and their textural<br />
class~fication are some as that of Kallakurichi. The total extent of area is 44,854 ha<br />
Land capability classification<br />
The land capability of Chengam and Thiruvannamalai fall under class~ficatlon II ws<br />
and Ill es. The lands are highly susceptible to water stagnation due to poor<br />
permeability of sub soil strata and eros~onal hazards on the top surface so~ls The<br />
su~tab~lity of the lands for crop raising can be classified as moderately suitable to<br />
good cultivable lands.<br />
The lands of Kallakurichi and Thirukkoilur come under the classification II es, IiI es<br />
and Ill s. They are susceptible to erosion and salinity and alkalinity problems. The<br />
lands Ill s appear only in Kaliakurichi indicating that such soils are with serious<br />
l~m~tation for sustained use for crop raising. Generally the lands are moderately<br />
suitable to good cultivable lands.<br />
Land lrrigability<br />
Chengam and Thiruvannmalai possess good irr~gable lands due to the latter's flne<br />
loamy texture. Their limitations lie in excessive dralnage and impeded drainage at<br />
other places.<br />
The iands of Kallakurichi and Thirukoilur are with moderate to severe limitations for<br />
sustained use under irrigation. The soils are hard, stony and nodules type with high<br />
water table conditions. The permeability is low to moderate. Therefore the problems<br />
capac~ty.<br />
under irrigation flooding and the soils develop crack wtth medium retention<br />
Current cropping pattern<br />
Since the general climate, toprogaphy, surface, soils availability of ground and<br />
waters, rainfall etc. are more or less the same and since there IS no clear<br />
physical structural or land forms between the divisions, the farmers grow
more or less the same type and variety of crops in SCA. Under such environments,<br />
we cilrrenFl<br />
the main crops fid,grown are Jaddy (Oryza sativa), groundnut (Arachis hypogea),<br />
m~llets (fennisetum' typhoides), pulses, sugarcane (Saccharvm officinarum), chill~es<br />
(capsicum annum), cotton (Gossypium arborium), vegetables etc (Chapter 13)<br />
suitability of crops suggested<br />
Afler a careful study of the Properties of water and so11 in the SCA and thew mutual<br />
,nteractlons, the agricultural scientists have suggested the cultivation of groundnut,<br />
pulses, millets, Sunflower (Helianthus annus), maize (Zea mays) and bajra as the dry<br />
crops Similarly, groundnut, pulses, millets, sugarcane, banana (Musa paradisiaca),<br />
coconut (Cocos oucifera). hort~culture crops and chillies have been recommended as<br />
~rr~gated crops.<br />
Productivity rating of soils<br />
S~nce careful ~mprovements are needed in soil structure and nutritional status, the<br />
productivity ratings of the soils were found to have large variation For fine loamy so~ls<br />
the ratlngs are between 20 and 34 under average grouping. In poor grouping, ~t IS<br />
between 8 and 19 in typic haplustalfs. In extremely poor grouping it ranges between 0<br />
and 8 for coarse typic ustorthents The above s~tuation is common for all the four<br />
areas studied.
Table 12.1 Details of Edathanur soil series<br />
Typlfylng Pedon Edathanur sandy-clay-loam<br />
Horlzon Depth in cm Descrlptlon<br />
-- -<br />
AP 0-15 Brown (10 yr.312m) very dark greyish<br />
Brown, sandy clay loam, medium, weak,<br />
sub-angular blocky, few fine faint mottling,<br />
dry, hard moist firm and wet and slightly<br />
st~cky and plastic, common fine vertical and<br />
horizontal disroots; effervescence slight;<br />
moderately slow permeability with clear<br />
smooth boundary<br />
(5yr. 414 m) Redd~sh brown clay loam,<br />
medium weak, sub-angular blocky; dry hard<br />
moist firm; wet sticky and plastlc, few f~ne<br />
faint mottling; few, small soft irregular<br />
concretions; common fine discontinuous,<br />
horizontal, tubular pores: few, very flne<br />
roots; sllght effervescence; moderately slow<br />
permeability with clear smooth boundary<br />
34-55 (5yr. 413) Dark reddlsh-brown, gravelly clay<br />
loam, medium weak, fine crumb, dry loose.<br />
moist, friable wet slightly stlcky and non<br />
plastic; few small irregular, soft concretions;<br />
many fine, discontinuous, vertical tubular<br />
pores; common very fine roots; sllght<br />
effervescence; moderately slow<br />
oermeabilitv.<br />
Topography Gently sloping to sloping terrain with 0 3%<br />
slope<br />
Drainage and permeability Well drained with moderately rap~d to rapid<br />
permeability<br />
Taxonomy Fine1 Coarse Loamy, Iso-hyper-thermic,<br />
mixed non calcareous I calcareous typic<br />
ustropepts.<br />
Normal solum thickness<br />
Less than 90 cm.
~~ble 12.2 Details of Mudiyanur soil series<br />
~~pifylng pedon Mudiyanur clay loam cultivated<br />
HorlE<br />
AP<br />
Depth ~n cm<br />
0-27<br />
Descr~ptlon<br />
(10yr611 d) . Grey . to verv dark arev - .<br />
(10 yr. 311 M) clay loam. coarse.<br />
strong sub-angular blocky, dry very hard. Moist,<br />
firm wet sticky and platic; very fine, small hard<br />
spherical block concentrations; few very fine<br />
continuous, vertical tubular pores; common flne<br />
roots; violent effervescence moderately slow<br />
permeability abrupt smooth boundary.<br />
Ranges ~n character~st~cs<br />
Topography<br />
Drainage and permeability<br />
Taxonomy<br />
Normal solum thickness<br />
27-49 (10yr 412m) Dark gray~sh brown, clay loam<br />
coarse, strong, sub-angular, blocky, dry very<br />
hard, most firm, set sticky and plastic; f~ne to<br />
medium, horlzontal, discontinuous, tubular<br />
pores; few very fine roots; violent effervescence,<br />
moderately slow permeabil~ty w~th clear smooth<br />
boundary<br />
49-100 (7 5yr.414m) Dark brown, sandy clay loam, f~ne<br />
to medium, weak crumb, molst, fr~able, wet<br />
slightly sticky and non plastic, many, srr~all lia~d,<br />
irregular block concretions, few, f~ne.<br />
discontinuous, horlzontal tubular pores, sl~ght<br />
effervescence: moderate permeability<br />
The texture of the surface soil ranges from<br />
sandy loam to clay loam and that of sub surface<br />
ranges from sandy clay loam to gravelly clay<br />
loam.<br />
The so~ls occur on plain terrian and the gradient<br />
IS 0-1%<br />
The so~ls are imperfectly dra~ned to poorly<br />
drained, water-logging is commonly noticed<br />
Fine loamy, iso-hyperthermic, mixed calcareous,<br />
typic haplustalfs.<br />
More than 90cm
Table 12.3 Extent of soil series<br />
SI No Soil series Taxonomy Area in Percentage to total<br />
- - - hectares area<br />
I Edathanur TYPIC 6818 74 52 97<br />
ustropepts<br />
I1 Mudiyanur Typic 6054.86 47.0<br />
haplustalfs<br />
Table 12.4 Land capability classification<br />
Capability class Area in hectares Percentage of<br />
SI No and<br />
capab_!*-%ub -class _<br />
total area<br />
1 II<br />
3446 07 26 78<br />
2 Ile<br />
3 IIs<br />
4 IIw<br />
5 111<br />
6 IIs<br />
7 llle<br />
8 IV<br />
Total
e Lim~tlng factors as risks of erosion<br />
w Excess water stagnation which will retard the plant growth<br />
s Soils are either shallower in depth or with sallne or alkaline problem<br />
II to IV Soils su~table for annual or seasonal short term cult~vation with annual or<br />
short duration crops.<br />
II Solls can be cropped regularly<br />
Ill Solis can be cropped regularly, but have narrow range of use and need more<br />
careful managements, Moderately good lands with major limitations.<br />
IV Fairly good lands with major limitations and with occasional cultlvat~on. They<br />
need very careful managements and have a very narrow range of crops
Table 12.5 Distribution of soils in Chengam<br />
SI Name of the soil familylassociation Extent in Percentage of<br />
No hectares geographical<br />
area<br />
I Fine loamy, udic ustochrept 156 0.09<br />
2 Fine loamy,vertic ustchrept 10,684 6.33<br />
3 Coarse loamy, typic upstochrept 1,101 0.65<br />
4 Fine loamy, udic haplustalf 7,563 4.19<br />
5 Fine loamy, vertic haplustaf 583 0.35<br />
6 Fine loamy, udic ustochrept coarse loamy,<br />
Typic Ustochrept Association<br />
3,393 2.00<br />
7 Fine loamy, udic ustochrept, coarse loamy.<br />
typ~c haplustalf association 285 0.17<br />
8 Coarse loamy, rypic ustothnt Fine loamy.<br />
udic ustochrept 14.374 8.51<br />
9 Fine loamy, typic ustothent fine loamy, udic<br />
haplustalf association 55,115 3.02<br />
10 Fine loamy, udic haplustalf, f~ne loamy, udic<br />
ustochrept association 13.235 7.85<br />
11 Fine loamy, udic haplustalf, coarse loamy,<br />
typic ustorthent association 10,153 6.00<br />
12 Fine loamy, vertic haplustalf, fine loamy,<br />
13<br />
udic ustochrept association<br />
Fine loamy, typic halplustalf, fine loamy,<br />
648 0.69<br />
14<br />
udic ustochrept association<br />
Fine loamy, vertic haplustalf fine loamy.<br />
104 0.69<br />
15<br />
typic haplustalf association<br />
Fine loamy, vertic ustochrept fkine loamy,<br />
324 0.19<br />
typic ustochrept association 958 0.57<br />
16 Fine loamy, udornthentic chromustrat, fine<br />
17<br />
loamy, vertic ustochrept association<br />
Fine loamy, udic ustochrept coarse loamy,<br />
544 0.33<br />
typic ustothent, fine loamy, udich haplustalf,<br />
fine loamy, udich haplustalf<br />
129 0.09<br />
18 Fine loamy, udic rhodustalf, fine loamy,<br />
udich haplustalf, coarse loamy, typic<br />
ustothent association<br />
790 0.47
19 Fine loamy, udic haplustalf. coarse loamv.<br />
typic ustoihent, fin; loamy; udich 1,981 1.17<br />
20<br />
ustochrept association<br />
Fine loamy, udic haplustalf, fine loamy, udic<br />
ustochrept coarse loamy, typ~c ustothent<br />
association<br />
2,5551 1 50<br />
21 Fine loamy, udic haplustalf coarse loamy,<br />
udic ustorthent, fine loamy, udic rhodustalf<br />
association<br />
3,717 2.19<br />
22 Fine loamy, typic haplustalf, fine loamy,<br />
udic haplustalf, fine loamy, udic ustochrept<br />
14,440 8.55<br />
Total soil area 92,828 55.25<br />
Area under<br />
Hills 862 0.50<br />
Resewed forests 67.561 39.99<br />
Tanks 6,649 3.94<br />
River 894 0.09<br />
Grand total 1,68,950 100.00
Table 12.6 Distribution of soils in Thiruvannamalai<br />
Name of the soil Extent In Percentage of<br />
familylassociat~on hectares geographical<br />
-<br />
area<br />
Fine loamy, udic rhodustalf<br />
Fine loamy, typic rhodustalf<br />
Fine loamy, udic haplustalf<br />
Fine loamy, typlc haplustalf<br />
Flne loamy, vert~c usotchrept<br />
Flne loamy, udic ustochrept<br />
F~ne loamy, udornthemtic -<br />
chromustert<br />
Fine loamy, uidc ustochrpt<br />
26.3<br />
Fineloamy, udic ustochrept<br />
fineloamy,<br />
association<br />
uldc rhodustalf<br />
Fine lomay, udic ustochrept,<br />
coarse loamy, typic ustorthent<br />
association<br />
Flne loamy, uidc ustochrept,<br />
fine loamy, udic haplustalf<br />
association<br />
Fine loamy, udorthentic<br />
chromustert fine loamy, udic<br />
ustochrept association<br />
Fine loamy, udic haplustalf, fine<br />
loamy,<br />
association<br />
typic haplustalf<br />
Flne loamy, typic ustochrept,<br />
fine loamy, udic rhodustalf, fine<br />
loamy, vertic ustochrept<br />
association<br />
Fine loamy, uidc ustochrept fine<br />
loamy, udic rhodustalf, coarse<br />
loamy, typic ustorthent<br />
Total soil area<br />
Reserved forest<br />
House ate<br />
8,976 9.2<br />
-- - --p -- -- --<br />
1,036 11<br />
Hills 547 0 6<br />
Grand total 96,992 100 00
Table 12.7 Distribution of soils in Kallakkaurichi<br />
Extent in Percentage of<br />
SI No Name of the soil familylassociation hectares geographical<br />
- - --- -<br />
area<br />
1 F~ne loamy paral~th~c rhodustalf 23 526 40 15 86<br />
2 F~ne loamy typlc chromustert 19 968 00 13 46<br />
3 Fine loamy, udic ustochrept 17,280.00 11.65<br />
4 Ff~ne loamy, vertoc ustochrept 16,640.00 11 22<br />
5 Fine loamy, typic haplustalf 6,937.00 4.62<br />
6 F~ne loamy, udlc rhodustalf 1,510.40 1 02<br />
7 Coarse loamy, paralithic ustorthent 537 60 0 36<br />
8 Fine loamy, udic haplustalf 435.020 0 20<br />
3. Coarse loamy, paralithic ustorthent 18,329.60 12.36<br />
t coarse loamy, paralithic<br />
ustochrept<br />
10 Fine loamy, paralithic rhodustalf + 14.329 60 9 86<br />
fine loamy, paralithic ustochrept<br />
11 Coarse loamy, paralithic ustorthent 9,369.60 6.32<br />
+ fine loamy paralith~c haplustalf<br />
12 Fine loamy, typic chromustert + fine 7,296.00 4.92<br />
loamy, vertic ustochrept<br />
13 Coarse loamy, paralithic ustorthent 4,249.00 2.87<br />
+ fine loamy, paralithic rhodustalf<br />
14 Coarse loamy, udic ustochrept + 4.096.00 2.76<br />
fine loamy, typic haplustalf<br />
15 Fine loamy, paralithic rhodustalf + 3,200.00 2.16<br />
coarse loamy, paralithic ustochrept<br />
16 Coarse loamy, paralithic ustochrept 307.00 0.21<br />
t fine loamy, paralithic rodustalf<br />
Grand Total 1,48.300.0 100.00
Table 12.8 Distribution of soils in Thirukoilur<br />
Percentage of<br />
SI NO Name of the soil famllyl Extent ~n geographical<br />
assoc~ation hectares area<br />
- -- - -- -<br />
1 F~ne loamy udlc ustochrept 5,683 20 12 60<br />
2 F~ne loamy vertlc ustochrept 3 993 60 8 88<br />
3 F~ne loamy, udlc haplustalf 486 40 1 00<br />
4 Coarse loamy, typic ustochrept 76 80 0.11<br />
5 Fine loamy, udic haplustalf. fine 16,665.60 37.07<br />
loamy, udic ustochrept<br />
6 Fine loamy, typic haplustalf, fine 1,894.40 4.21<br />
loamy, udic ustochrept<br />
7 Fine loamy, typic haplustalf, fine 819.20 1.88<br />
loamy, ludic ustochrept<br />
8 Fine loamy, udic ustochrept, fine 588.20 1.89<br />
loamy, typic haplustalf<br />
9 Flne loamy, udic ustochrept fine 486.40 1 .O<br />
loamy, typic haplustalf<br />
10 Fine loamy, typic haplustalf, fine 204.80 0.20<br />
loamy, udic haplustalf<br />
11. Fine loamy, udic haplustalf fine 11,264.00 25.06<br />
12<br />
loamy, udic ustochrept typic<br />
ustipsamment<br />
Typic ustisamment, fine loamy,<br />
udic ustochrept, coarse loamy,<br />
fluventic ustochrept<br />
2,150.00 4 78<br />
13. Fine loamy, typic haplustalf, fine<br />
loamy, udic ustochrept, typic<br />
ustorthent, coarse loamy<br />
640.00<br />
Total 44,853 60 100.00
Table 12.9 Land capability classification of soils with their limitations in<br />
Chengam<br />
SI NO Land capab~l~ty Descr~pt~on Llm~tat~on<br />
class - -- --<br />
1 II Ws Good cult~vable land Surface harden~ng<br />
w~th moderate heavy texture<br />
llmltat~ons that reduce dramage problem,<br />
the cholce of crops sheet eroslon<br />
Moderately good Run off, slow<br />
cultivable land, severe permeability<br />
limitations that reduce development of<br />
the choice of crops, cracks, poor fertility,<br />
sub-soil gravelliness,<br />
stony surface crusting<br />
Table 12.10 Land capability classification of soils w~th their limitations in<br />
Thiruvannmalai<br />
SI No Land capablllty Descr~pt~on L~m~tatlon<br />
class<br />
-- - --<br />
I II Ws Good cultivable land Surface harden~ng<br />
with moderate heavy texture, drainage<br />
limitations that reduce<br />
the choice of crops.<br />
problem, sheet erosion<br />
Moderately good Run off, slow<br />
cultivable land, severe permeability<br />
limitations that reduce development of cracks,<br />
the choice of crops. poor fertility, sub-so11<br />
gravelliness, stony<br />
surface crusting.
Table 12.11 Land capability classification of soils with their limitation in<br />
Kallakurichi<br />
SI NO Land capab~lity Descr~pt~on L~mitat~on<br />
class<br />
-- - -- - - . -. -- -<br />
1 lles Good cult~vable land, Surface texture,<br />
moderate limitations that poor fertility,<br />
reduce the choice of crops calcium<br />
deficiently,<br />
surface crust~ng<br />
Table 12.12 Land capability classification of soil with their limitat~ons In<br />
Thirukoilur.<br />
SI No Land capabil~ty Description Lim~tation<br />
class<br />
- -<br />
1 lles<br />
-- --<br />
Good cult~vable<br />
--<br />
land, Surface texture<br />
moderate lim~tat~ons that poor fertility<br />
reduce the cho~ce of crops. calcium<br />
deficiently,<br />
surface crusting<br />
Moderately good cultivable Erosion, soil<br />
land. Sever limitations that depth, poor<br />
reduce the choice of crops, fertility, sub-so11<br />
gravelliness.<br />
stony surface<br />
crust~ng -
Table 12.13 Land irrigability classification of soils of Chengam with their<br />
limitations<br />
SI NO Land irrlgability Description<br />
class<br />
Limitation<br />
- - ---<br />
I 2s Moderate so11 l~m~tatlons Texture, excessive<br />
for sustained use under sub surface<br />
irrigation drainage<br />
2 2sd Severe soil limitations for Texture impeded<br />
sustained use under drainage<br />
irrigation<br />
Table 12.14 Land irrigability classification of soils of Th~ruvannamala~ with their<br />
limitations<br />
SI.No. Land irrigability Description Limitation<br />
class<br />
- -. .<br />
1 2s Moderate soil lim~tations Texture, excessive<br />
for sustained use under sub surface<br />
irrigation drainage<br />
2 2sd Severe so11 limitations for Texture impeded<br />
sustained use under drainage<br />
irrigation
Tabla 12.15 Land irrigability classification of soils with their limitations in<br />
Kallakkurichi<br />
~1 NO Land ~rrigability Descr~ption Limitation<br />
class<br />
- -- - - -- .-- - -- - . --<br />
1 2ts Lands that have severe Topography<br />
limitations for sustained use presence of<br />
under irrigation kankar nodules<br />
Lands that have moderate Topography so11<br />
limitations for sustained use erosion, med~um<br />
under irrigation water hold~ng<br />
capacity.<br />
Lands that have severe Poor drainage,<br />
limitations for sustained use<br />
under irrigation<br />
High water table<br />
Land that have severe Topography<br />
limitations for susta~ned use coarse,<br />
under irr~gat~on fragments, low<br />
water holding<br />
capacity.
Table 12.16 Land irrigability classification of soils with their limitations in<br />
Thirukoilur.<br />
Sl No Land Descr~pt~on L~rn~tat~on<br />
lrr~gabll~ty<br />
-class --- - -- - -<br />
1 2ts Lands that havesevere Topography<br />
limitations for sustained use presence of<br />
under irrigation kankar nodules<br />
2 2ts Lands that have moderate Topography soil<br />
limitations for sustained use erosion, medium<br />
under irrigation water holding<br />
capacity<br />
3ds Lands that have severe Poor drainage<br />
limitations for sustained use h~gh water table<br />
under irrigation<br />
3ts Land that have severe Topography<br />
limitations for sustained use coarse,<br />
under irrigation fragments, low<br />
water holding<br />
capacity.
Table 12.17 Crops grown in various soil types in Chengam<br />
Land under use Mapping<br />
-- -- - -<br />
SI Dry lrngated un~t So11 name<br />
No<br />
- - - -- - - -<br />
1 Groundnuts Groundnut, paddy 3 F~ne loamy,<br />
millets millets, sugarcane udic rhodustalf<br />
vegetables<br />
2 Groundnuts Groundnut, paddy, 2 Fine loamy,<br />
millets millets, sugarcane udic haplustalf<br />
vegetables<br />
3 Groundnuts Groundnut, paddy 6 Fine loamy,<br />
millets chillies vertic<br />
haplustalf<br />
4 Groundnuts Paddy, sugarcane 12 Fine loamy,<br />
rn~llets vertic<br />
haplustalf<br />
5 Groundnuts Groundnut, paddy, 1 Fine loamy,<br />
millets millets, vegetables vertic<br />
ustochrept<br />
6 Groundnuts Paddy, 5 Fine loamy,<br />
ragi (Eleucine udorthentic,<br />
coracana) chromustert,<br />
coarse loamy.<br />
Groundnut Groundnut, paddy, 4 Coarse loamy,<br />
millets typic<br />
ustorthent
Table 12.18 Crops grown in various so11 types in Thiruvannmalai<br />
Land under use Mapping Soil name<br />
SI No D r~ Irrigated unit<br />
-- - - -- -. - -<br />
1 Groundnuts Groundnut paddy 3 Flr~e loamy<br />
millets millets, sugarcane udic rhodustalf<br />
vegetables<br />
2 Groundnuts, Groundnut, paddy, 2 Fine loamy,<br />
millets. millets, sugarcane udic haplustalf<br />
vegetables<br />
3 Groundnuts, Groundnut, paddy 6 Fine loamy,<br />
millets chillies typic haplustalf<br />
4 Groundnuts Groundnut, paddy 13 Fine loamy,<br />
sugarcane vertic<br />
rhodustalf<br />
5 Groundnuts Paddy, ragi, 5 Fine loamy,<br />
sugarcane vertic<br />
ustochrept<br />
6 Groundnuts Groundnut, millets, 8 F~ne loamy<br />
groundnut udorthentic,<br />
7 Groundnut Paddy, ragi 10 Typic<br />
chromustert,.<br />
ustipsrnment
Table 12.19 Crops grown in various soil types in Kallakurichi<br />
Land under use<br />
$1 No Dry lrr~gated Mapplng So11 name<br />
un~t<br />
I G~ngelly cumbu<br />
-<br />
Groundnut taploca 7 F~ne loamy<br />
cor~ander sugarcane rag1 paraltth~c<br />
groundnut cotton rhodustalf<br />
2 Cor~ander rag1 Paddy, taploca 2 F~ne loamy<br />
cumbu sugarcane tYPlc<br />
chromosturt<br />
3 Rag1 cumbu Paddy cotton 1 Fne loamy<br />
tap~oca udlc ustochrept<br />
4 Cumbu rag1 Paddy tap~oca 4 Vert~c<br />
cotton groundnut ustochrept<br />
turmer~c rag1<br />
5 Cumbu rag1 Paddy cotton rag1 9 Flne loamy<br />
cor~ander taploca groundnut typlc haplustalf<br />
6 Cashew cumbu Paddy cotton 5 F~ne loamy<br />
groundnut sugarcane, udlc rhodustalf<br />
turrner~c (Curcuma<br />
domestrca ) rag!<br />
tap~oca (Manth~t<br />
esculenta)
Table 12.20 Crops grown in various soil types in Thirukoilur<br />
Land under use Mapp~ng Soil name<br />
-- -<br />
. -. . .<br />
SI.No Dry Irrigated unit<br />
. . .- . ---<br />
1 Groundnut, Groundnut, paddy 1 Fine loamy, udic<br />
cumbu, ragi ragi, casuarina ustochrept<br />
2 Blackgram, rag1 Paddy, cotton, 4 Fine loamy,<br />
blackgram, ragi vertic ustochrept<br />
3 Groundnut, Groundnut, 3 Haplustalf<br />
pulses, cholam sugarcane tapioca,<br />
cumbu ragi, paddy cumbu<br />
4 Paddy, cotton, rag1 8 Coarse loamy,<br />
typic ustothent
Table 12.21 Potentiality of the land under different soils for raising various<br />
crops in Chengam.<br />
Su~table Crop<br />
Mapp~nd So11 Name<br />
-- -- - -- - - --<br />
Sl No Un~t<br />
-- -.DL Irrigated<br />
1 Groundnut Groundnut oulses 3 Fine loamv udic<br />
pulses, mlllets mlllets, sugarcane, rhodustali<br />
banana, coconut,<br />
horticultural crops,<br />
chillies, tree crops<br />
2 Groundnut, Groundnut, pulses 2 Fine loamy, udic<br />
pulses, cholam, millest, sugarcane, haplustalf<br />
cumbu banana, coconut,<br />
horticultural crops,<br />
chillies, tree crops<br />
3 Groundnut Groundnut, pulses, 6 Fine loamy, typic<br />
pulses, millets millets, chillies,<br />
sugarcane,<br />
banana,<br />
vegetables<br />
haplustalf<br />
4 Pulses, millets Paddy, cotton, 12 Fine loamy. vertic<br />
coriander, pulses<br />
millets, banana<br />
haplustalf<br />
5 Groundnut, Groundnut, millets, 1 Fine loamy, udlc<br />
pulses sunflower, pulses, tapioca, ustochrept<br />
cumbu, vegetables,<br />
sorghum horticultural crops.<br />
(Sorghum bicolor) coconut, grapes,<br />
trees<br />
6 Pulses, millets Paddy, cotton, 5 Fine loamy, vertic<br />
coriander, pulses<br />
millets, banana,<br />
korai<br />
ustochrept<br />
7 Pulses, millets Paddy, cotton, 8 F~ne loamy,<br />
coriander, pulses udorthentic,<br />
millets, banana,<br />
korai<br />
chromustert<br />
8 Settlement<br />
pastures,<br />
forestry,<br />
groundnut,<br />
pulses, millets<br />
Groundnut, pulses,<br />
millets, vegetables<br />
4 Coarse loamy,<br />
typic ustorthent
Table 12.22 Potentiality of the land under different soil for raising various crops<br />
in Thiruvannamalai.<br />
Suitable Crop Mapping<br />
SI.No ---r<br />
D Irrigated unit<br />
Soil name<br />
.-<br />
I Groundnut, Groundnut, pulses, 3 F~ne loamy, udic<br />
pulses, millets sugarcane,<br />
coconut,<br />
horticultural crops,<br />
chillies, tree crops<br />
rhodustalf<br />
2 Groundnut, Groundnut, pulses 2 Fine loamy, udic<br />
pulses, millets, sugarcane, haplustalf<br />
sunflower, banana, coconut,<br />
cholam, cumbu hort~cultural crops,<br />
chill~es, tree crops<br />
3 Groundnut Groundnut, pulses, 6 Fine loamy, typic<br />
pulses, millets millets, chill~es,<br />
sugarcane,<br />
banana.<br />
vegetables<br />
haplustalf<br />
4 Groundnut, Groundnut, pulses, 13 Fine loamy, typic<br />
pulses, millets millets, ch~llies,<br />
sugarcane. banana<br />
vegetables<br />
rhodustalf<br />
5 Pulses, millets Paddy, cotton 5 Fine loamy, vertic<br />
coriander, pulses,<br />
millets, banana,<br />
korai<br />
ustochrept<br />
6 Pulses, millets Paddy, cotton, 8 Fine loamy,<br />
coriander, pulses<br />
millets, banana,<br />
korai<br />
ustochrept<br />
7 Groundnut, Coconut, 10 Typic,<br />
casuarina casuarina<br />
eucalyptus,<br />
palamyra cashew<br />
ustripsamment
Table 12.23 Potentiality of the land under different soils for raising various<br />
crops in Kallakurichi<br />
Sl No Dry<br />
Suitable Cro~ Maooind<br />
... - -- - -.<br />
Irrigated uni'<br />
Soil Name<br />
1. Groundnut, Groundnut, ~ulses 7 Fine loamv.<br />
pulses, millets millets, sugarcane, paralithic<br />
banana, coconut,<br />
other horticultural<br />
crops, chillies,<br />
grapes, acid lime<br />
rhodustalf<br />
2 Pulses Paddy, cotton,<br />
black - gram,<br />
green gram, ragi<br />
2 Fine loamy, typic<br />
chromostert<br />
3 Groundnut, Groundnut, millets 1 f~ne loamy, udic<br />
pulses, millets chilies and<br />
vegetables<br />
ustochrept<br />
4 Pulses, millets Paddy, cotton, 4 Fine loamy, vertic<br />
coriander, pulses,<br />
banana, millets<br />
ustochrept<br />
5 Groundnut, Groundnut, pulses 9 Fine loamy, typic<br />
pulses, millets millets, chillies,<br />
sugarcane,<br />
banana, vegtables<br />
haplustalf<br />
6 Groundnut, Groundnut, pulses 5 Fine loamy, udicpulses,<br />
millets millets, sugarcane,<br />
banana, coconunt<br />
other horticultural<br />
crops, chillies,<br />
grapes<br />
rhodustalf
Table 12.24 Potentiality of the land under different soils for raising various<br />
crops in Thirukoilur<br />
Su~table crop<br />
- --<br />
Mapp~ng So11 name<br />
Sl No<br />
1<br />
Dry lrr~gated<br />
- -- --<br />
Groundnut Groundnut, m11lets.unit<br />
-7- ~~nelG;,-ud~F -<br />
pulses, millets chillies, vegetables ustochrept<br />
2 Pulses, millets Paddy, cotton, 4 Vert~c ustochrept<br />
3 Groundnut,<br />
coriander, pulses,<br />
millets, banana<br />
Groundnut, millets 3 Fine loamy, udic<br />
sunflower, sugarcane,<br />
haplustalf<br />
cholam, banana, pulses,<br />
tapioca,<br />
horticultural crops,<br />
vegetables,<br />
grapes, coconut,<br />
tree crops<br />
4 Settlement Paddy, cotton, 8 Coarse loamy,<br />
pastures, coriander, pulses, typic ustorthent<br />
forestry,<br />
groundnut.<br />
pulses, millets<br />
millets, banana
Table 12.25 Productivity rating of soils In Chengam<br />
SI NO Soil Name Symbol<br />
Productivity Improvements<br />
needed<br />
Rating Grouping<br />
-- .-<br />
I Fine loamy, Ursf 20-34 Average Improvement of soil<br />
udic structure and nutrient<br />
rhodustalf status<br />
2 Fine loamy, Uhsf 20-34 Average lmprovement of soil<br />
udic Structure and nutrient<br />
haplustalf status, application of<br />
organic manure<br />
3 Fine loamy, Thaf 8-19 Poor Improvement of<br />
typic structure and nutrient<br />
haplustalf structure and<br />
supplementary<br />
irrigation, application<br />
of organic manure.<br />
4 F~ne loamy, Vhaf 20-64 Average lmprovement of<br />
vertic structure and texture,<br />
haplustalf supplementary<br />
irrigation<br />
5 Flne loamy, Uuop 20-34 Average Textural improvement<br />
udic by stone removal,<br />
Ustochrept measures to control<br />
water erosion<br />
6 Flne loamy, Vuop 20-34 Average lmprovement of soil<br />
vertic drainage,<br />
ustochrept incorporation of<br />
organic manure<br />
7 Fine loamy, Dscv 20-34 Average lmprovement of soil<br />
udorthentic drainage,<br />
chromustert incorporation of<br />
organic manure<br />
8 Coarse Truct 0-7 Extremely Improvement of<br />
loamy, typic Poor structure of tank<br />
ustorthent silt,application of farm<br />
yard manure, water<br />
conservation<br />
measures, mulching
Table 12.26 Productivity rating of soils in Thiruvannamalai<br />
Productivitv<br />
SI NO Soil Name Symbol Improvements<br />
needed<br />
Rating Grouping<br />
1 F~ne loamy, Ursf 20-34 Average Improvement of so11<br />
udic structure and nutrient<br />
rhodustalf status<br />
2 Fine loamy. Uhsf 20-34 Average lmprovement of so11<br />
udic Structure and nutrient<br />
haplustalf status, application of<br />
organic manure,<br />
fertilizer<br />
management, soil<br />
conservation<br />
measures<br />
3 F~ne loamy, Thaf 8-19 Poor Improvement of<br />
typic structure and nutrient<br />
haplustalf status,<br />
supplementary<br />
irrigation, applicat~on<br />
of organic manure<br />
4 F~ne loamy, Trsf 8-19 Average Soil structure<br />
typic improvement<br />
haplustalf application of organic<br />
manure, fertilizer<br />
management<br />
5. Fine loamy, Vucp 20-34 Average Improvement of soil<br />
vert~c drainage,<br />
ustochrept Incorporation of<br />
Organic manure<br />
6 Fine loamy, Dcsv 20-34 Average lmprovement of soil<br />
udorthentic, drainage,<br />
Chromustert incorporation of<br />
organic manure<br />
7 Fine loamy, Tupt 0-7 Extremely Improvement of<br />
ustipsumment poor structure of tank silt<br />
and farm yard<br />
manure mulching.<br />
supplementary<br />
irrigation
Table 12.27 Productivity rating of soils in Kallakurichi<br />
Productivity<br />
lmprovementsneeded<br />
SI NO So11 Name<br />
- - - - -- - -<br />
Ratlng Group~ng<br />
-- -<br />
1 ~~ne-loamy 20-34 Average Appl~cat~on of tank s~lt I FYM<br />
2<br />
paralithic<br />
rhodustalf<br />
Fine loamy, 20-34 Average 1) Drainage improvement<br />
typic<br />
2) Water management<br />
chromustert<br />
3) Fertilizer management<br />
4) Gypsum I fertil~zer<br />
management<br />
5) Summer ploughing<br />
3 Flne loamy, 20-34 Average 1) More FYM application<br />
tYPlc 2) Cultivation of selected<br />
haplustalf crops<br />
3) Advoidance of deep rooted<br />
crops<br />
4) Sod conservation<br />
5) Micronutrient applicat~on<br />
6) Fertilizer management<br />
4 Fine loamy, 20-34 Average 1) Application of tank silt,<br />
udlc FY M<br />
rhodustalf 2) Gypsum application<br />
3) Deep ploughing<br />
4) Soil conservation<br />
5) Fertilizer management<br />
-
Table 12.28 Productivity rating of soils in Thirukoilur<br />
SI NO Sol1 name Ratin Grouping<br />
Productivity Improvements needed<br />
- -<br />
1 F~ne loamy,<br />
9<br />
20-34 Average 1) Appl~cat~on of FYM<br />
udlc 2) Soil conservat~on<br />
ustochrept 3) Fertilizer management<br />
2 Fine loamy, 20-34 Average 1) Drainage improvement ]<br />
vertic 2) Gypsum application<br />
ustochrept 3) Application of more FYM<br />
4) ZnSo4 application<br />
5) Fertilizer I water<br />
management<br />
6) Summer ploughing<br />
7) Soil conservation<br />
3 Fine loamy, 8-19 Poor 1) Soil conservation<br />
udlc 2) Application of Tank silt 1<br />
haplustalf FY M<br />
4 Coarse 0-7 Extremely 1) Soil conservation<br />
loamy, typic poor 2) Addition of tank silt<br />
ustorthent 3) Cultivation of selected<br />
crops<br />
4) Soil rnulch~ng<br />
5) Soil conservation
13.0 INTRODUCTION<br />
Chapter 13<br />
Agriculture<br />
The objective of Sathanur project is to provide irrigation water to a predominantly<br />
agrarian region.<br />
In this chapter we present a gist of our studies on the agricultural practices followed in<br />
the Sathanur Command Area (SCA) The study also focuses on the impact of the<br />
Sathanur Reservoir Project (SRP) on the cropping pattern in the region.<br />
13.1 STATUS<br />
The general pattern of cropping in the command area is tabulated as Table 13.1 The<br />
annual rainfall of Thiruvannamalai district and the outflow from the reservoir Is<br />
Presented in Figure 13.1. The annual rainfall of the state of Tamil Nadu (TN) has been<br />
depicted as Figure 13.2. The study area has been categorised into various blocks.<br />
Tables 13,2 - 13.8 present the village - wise details of the cropping patterns in various<br />
blocks in SCA. The distribution of population - general and vocation wise -in different<br />
blocks of SCA are presented in Tables 13.8 - 13.14, The intensity of cropping<br />
(computed as the ratio of gross cropped area to net sown area) and other<br />
delllographic details are presented in Table 13.15. Figures 13.5 to 13.13 lll~strate the<br />
patterns of the various blocks, individual command regions and cumulatlvely
for the SRP. Figure 13.4 indicates the percentage area of the gross sown area In<br />
command under paddy cultivation during various seasons. Area under food and non-<br />
food crops (percentage wise) is represented in Figure 13.3 Groundnut (Arachis<br />
~~~~ogea) cultivation in relation to total non-food cultivation in the command region IS<br />
lilustrated in Figure 13.15 Figure 13.16 gives an account of the division of working<br />
force in the region while Figure 12.17 illustrates the gender wise distribution of<br />
agricultural labourers in the command region.<br />
13.2 IMPACTS<br />
I 3.2.1 Cropping pattern<br />
The general cropping pattern followed In Thlruvannamalai d~strict vis a vis SCA is<br />
presented In Table 13 1. Paddy (Oryza sabva), sugarcane (Saccharum officinarurn)<br />
and groundnut (Arachis hypogea) are the major crops cultivated in various seasons, as<br />
lndlcated in the Table.<br />
13.2.2 Rainfall pattern in the study area<br />
The annual precipitat~on of the Thiruvannmalai district for the years 1962 to 1998 along<br />
w~th the outflow from the reservoir is depicted in Figure 13.1. The average precipitation<br />
IS 970 70mm, and standard deviation is 274.8. The annual precipitation for T.N. state is<br />
depicted in Flgure 13.2. Average ramfall for T.N. state is 897.5mm and standard<br />
deviation IS 144.6. The coefficient of variation for the rainfall in Thiruvannamalai is<br />
28 30% while that for T.N. state is 16.1%. As inferred form Figure 13.1 the ralnfall and<br />
outflow from the reservoir illustrate wide ranging fluctuations. The outflow from the<br />
reservoir was very low from 1982 - 90 and again from 1993-95.<br />
13.2.3 Cropping pattern specifically in SCA<br />
Cropping pattern is the proportion of area under various crops at a point of time. The<br />
cropping pattern in SCA is essentially governed by socio-economic factors rather than<br />
the ecological considerations. This is obvious from the fact that food crops constitute a<br />
malor produce of the agricultural land (78.55%) in the study area as illustrated in<br />
Figure (13.3). The Sathanur Right Bank Canal (SRBC) command has its 86.66% of the<br />
gross Cultivated area under food crops and Sathanur Left Bank Canal (SLBC)<br />
has 70.19% of its gross sown area under food crops The figures are higher<br />
than for the state of Tamil Nadu (68.8%). Rishivandiyam block has the highest<br />
percentage of area under food crops (92.8%) followed by Sankarapuram (86.3%) and
hac cham pa nu (75.2%) blocks. ,411 the blocks have more than 65% of their land under<br />
food crops. Major produce comprises of paddy (Ofyza sativa), millets (Penn~sefum<br />
yphoides) pulses, Spices, sugarcane (Saccharvrn officinarurn) and fru~ts and<br />
vegetables.<br />
Among the non-food crops groundnut (Arachis hypogea), cotton (Gossyp~um<br />
aiborium), and oil seeds like gingelly (Sesamum indicum) and castor (Ricinus<br />
communis) form the major chunk. Groundnut alone shares 82% of the cultivated area<br />
under non-food crops in SCA as against the state's share of 44.78%. SRBC command<br />
has ~ts 88 13% of land under groundnut cultivation and SLBC command has 79.18% of<br />
the land under groundnut cultivation. The prevalence of individual crop is largely<br />
Influenced by the degree of the availabil~ty of water resources and the feas~bility in<br />
terms of revenue obtalned An attempt has been made to correlate varlous<br />
env~ronmental factors wlth the spatlal dlstr~butlon of the ~ndlv~dual crops Ir the SCA<br />
Paddy (Oryza sativa)<br />
Be~ng a tropical monsoon crop, rlce requlres a temperature of 2I0C during sowing and<br />
about 37'C during harvesting. It also require h~gh rainfall and assured ~rrlgation<br />
factlitles<br />
Paddy occupies about 37 23% of the total cropped area in SCA (Flgure13 13) as<br />
agalnst 33 6% for the state of Tamil Nadu (Figure 13.14) Paddy cultivation shows<br />
great varlatlons at the block levels. Sankarapuram block (Figure 13.9) is the major<br />
paddy growlng reglon with its 53.34% of the cropped area under paddy followed by<br />
R~shivandlyam with 44.36% (Figure 13 10) The SRBC command has 46 01% of ~ts<br />
gross sown area under paddy cultivation (Figure 13.12) whereas SLBC command has<br />
lust 28.16% of its gross sown area under paddy (Figure 13.8). Thachampattu (F~gure<br />
13 5) and Chengam (Figure 13.7) have 33% of their gross cultivated area under<br />
Paddy while Thirukoilur and Chengam (SRBC command) blocks have 27% and 25%<br />
oftheir respective cultivated land under paddy (Figures 13.6 and 13.1 1).<br />
The paddy growing seasons are Samba (June-December), Navarai (January-March)<br />
and Sornavari (April- June). Paddy cultivation during the samba season has the<br />
maximum hectarage with 50.65% of the total annual paddy grown during the season<br />
followed by Navarai (28.27%) and Sornavari (21.05%), (Figure 13.4) SRBC command<br />
has maximum land under paddy cultivation during the Samba season (62 14%)<br />
Sankarapuram and Chengam (SRBC command) blocks have more than 65% of the
total land under paddy during the same season followed by Rishivandiyam (57.85%)<br />
SLBC command cultivates paddy mostly during Navarai season (43.19%) followed by<br />
Samba (31.3%). All the three left command blocks follow more or less equal<br />
dlstrlbutlon in terms of area under paddy cultivation durlng the three seasons w~th the<br />
exception Chengam block whlch has maximum hectarage, under paddy during the<br />
Navarl season (53.99%) as indicated in Figure 13.4.<br />
Sugarcane (Saccharurn oficinarurn)<br />
sugarcane a premier cash crop, occuples 17.13% of the total cropped area in the SCA<br />
(Flgure 13 13) as against the state's share of mere 4.02% (Figure 13 14). SLBC<br />
command has its 19.04% of the cropped area under sugarcane plantation (F~gure<br />
13 8) whereas SRBC command has 15.29% of the total cropped area under<br />
sugarcane plantation (Figure 13.12).<br />
Thachampattu block has the maximum coverage of 24.10% followed by<br />
Rlshlvandiyam block (20 29%) as ev~dent from Flgures 13.5 and 13.10 respectively<br />
Thirukollur (Figure 13 6) and Chengam (SLBC command) (Figure 13.7) blocks have<br />
19% and 16% of the~r respective cultivated area under sugarcane crop. Sankarapuram<br />
(F~gure 13 9) block has 13% of its gross cultivated land under sugarcane whlle<br />
Chengam block (SRBC command), 5%, under sugarcane plantation as illustrated In<br />
Flgure 13 11<br />
Cereals<br />
Ollrer than paddy, the major cereals grown In the study area are millets (Por~~lrsololri<br />
iypho~des), maize (Zea mays) and rag1 (Eleucine coracana). These occupy 18.02% of<br />
the total cultivated land, maximum after paddy, in the command area (Flgure<br />
13.13) The T.N state's share in cereals cultivation is 12.4% (Figure 13.14). These are<br />
the main crops of the dry lands where they are grown either as ra~nfed crops or dry<br />
summer crops requiring minimum irrigation facilities. SRBC command has 20.17% Of<br />
Its cultivated land under cereals (Figure 13.12) while SLBC command has 15.79% of<br />
~ts' land under the same (Figure 13.8). Rishivandiyam. Thirukoilur and Sankarapuram<br />
blocks have more than 15% of their cultivated land under cereals as evident from<br />
13.10, 13.6 and 13.9 respectively.
pulses<br />
The major pulses grown in the SCA are black gram (Phaseolus mungo), green gram<br />
(paureus), kidney bean (P.valgaris), pigeon pea ( Cajanus cajan), etc Pulses are<br />
grown both in rabi and kharif seasons occupying about 4.75% of the total cropped area<br />
in the study region (Figure 13 13) which is just half the state's share of 9.10% (Figure<br />
13 14) Chengam block (both SLBC and SRBC commands), has the maximum<br />
coverage of 22 48% and 11 15% respectively (Figures 13.7 and 13.11) while the other<br />
blocks have less that 2% of their gross cultivated area under pulses cultivation as<br />
ev~dent from their cropping pattern hgures.<br />
Condiments and spices<br />
Th~s serles of crops includes chili~es (Capsium annum), turmeric (Curcuma domesbca),<br />
glnger (Zing~ber officinale) and methi (Trigonella foenun - graecum) among other<br />
splces It forms a very meagre share of 2 4% in the total cult~vated area. Turrner~c as a<br />
traditional cash crop is the major crop grown under spices<br />
Fruits and vegetables<br />
Banana (Musa paradisiaca), Brinjal (Solanum melongena), tomatoes and yam<br />
(D~oscorea sativa) are the major fruits and vegetables cult~vated in the region The<br />
area constituting fruits and vegetables is dismally low with 1.16% when compared to<br />
the state's share of 6.90%. Thachampattu and Chengam blocks contribute the<br />
maxlmum with almost 2% of their cultivated land under fruits and vegetables.<br />
Groundnut (Arachis hypogea)<br />
Groundnuts are the major oilseed crops grown In the command region with 17 58% of<br />
the cropped area being occupied by them. The states contribution stands at 13 96%<br />
SLBC command region has the maxlmum coverage of 23.59% while SRBC command<br />
has only 11.75% of its cultivated area under groundnuts.<br />
Chengam block is the highest producer with 24.13% and 25.5% of the total cropped<br />
area under SLBC and SRBC commands respectively (Figures 13.8 and 13.11)<br />
followed by Thirukoilur block (Figure 13.6) with 25.72%. Groundnut crops require a<br />
of 20°C to 2S0C and five to eight months to grow fully. About 750 to 850<br />
mm ramfall may be considered necessary, though it is grown in areas receiving rainfall<br />
below 500 mm also. It is grown both as irrigated and rainfed crop.
Groundnut alone forms 82% of the non food crops in the command (Figure 13 13)<br />
is appreciably higher compared to the state share of 44.78% (Figure 13 14)<br />
SRBC has 88.13% of its non-food crops grown as groundnut (Figure 13.12)<br />
Rlsh~vandiyam and Sankarapuram blocks have 94.87% and 93.65% of their respected<br />
total non-food acreage as groundnuts.<br />
Other non-food crops<br />
011 seeds like castor, Gingelly, sunflower (Helianthus annus) and other miscellaneous<br />
crops like cotton, Coconut (Cocos nucifera) flowers etc constitute a mere 3.85% of the<br />
total cropped area in SCA (Figure 13.13) which is considerable lower compared to the<br />
state's figures of 55.32% (Figure 13 14). Chengam block (both SLBC and SRBC<br />
rrgated) has the h~ghest coverage of 9 65% and 7.47% respectively under non-food<br />
crops, cotton being the major crop (Figures 13.7 and 13 11).<br />
As evident from the cropping pattern of the SCA, the area is dominated by four major<br />
types of crops-paddy, cereals (millets and ragi), sugarcane and groundnuts. Paddy is<br />
the dominant crop with 37% and 46% of the t~tal cultivated areas under SLBC and<br />
SRBC coinmands respectively. Wlth the year round availab~lity of water, after the<br />
introduct~on of canal irrigation, there has been a heavy shift towards the cash crops<br />
viz groundnut and sugarcane. Sugarcane which was practically unknown to the study<br />
area In 1950s, has currently emerged as the major revenue earning crop As a result<br />
many sugar mills, to cater to the needs of the sugarcane cultivators, have sprung up ~n<br />
the vlc~nity One of them Kallakurichi Co-operative Sugar Mill is located in the study<br />
area itself in Moongilthuraipattu village. Many agro-based cooperatives dealing in<br />
fertilizers, pesticides, farm implements and equipments have also mushroomed Apart<br />
from these, miscellaneous advantages like better road, transportation and marketing<br />
facllltles have also been reported in the SCA after the introduction of canal irrigation<br />
All these play a significant role in the regional development at large. Such<br />
environmental gain due to the introduction of agriculture have been leading to the<br />
Intensification of agriculture have been by and large reported for many irrigation<br />
Prqects (Purohit et al, 1992).<br />
Cereals (other than paddy) especially millets and ragi are the next major crops after<br />
Paddy to be cultivated in the SCA, more so in SRBC command where the irrigation<br />
facilities are limited and the region is essent~ally a dry land
spite of the 71.37% of the gross cropped area under irrigation, the intensity of<br />
cu(tlvation in the SCA has remained 1.38 i.e, it has not yet reached the double<br />
cropping status. This discrepancy can be attributed to the fact that major portion of the<br />
cult~vated land is under perennial crops like sugarcane, paddy and banana. During the<br />
months May-September no irrigation facilities are available in the region. During the<br />
course of field survey of the command region, it was discovered that cultivators tend to<br />
keep the sugarcane crops without harvesting for two-three years, in the absence of the<br />
Issue of cutting orders from the sugar mills. As a result the cultivators have been<br />
+he<br />
suffer~ng major losses for past ftve years or so (Chapterl7.2).<br />
The agr~cultural authorities claim that not only the SCA but the state as a whole has<br />
attained the status of self-sufficiency and is the largest producer of food gralns The<br />
Ilterature and statistics speak othelwise. In the absence of a long term growth policy<br />
and non viability of water-intensive crops like rice and sugarcane, the area under rlce<br />
shrank Due to the absence of any perenn~al river, unresolved disputes of water<br />
sharing and erratic rainfall, T.N has slipped from being the sixth largest food grains to<br />
tenth (Viswanathan. 2000)<br />
Thus the thrust, in the SCA should be to adopt a policy to switch to less water<br />
demanding crops like fruits and vegetables, oilseeds, cotton, pulses whlch are better<br />
su~ted to its climate and soil (Chapter 12) as per the soil survey report There IS almost<br />
n to 5% of the total cultivated land under crops of above said categortes.<br />
With the state having no long-term poltcy on agriculture and hefty reliance on<br />
popullsrn -based sops viz 4.8 kg rice for a rupee; free mid day meals for school<br />
children, free electricity for the farmers, suffering a subsidy burden of Rs 2100 millions<br />
and promises to increase the price of sugarcane have proved to be extremely harmful<br />
for the health of the Tamil Nadu state's economy (Vishwanthan, 2000).<br />
Instead of concentrating the command area with water demanding crops, the farmers<br />
should be educated on better alternatives available and provide them the suppoit<br />
Services needed in the form of awareness regarding their agro-climatic region, so11<br />
suitability and regular testing, provision of hybrid viable seeds, plant breeding and most<br />
of ail Introduction of sprinkler, drip and other modern methods of irrigation instead Of<br />
tradltlonal flooding. Socio-economic condition of the villagers downstream also affects<br />
the agricultural practices. Poverty and illiteracy drives the villagers to grow elther<br />
Paddy for their own requirements or groundnut and sugarcane, the cash crops, in the<br />
of getting good remunerations in the market.
13.2.4 Intensity of cropping<br />
The intensity of Cropping in the study area is 1.38 as against the state's 1.17. SLBC<br />
as the intensity Of cultivation of 1.41 while SRBC command has 1 34<br />
Chengam block (SRBC command) has the highest intensity of cultivation (1.68)<br />
foilowed by Chengam (SLBC command) with 1.5. Rishivandiyam block has the lowest<br />
of 1 23<br />
13.2.5 Demographic pressure<br />
population density per hectare of the sown area is 6 in the SCA. Thachampattu block<br />
(SLBC) has the highest population density of 8 people per hectare. Chengam (SRBC<br />
command) has the lowest with 5 people per hectare.<br />
Cult~vators constitute 40.57% of the working class in the region whereas 50.05% are<br />
landless agricultural labourers (Figure 13 16) Rishlvandiyam block has the highest<br />
percentage of landless labourers (58.24%). About 53% of the agricultural labourers are<br />
females In the command area. With the exception of Thirukoilur and Chengam (SRBC<br />
command) blocks, more than 50% of the agricultural labourers in all the blocks are<br />
females (Figure 13.17) Number of cultivators per hectare of the sown area in the SCA<br />
is 1 and In all the blocks the number is less than two. The male labourers of the<br />
commands migrate to the nearby towns and cities to earn their livelihood, thus<br />
result~ng In the shortage of the labourers in the SCA as confirmed by many<br />
agriculturists. These migrants also pose a threat to the region by way of health as<br />
stated elaborately in chapter 15.
Table 13.1 Cropping pattern of the study area<br />
Wet land<br />
I) Paddy (Or~za Sativa)<br />
(Sornavarl)<br />
Paddy (Samba) Paddy (Novara~)<br />
Aprll - June June - Decmber January - March<br />
11) Sugarcane (Saccharurn oficinarum) - throughout the year<br />
Garden land<br />
(I) Ram fed lrr~gated groundnut lrr~gated<br />
M~llets G~ngelly (S~samurii ind~cunij<br />
(Peiirirsetum lypho~des), Mlllets(Zea mays)<br />
Sorghum (Sorghum b~color)<br />
Groundnut<br />
(Arachfs hypogea)<br />
Rag1 (Eleuc~ne coracana)<br />
June - September October-November to March- May<br />
January - February<br />
(11) Paddy Irrigated groundnut Irrigated, gingelly<br />
Apr~l -June. July October - November March - May<br />
to January-February<br />
(111) lrr~gated groundnut lrr~gated groundnut<br />
March. Apr~l - June, July October-November<br />
January-February<br />
(v) Sugarcane (throughout<br />
the year)<br />
Dry land<br />
Rain fed<br />
Ra~n fed Horse<br />
Groundnut gram(Macroty1orna<br />
M~llets uniflorum)<br />
Sorghum Ragi<br />
P~llses Groundnut<br />
June-July<br />
October<br />
to September-
Table 13.8 Cropping pattern: (Cumulat~ve) - 1997.98<br />
~~ocks and Paddy'. _ --<br />
Sathanur Sornavarl Samba Navara~ Total M~llets' Pulses<br />
-- - ,<br />
Chengam 7 52 5 550 94 0 278 52 0 836 98 5 104850 576 5:<br />
,s~BCcommand)<br />
SRBC command 1503.69 5 5073.25 0 1586 22.5 8164 17 0 3579 49 0 724 l?<br />
SLBC command 1235.49 5 1516.01 5 2091.86.0 4843 37 0 2716 77.5 938 ii<br />
SCA 2739.19 0 6589.26 5 3678 08 5 13007 54.0 6296.26 5 1662 90<br />
Sugarcaneo Fru~ts + Total Other non Total food iolal<br />
vegetables groundnuts' food crops crops food c<br />
Chengam<br />
SLBCcommand)<br />
1212250 123335 1862950 743125 5113445 260G(l<br />
Th~ruko~lur<br />
Thachampattu<br />
730 21 0<br />
1331 91 5<br />
5 15 5<br />
114 77 5<br />
1011 17 0<br />
118368 5<br />
129 735<br />
193 84 5<br />
2789 79 5<br />
4167 94 5<br />
1140(1<br />
1377 '<br />
R~sh~vandyam 1744 57 0 37 63 5 587 76 0 31 78 0 7977 55 0 61 9 5<br />
Sankarapuram 838 14 5 59 87 0 844 08 0 57 22 5 5679 92 5 901 1<br />
Chengam<br />
(SRBCcommand)<br />
130370 66770 653800 191 650 1718300 8454<br />
SRBC command 2713 08 5 164 27 5 2085 64 0 280 65 5 16375 77 5 2366.<br />
SLBC command 3274 37 5 243 26 5 4057 80 5 1066 70 5 1201 18 5 5124<br />
SCA<br />
Oiyza safrva<br />
5987 46 0 407 54 0 6143 44 5 1347 36 0 27446 96 0 !490 :<br />
* Mlels (Pennrsetum typhiodesj, rag1 (Eleucine coracanaj,ma~ze(Zea mays)<br />
\ Blackgram (Phaseolus mungo), green gram (P aureus) kidney bean<br />
(P valgans), plgeon pea (Cajanurs calan) horse grarn(Macro1ylonia urlrflorum)<br />
Turmeric (Curcuma domestrca) black pepper (Prper rlrgrum) Cumln<br />
(C~mlrlurn cummrum), glnger (Zrngrber offrc~nale) cor~ander<br />
[Colla~idrum satrvum)<br />
@ Saccharurn off~c~narum<br />
Alachrs hypogea<br />
+
Table 13.9 O~vtslon of labour Thachampatu (SLBC colnrnalid) block (1991 cellstis)<br />
v~liages<br />
-. --<br />
Tl~achampattu<br />
~11ikondaPattU<br />
Kalampoondi<br />
Periyakallipadl<br />
Lhinnakall~padl<br />
Navampallu<br />
Llevanur<br />
Veiayampakkarn<br />
Kallatlu<br />
Alllpddl<br />
ralsyaiii~t<br />
Kand~ankuppam<br />
llialayampallarn<br />
Nariyapattu<br />
I'r~ayampattu<br />
Pavilhram<br />
ttradapatlu<br />
Workers<br />
- - --.<br />
849<br />
554<br />
1060<br />
1191<br />
841<br />
546<br />
654<br />
824<br />
378<br />
229<br />
1701<br />
600<br />
1314<br />
518<br />
703<br />
721<br />
847<br />
Agr~cullural labourers<br />
Male Female Tolal<br />
- - - - -- - -<br />
22 1 258 479<br />
192 181 373<br />
346 201 547<br />
161 364 525<br />
337 280 617<br />
113 91 204<br />
16 40 56<br />
47 163 210<br />
47 16 31<br />
102 I01 ?Ol<br />
282 673 955<br />
62 193 255<br />
450 432 852<br />
139 185 324<br />
224 164 388<br />
140 30 170<br />
332 215 547
13.10 Dlvlslon of labour. Thtrukoilur (SLBC command) block (1991 census)<br />
Konganamur<br />
Murukkambadl<br />
Populallon Workers<br />
Cultivators<br />
-<br />
276<br />
400<br />
181<br />
305<br />
73<br />
162<br />
321<br />
149<br />
446<br />
99<br />
64<br />
Agricultural labocilels .-<br />
Male Female Total<br />
-
~~b~~ 13.11 Dlv~slon of labour Chengam (SLBC command )block (1991 census)<br />
lallhadal<br />
villages<br />
~~igalapad!<br />
it,e,~mudlyanur<br />
tdulhanUr<br />
Allappanour<br />
vanauram<br />
Kunglinalham<br />
Peri~nthuralpatlu<br />
Valavarnanur<br />
Kottalyur<br />
iiij~r~~llpaillpallu<br />
1 henkarimbalur<br />
Radhapuram<br />
ierapapllu<br />
Vark~lapaltu<br />
Sadakuppam<br />
Uilia~nalapalayam<br />
Edakkal<br />
lv!uzhavampallu<br />
Perlyampathu<br />
Workers Cull~valors<br />
Agr~cull~~ral labourers<br />
Male Female Total
Table 13.12 Dlv~slon of labour Sankarapuram (SRBC conirnand) block (1991 celisus)<br />
Agr~ci~lli~ral labourers<br />
Vlllages Populallon Workers Cult~vators Male Female lolal<br />
. ---- - -- -- -<br />
~ayasamuram 433 208 81 47 60 107<br />
~rulampad! 715 319 156 5 1 93 144<br />
hloorlg~llhuralpalhu 1219 452 276 51 91 142<br />
~orasapaltu 1642 806 408 173 158 331<br />
Vadas~ruvalur 3455 1646 983 191 439 630<br />
Varagur 5402 2754 1565 413 624 103i<br />
All11 1188 481 27R 16 112 178<br />
b Kolathur 1151 499 296 77 64 141
Talllr 13.13 I?~v~sloti ol l~b0Ur Rlsli~vandiya~ii (SRBC cotltillnrld) block (1901 ccrisus)<br />
AthlyUr<br />
- -<br />
Agr~cultural labourers<br />
villages Population Workers<br />
-----<br />
Cultivators - ----- --<br />
Male Female<br />
- - - -<br />
Total<br />
M,III~JIOIII<br />
Adaltlanur<br />
ErudayamPattu<br />
Manyandal<br />
vailapuratn<br />
Odyanthal<br />
Edalhanur<br />
Kada~nbur<br />
Araliibarampathu<br />
Tlilruvarangarn<br />
blrpanandal<br />
Jalnbadal<br />
Periyakolliyur<br />
S~~panalyur<br />
Chi~inakoyur<br />
lilouianlhangal<br />
Kadavanur<br />
Pakkarn<br />
Vadamamandur<br />
Nagalkud~<br />
-<br />
Table 13 14 Dtvls~on of labour Chengam (SRBC command) block (1991 census)<br />
Villages Populatton Workers Culllvators<br />
Agricullirral labourers<br />
Male Female Tolal
lable 13.16 Intensity of cultivation and demographic details<br />
~ l ~ ~ k ~<br />
a~~d l~iterlslty t-'oPulat~on Populatlot~ Cull~vators AgrlcultLlral<br />
Sathanur of dens~ty supported per un~t labourers<br />
cornn,and c~ltl~atl~n per unlt net net sown per unit net<br />
-. - -- sown area area sown area<br />
Thachampattu 1 34 5 50 8 26 1 45 1 72<br />
(SLBC<br />
command)<br />
Th~rukollur 1 37 3 11 5 24 0 86 1 04<br />
(SLBC<br />
command)<br />
Chengam 1 50 3 06 5 43 101 1 27<br />
(SLBC<br />
command)<br />
R~sh~vandlyam 1 23 3 71 6 24 0 84 1 63<br />
ISRBC<br />
command)<br />
Sankarapuram 1 40 4 37 6 74 151 1 40<br />
(SRBC<br />
command)<br />
Chengam 1 68 2 33 4 75 1 23 0 38<br />
SRBC<br />
command)<br />
SRBC command 1 34 3 73 6 25 112 1 40<br />
SLBC Command 1 41 3 82 6 35 112 1 37<br />
SC A 1 38 3 78 6 29 112 1 39<br />
Jam11 Nadu 117
(86.~66~) v3s u1 suoseas snoue 6u1~np uotien1iln3 (enrles 0) lpped lapun eaJy CL a~n61j
Other non-fwd UOPS Groundnut 0 9%<br />
0 9% 12 8%<br />
Figurell-g Cropping pa"r"(1997-98) : SankaraPuram block (SRBC
14.0 INTRODUCTION<br />
Chapter I 4<br />
Ground water quality<br />
All through the human history, ground water has catered to the ever-increasing<br />
demands of domestic, industrial and irrigation sectors world-wide. Its role in<br />
provtding water for drinking and irrigation in the regions such as the southern<br />
pentnsular India has been particularly crucial due to the absence of perennial riven<br />
In these regions The quality of ground water tn an area is essentially a function of<br />
lnltial composition of water, precipitation, land use and the natural geology of the<br />
area Activities, natural and anthropogenic, affect the reglonal ground water quantity<br />
and quality to a great extent. In this context we have conducted an assessment of<br />
the ground water quality of Sathanur command area (SCA). As we have elaborated<br />
earlier (Chapter 10) groundwater continues to play a dominant role in providing<br />
'rrigatlon water to the Sathanur command inspite of the surface water resources<br />
Senerated as a result of the commissioning of Sathanur Reservoir project (SRP)<br />
Ground water is also the principal source of drinking water in the region. The Study<br />
focuses on the impact of SRP on the groundwater quality of the SCA.<br />
14.1 STATUS<br />
Groundwater samples were collected from the tube wells in the villages in Sathanur<br />
Left Bank Canal (SLBC) and Sathanur Right Bank Canal (SRBC) commands The<br />
were analyzed for various physicochemical parameters using the methods
detailed in Chapter 9 (Resewolr Water quality). The results are presented as<br />
Tables 14.1 and 14.2. The World Health Organization (WHO) and Central Pollution<br />
Control Board (CPCB) s~ecifications of heavy metals in drinking water are<br />
presented in Table 14.3. Tables 14.4 and 14.5 present the physico-chemical<br />
characteristics of the groundwater Of some vlllages in SLBC and SRBC commands<br />
during the period 1989-90<br />
The results are graphically depicted as Figures 14.1 to 14.29 for SRBC and SLBC<br />
commands.<br />
14.2 IMPACTS<br />
P"<br />
p~ values in the groundwater of the villages of SLBC command varied from 6.8 to<br />
7 9 Palayanur recorded the least pH of 6.8 while the samples of Kand~ankuppam<br />
and Kallottu had pH of 7.9. Ground water of Thenmudiyanur, Vanapuram and<br />
Melandhal had pH of more than 7.5 while Palayanur, Thenkarimbalur and Jambai<br />
recorded acidic pH in their groundwater. (Figure 14.1). In SRBC command the pH<br />
values in the groundwater were recorded as low as 6.6 in Porasapattu and as high<br />
as 7 7 In Meisiruvallur. Erudayampattu village recorded a pH of 6.9 in its<br />
groundwater (Figure 14.2.)<br />
Electrical conductivity (EC)<br />
Hlghest values of EC in the groundwater were recorded in Palayanur ground water<br />
samples of SLBC command, 2035 and 2040 11 mhos cm-' respectively (Figure<br />
143) The EC concentrations in the samples drawn from Allikondapattu,<br />
Thachampattu, Periyakallipadi, Thenmudiyanur and Melandhal were greater than<br />
1500 mhos cm".<br />
In SRBC command, the groundwater samples of S.Kolathur. Erudayampattu.<br />
Kadavanur and Pakkam recorded the EC concentration of more than<br />
2000 p mhos cm". Vadaponparappi and Kidagudayampattu recorded EC values<br />
of more than 1500 p mhos cm.' in thelr groundwater (Figure 14.4). Natives of<br />
Pakkam and Kadavanur did complain of a unpalatable taste and pungent odor in<br />
the drlnking water.<br />
Alkalinity<br />
Alkalinity encountered in the ground water samples of SCA was of bicarbonate<br />
nature. In SLBC Command the alkalinity values in the groundwater sample ranged<br />
from 204 mg I.' (Thachampanu) to 525 mg I.' in Melandhal (Figure 14.5). All the
villages recorded the alkalinity values more than 200 mg I" in their groundwater<br />
samples thus making the water unfit for drinking. The villages, Sadakuppam,<br />
Thenmudiyanur. VanaPuram, Melandhal, Thenkarimbalur and Kangaiyanur<br />
recorded a value of more than 300 mg 1.' in their groundwater samples.<br />
Alkalinity values in the groundwater samples of SRBC command varied from<br />
196 mg 1.' (S.Kolathur) to 800 mg r' in Melsiruvallur (Figure 14.6). Except for<br />
s Kolathur all the other vilkiles recorded the alkalinity values in their groundwater<br />
samples well above the Permissible lim~t of drinking water (Table 9.23).<br />
Groundwater in Melsiruvallur, Maongilthuraipattu. Kadavanur, and Manarpalayam<br />
recorded the alWalinity values of more than 300 mg I ' in their groundwater samples<br />
(Figure 14.6).<br />
Total hardness<br />
The total hardness values in the groundwater of SLBC command ranged from<br />
88 mg I" (Melandhal) to 564 mg I" in Edathanur (Figure 14.7). Concentration of<br />
more than 300 mg 1.' was observed In the groundwater sample of Palayanur.<br />
Allikondapattu, Thachampattu, Kandiankuppam, Per~yakallipadi, Velayampakkam.<br />
Sadakuppam. Thenmudiyanur. Vanapuram, Melandhal and Edathanur. The water<br />
in these villages is thus unfit for dr~nking as per the IS criteria for drinking water<br />
(Table 9.23).<br />
The hardness values in SRRC command vaned from 212 mg 1.' (Melsiruvallur) to<br />
780 mg 1.' in S. Kolathur (Figure 14.8) Values of more than 300 mg I" were<br />
observed in the water samples of Melsiruvallur, Moongilthuraipattu,<br />
Vadaponparappi, S.Kolathur. Porasapattu, Erudayampattu. Arambarampattu,<br />
Jambodai. Kadavanur, Pakkam, Athiyur, Manarpalayam and Arur (Figure 14.8). As<br />
Per the permissible limits provided by the Indian standards of drinking water<br />
(Table 9.23) the water of these villages is unfit for drinking.<br />
Calcium hardness<br />
m<br />
Calcium hardness values in the groundwater of SLBC co~nd ranged from<br />
68 mg I" (Melandhal) to 392 mg I.' in Palayanur (Table 14.1).<br />
In SRBC command, the calcium hardness values varied from<br />
196 mgl-' (Melsiruvallur) to 420 mg I-' in the groundwater of Kadavanur<br />
(Table 14.2).
Calcium<br />
The concentration of calcium in the groundwater of SLBC command ranged from<br />
22 4 mg r' in Sadakuppam to 157 mg 1.' in Palayanur. (Figure 14.9). The villages<br />
that recorded more than 75 mg 1.' of calcium in their groundwater samples were<br />
palayanur, Allikondapattu. Thachampattu. Kandiankuppam. Periyakallipadi.<br />
~evariyarkuppam. Velayampakkam, Valavachanur, Vanapuram. Melandhal,<br />
Thenkarimbalur, Jambai and Edathanur. The water of these villages was thus unfit<br />
for drinking (Table 9.23).<br />
In SRBC command, the concentration of calcium in the groundwater samples<br />
ranged from 78.5 mg I" to 158.6 mg I" in Melsiruvallur and Kadavanur respectively<br />
(Figure 14 10). All the villages registered a concentration of more than 75 mgl" of<br />
calcium tn their groundwater. The water with calcium content more than 75 mg 1.'<br />
as per drinking water standards (Table 9.23) is thus unfit for drinking purpose.<br />
Chlorlde<br />
Chlorlde concentration in the ground water of SLBC command varied from<br />
97 5 mg I' in Valavachanur to 297.9 mg I" in Melandhal (Figure 14.11). The villages<br />
that recorded the chloride concentration more than 250 mg 1.' were Palayanur,<br />
Melandhal and Edathanur. The concentration of chloride hlgher than the<br />
permissible limit as specified by IS for drinking water (Table 9.23) makes the<br />
groundwater in these regions unfit for drinking<br />
The chlor~de values in groundwater samples of SRBC command ranged from<br />
57.7 mg 1.' to 435.8 mg 1.' Erudayampattu (Figure 14.12). Villages with chloride<br />
concentration more than 250 mg I" in their groundwater were Vadaponparapp~. S.<br />
Kolathur, Erudayampattu. Kadavanur, Pakkam. Athiyur, Manarpalayam and<br />
Kidagudayampadu, thus making the water unfit for drinking purpose. The water in<br />
both SLBC and SRBC commands is suitable for irrigation purpose (Table 9.23).<br />
Sulphate<br />
The sulphate values in the groundwater of SLBC command ranged form 38 mg 1.' in<br />
Unllamalaipalayam to 184 mg f' in Sadakuppam. (Figure 14.13). Values of all the<br />
groundwater samples were less than 200 mg r' - the permissible level as lald down<br />
by IS for drinking water (Table 8.23). Kandiankuppam and Sadakuppam had more<br />
than 180 mg r' of sulphate values in their groundwater.<br />
The Concentration of sulphate in the groundwater samples of SRBC command<br />
ranged from 21.4 mg I" in S. Kolathur to 254 mg 1.' in Kadavanur (Figure 14.14)
,411 the groundwater Samples except for that of Kadavanur village re the sulphate<br />
content less than 200 mg I".<br />
Nitrogen (nitrate)<br />
The n~trate values in the ground water samples of SLBC command ranged from 0.5<br />
mg I-' In Devariyarkuppam to 28 mgl" in Unnamalaipalayam (Figure.14.15). The<br />
water samples with nitrate concentration more than 10 mgl-' belonged to Palayanur,<br />
velayarnpakkam, Sadakuppam. Valavachanur. Unnamalaipalayam,<br />
~garampallipattu and Vanapuram villages, thus rendering water unfit for<br />
consumption (Table 9.23)<br />
In SRBC command, the nitrate concentration in the ground water varied from<br />
I 3 mg I-' in Arur to 19 mg 1.' in Pakkarn (Figure 14.16). The villages that recorded<br />
more than 10 mg I" of nitrate in their groundwater were Moongilthuraipattu,<br />
S Kolathur. Erudayampattu, Kadavanur and Pakkam. The water of these villages<br />
was thus unfit for human consumption (Table 9.23).<br />
Phosphate<br />
The phosphate concentration in the groundwater of SLBC command ranged from<br />
06 mg 1.' (in Vanapuram and Thenkarimbalur) to 3.1 mg 1.' in Palayanur (Figure<br />
14 17) In the villages of SRBC command the values varied from 0.5 mg 1.' in<br />
Melsiruvaliur to 2.4 mg 1.' in Arur (Figure 14.18).<br />
The Canadian Department of National Health and Welfare (1969) has suggested a<br />
maximum limit of 0.2 mg I" for phosphate in drinking water while the limit specified<br />
by that of the European Economic Community (Smeats and Amavis, 1981) is 0.54<br />
mg i '. Groundwater samples of all the villages in the SCA exceeded these<br />
Permissible limits in terms of phosphate concentration.<br />
Sodium<br />
The sodium concentration in the groundwater samples of SLBC command varied<br />
from 21 ppm (Agarampallipattu) to 47.5 ppm in Periyakallipadi (Figure 14.19). In<br />
SRBC command the concentration ranged from 12.6 ppm (Vadamamandur) to 38<br />
PPm In Kidagudayampattu (Figure 14.20)<br />
Potasslum<br />
The Potassium values in the groundwater of SLBC command ranged from 1.4 pPm<br />
In A~garampa~lipattu to 21.6 ppm in Periyakall~padi (Figure 14.21). In SRBC<br />
the values ranged from 1.6 ppm in Periyakolliyur to 15.5 ppm In<br />
Manar~alayam (Figure 14.22).
copper<br />
The copper concentration in the ground water of SLBC command ranged from 4<br />
ppb in Sadakuppam to 19 PP~ in Devariyarkuppam (Figure 14.23). In SLBC<br />
command the values ranged from 9 ppb in Arambarampattu and<br />
~~dagudayampanu to 39 PPb in Erudayampattu (Figure 14.24). The values are<br />
wtthln the range for drinking water as prescribed by the WHO and CPCB drinktng<br />
water standards (Table 14.3).<br />
Chromlum<br />
The chromium concentration in the groundwater samples of SLBC was recorded in<br />
the range 1 ppb in Agarampallipattu to 16 ppb in Edathanur (Figure 14.25). The<br />
values in the groundwater Of SRBC ranged from 2 ppb in Arur and<br />
Kidagudayampattu and 100 ppb in Athiyur (F~gure 14.26) Except for Athiyur. the<br />
concentrations of chromium in all other groundwater samples were within the<br />
prescribed limit for drink~ng water (Table 14 3).<br />
Zinc<br />
Ztnc concentration in the groundwater samples of SLBC command ranged from 56<br />
ppb tn Unnamalaipalayam to 2550 ppb in Palayanur (Figure 14.27). The values in<br />
the samples of SRBC command varied from 48 ppb in Porasapattu to 2184 ppb in<br />
Kadavanur water samples (Figure 14.28). The concentration of zinc in Porasapattu,<br />
Kadavanur and Arur are higher than the perrniss~ble limit for drinktng water<br />
(Table 14 3)<br />
I<br />
Cadmium<br />
The Cadmium concentration in the groundwater samples of SLBC command<br />
ranged from trace amount to 16 ppb in Palayanur water sample (Table 14.1). In<br />
SRBC command, the values recorded in the Kadavanur and Arur groundwater<br />
samples were 30 ppb and 16 ppb respectively-way above the permissible limit for<br />
drlnklng water (Table 14.3).<br />
The Tables 14.4 and 14.5 present the groundwater quality of few villages in SLBC<br />
and SRBC commands respectively for the year 1989-90 A comparative study<br />
Indicates that there has been an increase in the values of all the cherntcal<br />
Parameters in the groundwater over the years except pH. The alkaline pH is<br />
'educed to acid to neutral to slightly alkaline pH In most of the villages<br />
High concentration of nitrates, phosphates, fluorides and chlorides in the<br />
groundwater, can be attributed to the phenomenal growth in agriculture and
fertilizers application in the SCA after the introduction of canal irrigation. This IS<br />
,upported by many Such studies done by other authors (Gaumat et.al. 1992:<br />
Hamilton and Shedlock. 1992; Handa, 1983,1990; Helgeson et.al. 1994: Jha and<br />
Jha. 1982; Klimas and Paukstys, 1993; Raju et. al, 1979). Super phosphates and<br />
NPK fertilizers act as an important source of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in<br />
the groundwater (Rao and Prasad. 1996). H~gh concentration of chlorides and<br />
sulphates in groundwater can be due to the combined effect of non point sources<br />
such as bleaching agent for purifying water and sewage and also due to fertilizers<br />
(Pawar and Shaikh, 1995). Fertilizers and pesticides are also reported to be<br />
potent~als source of heavy metal pollution such as cadmium and zinc (Arora et.al.<br />
1975; S~ngh and Sekhon. 1977)
EC(prnhom')<br />
mamy<br />
-<br />
(wHCOII')<br />
v<br />
(W car')<br />
Tatd<br />
(W w r ' t<br />
Uamhadau<br />
(mp Cachr't<br />
-(me r')<br />
c- (mq 1')<br />
Suphale (rng r')<br />
-<br />
NmogmMloac)<br />
Impl't<br />
Phosphate (mq I ')<br />
(ppmt<br />
Pdaulum (ppn)<br />
Copper (ppb)<br />
Chrom~um (wb)<br />
Zlm (ppbt<br />
Kadavanur Pakkam Athlyur Mamarpalayarn Penyakolllyur Arur Kldagudqampanu Varagw
Table 14.3 WHO and CPCB drinking water standards<br />
WHO (1 984) CPCB<br />
HD L' MPL" HD L' MPL"<br />
Copper (PP~) 50 1500 1000<br />
Chromium (ppb) 75 200 75 200<br />
Zinc (ppb) 1000<br />
Cadmium (ppb) 5 10<br />
'H~ghest desirable limit<br />
'Max~mum permissible limit
n<br />
lE<br />
2<br />
Mels~ruvallut 1<br />
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15.0 INTRODUCTION<br />
Chapter 15<br />
Health<br />
lrrlgation schemes - small, medium or large - have the potential of caising water-<br />
borne diseases in their command areas by providing conditions favorable for the<br />
breeding and transmission of disease vectors such as mosquitoes, snalls ad flies<br />
In this chapter we have made an attempt to evaluate the impact of the network of<br />
Sathanur canal system on the health aspects directly related to water - malaria and<br />
elephantiasis - in the command region. The impact of the measures employed by the<br />
health officials in countering these diseases has also been assessed.<br />
15.1 STATUS<br />
Data pertaining to the incidence of malaria in the population residing dovtnstream of<br />
the Sathanur Project (SRP) is represented as Tables 15.1 and 15.2. The former<br />
covers the Sathanur Left Bank Canal (SLBC) command. and the later t h Sathanur<br />
Right Bank Canal (SRBC) command. The data was collected form the oRces of the<br />
Mrectorate of Public Health Services (DPHS), Thinrvannamalai and Kallakurichi. The<br />
terms local, imporled and 'indicative populations' have already been elaborated in<br />
section Ff.i
Table 15.3 lists out the total number of Primary Health Centres (PHCSI operamg In<br />
the Sathanur Command Area (SCA), the villages and the corresponding populat~ons<br />
covered by the individual health centres.<br />
Information on the incidence of filaria for the year 1998-99 in the popuration resid~ng<br />
In the SLBC command is presented as Table 15 4 Tables 15.5 - 15.1' present the<br />
profile of the vanous presumptive prophylact~c measures taken by the heslth offiuals to<br />
check the spread of malar~a in SCA Figures 15.22 represents the malaia and filarla<br />
endemic villages In SLBC command and F~gure 15.23 illustrates the ma aria endem~c<br />
v~llages In SRBC command.<br />
15.1.1 Annual parasite Index<br />
The definition, computation and the significance of the term annual parasite index<br />
(API) have been dealt with in detail in section 2.7 1. API values as a fuiction of time<br />
and annual precipitation in the region have been plotted individually for each village<br />
under SRBC and SLBC commands, and cumulatively for the individual wmmand and<br />
the project, Impacts of precipitat~on and oufflow along with other socio-ultural factors<br />
on the API have also been studied.<br />
15.2 IMPACTS<br />
15.2.1 At SLBC command<br />
There is no trend in the incidence of malana encountered in the populabon reading in<br />
SLBC command as evident from Table 15.1. On one hand there are villages reported<br />
to have had high incidence of malaria among the natives while on the sther hand In<br />
some villages viz Serapapattu, Edakkal, Kottaiyur, Jambodai. Pappambad~.<br />
Thachampattu, Unnamalaipalayam and Navampattu barely one or two Isolated cases<br />
of malaria in the residents have been recorded over the past six yean.<br />
In still some other villages (not included in the Table 15.1) viz Varkillapattu.<br />
Kunglinatham, Sukhampalayam, Aradapattu, Athipadi, Ka~diankuppam,<br />
Allikondapattu, Thalayamballam, Sakarathamadai, Nariyapattu, Pavarnpattu,<br />
Velayampakkam, Kalottu, Periyakallapadi, Chinnakalapadi and Manarpalayam. there<br />
has not been a single incidence of malaria in the native population dunng the study<br />
period.<br />
The API values for the villages with high concentration of malarial cases among the<br />
natives are depided in Figures 15.1 - 15.8. Impact of annual precipitat~on on the API<br />
values has also been studied.
Based on the API values of the villages of the SLBC command, the villages can be<br />
grouped under three categories:<br />
I Villages with API values r 10<br />
Devanur, Devariyarkuppam, Edathanur, Alappanoor, and Melandhal.<br />
2 Villages with API values 2 5 < 10<br />
Vanapuram, Valavachanur. Sadakuppam and Katampoondi<br />
3 Villages with API values < 5<br />
Mazhuvampattu, Thenmudiyanur, Vanapurampuddur, Perunduralpatu,<br />
Periyampattu, Kangaiyanoor and Palayanoor.<br />
F~gure 15.1 presents the API values of Devanur and Devariyarkuppam (villages wlth<br />
h~ghest recorded API values in the SLBC command). As is evident, the API values of<br />
both the villages indicate a strikingly similar pattern of rise and fall. The values<br />
marginally came down in 1995 before reaching the summit in 1996. The peak was<br />
h~gher for Devanur (API - 269.7) compared to Devariyarkuppam (API -124.3). In 1997<br />
the API values fell sharply by 83.99% and 76.02% of 1996 values respectively and th~s<br />
fall continued through 1998 till it ultimately reached the nadir in 1999. The API values<br />
for both the villages seem to follow the pattern of annual rainfall In the region t~ll 1997<br />
(be~ng highest in 1996 when the rainfall too was maximum). But after thls the patterns<br />
are d~ssimilar.<br />
The F~gure 15.2 illustrates the API values of Edathanur and Alappanur. The value for<br />
Edathanur declined marginally in 1995 before attaming a peak In 1996. There was a<br />
sharp decline in API in 1997, the trend continued through 1998 and 1999.The API -<br />
tlme curve for Alappanur reflects a simllar pattern till 1997 after which there IS a<br />
marginal increase in the API values. Both API curves peaked during the year 1996<br />
which recorded the highest rainfall In the command. Alappanur curve varies in the<br />
same fashion as that of annual rainfall curve whereas the Edathanur curve manifests a<br />
change in the trend after 1997 (Figure 15.2).<br />
The API values of Melandhal and Kangaiyanur are dep~cted in Figure 15.3. The<br />
noteworthy observation is that the API value of Melandhal that was 17.4 In 1994<br />
declined by 91.83% in 1995 and became nil in 1996. The pattern is represented by a<br />
Steep fall of the wrve in 1995. In 1997 there is again a marginal rlse in the curve<br />
There is absolutely no correlation between the API values and annual ramfall (Figure<br />
3) The API value of Kangaiyanur peaked slightly in 1996 before coming down In the
subsequent yean. The API curve follows the similar pattern as that of rainfall<br />
(Figure 15.3).<br />
Figure 15.4 illustrates the API values for Vanapuram and Katampoondi. Then is a<br />
steep rise in the Vanapuram curve depicting API values in the year 1995. The curve<br />
remains constant for the year 1996 and falls sharply thereafter during the years 1997<br />
and 1998. The CUNe rises marginally in 1999. The katampoondi curve dedines in<br />
1995, continues declining further in 1996 too. The curve rises in 1997 before falling<br />
steeply in 1998 when the API value was zero. The curve depicts a rising trend in 1999<br />
similar to that of Vanapuram curve. The Vanapuram curve follows the panem of annual<br />
rainfall from the year 1996, as evident from the Figure 15.4 while the Katampoondi<br />
curve imitates the rainfall curve from 1997 onwards Vanapuram curve peaks in 1996<br />
whereas the katampoondi curve shows a noticeable rise in 1997.<br />
The API values for Sadakuppam and Mazhuvampattu are illustrated in Figure 15.5.<br />
There ts a c ~on~fal$~l values for Sadakupam The fall was steep in 1995, which<br />
was marginal thereafter through the periods of 1996 and 1997. API values were<br />
reduced to nil in 1998 and 1999. In contrast, Mazhuvampattu curve, after an ~nitial<br />
period of sharp declines in 1995 and 1996 (API - 0) depicts a sudden rise in 1997<br />
before falling steeply in 1998 touching the zero nark. No significant correlation is<br />
observed between the API curves and the annual precipitation curve. In fact, API of<br />
Mazhu~ampaltu was nil in 1996 when the command area received the highest<br />
recorded rainfall during the study period.<br />
Figure 15.6 depicts the API values of Valavachanur and Thenmudiyanur.<br />
Valavachanur registered a sharp and steady decline in the API from 1994 to 1997<br />
when it touched the zero mark. In 1999 there was a sudden jump in the API when it<br />
reached its highest ever value during the entire study period. Thenmudiyanur curve<br />
after illustrating a slight rise in 1995 shows a gradual and continual descent till 1998.<br />
After 1998 again a rising trend is noticed in the curve. Both, Valavachanur and<br />
Thenmudiyanw curves, don't confirm to the pattern of the annual rainfall curve.<br />
Figure 15.7 indicates the trends of API values for Vanapurarn puddur and<br />
Perunduraipatlu. After an initial reduction in API in 1995, there was a, sharp and<br />
sudden increase in the value in 1996, as evident from the Vanapuram puddur curve.<br />
The value came down considerably in 1997 and attained a constancy thereafter dunng<br />
the periods 1998 and 1999. The API values for Perunduraipattu, fell noticeably in 1996<br />
and themfter in 1997 was reduced to zero, preceded by constant values in 1994 and
1995. The pattem of the rise and full of the API values of Vanapuram puddw a<br />
consistent to that Of the annual rainfall till 1997 and thereafter there is no cons~stency<br />
There is no significant correlation between the API values of Perunduraipattu and that<br />
of annual rainfall in the command (Figure 15.7).<br />
Figure 15.8 presents the API curves for Palayanur and Periyampattu plotted against<br />
the annual rainfall in the command area. As is observed, there is a wide range of<br />
fluctuations in API values over the years of both the villages. The API values for<br />
Palayanur rose considerably in 1995 and fell sharply in 1996 and repeated the sim~lar<br />
pattern of sharp rise and sudden decline to zero in 1997 and 1998 respectively and<br />
rema~ned n11 thereafter in 1999. The API value of Periyampattu, from its highest vaiue<br />
In 1994, was reduced to zero in 1995: increased sharply in 1996 and fell steeply In<br />
1997. This fall continued in 1998 when it touched zero mark but 1999 experienced a<br />
sl~ght nse In the index value. There is no similarity in the variations between the API<br />
values of Palaynur and annual rainfall. Periyampattu curve on the other hand follows<br />
the trend of the rainfall curve during most of the years with the exception of 1998,<br />
when the API was nil.<br />
The noteworthy fact that, emerges is that the index values of the villages and the<br />
annual precipitation in the command reglon apparently do not confirm to a similar<br />
pattem of variations over the study period. This observation points out towards the<br />
possib~lity of other parameters in governing the incidence of malaria in the SLBC<br />
command.<br />
Figure 15.9 is a cumulative representation of the API values in the SLBC command<br />
and the impact of annual precipitation on the values. The API curve closely follows on<br />
the heels of the rainfall curve with the exception of the year 1998 when the rainfall<br />
curve depicts a rise while the API features a decline.<br />
15.2.2 SRBC command<br />
The incidence of malaria among the residents of various villages in SRBC command<br />
for a period of five years (1994-98) is presented in Table 15.2. Of the forty four villages<br />
in the SRBC command, only 18 villages had the incidence of malaria in the popuh<br />
during this period. Of hese 18 villages, for which the data is tabulated as Table 15.2.<br />
Only 8 villages had high malaria incidence in the population. Rest of the villages had<br />
isolated cases of less than 5 in a particular year or two intervening years.
The API values of the villages with high concentration of disease in the populace<br />
have been plotted along with the annual precipitation in the region over a span of five<br />
years (Figures 15.9 to 15.12). As with the villages of the SLBC command, the villages<br />
in the SRBC command can be grouped on the basis of API values as follows:<br />
I. Villages with API r 10<br />
Rayandapuram, Thiruvadathanur and Moongilthuraipattu<br />
2. Villages with API z 5 < 10<br />
Elayankani, Puthurcheekady. Porasapattu and Poravalur<br />
3. Villages with API < 5<br />
Vadaponparappi<br />
The API values of Rayandapuram and Thiruvadathanur as functions of the annual<br />
prec~p~tation In the command region are presented In Figure 15.10. There is a marked<br />
s~rn~larity in the trends of the API values for the two villages till 1998. The values came<br />
down sharply in 1995; peaked in 1996 before falling steeply in 1997 and falling further<br />
In 1998. The index value of Thiruvadathanur continued falling and touched the zero<br />
mark in 1999 while that of Rayandapuram rose marginally in 1999. The API curves of<br />
Rayandapuram and Thiruvadathanur closely follow the pattern of annual rainfall till the<br />
year 1997. All the three curves attain the crest in the year 1996.<br />
Figure 15.11 depicts the API values of Vadamponparappi and Moongilthuraipattu.<br />
The Vadaponparappi curve illustrates a steady value of API over the years, w~th<br />
marginal reductions in 1997 and 1998. The API values of Moongithuraipattu registered<br />
a steep descent in 1995, which continued in 1996. There was a considerable elevation<br />
in the index value in 1997, which declined ~n 1998. There is no significant correlabon<br />
among the API curves and the ramfall curve. In fact API value for Moongilthuraipattu<br />
was in ebb in 1996 when the rainfall recorded in the area, during the study period, was<br />
the highest.<br />
The API values of Puthurcheekady and Elayankani have been plotted as Figure<br />
15.12. The API curves of both the villages confirm to the similar pattern of crests and<br />
troughs. There was a marginal rise in the index values for both Puthurcheekady and<br />
Elayankani in 1895 followed by a sharp fall in 1996 when the index value of<br />
P~thurcheekad~ recorded zero. The value shot up in 1997 reaching its zenith in<br />
P~thurcheekad~ while in Elayankani there was a marginal increase. The values ebbed<br />
1998 to zero and continued to be so in 1999. There is absolutely no correlation<br />
between the index values and the annual precipitation. On the contrary, in 1996 there
was a sharp fall in indsx values while the rainfall recorded an increase and in 1997<br />
when comparabvely low rainfall was recorded in the region the index values deplcted a<br />
rise, quite extraordinarily high in case of Puthurcheckady.<br />
Figure 15.13 elucidates the fluctuations in the API values for Poravalur and<br />
Porasapanu over the years. A sharp plunge in the index value in Porasapattu was<br />
recorded in 1995 which ultimately dipped to zero in 1996. In 1997 there was a slight<br />
rtse In the index value before tt hit the zero mark again In 1998. The index values in<br />
Poravalur steadily kept declining till 1996 when ~t ebbed to zero. There was a sharp<br />
elevation In 1997. whlch continued further in 1998. Similar to the previous villages<br />
dtscussed under Figures 15.1 1 and 15.12 the API values of Poravalur and Porasapattu<br />
too do not correlate wth the annual rainfall In the reglon. In 1996, the values were<br />
zero wh~le the ralnfall recorded was maxlmum, further, in 1997 when low ramfall was<br />
recorded in the command, the API values featured a rise.<br />
A thorough comparattve study of the Figures 15.10 to 15 13 highlights the fact that<br />
annual precipitat~on has little bearing on the API values In SRBC command With the<br />
excepttons of Th~ruvadathanur, Vadaponparappi and Rayandapuram, API values of no<br />
other village illustrate any similarity in variat~ons to that of the annual ramfall In the<br />
reglon. Another point which comes to light is the peak attained by the API values in<br />
the Poravalur, Porasapattu, Puthurcheekady, Elayankant and Moongtlthura~pattu<br />
during the year 1997.<br />
Figure 15.14 gives a cumulative account of API of SRBC command along with the<br />
annual precipitation in the region. There is no noticeable pattern between the API<br />
curve and the rainfall curve. The fluctuations in the rainfall over the years are not<br />
manifested in the API values which remained almost constant from 1995 to 1997<br />
before dipping in 1998.<br />
An attempt has been made to correlate the annual outflow from the reservoir with the<br />
API values in the SCA. Figure 15.15 illustrates the relationship between the annual<br />
precipitation received in the SCA (separately for the SLBC and SRBC commands) and<br />
the water released annually from the reservoir downstream. During 1994 and 1995 the<br />
oufflow from the reservoir was very less which would have been due to the less rainfall<br />
received in the tract during those particular years. The trend changed in 1996 and<br />
1997 when highest oflows from the reservoir were recorded for the study penod.<br />
The outflow peaked in me year 1997 and this probably explains the peaks attained by<br />
the API values for various villages, as discussed in foregoing sections.
Figure 15.16 illustrates the impact of oufflow from the reservoir on the cumulative<br />
in SLBC command. The API curve closely follows the oufflow curve till 1996. In<br />
1997, there was an increase in the outflow from the reservoir but API values ebbed<br />
during that period.<br />
Figure 15.17 presents the correlation between the API values of SRBC command and<br />
,I,,. :III~III~ nulflow froin llio roeorvolr Tho API curvo confirms to tho pnttorn fallownd<br />
by the outflow C UM as comprehended from the Figure. Though the patterns are subtly<br />
slm~lar in 1994 and 1995, there was a marginal decline in oufflow in the year 1995 but<br />
API value registered a sharp decline. The trend reversed in 1996 when there was a<br />
sharp rise in the outflow but increase in API value was very slight<br />
Malaria doesn't owe its prevalence in the SCA to the rainfall or the outflow from the<br />
reservoir. It is the availability of water through SRP and its utilization in SCA that leads<br />
10 the circumstances that cause the proliferation of vectors and transmission of the<br />
d~sease Figures 15.22 and 15.23 present the malaria and filaria endemic regions in<br />
SLBC and SRBC commands respectively. An attempt is made to study their ~ndirect<br />
~npacts resulting in the spread of water-borne disease among the residents of SCA<br />
15.2.3 Irrigation and agriculture<br />
Farming is the main occupation of the people residing in SCA. It is practiced with the<br />
conjunctive use of rainfall, surface water in the form of canals and tanks and<br />
groundwater In the form of tube wells and open wells Following the year-round<br />
availabll~ty of water In the command reaches, a heavy shift in the cropping pattern In<br />
favour of paddy (Oryza safiva) and sugarcane (Saccharurn officinarurn) has been<br />
observed (Chapter 13, Agriculture). The net sown area is dominated by these two<br />
crops, which need extensive irrigat~on. The cultivators normally follow the traditional<br />
Practice of flood irrigation.<br />
A good monsoon generally ensures not only a good storage in the reservoir but also<br />
makes available plenty of water for rain-fed agriculture. As the main crops require<br />
standlng water, flood irrigation makes the situation worse. The presence of<br />
year-round water in the fields with almost nil dry period and no provision for the<br />
wlthdra~al of water for drying the fields, provides ideal conditions for the anopheilne<br />
and culeclne mosquitoes species to thrive and breed.
16.2.4 SUtua of canal@ and Unkr<br />
The st~t~ls Of Canals and tanks as per the extensive field survey of the study area is<br />
described in chapters 10 and 16. The highlights of the findings are:<br />
. I he branch-canals nnd dlstributarles remain unlined due to the lack of adequate<br />
amount of funds.<br />
Most of the unlined branch-canals, drainage system and even the lined canals are<br />
in a dilapidated state in the absence of proper maintenance.<br />
. The canal system and the tanks are silted and vegetation infested.<br />
. The fields adjacent to the canals, tanks and the conveyance channels suffer from<br />
water-logging problems as the water seeps out through them.<br />
The SRBC command gets less of water for irrigation through the canal system as<br />
per the regulations, which assign priority rights to the SLBC command<br />
The defective, unlined and vegetation infested conveyance channels including<br />
canals, branch-canals, distributaries and the drainage systems play a crucial role in<br />
abat~ng the mosquito menace The vegetation and weeds provide niche to the<br />
mosquitoes and the water-logged fields, soakage pits and seeping canal provlde deal<br />
environment for the pests to perpetuate. The fact that it is not irrigation per se but the<br />
faulty practices, whlch by misplacing water to the advantage of certain disease causlng<br />
vectors leads to the proliferation of disease, has been supported by many studies<br />
across the world (Russel, 1938; FAO, 1997; Jain 1994).<br />
15.2.5 Migration<br />
About f~fty percent of the workforce In the command reglon comprises of landless<br />
laborers who migrate to the nearby cities of Chennai, Bangalore, Thiruvannamala~ and<br />
Murnbai In search of greener pasture (Chapter 16) where they earn thelr livelihood<br />
working sometlines in the unhygienic conditions.<br />
The increase mobility of workers has accompanied the development of the command<br />
Won with better transportation facilities. The migrants, to and from the villages, are<br />
the potential source of establishing malaria in the region as confirmed by the health<br />
~fflcials. They work under unhygienic conditions in the malarial belts of the towns and<br />
come back infected with parasites. An ideal combination of host, vector and parasites<br />
makes the region endemic to malaria, dengue fever and filaria Figure 15.18 depicts<br />
One Such case of focal outbreak of malaria in 1999 in Agarampalipattu village
After a lapre Of three years malaria was encountered again in the village, wh~ch was<br />
brought in the village by the migrants.<br />
The houses mostly built in the form of huts are situated near canals or fields and the<br />
male members of the houses sleep outside without any sort of protection against the<br />
mosquito bites. Studies conducted elsewhere (Hall etal, 1977) also support the fact<br />
that in majority of the irrigation schemes, the tendency has been to build the houses<br />
much closer to the canals and lrr~gated fields.<br />
The SRBC command villages Melandhal, Porasapattu, Vadaponparappii, and<br />
~oong~lth~raipatt~ are situated on the banks of the Ponnaiyar river apart from being<br />
near to the canals (Figure 15 23). These cond~tions facilitate breed~ng and<br />
~ropagation of mosquitoes As indicated in Figures 15 3, 15 11 and 15 13 the above-<br />
mentioned villages recorded quite high API during the study peirod.<br />
15.2.6 Industry<br />
The Kallakurichi sugar mill, the only industry present in the SCA, is located In<br />
Moong~ithuralpattu on the bank of Ponnaiyar river. The sugar mill releases its effluents<br />
In the rlver as per the complaints of the villagers downstream. These effluents<br />
substantially add to the health hazards along the entire stretch of the river. The<br />
poodies of water and other semi permanent pools formed in the rlver or along the<br />
r~verbank are concentrated with the effluents and thus provide good breeding ground<br />
lo1 the mosquitoes The industry also br~ngs in large number of hired labourers Some<br />
of them come Infected and trigger outbreak of diseases.<br />
The perennial irrigation, agr~cultural practices of cultivating paddy and sugarcane,<br />
poor drainage, faulty and defective canals, waterlogged fields and soakage pits-all<br />
have profound bearing on the breeding and thriving of mosquitoes, the maln disease<br />
vectors in the region.<br />
Figure 15 19 presents the API values for SRBC, SLBC commands and SCA. The<br />
curves representing the API values of the three regions, follow the same pattern of<br />
flllrtllatinnq nvnr the ynarfi There is FI decline in the curves in 1995 followed by a rise<br />
In 1996. The rlse is particularly steep for SLBC command whereas the values of<br />
SRBC command have not changed from their previous year's. The API values of<br />
SLBC and SCA came down sharply in 1997, but very slightly in SRBC command A<br />
further decline was registered in the API values in 1998; this time the intensity of<br />
decline was almost similar for both SLBC and SRBC commands.
AS discerned from the Figure, the API values for SLBC command were higher than<br />
the SRBC command throughout the study period. Wider fluctuations in the values in<br />
sLBC command are observed as compared to the values in SRBC command. The<br />
reason may be attributed to the fact that SLBC command receives more water for<br />
lrrigatton from the reservoir as compared to SRBC command due to the priority rights<br />
accorded In the regulattons (Chapter 10) The intensity of irrigation is thus higher In<br />
sLBC command More of water for irrigation through canals and tanks leads to more of<br />
water logging and seepage and therefore an increase in the habitats of disease<br />
vectors<br />
A socto-economic survey of the command region has revealed that some villages of<br />
SRBC command have not received water for irrigation for past ten plus years either<br />
due to the damaged canals or their location in the tail end or due to less water in the<br />
Sathanur reservoir (Chapter 16).<br />
Figure 15 20 presents a comparative account of the malaria cases in the SCA and<br />
the d~stricts and blocks where major villages of the command are located The salient<br />
polnts, which emerge, are<br />
Thiruvannamalai had the highest incidence of malaria. It is a malaria endem~c<br />
region, followed by Villupuram d~strict<br />
The pattern of malarial cases in the residents of SLBC command closely follows<br />
that of the Thiruvannamalai which encompasses most of the villages of SLBC<br />
command<br />
* All the curves in the Figure peaked In 1996, wh~ch was the year when maxlmum<br />
rainfall in the tract was recorded.<br />
The SRBC command falls in Villupuram district and some villages are In<br />
Kaliakurichi block. The trend in malaria cases In the population of the SRBC<br />
command are therefore similar to that observed in Villupuram and Kallakur~ch~<br />
areas which present no wide fluctuations over the years.<br />
SLBC command had higher incidence of malaria than SRBC command<br />
15.2.7 Elephantiasis<br />
The survey on the incidences of filarla was initiated only from the year 1998 In the SCA<br />
by the Th~ruvannalamali DPHS. As per the 1998-99 survey, Palayanur PHC reported<br />
the maximum number of elephantiasis cases and Pavlthram, Palayanur and
.rhenmudiyanur were reported to be the endemic village8 (Figure 15.22). The API<br />
values of fllarla for aeiected vlllages are prerrented in Table 15.4.<br />
15.2.8 Current status of rnalarla<br />
SLBC command<br />
A coliiparative study of Figures 15.1 to 15.8 reveals that after a period of wide<br />
fluctuations over the years, the API ' -1ues in majority of the villages have come down<br />
heavily in SLBC command.<br />
Figure 15.1 reveals a heavy downslide in API values for Devanur and<br />
Devariyarkuppam after 1996. the year when the API recorded very high values, 37.5<br />
tlmes and 50.1 times of 1995 values respectively for Devanur and Devar~yarkupparn<br />
In 1997 the API value of Devanur came down sharply by 84% and further reduced by<br />
98 6% of ~ts 1996 value In 1999. In Devariyarkuppam, the API reduced to 76% In 1997<br />
and further to 96% of its 1996 value in 1999.<br />
Similar trends of reduction in values were observed in Edathanur, Melandhal,<br />
Kangaiyanur, Sadakuppam, Mazhuvampattu, Perunduraipattu and Palayanur. In<br />
Edathanur (Figure 15.2) the percentage reduct~on in APi achieved by the end of 1999<br />
was 872% of 1886 value while in Melandhal and rest of the villages no malaria<br />
~ncidences were reported in the year 1999<br />
Not all the villages recorded this decllnlng trend in API. Some villages - Alappanur,<br />
Vanapuram, Katarnpoondi, Thenmud~yanur, Valavachanur and Periyampattu indicate<br />
an Increase In the API in recent years. In Alappanocr (Figure 15.2) the API value had<br />
become zero in 1997 but has increased ince then. The API in Vanapuram reduced to<br />
92 8% of its 1996 value in 1998 but In 1999 again rose slightly (Figure 15.4) The API<br />
In Katampoondi also registered a mild increase in 1999 after reaching zero In 1998<br />
(Figure 15 4). The API in Vaiavachanur reached an all time high In 1999 afler touchlng<br />
zero In 1997 and 1998<br />
Tlie API values of SLBC command have fluctuated widely over the years (Figure<br />
15 9) The API came down by 46.5% in 1995 but rose sharply by 93.8% of ~ts 1995<br />
value In 1996 before dipping to 58.6% of its 1996 value in 1998. The drop continued to<br />
80 9% In 1998 An increase in API by 43.3% of its 1998 value was observed In 1999
SRBC command<br />
AS ~ndlcated In Flgures 15 10 to 15 14 there has been a general decllne In the API<br />
values In the SRBC command over the years wlth the exceptions In Rayandapurani<br />
and Poravalur vlllages<br />
The API value In Rayandapuram (Flgure 15 10) reglstered a sllght Increase In 1999<br />
after ebb~ng to 97 2% of Its 1996 value In 1998 In Poravalur the API shot up In 1997<br />
after reach~ng zero In 1996 The rlslng trend continued t~ll 1998 (Flgure 15 13)<br />
Thlruvadlthanur and Elayankanl reglstered rill API values ~n 1999 whlle In<br />
Vadaponparappl and Moonglthura~pattu the values kept reduclng steadtly till they<br />
decllned by 75 1% and 81 4% of thelr 1994 values respect~vely In 1998 (F~gures 15 10<br />
to 15 12)<br />
Cumulatively API In SRBC command (Flgure 15 14) IS lesser In 1998 compared to ~ts<br />
1995 1996 and 1997 values The API of SCA has also been decl~ntng (Flgure 15 19)<br />
The value d~pped by 41 6% of ~ts 1996 value In 1997 and fell to 77 3% of the 1996 API<br />
~n 1998<br />
From the foregoing dlscuss~on it emerges that even though the menace of malarla In<br />
Ihe SCA has not been wlped out completely ~t has been checked to a great extent<br />
The measures adopted by the health off~clals In controll~ng the d~sease vectors are<br />
summartsed In the follow~ng sect~on<br />
15.2.9 Preventive measures adopted by the health officials<br />
The various measures implemented by the health officials In checklng the propagation<br />
of malaria downstream SRP include:<br />
Routine blood smear tests on the villagers<br />
Regular filling-up of the pits and depressions to prevent accumulation of stagnant<br />
water.<br />
D~stributlon of anti-malarial drugs, chloroquine and primaqulne, free of cost<br />
amongst the villagers<br />
D~stribution of diethyl carbamazine citrate (DEC) free of cost to the villagers<br />
suffering from filaria.<br />
Perlodic spray of DDT, malathion and pyrethrum to kill mosquito lawae.<br />
Public awareness, frequent village to village tours of volunteers to make the<br />
villagers aware of the importance of personal hygiene in preventing water-related<br />
diseases
The prophylacttc measures adopted by the health offtclals are summarlsed ~n Tables<br />
155tO 15 11<br />
ll~e tliajor co~~stra~nts the health offlclals face are the poor soclo-economic ar~d<br />
educational status of the vtllagers whlch prov~des them little opportunity of be~ng<br />
groomed vls a vls personal hyg~ene It takes a lot of effort on the part of the health<br />
offlclals to brldge their knowledge gap The results are encouraging The stat~stlcs<br />
~t~tl~cntcl tl~nl 111 tnost of the places the off~c~~ls ~RVA R~ICC~JS~UII~ prevenl~d t h ~<br />
dlsea9eS from becomlng epldem~cs After reglster~ng a peak ~n 1996 or 1997 the API<br />
has shown a declln~ng trend The focal outbreak of malarla ~n 1999 In<br />
Agarampalllpattu was controlled wlthln twenty-f~ve days under the efflc~ent supervlslon<br />
of health offlclals<br />
Even the vlllagers are more aware and v~g~lant now Most of the migrants after<br />
comtng back to thelr natlves voluntartly go to PHCs to get themselves exam~ned as per<br />
the ~nformat~on of health offictals<br />
15 2 10 Findings of the field trip to SCA<br />
Even as cons~derable success 1s lnd~cated as above keeplng mlarta fllarla and other<br />
water-borne d~seases ~n check at SRP In the percept~on of most of the vlllagers the<br />
governmental support ~n health care 1s woefully Inadequate They complaln of lack of<br />
attentton and lack of medtctnes Some even allege that the med~cal records aren t<br />
rna~ntained properly obl~quely suggesting that the clam of success In the control of<br />
water borne diseases may be based on fabr~cated records From other countr~es too<br />
slmllar s~tuat~ons have been reported (B~swas and El-habr 1991)<br />
It IS unden~able that the ratlo of PHCs to the populat~on ~n the command region IS<br />
very low as dep~cted In F~gure 15 21 Only thlrteen PHCs extst for over 100 000<br />
People ~n SCA apart from the numerous vlllages outs~de the command area under<br />
each PHC The dlstr~but~on of the populatton of the vlllages ~n the command area<br />
under each PHC 1s presented m Table 15 5 It must be emphas~zed that Inadequacy of<br />
health care In SRP IS typlcal of the rural lnd~a (Raghuram, 1996)
Table 15.1 Malaria incidence in SLBC command<br />
Name of Village indicative<br />
- ... .<br />
1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 IQQ!<br />
Population<br />
vanap~llan~ p~~dur 820 1' - 2 1 1 1<br />
variapuralri 3922 17' 27" 27 10 2 3<br />
?~?r:~p:~r~nll~ I<br />
Varagur<br />
Pertyampattu<br />
Mazli~~vampattu<br />
r)R 1<br />
1719<br />
1927<br />
910<br />
-<br />
4'<br />
4'<br />
2'<br />
-<br />
3'<br />
1<br />
4<br />
-<br />
1<br />
2<br />
3<br />
-<br />
-<br />
I<br />
1<br />
l~(l;ikhi~l 1004 1'<br />
7'<br />
Vaiavachanur 1542 9 4" -<br />
7'<br />
1' 2 -<br />
Perundura~pattu<br />
Kottalyur<br />
Thenkarlmbalur<br />
Sadakuppam<br />
Unamalalpalayam<br />
4428 5<br />
4'<br />
5*<br />
Edathanur<br />
Allappanur<br />
Jambodal<br />
Katampoondl<br />
Pappambadl<br />
Pav~thram<br />
Navampattu<br />
Palayanoor<br />
Thachampattu<br />
Devanur<br />
Pck-up-dam<br />
Melandhal<br />
Kangalyanur<br />
Jarnba~<br />
Murukkampadi<br />
Sthapatinam<br />
Manahpet<br />
---<br />
' Imported<br />
402 15# 1' 50 12 5<br />
13<br />
12 2 1' -<br />
2812 49 4 1<br />
3012 8 6 7 1 1<br />
2360 1 - 2 -<br />
1951 4 1<br />
1543 - 2 -<br />
6478 ' fj L-<br />
# Local
Table 16.2 Malaria incidence in SRBC command<br />
Name of Village<br />
Melslruvalur<br />
Vadak~ranur<br />
Mookanur<br />
Olgalapadl<br />
Mangalam<br />
Arulambad~<br />
Vadaponparappl<br />
Vanapuralm<br />
A Paudham<br />
Arur<br />
Arasampattu<br />
Moong~lth~~ra~pattu<br />
Poravalur<br />
Porasapattu<br />
Rayandapuram<br />
Thlruvadathanur<br />
Puthurcheekady<br />
' Imported<br />
# Local
Table 15.3 Villages along with the respective population under<br />
various Prlrnary Health Centres (PHC) in SCA<br />
Name of the PHC I Village Pop~~lation<br />
V:,r~;rl)i~ratt~ PHC<br />
Vanapurarn<br />
Vanapuram pudur<br />
Serpapattu<br />
Vark~llapattu<br />
Varagur<br />
Periyarnpattu<br />
Mazhuvarnpattu<br />
Edakkal<br />
Kunglranatharn<br />
Valavachanur<br />
Perunduraipattu<br />
Kottaiyur<br />
Thenkarirnbalur<br />
Sadakupparn<br />
Unnarnalaipaleyam<br />
Agarampallipattu<br />
Thandarampet PHC<br />
Thenrnudlyanur<br />
Edathanur<br />
Alappanur<br />
Rayandapurarn<br />
Thiruvadathanur<br />
Perul~gulathur PHC<br />
Ellyankan1<br />
Puthurcheekady<br />
Jarnbodai<br />
Kati~~ttpoo~rdi PHC<br />
Katampoondi<br />
Sukharnpalayam<br />
Su. Papparnbadl<br />
Pavithrarn<br />
Aradapattu
Palayanur PHC<br />
Navampattu<br />
Palayanur<br />
Athipadi<br />
Kandiankuppam<br />
Thachampattu<br />
Allikondapattu<br />
Devanur<br />
Thalayamballam<br />
Sakarathamadai<br />
Nariyapattu<br />
Pavampattu<br />
Parayampattu<br />
Kallottu<br />
Malamanjanur PHC<br />
Devanur<br />
Devariyarkuppam<br />
Pick up dam<br />
Su Velavetti PHC<br />
Periyakallapadi<br />
Periyakallapadl Pudur<br />
Manarpalayam<br />
Chlnnakalllpadl<br />
Vanapurani PHC<br />
Pakkam<br />
Kadavanoor<br />
Mangalam<br />
Arumbarampattu<br />
Vadamamandur<br />
Sirapathanalur<br />
Sirpanandhal<br />
Arkavadi<br />
Athanoor<br />
Edatharic~r<br />
Periyakoll~yur<br />
Chinnakolliyur<br />
slvLl~>ulalll<br />
Tholuvanthangal<br />
Athiyur<br />
Ariyalur<br />
Nagalkudi<br />
Vanapuram<br />
Erudayampattu<br />
Elayanarkuppam<br />
Kallipadi. S
Rishivendiyem PHC<br />
Jambadal<br />
Th~ruvarangam<br />
Manlyandhal<br />
Od~yandhal<br />
Slrupan~yoor<br />
Kadambur<br />
Marialurpettai PHC<br />
Melandhal<br />
Kangaiyanur<br />
Jambai<br />
Pallichandal<br />
Murukkambadi<br />
Ath~yandal<br />
Devaradiyarkupparn<br />
Sellenkupparn<br />
Slthapatlnam<br />
Manalurpet<br />
Velayampakkam<br />
Vadaponparapp~ PHC<br />
Melstruvalur<br />
Vadakeeranur<br />
Vadaponparapp~<br />
Moongilthuralpattu<br />
Poravalur<br />
Porosapattu<br />
Puthupettai PHC<br />
Mookannur<br />
Olgalapad~<br />
Arulampadi<br />
A Pandalrn<br />
S Kolathur<br />
Arur<br />
Varagur<br />
Vir~yur<br />
Arasampattu<br />
Vadasiruvalur<br />
Ramrajapuram<br />
Olgadayampattu<br />
Kidakudayampattu
Table 15.4 Annual parasite index of filaria in SLBC command<br />
Village API<br />
Katampoondi 5<br />
Pavithram 1.5<br />
Devariyarkuppam 3 4<br />
Elayankani .39<br />
Kallottu 1.85<br />
Thenmudiyanur 9.71<br />
Table 16.5. Presumptive treatment<br />
S No Age group Chloroqulne dosage<br />
-<br />
I 0-i 7smg<br />
2 1-4 150mg<br />
3 4-8 300mg<br />
4 8-14 450mg<br />
5 14 and above 600mg<br />
Table 15.6 Radical treatment for malaria Single day treatment<br />
Plasmodium falci~arum<br />
Age Chloroqulne Primaqulne<br />
0- 1 75mg NII<br />
1-4 150mg 7.5mg<br />
4-8 300mg 15mg<br />
8-14 450mg 30mg<br />
14 and above 600mg 45mg<br />
1. Chloroquine should not be given on empty stomach<br />
2. Primaquine should not be given to infants and pregnant<br />
women
Table 15.7 Three days radical treatment for malar~a (Plasmod~um vrvax)<br />
Age group Choroqulne Prlmaqulne<br />
- - 1st day 26dday 3rd day<br />
14 and above 600mg 30mg 30mg 15mg<br />
Table 15.8 Rad~cal treatment for chloroqulne res~stant P falcrparuni<br />
- Age group Sulfalene + pyremetham~ne Pr~maqu~ne<br />
0- 1 NII NII<br />
14 and above 1000mg + 45mg 45mg<br />
Table 15.9 La~lclde formulations and the~r dosages<br />
MLO Temphos Fenth~on Bacrllus Bacrllirs<br />
spharrcus lllurri~ger~rsra<br />
Comrnerc~al 100% 50% Ec 100% Ec Powder Powder<br />
forrnulat~on petroleum<br />
products<br />
Pleparat~ons of 25cc,1n10 5cchnl0 500gln10 250g1n10<br />
reeky to spray As lt 1s lltres of l~tres of l~tres of l~tres of<br />
forrnulat~on water water water water<br />
busdye 111' 20 cc 20 cc 20 cc 20 LC Lo LL<br />
Dosage 50m ' I lltre I lltre I l~tre I lltre 1 lhtre<br />
Dosage ha ' 200 lltres 200 11tres 200 lhtres 200 l~tres 200 lltres<br />
aPPllcat~on<br />
of Weekly Weekly Weekly Weekly Weekly<br />
- -- -
Table 15.10 Insecticide formulations and their dosage for indoor rescdual spray<br />
Delta Lambda Frim~pho<br />
Malath~on meth~on Cyfluthrin chalothrin Feninthroth~on methyl<br />
2 5%wp 2 5% 1 0 % ~ 1~ 0 % ~ ~ 4 0 % ~ ~ 2 5 % ~ ~<br />
WP<br />
preparatcan of<br />
usp pens con in<br />
10 litres of 2 kg 400 g 125g 1 25 kg 1 25 kg 2 kg<br />
water<br />
Dosage mZ 29 20mg 25 mg 25 mg 19 2 9<br />
Residual effect<br />
~n weeks 6-8 10-12 10-12 10-12 6-8 6-8<br />
NO of spray In<br />
weeks 3 2 2 2 3 3<br />
Reaulrement 1<br />
m~ll~on<br />
populat~on per<br />
ro~~nd<br />
Requirement 1<br />
m~llcon<br />
300 MT 30 MT 9 38 MT 9 38 MT 93 75 MT 300 MI<br />
population per<br />
annum<br />
Area to be<br />
sprayed by 10<br />
900 MT 60 MT 18 75 MT 18 75 MT 281 25 MT 900 Mt<br />
l~tres of<br />
suspension for<br />
250 m2 500 m2 500 m2 500m2 500 m2 500 m<br />
correct dosage -<br />
Table 15.11 lnsecticide formulations and their dosage for space spray<br />
Pyrethrum extract Malathcon<br />
Commerc~al formulations 2% extract Technccal malathcon<br />
Preparat~on of 1 19 (1 part 2% 5 parts of techn~cai malathion<br />
formulations pyrethrum extract ~n 19%<br />
of kerosene)<br />
~n 95% of 011<br />
Equipment used Flit pump or hand Veh~cle mounted thermal<br />
operated fogg~ng<br />
machine<br />
fogging machtne (km hr 'I
Flgure 15.1 Impact of precipitation on malarial annual parasite ~ndex<br />
in the villages of<br />
SLBC command
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1009<br />
Year<br />
+ Edalhanur + Alappanur -+ P~ec~p~lal~un<br />
Figure 15.2 Impact of precip~lat~on on malar~al annual paraslte ~ndex in the v~llages of<br />
SLBC command
1?94 1995 19% 1997 1908<br />
Year<br />
Figure 15.3 Impact of preclp~tatlon on malar~al annual paraslle ~ndex<br />
In the vtllages ol SLBC command
Figure 15.4 Impact of preclpltatlon on rnalar~al annual paraslle ~ndex<br />
In the v~llages of SLBC command
+Valavachanur -c Ssdakuppam t Precbpltallon<br />
Figure 15.5 Impact of precip~tation on malarial annual parasite index<br />
in the villages of SLBC command
1905 lO0G 1997<br />
Year<br />
F~gure<br />
15.6 Impact of preclpltalton on malarlal annual paraslte Index<br />
In the vlllages of SLBC command
Figure 15 7 Impact of preclpltallon on malar~al annual paraslte Index In the v~llages of<br />
SLBC command
lor,,! 1995 1996 1997 1998 I!I!~!I<br />
Year<br />
Figure 15 8 linpact of preclpllallon on rnalarlal annual parasile mdex In lne v~llayea al<br />
of SLBC command
+ SLBC command t Precipitalon<br />
F~gure 15 9 Impact of preclpltation on rrialaral annual paraslte index 111 SLUC<br />
LUIIIIII~II~
Flyur~ 15 10 lmpacl of preclpllation on malarlal annual paraslle ~ndex 111 Ihe vlllages<br />
of SRBC command
1995 19% 1997 1998<br />
Year<br />
Flgure 15.11 lmpacl of preclpltatlon on rnalarlal annual paraslle tndex<br />
In the vlllages of SRBC command<br />
2000 E
F~gure 15.12 Impact of preclpltatlon on maiar~al annual paraslte ~ndex<br />
In the vlllages of SRBC command
Figure 15.13 Impact of precip~tation<br />
on malarial annual parasite Index<br />
In the villages of SRBC command
Year<br />
--c SRBC mmmand -c Prec~~talion<br />
Figure 15.14 Impact of precipltatlon on malarial annual parasite ~ndex<br />
In the villages of SRBC command
Year<br />
F~gure 15.15 Annual preapllatlan In SCA and outflow from the reservoir
I J,<br />
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999<br />
Year<br />
t SLBC comrnalld 4 Outllaw<br />
Figure 15.16 Impact of reservoir outflow on maiar~al<br />
annual paraslte<br />
Index<br />
In SLBC cormand
F~gure 15.17 Impact of reservoir outflow on malar~al annual paraslle index<br />
tn SRBC command
i 2000<br />
2C . 1600<br />
?<br />
7 & l'l.<br />
1400<br />
"<br />
1200 5<br />
1000 5<br />
5 -<br />
i<br />
8<br />
800 ii<br />
600 9<br />
400 2<br />
,992 1995 19% 1997 1998<br />
200<br />
0<br />
1999<br />
Year<br />
t Agsrampalltpttu t Prec~pltallon<br />
F~gure<br />
15.18 Focal outbreak of malarla In Agarampalltpattu village In SLBC<br />
command<br />
1800
I<br />
,594 1895 1996 1997 1998<br />
Yeel<br />
SRBC command 4 S L B C command -<br />
Flgure 15.19 Maiarlal annual parasite Index In SCA<br />
SCA
-1 varannamala~ tv~llupuram<br />
+ 53'-ani'cammand ares -9- Salhanur prqect<br />
-Sa!ian~r cornmsna area(R B Ci<br />
19%<br />
Year<br />
Flgum 16.20 lncldence of malaria
Figure 15.21 Population distribution in various primary health centres in SCA
Name of the villages as indicated in Figure 15.22 depicting malaria and filaria<br />
1. Vanapuram<br />
2 Allapanwr<br />
3. Edathanur<br />
4. Agarampallipattu<br />
5. Melandhal<br />
6. Kanagiyanoor<br />
7 Devarad~yarkuppam<br />
1 Valavachanur<br />
2 Pavithram<br />
3 Thenrnudiyanur<br />
Malaria endemic villages<br />
Filaria endemic village
I. Vadaponparappi<br />
Name of the villages as indicated in Figure 15.23<br />
2 Moongilthuraipattu<br />
3 Poruvalur<br />
4 Thiruvadathanur<br />
5 Puthurcheekadi<br />
6 Rayandapuram<br />
illustrating malaria endemic villages
16.W Malaria endemic villages in SRBC command region<br />
hsa
16 0 INTRODUCTION<br />
Chapter I6<br />
Socio-economics<br />
The ra~son de dtre of any water resources project 1s Improvement of the soclo<br />
econornlc condrtlon of rts target population Thls 1s the guldlng theme the ultlmate<br />
objective But assessment of the Impact of a water resources project on the soc~o<br />
economic envrronment 1s lot more drffrcult than assessment of Impacts on varlous<br />
b~ot~clab~ot~c dlmenslons of the environment To begln wrth the defrnrtlon of soclo-<br />
economlc progress 1s extremely drfficult to establrsh as people belonging to different<br />
econornlc strata, soclal background pollttcal belrefs and levels of education can have<br />
very wrdely divergent perceptrons of what constrtutes soc~o-economrc progress<br />
(Amartya Sen 2000) There can be equally sharp d~fferences In the perceptlons of the<br />
Prolect authorrt~es and the people llvlng In the projects command area Further unllke<br />
Such parameters as water table water qual~ty, agricultural production or wlldllfe<br />
dlverslty soclo - economic Impacts don't lend themselves to quantlflcatron wlth<br />
standardrzed equipment or by standardrzed procedures And yet assessment of soclo-<br />
econOm~c Impacts IS, perhaps, the most Important component of any envrronmental<br />
Impact assessment<br />
-
We have made an attempt to generate a body of information w~th whlch the<br />
perceptions of the end-users of Sathanur Reservoir Project (SRP) can be assessed In<br />
a, hopefully, quantitative manner. A scale was created which grades the people's<br />
responses from 'very good' to 'very bad'. The responses were then collected on the<br />
basls of an extensive Survey assisted by an elaborate check-list. The matrix of type of<br />
response (positive or negative) and degree of response (very good to very bad) was<br />
then used to generate 'environmental Impact units' (Elus)<br />
16 1 STATUS<br />
An extensive soc~o-economlc survey of the catchment and command area of the SRP<br />
was undertaken The held survey Included lntenslve lnteractlons w~th the cult~vators<br />
downstream Fifty four vlllages twenty -seven In each of the Sathanur Len Bank<br />
Canal (SLBC) and Sathanur Rlght Bank Canal (SRBC) commands were covered<br />
dur~ng the survey The v~llages were selected so as to dlsplay representatlveness In<br />
terms of area dlstance from the Sathanur dam area under canal lrrlgatlon area<br />
ndlrectly under canal lrrlgatlon through tanks location In the head mlddle or tall<br />
reaches of the canals and the geo-cl~mat~c cond~t~ons The respondents were also<br />
seiected based on the~r soclo-economlc status age and the slze of thelr holdings -<br />
marg~nal farmers (possesslng below 1 0 hectare of agrlculture land) small farmers<br />
(possesslng between 1 00 - 2 50 hectares of agrlculture land) med~um farmers<br />
(possesslng between 2 5 - 5 0 hectares of agrlculture land) large farmers (possessing<br />
more than 5 0 hectares of agrlculture land) and the landless laborers<br />
The ~nformat~on was obta~ned In the form of a questlonnalre (Annexure 16 1) which<br />
was des~gned so as to allow the respondents to express thelr vlews wlthout b~as or<br />
external pressure The soc~o-economlc lnd~cators were placed under four broad<br />
categor~es namely agriculture lrrlgat~on maintenance of canals and tanks and soc~o-<br />
economic Questions framed for each lndlcator were glven seven qualltatlve cholces<br />
ranging from excellent to very good good no d~fferent bad very bad and worse<br />
These cho~ces were further glven we~ghtlngs on seven po~nt scale rangmg from - 3 to<br />
0 to 3 A Delph~ methodology was used In the final assessment of the qualltatlve data<br />
thus generated<br />
Though the thrust was on the canal and tank lrr~gatlon but the approac? was In such<br />
a way that the general questions related to each lndlcator were addressed flrst and<br />
then the lrnpllcat~ons of the canal lrngatlon were sought Thls approach prevented the
las to creep into the methodology. Whenever the inte~iewees were in dilemma they<br />
were asked to compare and contrast the present scenario with the scenario fifteen to<br />
twenty years back.<br />
The sample size of each village was kept constant - ten villagers. In some villages<br />
due to some unforeseen clrcumstances required number of the villagers were not<br />
~nterv~ewed. As, in a village due to death most of the men were unavailable as they<br />
were out attending the funeral ceremony. In such exceptional cases the data was<br />
converted to a ten point scale. Similarly, the responses of twenty experts and the 540<br />
vlllagers were also converted to a common unit of forty for comparison. Impact unlts<br />
were computed and compared so as to evaluate the Impact of the Sathanur project on<br />
the varlous ecolog~cal parameters as perce~ved by the end-users and the project<br />
authorlt~es Regressions were performed on the ecolog~cal lnd~cators so as to<br />
understand the slgnlflcance of varlous lnterrelatlonsh~ps<br />
Tables 16 1 and 16 2 present village-wlse cumulat~ve Impact un~ts for varlous<br />
ind~cators In SRBC and SLBC commands respect~vely Table 16 3 glves an account of<br />
the total Impact units as assigned by the natives of SRBC and SLBC commands and<br />
cumulat~vely for the Sathanur Command Area (SCA). Tables 16 4 and 16.5 present<br />
tile we~ghtlngs assigned by the respondents to varlous ecolog~cal ind~cators In v~llages<br />
of the SLBC and SRBC commands respectively Table 16 6 presents an overall<br />
account of the ElUs for various Indicators in SLBC,SRBC commands and SCA. Table<br />
16 7 presents a comparison between the ElUs as perceived by the dwellers in the SCA<br />
and the authorities connected with the various aspects of the SRP.<br />
The results of the correlation analysis, which was performed to assess the<br />
interdependencies of indicators are presented in table 16.8. The coefficients of the<br />
rank correlat~on between the various villages based on the weightings ass~gned as per<br />
the ElUs are presented in Tables 16.16 and 16.17 for SLBC and SRBC commands<br />
respecttvely.<br />
16.2 IMPACTS<br />
16.2.1 Agricultural indicators<br />
Ares under culUvrUon<br />
There is a definite increase in the area under cultivation as envisaged from the ElUs of<br />
366 and 454 of the total agricultural impacts un~ts of 329 in SLBC and 660 in SRBC<br />
command respectively (Table 16.6).
In SLBC command 41.9 %of the respondents assigned the weighting 'very good' and<br />
48 5% 'good' to the status of land under cultivation. Of the respondents, 1% found the<br />
sltuatlon 'excellent' while 8.5% of the respondents opined that the situation was no<br />
different (Table 16.1).<br />
In contrast to such homogenous pattern, 70.7% of the respondents in SRBC<br />
command deemed the situation to be very good and 26.6% to be good. Only 2.6% of<br />
the respondents opined no change In the situation (Table 16.2).<br />
The statistics substantiate the fact that after the introduction of canal irrigation In<br />
SCA, there has been an increase In the net sown area at the cost of the land meant for<br />
other purposes (Chapter 11). With the availability of plenty of water, there has been an<br />
lncreaslng tendency to bring more and more of land under cultivation of food crops and<br />
the cash crops viz paddy (Olyza sabva), sugarcane (Sachharum officinarum),<br />
groundnut (Arachis hypogea) etc.<br />
Natlves of SRBC command, after golng through the trauma of droughts years of<br />
water scarcity have reason to assign more weightings to this indicator thereby boost~ng<br />
the SRBC ElUs com~ared to the SLBC command.<br />
Productfvrty per hectare<br />
The ElUs of productivity of land are 178 and 142 for SLBC and SRBC commands<br />
respectlvely (Table 16 6) The oplnlons of the respondents were divided on thls matter<br />
Wh~le 53 7% and 18 2% of the lntewlewees In SLBC command considered th<br />
+p~"'ht +R"t<br />
productlv~ty to be good and very good respectlvely, about 24% of them r the<br />
I<br />
productiv~ty has gone down Only 4% felt there was no difference (Table 16 1)<br />
in SRBC command 68 9% of the villagers intewiewed expressed the y~eld to be<br />
good and 1% as very good About 14 8% opined that there was no much of d~fference<br />
while 11 8% and 3 3% of the respondents deemed the sltuatlon to be bad and very<br />
bad respect~vely (Table 16 2)<br />
The reasons glven by the respondents for Increased output were the usage of better<br />
of seeds, fertlllzers, pestlc~des and, above all the avallabll~ty of water<br />
lnterest~ngl~ these were the very same explanat~ons glven by the lntervlewees who<br />
considered the sltuatlon to have become worse According to them the usage of<br />
exceS~~ve chemicals has led to the loss of the natural fertility and molsture holding<br />
of the so11 The near total absence of the use of trad~tional blo fertlllzers such
as compost might have contributed to the decline in the fertility of the soil. This<br />
sltuatlon IS further worsened by the attack of pests and weeds There is also a dearth<br />
of agr~cultural labourers to work in the fields as reported by the villagers. The landless<br />
labourers of the villagers migrate to near towns and cities to work.<br />
$<br />
The Agricultural Officers contacted by us were unanimous in that the productlvity per<br />
hectare has increased. According to them the current status of the farmers is much<br />
better when compared to a decade back. They say that not only the people benefiting<br />
from the lrrlgatlon potential created by SRP but the entire state of Tamil Nadu has<br />
ach~eved self -sufficiency in food production It is the lack of scientific and judicious<br />
approach towards agriculture that makes the productivity seem less<br />
Usage of chemical fertilizers<br />
On the status of the usage of chemical fertilizers the responses veered towards a<br />
welcome trend. About 3% of the respondents in the SLBC command considered the<br />
s~tuatton to be excellent, 51% to be very good and 42% to be good, (Table 16.1) In<br />
SRBC command 63% of the interviewees expressed the situation as very good and<br />
32% to be good Only 2% and 4% of the respondents in SLBC command respect~vely<br />
v~ewed the situation to be no different (Table 16.2)<br />
lntroductlon of Irrigation facilities, especially In the form of canal irrlgatlon, lnvar~ably<br />
leads to the higher dependency on chemicals. Most commonly used fertilizers in SCA<br />
are DAP (Di ammonium phosphate), complex (17,17,17) urea, potash etc Even the<br />
marg~nal and small farmers, who in normal circumstances can't afford to buy the<br />
fertll~zers, somehow arrange for the loans and manage to use them with the bltnd<br />
Percept~on that the usage of chemicals would lnvar~ably lead to better productlvity<br />
The total ElUs garnered by this particular indicator are 418 (SLBC command) and<br />
429 (SRBC command) (Table 16.6). Massive usage of chemical fertilizers has been<br />
deemed as a sign of progress and a direct impact of canal irrigation.<br />
Usage of bio fertillzen<br />
The negative ElUs of this particular indicator in SLBC and SRBC commands,<br />
-150<br />
and -38 respect~vely, indicate its sorry state (Table 16.6). The situation is better In<br />
SRBC Command compared to SLBC command as evident by the impact units and also<br />
the vlews of the respondents. In SLBC command 21% of the respondents<br />
assQned the weighting of good to the usage of bio fertilizer to their fields whereas 71%<br />
aswed bad and another 4% very bad. A mere 1% of the interviewees considered
the status of appllcatlon Of blo fertlllzers to be very good (Table 16 1) On the contrary<br />
50% of the respondents In SRBC command expressed the situation to be good whlle<br />
34% as bad and 14% as very bad (Table 16 2) Nat~ves of SRBC command belng<br />
economically poorer, stlll stlck to the trad~t~onal appl~cation of cow dung and composted<br />
manure along w~th the use of chemicals whlch they normally buy In small quant~ties<br />
On the other hand the tradltlonal fertlllzers cow dung and composted manures have<br />
been completely replaced by the chemlcal fertlllzers In the SLBC command<br />
The plausible reason for the reduced appl~cation of blo fertlllzers IS the decrease In<br />
the cattle population Malntalning cattle has become very expensive as there are no<br />
grazlng lands lefl (Chapter 11) Also there are no good veterlnary hospitals ~n the<br />
reglon V~llagers flnd ~t profitable to sell them for the~r flesh The slght of cattle In the<br />
vlllages dur~n the fleld trlps was rare As a result there IS no, - dung<br />
a"m ,ode<br />
rnanurw The v~llagers cons~der buying fert~l~zers as better option than spendlng their<br />
money on buy~ng dung manure from the other vlllages Though some farmers d~d<br />
agree to actually paying and buylng cow dung afler thelr realization that so11 was loslng<br />
fert~lity fast w~th complete dependence on chemlcal fertilizers<br />
Problems of weeds in the fields<br />
The hlgh negative values of EIUs, -330 and -383 in SLBC and SRBC commands<br />
respectively, suggest the gravlty of the situation (Table 16.6). There was a cent<br />
percent convergence of the opinlons towards the negative scale; 77% of the<br />
respondents In the SLBC command considered the situat~on to be bad and 22% as<br />
very bad (Table 16.1), while 58% of the natives interrogated in SRBC command<br />
asslgned the weighting of bad and another 41% as very bad to this indicator (Table<br />
16 2)<br />
The interviewees unanimously opined that there has been an increase in the weeds<br />
among the crops, a phenomenon rare before the introduction of the irrigation facilltles<br />
Though they could not connect the severity directly with the canal irrigation, there are<br />
chances of the weeds getting spread through the conveyance channels connecting the<br />
flelds Most of the canals and tanks are infested with weeds and other vegetation ln<br />
the absence of proper lining. The most common weed encountered In the fields was<br />
hmea sp.
Pest menace<br />
The ElUs of pest menace have hlgh negat~ve values of -415 In SLBC command and -<br />
327 ~n SRBC command (Table 16 6) Of the respondents ~n SLBC command 48%<br />
oplned the s~tuatlon to be bad another 48% as very bad and 2% as worst (Table<br />
16 1) In SRBC command 78% consldered the status to be bad and 21% to be very<br />
bad (Table 16 2) According to the lntervlewees sugarcane crops were getting more<br />
commonly Infested wlth red-rot dlsease and early shoot borers Paddy crops suffered<br />
from stem-borer leaf-folder d~seases lnfestat~on of crops wlth brown plant hopper and<br />
blast and tungro viruses was a common phenomenon Villagers In Olgalapad~ and<br />
Mels~ruvallur reported the destruction of entlre turmerlc (Curcuirrd do~rrestr~)<br />
pantatlons owing to the pest lnfestatlon<br />
The reason attributed by the cultlvators to the Increase In the pests attacks as were<br />
extreme heat and poor performance of the hybr~d verltles of paddy and sugarcane<br />
crops supplled by the agricultural agencles Th~s sltuat~on 1s exacerbated w~th the<br />
Improper appltcatlons of chemicals ~n the form of fertll~zers weedlcldes or pestlc~des as<br />
discussed ~n the following sectlons<br />
Applrcatron of weedcides and pest~cides<br />
The ElUs of the appllcatlon of weedlcldes and pest~cldes In the SLBC and SRBC<br />
commands are 259 and 278 respect~vely (Table 16 6) About 73 7% of the<br />
respondents In the SLBC command perce~ved the status to be good whlle 13% as very<br />
good 5% of the lntervlewees consldered the sltuat~on to be bad and 7% as no<br />
different (Table 16 1) In SRBC command 63% of the respondents deemed the<br />
sltuat~on to be good 19% very good and another 19% consldered the s~tuatlon to be<br />
excellent (Table 16 2)<br />
Appllcat~on of weedlcldes and pestlc~des In the flelds 1s a recent phenomenon ~n the<br />
SCA especlally ~n the SRBC command whlch was brought under lrr~gatlon very<br />
recently (Chapter 2) The atotroph weed~clde IS provlded by the Kallakurlch~ Sugar Mill<br />
(Chapter 17 2) for the sugarcane plantat~ons to the cultlvators In the wake of the<br />
recent pest attacks, wh~ch accord~ng to the cultlvators have been on rlse for the past<br />
five years or so, they find 11 convanlent to use the pestlcldes Most of them were quite<br />
unaware of the harm these chem~cals cause through the crops especlally food crops<br />
by getting ~ncorporated ~n the food chams and food webs Few cultlvators d~d know thls<br />
fact so they employ laborers to clear the weeds In the paddy crops Instead of trying to
kill the weeds using weedicides. Very recently cultivators have started optlng for<br />
Azadfrachta fmftea extract cakes.<br />
Screntific approach towards agriculture<br />
The ElUs for thls lnd~cator are negatlve - 79 for the SLBC command and -22 for the<br />
SRBC command (Table 16 6) The oplnlons of the respondents were d~verse In<br />
SLBC command 29% of the respondents regarded the sltuatlon to be good whlle 5%<br />
as very good 62% of them perceived the sltuatlon to be bad and 3% as very bad<br />
(Table 16 1) In SRBC command 29% of the respondents vlewed the status to be<br />
good and 32% as very good wh~le 29% of the lntervlewees consldered ~t bad and<br />
another 8% as very bad (Table 16 2) The s~tuat~on seems to be better in SRBC<br />
command than the SLBC command as ~ndlcated by the Impact unlts and the<br />
percentage of the respondents under the particular scale<br />
Canal ~rr~gatlon IS a recent phenomenon In the SRBC command as discussed earlier<br />
Agriculture Offlcers concerned w~th thls part~cular command area have taken steps to<br />
integrate science In the agrlculture wlth the vlew to alleviate the general poverty<br />
preva~llng In the reglon Volunteers undertake trlps to the vlllages explalnlng to them<br />
the modern techniques of agrlculture and lrrlgatlon and sclentlflc appllcatlon of the<br />
chemicals<br />
St111 there are cultivators who resort to lndlscrlminate appllcatlon of the chem~cals ~n<br />
the absence of proper gu~dance or due to the~r perceptions that Agr~cultural Off~cers<br />
often mlslead them Accord~ng to them, the quant~t~es as spec~fied by the Agr~cultural<br />
Offlcers are qulte h~gh and sometimes beyond thelr purchasing power<br />
Facilities of co-operative societies and bank loans<br />
The net ElUs for this parameter in SLBC command and SRBC command are 89 and -<br />
22 respectively (Table 16.6). In SLBC command 38% of the respondents vlewed the<br />
sltuatlon to be good while 18% to be very good. Another 40% of the respondents<br />
deemed the situation to be bad and 2% as very bad (Table 16.1). Extremes were<br />
observed in the responses of the farmers in SRBC command: 36% consldered the<br />
scenario to be very good and 9% to be good. Again. 36% regarded the situation to be<br />
very bad while 17% fell it to be bad (Table 16.2). The extreme responses on either<br />
side of the scale can be attributed to the poor economic conditions prevailing ~n the<br />
SRBC command. The marginal and small cultivators get lesser support compared to<br />
medlum and large farmers, as revealed In the justif~cations glven by the respondents
The co-operatlve socletles and banks seem to favour the richer farmers according to<br />
most of them<br />
In the SLBC command, the responses were not so negatlve and strong because of<br />
the general prosperity of the region St111 the reasons glven by the farmers for<br />
assrgnlng the negatlve welghtlngs were the same The cooperatives were also alleged<br />
to sell the stocks at market prlces to the rlch farmers and so were often out of stock<br />
Frustrated poor farmers thus stopped approaching them and ~nstead preferred buylng<br />
the~r requirements from open market<br />
The net agriculture Impact unlts (AIUs) for all the vlllages surveyed In the SLBC<br />
command are positlve w~th the except~on of Agarampalllpattu Unnamalalpalayam<br />
Arundhat~ar colony and Thenkarimbalur (Table 16 4) Vanapuram, Thenmudlyanur and<br />
Perunduraipattu are the h~ghest ranked In descending order, in terms of AIU<br />
Vanapuram and Thenmudiyanur are sltuated along the maln canal<br />
The cumulative AlUs for all the vlllages In the SRBC command are posltive Athlyur<br />
Kadavanoor and Moongllthuralpattu In that order have the hlghest Impact un~ts<br />
Melstruvalur has the lowest - 1 (Table 16 5) Ath~yur and Moongllthura~pattu are<br />
situated across the main branch canals<br />
16.2.2 lrrigation indicators<br />
Sources of irrigation<br />
The Impact units under this Indicator are the h~ghest in the Irrigation category with 479<br />
for SLBC command and 431 for the SRBC command (Table 16.6). There was a<br />
convergence of the views among the respondents towards the brighter side of the<br />
scales, 41% of the respondents in the SLBC command considered the situat~on to be<br />
good. 39% as very good and 18% as excellent (Table 16.1). In SRBC command such<br />
extreme reactions were missing. About 29% regarded the facilities to be good and<br />
65% as very good: 5% considered the status to be no different.<br />
As discussed in chapter 10, the irrigation, in SCA is accomplished with the<br />
conjunctive use of canal, tank and ground water. The sources of irrlgatlon have<br />
significantly increased after the introduction of canal irrrgatlon resulting In year round<br />
availability of plentiful of water. The residents of the SRBC command, because of the<br />
general agro climatic conditions prevailing in the region, second pr~ority rights to the<br />
canal irrigation and damaged canals (Chapter lo), had no extreme reaction But In<br />
general the current situation of sources of irrigation in SCA IS relatively good.
Mode of irrigation<br />
The traditional mode of irrigation in which the paddy fields are flooded is prevalent ~n<br />
the SCA. The ElUs assigned by the interviewees are -318 and -306 in SLBC and<br />
SRBC commands respectively (Table 16.6). Surprisingly the villagers consider the<br />
situation to be bad as evident by the weightings assigned by them: 17% in the SLBC<br />
command regarded the flooding mode of irrigat~on to be very bad and another 82% as<br />
bad (Table 16.1). Similarly in SRBC command the majority (73%) of the respondents<br />
considered the situation to be bad and 21% as very bad. A mere 3% regarded the<br />
s~tuation to be good.<br />
The cultivators are aware of the benefit of drip, furrow and lift irrigations but they have<br />
not started practicing them in their fields. Paddy and sugarcane are the major crops<br />
grown In the area, the cultivators find it convenient to flood their fields with water Of<br />
late there has been a realization of the harmful Impacts of flood Irrigation as evidenced<br />
by the rlslng problems of salinity, alkalinity and water logging In the agricuitural fields<br />
The farmers tend to utilize the extra water to flood their fields and grow the water<br />
intenslve crops, even as they are aware of the pit falls associated with this method<br />
Salmcty and alkalinity m the fields<br />
The posltlve Impact units of the lndlcator polnts towards the not so bad status of<br />
salln~ty problem In the SCA The SLBC command area has 177 un~ts wh~ie the SRBC<br />
command reglon has 197 un~ts (Table 16 6) There were m~xed oplnlons among the<br />
respondents 65% In the SLBC command regarded the sltuat~on to be good In terms of<br />
non-existence of the problem In the field and 12% as very good but according to 21%<br />
of the respondents the s~tuatlon IS bad whlle 1% deem ~t very bad (Table 16 1)<br />
In SRBC command SQOh of the lntervlewees cons~dered the sltuatlon has good 17%<br />
as very good 19% as bad and 18% as very bad (Table 16 2)<br />
The f~elds w~th mostly red-so11 d~dn t have such problems whlle the prolems were<br />
encountered mostly In the fields w~th black clayey so11 where water percolated slowly<br />
leading to water logglng and salln~ty problems The lakes and tank beds In most<br />
vlliages were found to have whlie encrustations ~ndlcatlng the alkallne nature of the<br />
so11 Most of the v~llagers were unaware of the development of alkailnlty as they<br />
Practiced agr~culture year round growlng mostly paddy and never letting the flelds dry
Water logging<br />
F~gures 16 1 and 16 2 Illustrate the water logged areas In the SCA based on the<br />
ground truth stud~es dur~ng the f~eld trip The problem of water logglng also garnered<br />
pos~t~ve ElUs In both the command reglons 171 In SLBC command and 157 In SRBC<br />
command (Table 16 6) 50% of the farmers lnte~lewed In the SLBC command<br />
cons~dered the sltuatlon to be good and 12% as very good 16% of them cons~dered<br />
the status to be bad and 8% to be very bad (Table 16 1)<br />
In SRBC command 40% of the villagers ~nterv~ewed regarded the status to be god<br />
and 24% to be very good and 4% to be excellent About 17 7% regarded the s~tuat~on<br />
to be bad and 7 4% as very bad (Table 16 2) Cult~vators of the SRBC command<br />
d~dn t have complaints regard~ng the water logglng and sal~n~ty because of the lack of<br />
suff~c~ent water for lrr~gat~on as elaborated In Chapter 10 Water logged areas were of<br />
elther low topography or had black clayey so11 whlch was cons~dered good by the<br />
cult~vators slnce they needed standlng water for the~r paddy and sugarcane<br />
plantations<br />
Sim~larly v~llages In SLBC command had water logglng problems mostly In low lytng<br />
areas The Tholuvanthangal some areas are low lylng whlch remaln water logged for<br />
8-10 months as ~mmed~ately after the ralny months water IS released In the canals<br />
Sim~larly the tank In Per~yakall~pad~ has water for all the 365 days because of<br />
~mmedtate release of water via canal following rams Sadakuppam Valvachanur<br />
Velayumpakkam Parayampattu Pavapattu Palayanoor Kallottu Pudur Pakkam<br />
Arundhat~ar colony and many other vlllages reported of water logglng In the flelds<br />
Water logging in the fields near to canals.<br />
There was a sharp divergence of views between the farmers of the SRBC and the<br />
SLBC commands, reflected In ElUs of opposlng signs. The SLBC command had<br />
ElUs - 274 while SRBC command had ElUs 53 (Table 16.6). In SLBC command,<br />
(Table 16.1), 7.7% of the respondents, considered the situation to be worse, 21.1 to be<br />
very bad and 55.1 to be bad. But 12.5% regarded the situation to be good and 3.3 to<br />
be very good.<br />
In SRBC command, 40.7%of the cultivators considered the situation to be good and<br />
20 7% as very good. But 27% regarded the status to be bad and another 12.9% to be<br />
bad while 8% of the respondents found the status to be no d~fferent.
The negative ElUs SLBC command may be attributed to either the non-lining of the<br />
canals or seepage from the canals. The water tends to flood the low-lying fields next<br />
to the canals thus leading to water logged conditions in those fields. Similar conditions<br />
rev ail In SRBC command region too but water logglng ~n the fields situated close to<br />
canals IS not encountered. This is because of the fact that little water flows through the<br />
canal, as reiterated by the villagers.<br />
Sithapatinam, the tank fed village, has 12 acres of the area opposite to the tank<br />
demarcated as waterlogged. No initiatives seem to have been taken by the authorities<br />
to desilt the tank and reclaim the fields. Vanapuram, Thenkarimbalur. Thenmudiyanur<br />
vlllages had the fields adjacent to canals water logged. Water logging was reported in<br />
the field near to Thachampattu tank (Palayaeri) as the tank IS silted and there are no<br />
shutters to regulate the flow of water in the tank (Plate 16.1).<br />
Drainage In the fleld<br />
The network of drams IS, by and large ~n good condition as Indicated by the posltive<br />
ElUs of 246 and 134 for SLBC and SRBC commands respectively (Table 16.6) In the<br />
SLBC command 55.5% of the respondents considered the drainage to be good, 17 7%<br />
very good and 26.6% bad (Table 16.1) In SRBC command 45.5% of the lntewiewees<br />
considered the drainage to be good and 21.1% to be very good. As against this, 28 5%<br />
of the people considered the s~tuatlon to be bad and 4.8% to be very bad.<br />
The posltlve responses of most of the respondents towards the drainage in the fields<br />
were a surprise since most of the drains encountered were earthen or made out of<br />
stones Very few of the drainage channels were cemented. The cultivators<br />
themselves maintain their individual drainage, channels by occasional de-silting and<br />
de-weedlng They do wanted lined drainage networks but before that they wanted the<br />
canals, subcanals and distributaries to be lined.<br />
Canal irrigation<br />
On the aspect of canal irrigation mixed responses were elicited from the villagers. The<br />
ElUs are 246 for SLBC command and -103 for SRBC command (Table 16.6). In<br />
SLBC command 62.9% of the cultivators felt the status of the canal irrigation to be<br />
good. 23.3% as vely good and 1% as excellent but 3.3% of the regarded the situation<br />
'0 be bad and 9.3% to be very bad (Table 16.1). In SRBC command 24.8% of the<br />
cultivators regarded the situation to be good, 11.I0h to be very good, 18 8% as bad.
21 5% as very bad and 7.7% as worse. The rest referred the situation to be no<br />
different (Table 16.2).<br />
The dissatisfaction of the cultivators of the SRBC command with canal irrigation has<br />
been dealt in the previous chapter (Chapter 10). The SLBC command enjoys much<br />
greater benefits of the canal irrigation as elaborated in the same chapter. But. in<br />
general, most of the respondents agreed that canal irrigation is a boon to them as ~t<br />
boosts not only surface water availability but also the groundwater table.<br />
Modern implements of irrigation and agriculture<br />
The ElUs for this indicator are positive in both commands: 252 and 209 for SLBC and<br />
right 252 and 209 for SLBC and SRBC commands respectively (Table 16 6). The<br />
posltlve Impact unlts indicates acceptance of the modern implements. In SLBC<br />
command 65.9% of the cultivators considered the situation to be good and 13.7 to be<br />
very good Only 20 4% of them regarded the situation to be no different In SRBC<br />
command 62 6% considered the situatlon to be good and 7 4% to be very good, whlle<br />
30% of them felt the s~tuation to be no different. ,<br />
n<br />
Tractors, pump-sets and bore wells are commonlSCA. The implements have been<br />
purchased through loans When the farmers cant afford to buy the machinery they<br />
hire ~t W~th the lntroduct~on of subs~d~zed electricity pump-sets and motors have been<br />
installed by the majority of the farmers The farmers who regarded the situatlon to be<br />
no different belong the econom~cally weaker strata But wlth heavy subsld~es and loan<br />
facllltles the use of modern equipment IS lncreas~ngly common now It IS rare to see<br />
the trad~t~onal bulls ploughing the fields<br />
The lrrlgation Impact units (IIUs) are positlve in all the vlllages In SLBC command wlth<br />
the exception of Thenkanrnbalur v~llage, which garnered -39 units Hlghest llUs were<br />
accomplished by Periyakallapadi followed by Kand~ankuppam and Pudur villages<br />
(Table 16 4)<br />
In contrast SRBC command had several vlllages with negat~ve llUs Arulampadi<br />
Vadap~npara~pi, Poravalur and Porasapattu prompted negative llUs H~ghest Impact<br />
units were that of S Kolathur village followed by Ararnbarampattu and Athlyur<br />
(Table 16 5)
16.2.3 Maintenance of canals and tanks Indicator<br />
Lining of the canal<br />
There 1s a marked vanat~on In the ElUs of thls ~ndlcator In both the command Whlle<br />
SLBC command had a score of 105 SRBC command scored -246 (Table 16 6) The<br />
responses of the villagers are w~dely d~vergent<br />
In SLBC command 13 7% of the respondents asslgned the welghtlng good to the<br />
l~n~ng of the canal 35 9% as very good and 7 7% as excellent On the other hand<br />
18 8% regarded the status to be bad 20 3% as very bad and 3 3% as worse<br />
(Table 16 1)<br />
In SRBC command 1% of the cult~vators regarded the status to be good. 22 9% to be<br />
very good and 5 5% to be excellent On the other s~de of the scale 14 8% deemed the<br />
situation to be bad 26 6% to be very bad and another 28 8% to be worse (Table 16 2)<br />
The reason for such m~xed and extreme responses IS that the llnlng work of the<br />
canals branch canals and dlstrlbutarles IS st111 to be completed (Chapter 10) Not all<br />
the vlllages have been covered under the varlous schemes of llnlng of the conveyance<br />
channels Also according to some v~llagers the cement used In the lln~ng of the canals<br />
IS of Inferlor quallty wh~ch can't withstand the heavy flow of water as a result the l~nlng<br />
comes off<br />
Most of the conveyance channels In SRBC command are In dllapldated state<br />
because of the absence of lln~ng In some places the canals have been totally broken<br />
down<br />
Vegetation near canals<br />
The negative ElUs of this particular indicator in both the command regions indicates<br />
the severity of the situation (Table 16.6). The responses are precipitated towards the<br />
negatlve side of the scale: 15.2% from the SLBC command regard the status to be<br />
very bad and 54.4% to be bad while 26.6% of them regarded the situation to be good<br />
and a mere 3.7% very good (Table 16.1). In SRBC command 29.3% of the<br />
respondents perceived the situation to be bad, 26.3% to be very bad and 30.4% to be<br />
worse, only 13.7% and 0.4% of the responses were for good and very good weightings<br />
(Table 16.2).<br />
Most of the canals are weed -infested. Even the lined canals are being colonised by<br />
vegetation. The situation is worse in the SRBC compared to the SLBC command as<br />
most of the canals in the latter are unlined and completely damaged.
The unlined branch canals and distributaries of Valavachanur, Agarampallipattu,<br />
pavapaltu, Mangalam, Chinnakolllyur and scores of others were silted and infested<br />
wtth weeds and other vegetation. Even the lined canals of Velayampakkam,<br />
Palayanur, Pudur, Periyakallipadi. Periyakolliyur and many others are colonised by<br />
vegetation (Plates 16.2, 16.4 and 16.5).<br />
Vegetation in the tank<br />
The negative impact units of - 817 and - 438 in SLBC and SRBC commands<br />
respectively point towards the unpopular status of tank maintenance (Table 16.6). The<br />
s~iuat~on is practtcally bad in SRBC command where most of the tanks are full of<br />
vegetation. The tanks rarely get filled with water due to scarcity of water in the region<br />
even after the ~ntroduction of canal irrigation (Plates 16.3 and 16.6).<br />
Siltation in the canal<br />
The ElUs for thls indicator are negative, - 476, for SRBC command and positive. 2.2,<br />
for SLBC command. The responses almost are equally ranged on both sides of the<br />
the<br />
scales injSLBC command region with 45.2% and 3.7% of the interviewees considering<br />
the s~tuat~on to be good and very good, respectively and 50.4% and 4% of them<br />
regard~ng the s~tuatton to be bad or worse respectively (Table 16.1).<br />
Extremes In the responses are obse~ed in SRBC command reglon yet agaln. 7.6%<br />
of the respondents earmarked the situation to be worse, 30.7 to be very bad and 49.6<br />
to be bad. A mere 8.8% and 2.9% of the respondents declared the situation to be good<br />
and very good respectively (Table 16.2).<br />
The de-siltation has been accomplished only in those conveyance channels for which<br />
the ltn~ng work has been completed or is an ongoing process. Other channels are full<br />
uf sediments. Even the lined channels at various villages have slowly started show~ng<br />
signs of acquiring silt (Plates 16.7).<br />
Siltation in tanks<br />
The ElUs for SLBC command is -257 and -165 for SRBC command (Table 16 6).<br />
du+ k<br />
The depth of the tanks have reduced over the past several yearys~ltation. In many<br />
villages the silt of the tank bed is scooped for use in coflstr~ction.
Plate 16.5 Sorry state of Agaranipal~~pattu branch canal<br />
Plate 15.6 Velayarnpakkanl tank - weeds ~r~fested and a grazlrig groilna
Seepage from the canals<br />
The ElUs for the SLBC and SRBC commands are -274 and 53 respectively<br />
(Table 16 6)<br />
About 63 3% of the respondents consldered the sltuatlon to be bad In SLBC<br />
command and another 23 3% as very bad whlle 11 8% perce~ved the sltuatlon to be<br />
good and 1 8% as very good (Table 16 1) In contrast 11 1% of the lntervlewees In<br />
SRBC command consldered the sltuatlon to be very bad 47% as bad. 33 7% as no<br />
different and a mere 8 1% as good (Table 16 2)<br />
The reason for the vaned responses In the SRBC command IS that half of the<br />
channels remaln unllned and In a bad shape Water ~f ~t does flow m such channels 1s<br />
qulckly lost vla seepage Most of the tlme the channels remaln dry and hence there 1s<br />
no water to seep1<br />
On the other hand In the SLBC command all the maln canals and the branch canals<br />
are llned and water flows regularly through them Thls water seeps to the low lylng<br />
reglons next to the canals and creates hazards of water logglng as dlscussed earller<br />
Optimal flow of water from reservorr through the canals<br />
The ElUs for SLBC command are 113 and that for SRBC command are -103 (Table<br />
16 6) The oplnlons were dlverslfied In both the command reglons In SLBC command<br />
28 5% of the respondents consldered the status to be good 32 2% to be very good<br />
and 3 7% to be excellent On the other hand 19 6% perce~ved the sltuatlon to be bad<br />
5 1% as very bad and 10 7% as worse (Table 16 1)<br />
In SRBC command 14 4% of the lnterv~ewees oplned good status and 16 6% But<br />
16 6% consldered the sltuatlon bad, 19 6% very bad and 32 6% worst (Table 16 2)<br />
The problems associated wlth the flow of water In the SRBC command have been<br />
dlscussed In detall In chapter 10 Even the farmers of SLBC command have<br />
something to complaln According to them before the openlng of the SRBC the water<br />
used to flow there In the canals for SIX months But later thls water was dlvlded<br />
between the SLBC and SRBC commands Though the SLBC farmers st111 enjoy<br />
PrlOrlty rlghts over the SRBC farmers they conslder the water to be lnsufficlent for thelr<br />
needs<br />
The Ire of the cultivators of both the commands was dlrected towards the offlclals<br />
concerned with reservoir and canal operat~on It was alleged that durlng the hawestlng<br />
Perl0f.I when the crops need more water the water IS not released properly by the
authorities. As a result, many a times the crops get destroyed. Cases of bribery on<br />
the part of officials were alleged for getting the water released in the canals as<br />
reported by the villagers of Devariyarkuppam, Parayampattu. Varagur, Virlyaur,<br />
Erudayampattu, Melandhal, Kangaiyanur and many others.<br />
Judicious distrlbutlon of water to the fields<br />
The ElUs for this particular indicator are negative in both the commands -17 for SLBC<br />
command and -103 for SRBC command (Table 16.6). The responses are varied as<br />
evident from Tables 16.1 and 16.2. The negative impact units suggest general<br />
dissatisfaction on the part of the end users. There seems to be a lack of cooperation<br />
among the farmers.<br />
There are the villages like Thenmudiyanur, Vanupuram, Sitapathinum, etc. whlch are<br />
fortunate enough to be situated right across the main canals through which water flows<br />
uninterrupted for all the three months. Apart from using canal water for irrtgation,<br />
those villagers use the same water for bathing, washing and other personal purposes<br />
(Plate 16 8) Such non-agricultural uses of Irrigation water have been reported by<br />
Yoder (1981) and Small (1993) too. In contrast there are villages which either due to<br />
thelr topological location (Kalottu, Kunglinattham, Kangyanoor, Vadakirunur etc.) or<br />
due to faulty and mismanaged canals face acute shortage of water. There are villages<br />
In SRBC command like Mangalam, Chinnakolliyur. Sukhampaluyam etc., whlch have<br />
never reaped the fruits of canal irrigation.<br />
Devarariyarkuppam, Pavapattu, Jambodai, Arur, Pakkam, Erudayampattu,<br />
Arundhatiar colony, Palichandal and scores other villages fall under the tail-end<br />
category. The water before reaching their respective canals gets exhausted as it IS<br />
ut~llsed by the village in the head reaches. In most canal irrigation systems too much<br />
water is supplied to the head reaches and too little is supplied in an untimely and<br />
unpredictable manner to the tail end. Tail enders suffer multiple deprivation (Moore et<br />
a1 . 1983). Within the village itself (as reported by farmers of Pakkam, Kandiankupparn<br />
etc.) there is misunderstandings between them and generally the farmers having thelr<br />
fields at the tail end suffer from acute shortage of water as the farmers who have thelr<br />
flelds situated at the head reach of the branch canal tend to use more Water.<br />
Encroachment and breaching<br />
The ElUs are -14 for SLBC command and 209 for SRBC command (Table 16 6)
Plate 16.7 Status of t'le In~d canai<br />
76.8 li~enrn~~iyanu~ man canal wale be,t,g used for waihlllg clothes
In Paraympattu village, since some of the cultivators have encroached upon the land<br />
adjacent to the canal, the officials have reduced the width of the canal while llning as<br />
Informed by the villagers.<br />
In Kandiankuppam village, some farmers have done cultivation in the tank Itself, as<br />
complained by the other villagers. Thus, during the rainy months or durlng the t~me<br />
water IS let out In the canal, the excess water of the tank IS removed by those<br />
cultlvators depriving others to get the water for irrigation. Similarly, farmers of some<br />
other villages for example Kungllnatham and Vadakeeranur, too, complained regarding<br />
the encroachment upon the canal and the tanks. The cement slabs of many of the<br />
Ihned canals were found to be broken. The area thus was encroached upon by the<br />
cultlvators (Plate 16.9).<br />
The impact units of the maintenance of canals and tanks in the SLBC command are<br />
mostly negative for all the villages w~th the exception of six villages viz Vanapuram,<br />
Thenmudiyanur, Perunduraipattu, Jambai, Periyakallapadi and Sukhampalayam<br />
(Table 16.4).<br />
The situation is worse in SRBC command where, except Moongilthura~pattu.<br />
Kadavanoor and Vadamamandoor, all other villages garnered negative impact units<br />
(Table 16.5).<br />
16.2.4 Socio -economic indicators<br />
Income<br />
The ElUs of the indicator are 239 for SLBC command and 103 for SRBC command<br />
(Table 16.6). In SLBC command 51.4 O h of the respondents deemed the status to be<br />
good while 28.5% regarded the status to be very good, though 20% regarded the<br />
status to be bad. In SRBC command region 48.8% of the cultivators considered the<br />
sltuatlon to be good and 12.9% to be very good 36.6% regarded the situation to be<br />
bad and 1.4% to be no different.<br />
Even though there has been an increase in the income of the individual farmer after<br />
the introduction of canal irrigation leading to intensification of the agriculture, the net<br />
savings are apparently nil in the wake of the introduction of new technologies of<br />
farming and procurement of expensive chemicals to supplement the agriculture. In<br />
general, marginal farmers were reported to earn Rs.4000 - 6000 per year, small<br />
farmers Rs.5000 - Rs.10,000 per year, medium formers Rs.l0,000 - 40,000 and btg
Plate 16.9 Celi?ent slabs II~ISSII~~ 117 Vanap~~~arm canal
farmers Rs.40,000 and above per year. The landless laborers earn their livelihood by<br />
working on the daily wages basis. Their wages vary from Rs. 50 - 60 per day.<br />
primary health centers<br />
The ElUs for SLBC and SRBC commands are 233 and 129 respectively (Table 16 6)<br />
bout 57.4% Of the villagers considered the status to be good, 10% to be very good<br />
and 10 4% to be excellent in the SLBC command. Of the respondents. 22.2% of felt<br />
the situation to be bad. In SRBC command 47.7% of the respondents considered the<br />
situation to be good. 11.8% to be very good and 3.7% to be excellent while 34.81% of<br />
the respondents regarded the situation to be bad There are thlrteen PHCs functlon~ng<br />
in the command area catering to the needs of one lakh people. The status of the PHC<br />
and other deta~ls have been presented chapters 7 and 15.<br />
Water borne diseases<br />
The ElUs are 51 and 100 for SLBC and SRBC commands respectively (Table 16.6)<br />
Slnce SRBC command gets less water for irrigation compared to SLBC command,<br />
there are less Instances of water-borne diseases, as discussed in chapters 7 and 15.<br />
Schools<br />
The ElUs are 349 and 390 for the SLBC and SRBC commands respectlveiy<br />
(Table 16 6). Most of the responses are clustered towards the posltlve s~de of the<br />
scale as evldent from Tables 16.1 and 16.2. All the villages have primary schools.<br />
Vanapuram, Kangaiyanur, Moong~thuraipattu, Sadakuppam, Thachampattu.<br />
Paiayanur, Pavapattu, Pavithram, Periyakallipadi, and scores others have hlgh<br />
schools. For higher education the students go to Thiruvannamalai, Madras, Viliupuram,<br />
Bangalore and other cities nearby.<br />
Roads<br />
The condition of the roads in the varlous vlllages in SCA is perce~ved to be good as<br />
Judged from the positive impact units gained by this indicator: 413 in SLBC command<br />
and 438 In SRBC command respectively (Table 16.6)<br />
In SLBC command 26.3% of the villagers regarded the situation to be good, 61 8%<br />
good and 3.7% exwllent. Only 8.1% of the respondents regarded the condit~on to<br />
be bad (Table 16.1).
In SRBC command, 36.6% of the respondents considered the situation good. 41 5%<br />
very good and 15.9% excellent. Only 2.5% of the people considered the conditions of<br />
the road to be bad and 1.4% to be very bad while 1.8% of the interviewees considered<br />
it to be no different. Most of the villages surveyed had pucca roads except for some<br />
whlch are situated in the interior. The Kallakurichi sugar mill has laid down roads In<br />
most of the villages for the easy passage of sugarcane plants to the mill. Yet,<br />
commutation is a problem since there are no frequent transport services, especially In<br />
the interior villages. Most of the villagers prefer walking to the nearby places or hire<br />
cycles rather than depending on the irregular bus services<br />
Forests<br />
The status of the forests in the SCA is reflected from the negat~ve ElUs of -130 and -<br />
201 in SLBC and SRBC commands respectively (Table 16.6). In SLBC command<br />
62 9% of the natives inte~iewed branded the condition to be bad, 2 9% very bad and<br />
4 8% worse Only 24.8% of the residents inte~lewed considered the situation to be<br />
good and 4.4% to be very good.<br />
In SRBC command 85.5% of the villagers regarded the status of forests to be very<br />
bad, 6 6% to be good and 2.2% to be good. Another 5.5% considered the situat~on to<br />
be no different.<br />
The status of the forestry In the SCA is very poor as discussed In detall in chapter 11<br />
The villagers, especially women face a lot of difficulty In collecting flrewood Acacia<br />
(Acac~a niiotica) IS mostly used as fuel wood.<br />
Drinking water<br />
The ElUs for drinking water were 248 and 342 for SLBC and SRBC commands<br />
respectively (Table 16 6). 46.3% of the respondents In the SLBC command reglon<br />
considered the quality and facil~ty of drinking water as good and 34% as very good<br />
whlle 16.6% regarded the condition to be bad and 2.9% as very bad (Table 16.1).<br />
In SRBC command 39.6% of the residents regarded the drinking water facilities good<br />
and 49.3% very good. But 10.74% of the respondents considered ~t bad and 0 4%<br />
very bad (Table 16.2).<br />
Most of the villages have dug well and collect the water in a overhead tank for supply<br />
drinking water to entire village. The quality of drinking water has been assessed<br />
elaborately in chapter 13.
Power supply<br />
The status of power supply as indicated by the ElUs of 186 and 206 in SLBC and<br />
SRBC commands respectively can be termed as good (Table 16.6).<br />
In the SLBC command 38.1% Of the respondents termed the status to be good and<br />
31 9% to be very good, 27.7% to be bad and 2.2% to be very bad (Table 16.1)<br />
In SRBC command, 45.9% of the respondents regarded the situation to be good.<br />
28.2% to be very good and 25.9% to be bad. All the villages in the command area are<br />
electrified and the houses are given free electricity supply for one bulb. But the supply<br />
IS very irregular The interruption in power, especially during the harvesting months,<br />
affects the agriculture adversely. Though the situation is getting better, unlnterrupted<br />
power supply for running motors is yet to be achieved, as stated by the cultivators. Due<br />
to the late release of water into Commanur canal and irregular power supply paddy<br />
crop raised in 50% of the area was reported to be withering in Nagarjunasagar project<br />
Karnataka, lnd~a (Rao, 2000).<br />
Employment and migration<br />
The ElUs of th~s ind~cator -263 for SLBC command and - 369 for SRBC command.<br />
reflect the disillusionment vis a vis employment opportunities. Nearly half (49.6%) of<br />
the farmers interviewed described the situation as bad and 33.3% as very bad In the<br />
SLBC command (Table 16.1). Only 15.2% of them deem the situation to be good and<br />
1 8% to be very good.<br />
In SRBC command, 36.6% of the intewiewees regarded the status to be very bad<br />
and 63.3% to be bad, inspite of the sugar mill being located in the command (Table<br />
I6 2).<br />
The ~ntroduction of irrigation schemes and projects are believed to generate<br />
employment potential in the region by way of establishment of agro-based, and other<br />
small scale industries. In SCA there is only one such industry, Kallakurichi Sugar Mill.<br />
located in Moongilthuraipattu. Lack of industries and scarcity of water for irrigation<br />
leads to large scale migration of the villagers in the command region. Most of them<br />
migrate to the nearby towns and cities: Thiwannamalal, Villupuram, Kallakur~chi,<br />
Chenna~ Mumba~, Bangalore In search of greener pastures They work in those places<br />
as skilled and seml skilled laborers and come back only during the per~ods when water<br />
flows through the canals The situat~on IS particularly bad in SRBC command which<br />
get suffic~ent water via canals thus leading to dearth of water for lrrlgatlon
The bulk of marginal cultivator8 also work in the farms of bigger cultivators to<br />
supplement their incomes. Only the few prosperous villages, because of the maln<br />
canal running through them, didn't have villager8 complaining about the dearth of<br />
employment. As many as 80% of the interviewees wanted their children to take up<br />
salaried jobs, preferably with the government, which would ensure regular income<br />
None of the parents wanted their children to become cultivators. Downstream of<br />
Khasm el Girha dam ip Sudan, the percentage of households involved in agriculture as<br />
.w<br />
a prlmary occupation fell from 92% to El%/ m anual labour and trade ~ncreased<br />
(Acreman et al. 1999).<br />
The net soclo - economic Impact units (SIU) for all the villages surveyed in the SLBC<br />
command are positlve with the exception of Pallichandal and Thenkarlmbalur villages.<br />
Vanapuram, Theinmudiyanur and Palayanur villages In that order had the highest SlUs<br />
in the region (Table 16.4).<br />
With the exception of Pakkam and Kidagudayampattu v~llages, the net SlUs of all<br />
other villages are positive in SRBC command reglon as well (Table 16.5)<br />
Moongllthuralpattu and Kadavanoor have the h~ghest SlUs In the region, 144 and 101,<br />
respectively.<br />
The total ~mpact units, for the vlllages are also illustrated in the Tables 16 4 and 16.5<br />
for SLBC and SRBC commands respectively. The v~llages are arranged accord~ng to<br />
the total impact units, representing the descending order of prosperity in villages.<br />
A comparative account of the cumulative impact units, as accomplished by the<br />
respondents in the SCA and the experts, is presented in Table 16.7. The wide gulf<br />
between the ElUs of the end users and the experts points towards the failure In<br />
perceiving the magnitude of the impacts downstream by the project author~t~es. Both,<br />
the end users and the project authorities, put the blame on each other for thls d~sparlty<br />
as d~scussed in various chapters and preceding sections. Illiteracy and poverty are the<br />
main hindrances in the prosperity of the region as maintained by the authorities. The<br />
literacy status, in SCA as per the 1991 census is depicted in Figures 16.3 and 16.4<br />
and presented block wise as Tables 16.9 to 16.14. the total literacy is dismally low,<br />
less than 35%, in all the blocks in SCA as evident from the Figure 16.3. Gender wise,<br />
female literacy ranges from 35-40% in various blocks and cumulatively in the SCA<br />
(Figure 16.4).
16.2.5 Inter-parametric correlation<br />
Regressions between various ecological indicators were performed to bring out the<br />
lnterdependencies, if any, among them. The correlation analyses were performed<br />
based on the ranks assigned by the respondents. The results are thus based upon the<br />
perceptions of the respondents in interrelating various indicators.<br />
productivity was correlated against area under cultivation, usage of chemical<br />
fert~llzers, usage of biofertilizers, problems of needs in the fields, pests menace in the<br />
f~eids, pesticides and weedicides application, scientific approach towards agriculture,<br />
sources of Irrigation, mode of irrigation, salinity in the fields, water logging in the fields,<br />
modern implements of'agriculture and irrigation, canal irrigat~on, optimal flow of water<br />
from reservoir, judicious distribution of water, income, power supply, and roads.<br />
Lining of the canal was correlated against water logging in the f~elds near to canal,<br />
water logging in the fields, vegetation in the vicinity of the canals, siltation in canals,<br />
seepage from canals and breaching an encroachment of canals.<br />
Water logging ln the fields was correlated agalnst salinity and alkalinity probiems in<br />
the f~elds. dramage, seepage from, the canals and canal irrigatlon and tank lrrlgation<br />
Optimal flow from reservoir through canals was correlated with water borne diseases<br />
(Table 16 8)<br />
The product~vity shows a good correlation with area under cultivation, chemical<br />
feriilizers, sources of irrigation, modern implements of irrigation and agriculture, canal<br />
Irrigation, optimal flow of water from reservoir, income, power supply and roads in the<br />
SLBC command, thus indicating the role of all these parameters in enhancing<br />
product~vity of the reglon. Bio fertilizers, weeds mode of irrigation and salinity had<br />
negat~ve relationship with productivity, as discerned from the coefficients of<br />
correlations (Table 16.8). Sc~entlfic applicat~on to the agriculture had ins~gnif~cant<br />
Positive relationship suggesting the independency of the parameter. As discussed in<br />
the foregoing sections the scientific approach is very less in the region. Cultivators<br />
don't generally pay much attention to the advise of Agricultural Officers. Instead they<br />
Practice traditional agricultural and use chemicals out of their own choice.<br />
Lining of the canal shows a positive correlation with water logging in the fields near<br />
'he canal and negative with water logging in the fields. There is substantial seepage in<br />
the lined canals as well, thus leading to water logging as indicated in the positlve<br />
with me seepage. Lining of the canal also shows a positive relationship<br />
'Ith vegetation near the canals, siltation, and breaching. The lined canals are infested
w~th vegetation and are accumulat~ng silt The mlssing cement slabs and muttlattng<br />
the linlng of the canals have already been discussed<br />
Slmtlarly water logging shows a posltlve correlatlon w~th salinlty and seepage<br />
Opt~mal flow of water In the canals correlates pos~tively wlth water borne dlseases<br />
especially malaria<br />
Slmllar pattern of Inter-parametric correlations IS observed for SRBC command too<br />
Lining of canals Is negatively correlated wlth water logglng In the fields near canals<br />
and with seepage Thls d~screpancy IS due to the fact that most of the branch canals<br />
In the SRBC command are unllned and villagers have a perceptton that once l~ned<br />
there will be reduction In water logglng and seepage problems<br />
There IS only a very weak relatlonsh~p between waterborne dlseases and opt~mal flow<br />
of water In the SRBC command since water very rarely flows In the SRBC system and<br />
vtllagers could not connect the two lndlcators The correlatlon results are based on the<br />
responses of the v~llagers<br />
The coefflctents of rank correlatlon between the vlllages based on the ElUs of the<br />
various lndlcators are presented In Tables 16 16 and 16 17 for SLBC and SRBC<br />
commands respect~vely A slgnlf~cant correlatlon 1s observed between agrlculture and<br />
socio - economlc and between canal malntenance and soc~o - economic lndlcators In<br />
SLBC command (Table 16 16) In SRBC command there IS a strong correlatlon<br />
between agrlculture canal and tank malntenance and between soclo - economlc<br />
~ndtcators and agaln between canal and tank matntenance and soclo - economic<br />
ind~cators lnd~cat~ng the ~nterdependencles of there lndlcators (Table 16 17)<br />
16.2.6 Brief notes on the problems encountered in the selected villages of<br />
SCA In relatlon to the canal irrlgation.<br />
* In Devanur village, 42 acres of the land was included in the canal irrigation area<br />
through tank. But the tank hence the water released by Sathanur reservoir in the<br />
tank is if no use to the farmers. The villagers refuse to be termed as the<br />
beneficiaries of the Sathanur canal irrigation project and have removed the slgn<br />
board claiming thus.<br />
' in Valavachanur village the canal starts from the low lylng land and subsequently<br />
goes to the higher fields. In the process the water does not reach the subsequent<br />
flelds properly, spilling on the way. Thus, the villagers want the fields and lands,
through which the canal passes, to be evened so that judicious distribution of water<br />
will be there.<br />
. Another unique problem encountered in the Valavachanur was that near by the<br />
vtllage there is a Government owned farm of 300 acres. The farm utilises the water<br />
during the day and so the villagers get water for their fields only during nlghts<br />
Thus there is a clash of interests between the village farmers and Government<br />
officials.<br />
In Velayampakkam, there are four tanks. Villagers complained that all the four<br />
tanks are always dry as water does not reach these tanks at all.<br />
. In the Palayanur village, some farmers have put stones and boulders on the shutter<br />
of the canal, thus blocking the canal towards the shutter end, hence denying water<br />
to some parts of the fields (Plate 16.10).<br />
. Thatchampattu is having two tanks but the channel connecting the two tanks is not<br />
I~ned. Also the tanks are silted so water scarcely comes to the znd tank.<br />
e In Pudur village, farmers have broken the shutters and sldes of the canal tn order to<br />
get more of water towards their fields.<br />
0 Jambodai which has provision to get water from Arumbarampattu branch canal vla<br />
Sivanur, doesn't get much water through this canal. The reason being that<br />
Arumbarampattu has a comparatively high lying land and as the water comes<br />
through the canal from higher to lower land, slit and so11 deposlt in the canal and<br />
ult~mately water doesn't reach the Jambodai village tank. Thus instead of double<br />
cropplng the farmers have been restricted to only one crop per year.<br />
Perlyakolliyur and Chinnakolliyur are connected by the same branch canal<br />
Perlyakolliyur branch canal (which ultimately goes to Chinnakolliyur) IS lined but on<br />
the way the canal has been completely silted by the villagers themselves for<br />
facilltat~ng easy commutation and hence the water doesn't reach the Ch~nnakolliyur<br />
lake.<br />
Villagers of the Sirpanandal too complained of no water reaching thelr village tank<br />
as the canal is positioned in a place from where water doesn't reach thls upland<br />
village. So the villagers want the canal to be reconstructed through some other<br />
Place or repositioned.<br />
In the Mangalam village too, since branch canal is not lined and 1s damaged.<br />
People have put mud and soil in order to fill it up and are commuting over it The
canal has been blocked in such a way that is hard to believe that canal ex~sted<br />
there once (Plate 16.1 1).<br />
. The tank in the Tholuvanthangal village is low lying whereas the fields and farms<br />
are located higher. So, the water from the tanks doesn't reach the fields.<br />
. Arur village being situated at the tail end doesn't get enough water in the tank. The<br />
tank has been planted with Acacia trees now in the name social forestry.<br />
Poruvalur village hasn't got water for years. According to some villagers water<br />
came for just 2-3 years after the canal was opened. Many meetings with farmers<br />
were conducted by the officials to look in to the matter with no results whatsoever<br />
Before reaching the poruvalur village the water gets utilized and on the way low<br />
lying lake comes where the watergets collected and doesn't come further till the<br />
v~llage.<br />
Kidakudayampattu, a village with poor economic condition, is having 3 tanks to be<br />
fed under Sathanur reservoir project canal via Arur. But since Arur v~llage ~tself<br />
doesn't get water there is no question of the tanks of this village getting filled<br />
Thimmenendal village comes under tank irrigation scheme of the SRP but no water<br />
comes to the tank through the canal since the canal has not been constructed even<br />
after 17 years of SRBC coming in to existence, though the canal exists In the map<br />
Viriyur village also never receives water in the canal unless the farmers br~be the<br />
officials.
foi easy Passage
Name of v~llage<br />
Name of the person contacted<br />
Holdlng (~n hectare)<br />
ANNEXURE 16.1<br />
Major crops cult~vated In varlous seasons
INEcATORS OF MAINTENANCE<br />
OF CANAL AND TANK<br />
I<br />
i<br />
status of I I _ 1 I<br />
! ---+<br />
1<br />
1<br />
Llnlng of the canals<br />
1 vegetation ~n the vicinity of canals I<br />
Vegetation in Ihe viclnlty of tanks 1<br />
L5i1a11on ~n canals<br />
Sillation in tanks<br />
seepage from the canals<br />
I<br />
I<br />
1 I<br />
I<br />
,<br />
i-<br />
-.<br />
. -<br />
' ootimal flow of water from reservoir<br />
I through canals I<br />
~udcious dislrfbution ol water lo the (<br />
1<br />
I<br />
1 ..-.<br />
I I I I<br />
I<br />
I - - -
Table 16.1 We~ghtings ass~gned by the respondents In SLBC command<br />
AGRICULTURAL INDICATORS<br />
-3 L -1 0 I<br />
Status of<br />
4rea brought under cultlvatlon - 23 131 11.;<br />
PrnductlVItY per hectare 65 11 145 411<br />
Usage of chemlcal fertlllzers 8 115 136<br />
I,~;I~V of h~o lert~l~zers<br />
problem of weeds In the fletds<br />
pests menace ~n Ihe crops<br />
13<br />
60<br />
; 131<br />
103<br />
120<br />
132<br />
-<br />
59<br />
usage of weed~c~des and pesticides<br />
sc~eniiltc approach towards 9<br />
14<br />
168<br />
20<br />
.<br />
199<br />
73<br />
'17<br />
14<br />
agriculture<br />
Agr~cullural socleltes and bank<br />
IRRIGATION INDICATORS<br />
7 110 . 103 !>O<br />
Status of<br />
Sources of lrrlgatlon 112 IOi<br />
Idode of irrigation 48 222<br />
Vdater Ioggng In the flelds 4 57 - 176 3.\<br />
Sal~nily and alkalin~ly ~n the f~eld 24 44 175 I:-<br />
~rdlc~ luyylrly 111 [tie f~elds lieat lo<br />
,,aiiais<br />
2 1 67 14LI J 4<br />
Il~arlage In the flelds 72 150 ~lli<br />
Canal lrr~gatlon ltank lrrlgatton 25 09 170 i'ii<br />
Modern ~mplemenls of agriculture<br />
diid lrrlgatlon<br />
INDICATORS OF MAINTENANCE<br />
OF CANAL AND TANK<br />
- 55 178 37<br />
Status of<br />
L~iilny of the canals<br />
#eyelaton in the vtcln~ty of canals<br />
Vegetation In the vlclnlty of tanks<br />
9<br />
301180<br />
55<br />
4 1<br />
391180<br />
5 1<br />
147<br />
761180<br />
37<br />
- 71<br />
. 231180<br />
!I;<br />
10<br />
l2llRll<br />
51llalion ~n canals<br />
billalion in tanks -<br />
2<br />
1121180<br />
136<br />
541180 -<br />
122<br />
71180<br />
I0<br />
i!lilO<br />
S~npage from the canals 63 171 - 32 I<br />
O~llmal flow of water from reservoir<br />
through canals<br />
29 14 53 - 77 8i<br />
l~dicous d~slrlbul~on of water to the<br />
i1tilrJs<br />
9 21 113 - '10 I ti<br />
Breachlng and encroachment In<br />
'.anals and tanks<br />
SOCIO - ECONOMIC INDICATORS<br />
11 89 28 - 119 23<br />
Status of<br />
Income 54 - 139 77<br />
Prfmary health centres 60 - 155 ?J<br />
I'Jaler-borne disease 8 17 83 132 _it1<br />
b~hools 22 I4 I 0 1<br />
1 ores1 13 8 170 - 67 I ?<br />
Roads 22 - 7 1 I O i<br />
brlnking waler 8 45 - 125 $12<br />
i'owt?r supply G 75 . 103 ill;<br />
t!nfioyrnent and mlgratlon 90 134 - 4 1 . . 5 .<br />
-
Table 16.2 We~ghtlngs ass~gned by the respondents In SRBC command<br />
AGRICULTURAL INDICATORS<br />
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3<br />
statu=ot- --<br />
Area brought under cultivation<br />
Productlvlty per hectare<br />
Usage of chemlcal fertlllzers<br />
Usage of blo ferlllizers<br />
- 9<br />
40<br />
-<br />
32<br />
-<br />
94<br />
7<br />
40<br />
12<br />
-<br />
72<br />
186<br />
87<br />
136<br />
.--~<br />
191<br />
3 -<br />
171<br />
. .<br />
Problem of weeds ~n the f~elds 113 157<br />
Pests menace ~n the crops - 57 213<br />
Usage of weedlc~des and pestlcldes - 45 172 53<br />
Sc~ent~f~c approach towards<br />
agrtculture<br />
- 24 79 80 87 -<br />
A~~t$r.t~IIuial soc1e11es and bank<br />
IRRIGATION INDICATORS<br />
Status of<br />
- 89 47 25 'JII<br />
Sources of lrrlgatlon 15 79 176<br />
Mode of lrrigatlon 59 199 11 1<br />
Water logglng In the f~elds 5 52 5 161 47<br />
Sal~nlly and alkallnlty ~n the fleld 20 48 25 110 GG I<br />
Waler - logglng In the f~elds near to<br />
~anals<br />
35 73 22 84 56<br />
Drainage In the fields 13 77 120 57<br />
(:anal lrrlgalton /tank lrrlgatfon<br />
Modern ~mplements of agriculture<br />
and trrlgatlon<br />
INDICATORS OF MAINTENANCE<br />
OF CANAL AND TANK<br />
21 58 51<br />
-<br />
43<br />
81<br />
ti7<br />
169<br />
30<br />
20<br />
Status of<br />
Llnlng of the canals 78 72 40 - 3 62 I5<br />
vegelat~on ~n Ihe v~cinlty of canals<br />
Vegetation In the vlclnlty of tanks<br />
82<br />
46<br />
71<br />
136<br />
79<br />
58<br />
- 37<br />
30<br />
1<br />
. .<br />
Slllatton ~n canals 21 83 134 - 24 8<br />
Slltatlon ~n tanks<br />
Seepage from the canals<br />
50<br />
-<br />
106<br />
30<br />
114<br />
127 91 21<br />
. .<br />
Opl~mal flow of water from reservo~r<br />
through canals<br />
88 53 45 - 39 45<br />
Judic~ous dlstrlbutlon of water to the<br />
llelds<br />
43 57 86 20 46 It? 2<br />
IIII!II(:I~III~ ;811d ~!~~c~u~~cl~~!iotll<br />
111 !I!,<br />
carlals and tanks<br />
SOCIO - ECONOMIC INDICATORS<br />
17 >!I llJ0 .I4<br />
Status of<br />
Income - 99 - 132 35 .<br />
Primary health centres 94 5 129 32 10<br />
Waler-borne disease - 12 84 9 123 42 .<br />
Schools - 160 100 10<br />
Forest - 231 15 18 6<br />
Roads - 4 7 5 00 1 9 2 4 3<br />
Drinking water . 1 29 - 107 133 -<br />
Power supply . 70 124 7G<br />
Employment and mlgratlon . 99 171 . .
Table 16.3 Cumulative weight~ngs assigned by the respondents In SCA<br />
~.<br />
A~?ii~~~~URAL INDICATORS<br />
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3<br />
Status Of<br />
IIIUU~III iilld~l ~ult~vall~~i - 30 203 3U4 .I<br />
r~roductlv~ty per hectare<br />
Usage of chemical fertlllrers<br />
- 9 97<br />
-<br />
51<br />
20<br />
331<br />
202<br />
52<br />
309<br />
.<br />
9<br />
Usage of blo lertlllzers 53 287 - 195 5<br />
problem of weeds ln the flelds 173 367<br />
pests menace in the crops 7 188 345<br />
Usage of weed~c~des and<br />
pestlcldes<br />
- 14 65 371 90<br />
~,ri~~r~f~f~c approach towards<br />
,iyr~~u~ture<br />
Agricultural societies and bank<br />
IRRIGATION INDICATORS<br />
33 247 159 101<br />
Status of<br />
Sources of lrrlgatlon - 15 191 283 51<br />
Mode of ~rrlgatlon - 107 421 11 1<br />
LYater logging In the f~elds - 9 109 5 337 80<br />
'ili~fly ;i~id alkali~~~ty ill llle tleld - 44 92 26 246 1.1.1 1<br />
:rJaler logglng in the flelds near 21 92 222 22 I18 (i5<br />
10 canals<br />
Dralnage In !he flelds - 13 149 - 273 105<br />
Canal lrrigatlon /tank ~rr~galion 21 83 60 43 237 DO<br />
'rloderil ~rriplen~ents of agriculture<br />
lrid rrlgatlon<br />
INDICATORS OF<br />
MAINTENANCE OF CANAL<br />
AND TANK<br />
- 136 31i 5i<br />
Status of<br />
Lnlng of the canals 87 127 91 40 159 36<br />
df yeldllo~i ~n the v~c~n~ly of canals 82 112 226 IOC) I1<br />
Vegetalon in the v~c~nlly of tanks 761450 175 134 53 12<br />
Slltallon ~n canals 21 85 270 146 18<br />
Slltatlon ~n tanks 501450 218 168 7 7<br />
Seepage from the canals<br />
Optimal flow of water from<br />
reservoir through canals<br />
117<br />
93<br />
67<br />
298<br />
98<br />
91<br />
-<br />
54<br />
110<br />
4<br />
1.37 10<br />
.I~idlclous d~stribul~on of water lo<br />
llle llelds<br />
52 78 199 20 115 :I1 1:'<br />
Breaching and encroachment in<br />
canals and tanks<br />
SOCIO - ECONOMIC<br />
INDICATORS<br />
106 101 57 219 5i<br />
Status of<br />
Income . 153 4 217 112<br />
health centres - 154 5 284 59 38<br />
)/dater-borne d~sease<br />
,L11001s<br />
8 29<br />
-<br />
167<br />
22<br />
D 255<br />
3UI<br />
72<br />
l!il 21,<br />
1 r,rt,=,l 13 8 101 15 R5 18<br />
ii0;ldh ,f ~ $ 1 5 ti0 27il !,.I<br />
[)rlnk~tl~ water - 9 74 - 232 225<br />
Power supply<br />
Ern~lo~ment and rnlgratlon<br />
-<br />
-<br />
6<br />
189<br />
145<br />
305<br />
- 227<br />
41<br />
1G2<br />
5<br />
-<br />
. - .
Table 16.4 Environmental Impact unlts for varlous ecolog~cal lndlcators<br />
SLBC command<br />
--<br />
Agricultural Irr~gatlon Canal and SCIO - Total<br />
S No Vlllages lmpact lmpact tank econom~c lnipacl<br />
UnltS unlts maintenance Impact ~lri~ts<br />
Impact un~ts un~ts<br />
I Vanapuram 46 34 133 123 336<br />
2 Thenmud~yanur 36 32 98 117 283<br />
3 Perundura~pattu 28 40 72 62 202<br />
4 Jambal 22 36 45 73 176<br />
5 Perlyakallapad~ 7 64 44 58 173<br />
I, Sukhampalayam 7 45 56 49 157<br />
7<br />
8<br />
9<br />
Kand~ankuppam<br />
Per~yampattu<br />
Devar~yarkuppam<br />
22<br />
17<br />
10<br />
60<br />
45<br />
45<br />
32<br />
0<br />
- 1<br />
95<br />
48<br />
52<br />
14')<br />
110<br />
106<br />
10 Kangalyanur 26 5 1 -34 57 100<br />
11 Sadakuppam 5 6 42 46 99<br />
12 Thachampattu 28 45 -73 95 95<br />
13 Palayanur 3 27 -37 105 98<br />
14 Pudur 11 52 -26 45 82<br />
15 Pappambad~ 9 39 -30 42 60<br />
16 Agarampall~pattu -16 41 -45 69 49<br />
17 Palllrhandal 2 34 -3 -4 29<br />
18 Valavachanur 15 41 -55 17 18<br />
19 Pavapattu 6 37 -76 48 15<br />
20 Parayampattu 12 23 -70 22 -13<br />
21 Melandhal 30 24 -85 14 17<br />
22 Unnamala~palayam -18 13 -36 I6 25<br />
23 Arundhat~ar Colony -7 34 -87 29 31<br />
24 Kungllnatham 14 24 -102 25 -3Ll<br />
25 Slthapattlnam 21 2 1 -112 21 -62<br />
26 Devanur 14 27 -121 14 -66<br />
27 Thenkar~mbalur -12 -39 -141 -40 -202
Table 16.5 Environmental impact units for various ecological ~nd~cators<br />
SRBC command<br />
Agr~cultural lrr~gatlon Canal and SCIO - Total<br />
s No V~llages ~mpact impact tank econornlc impact<br />
Moong~lthura~pattu<br />
Kadavanoor<br />
Vadamamandur<br />
Ath~yur<br />
Vadak~ranur<br />
S Kolathur<br />
Varagur<br />
Arambarampattu<br />
Arulampadl<br />
Edathanur<br />
Tholuvanthaugal<br />
Vadaponparappl<br />
Slrpanandal<br />
Erudayampattu<br />
Jamboda~<br />
Pakkam<br />
Melslruvalur<br />
Olgaiapad~<br />
V~r~yur<br />
Poravalur<br />
Arur<br />
Perlyakolllyur<br />
Ch~nnakolliyur<br />
Porasapattu<br />
Manoalam<br />
unlts unlts maintenance lmpact unlts<br />
Impact unlts unlts<br />
18 144 249<br />
27 101 196<br />
18 55 162<br />
-1 1 58 158<br />
-7 78 119<br />
-67 60 95<br />
-10 21 i I<br />
-100 67 74<br />
-26 58 44<br />
-50 32 36<br />
-56 43 22<br />
-30 39 16<br />
-133 36 .I4<br />
-146 39 35<br />
-150 19 -68<br />
-83 -6 -71<br />
-146 42 -78<br />
-144 17 -78<br />
-200 55 -84<br />
-145 37 -92<br />
-193 39 -913<br />
-220 59 -118<br />
-170 22 -120<br />
-140 6 -120<br />
-193 9 -139<br />
-180 -24 -147<br />
-240 32 -180
Table 16.6 Cumulative environmental Impact unlts for various ecolog~cal<br />
lnd~cators SCA<br />
A~~~CULTURAL INDICATORS<br />
Status of<br />
SLBC<br />
command<br />
Area brought under cultlvatlon 366<br />
~~oduct~v~ty per hectare 178<br />
usage of chemlcal ferl~llzers 418<br />
usage of bto fertlllzers 150<br />
problem of weeds ~n the flelds 330<br />
pesls menace ~n the crops 415<br />
usage of weedtcldes and pestic~des 259<br />
Scient~fic approach towards agriculture 79<br />
Aqrlcullural socletles and bank<br />
IRRIGATION INDICATORS<br />
89<br />
Status of<br />
Sources of lrrigatlon<br />
Mridc of (rrlgatlon<br />
IrYaler logglng In the f~elds<br />
idnlty and alkallnlty In the fleld<br />
~daler logging In the fields near to<br />
canals<br />
Dratnage In the flelds<br />
Canal lrr~gatlon /tank lrrlgatlon<br />
Modern implements of agrlculture and<br />
~~gatlon<br />
INDICATORS OF MAINTENANCE OF<br />
CANAL AND TANK<br />
Status of<br />
I lllrly of llie canals<br />
9egelation 'n the viclnity of canals<br />
Vnrjetal~on ~n thp vlrln~ty of tank?<br />
i~lldlion In canals<br />
iillation In tanks<br />
Seepage from the canals<br />
Optimal flow of water from reservoir<br />
through canals<br />
lucllclous dlstr~but~on of water to the<br />
tlelds ..<br />
Breaching and encroachment In canals<br />
dPrl tanks<br />
SOCIO -ECONOMIC INDICATORS<br />
- -<br />
Status of<br />
Income 239 103<br />
Prmary health centres 233 129<br />
aaler-borne dlsease 51 100<br />
irhools 349 390<br />
1 orest -130 201<br />
Roads 413 438<br />
Drlllk~ng water 248 342<br />
Power supply 188 206<br />
'~n~~oymefi~~m~~rat~on -263 - - -- -360<br />
~ n v ~ r o n m ~ ulllts ~ ~ ~ ~ a c t<br />
SRBC command<br />
SCA<br />
820<br />
320<br />
847<br />
-188<br />
ill<br />
-i41<br />
53i<br />
48<br />
Iii
16.7 Comparison of cumulat~ve Impact unlts of end users and expetis SCA<br />
. Env~ronmental Impact Units<br />
AGRICULTURAL INDICATORS SRBC SLBC<br />
command command SCA t x~>rl\<br />
status of<br />
nrPa hmuyht under culllvallon<br />
PIO~UC~IVI~Y per hectare<br />
Ljzage of chemlcal fertlllzers<br />
Usaye of bto fertlllzers<br />
problem of weeds In the flelds<br />
pests menace In the crops<br />
Usage of weedlc~des and pstic~des<br />
Sclent~f~c approach towards agrlculture<br />
noi~cultural soclelles and bank<br />
ci,,r~iiialive aiipacl ilrrlls of Agrrc~~llure<br />
II(I
Table 16.8 Correlation coefficients between varlous ecological ~ndlcators<br />
SC A<br />
Productlvltv<br />
Area under Eu~t~vation<br />
usage of chemlcal ferl~l~zers<br />
Usage of blo fertlllzers<br />
Problem of weeds in the f~elds<br />
Pests menace In the crops<br />
Pest~c~des and weedlc~des appllcat~on<br />
Scienl~fic approach towards agrlculture<br />
Sources of lrrlgatlon<br />
Mode of Irrlgatlon<br />
Sal~nlty In the held<br />
Waler logg~ng In the fleid<br />
Modern implements of agrlculture and Irrrgalcon<br />
Canal lrrigallon<br />
Opt~mal flow of water from reservoir into the canals<br />
JU~ICIOUS dlstributlon of water to the flelds<br />
Income<br />
Power supply<br />
Roads<br />
Linlng of canal<br />
Water logg~ng in the ftelds near to canal<br />
Water logglng In the f~elds<br />
Vegelalio~i 111 the vlclnity of canals<br />
Siltation In the canal<br />
Seepage from the canal<br />
Breaching and encroachment of the canals and tanks<br />
Water - logging in the fields<br />
Salin~ty and alksllnity problems In the field<br />
Drainage<br />
Seepage from the canals<br />
Canal ~rr~gationl tank lrrlgatlon<br />
Optimal flow of water from reservoir through<br />
canals<br />
SRBC command SLBC command<br />
Water borne d~seases 0 2 0 6
Table 16.9 Literacy status:Thachampattu (SLBC command) block (1991 census)<br />
Literacy<br />
- - -- -.<br />
Male Female Total<br />
Thachampaltu 429 291 720<br />
Allhkondapatlu 269 173 442<br />
Katampoondl 824 535 1359<br />
Per~yakalllpadh 495 303 798<br />
Chhnnakallipadi 480 264 744<br />
Navampaltu 398 216 614<br />
Devanur 4 74 199 673<br />
Velayampakkam 314 115 429<br />
Kallotlu 255 122 377<br />
Alhhpadl 129 70 199<br />
Palayanur 1030 515 1545<br />
Kandlankuppam 335 159 494<br />
Thalayampallam 646 391 1037<br />
Chakkarathamad~ 47 30 77<br />
Nar~yapaltu 264 152 416<br />
Perayampaltu 417 239 656<br />
Pavapattu 669 343 112<br />
Pavhlhram 1019 789 1808<br />
Aradapaltu 357 148 505<br />
Table 16.10 Literacy status: Thirukoilur (SLBC command) block (1991 census)<br />
Llterary<br />
-- -<br />
Male ema ale - Total<br />
Meldndhal 385 232 617<br />
Kanga~yanoor 1091 518 1672<br />
Palllchandal 111 32 143<br />
Konganamur 625 440 1065<br />
Murukkambadi 38 2 40<br />
Alhiyandal 265 99 464<br />
Devar~yarkuppam 258 134 392<br />
Jambah 353 250 603<br />
Lhellankuppam 320 139 459<br />
Sllhapatt~nam 164 68 232<br />
Manalurpe~ 105 38 143
Table 16.1 1 Ltteracy status.Chengam (SLBC command) block (1991 census)<br />
Ltteracy<br />
Male Female Total<br />
Jambadal N A N A N A<br />
Olgalapadt N A N A N A<br />
Thenmudlyanur 1117 637 1754<br />
Edalhanur N A N A N A<br />
AllappanOOr<br />
Vanapuram<br />
Kungltnatham<br />
Perunthura~pattu 507<br />
Valavachanur 0<br />
Kottalyur 439 214 853<br />
Agarampalllpatlu 334<br />
1 henhar~rnbalur 687<br />
Radhapuram<br />
Serapapltu<br />
Varll~llapattu<br />
Sadahuppam 327<br />
Unnamata~palayam 162<br />
Edakkal 269<br />
Muzhuvampattu 182 75 267<br />
Perlyampathu 515 269 784<br />
NA not available
Table 16.12 Literacy status: Rish~vandiyam (SRBC command) block (1991<br />
census)<br />
Literacy<br />
Male b8111ale 1~11.11<br />
Alhlyul 483 278 761<br />
Mangalam 302 174 476<br />
Adalhanur 913 565 1496<br />
Erudayampatlu 741 358 1099<br />
Manlyandal 304 111 415<br />
vanapuram 99 1 502 1493<br />
Odiyanthal 107 73 180<br />
Edaihanur 770 329 1099<br />
Kadambur 419 263 682<br />
Arambarampattu 219 98 317<br />
Th~ruvarangam 276 111 387<br />
S~rpanandal 1395 770 2165<br />
Jambadai 1394 846 2240<br />
I'e~~yakoll~yur 74 34 1 Of!<br />
Ch~nnakolllyur 668 323 99 1<br />
Thuiuvanthangal 431 276 707<br />
Kadavanur 637 275 92<br />
Pakkam 168 73 241<br />
Vadamamandur 288 111 399<br />
Nagalkudl 101 51 152
Table 16.13 Llteracy status:Sankarapuram (SRBC command) block (1991<br />
census)<br />
Male Female Total<br />
Rayasamudram 43 18 61<br />
Arulampadl 125<br />
Moongllthura~pathu 276<br />
Porasapatlu 325<br />
Olgalapadl 424<br />
Poravalur<br />
Mels~ruvalui<br />
Vadaslruvalur 707<br />
Varagur 1025<br />
Arur 296 157 453<br />
Mookanur 78<br />
Th~rnmendhal 530<br />
Chellankupparn<br />
Vrlyur<br />
Arasampattu 335 173 508<br />
S Koathur<br />
Vadaklranu~<br />
Vadaponparapp~ 475<br />
Kldagudayarnpattu 569<br />
S~vapuram NA N A NA<br />
NA not available<br />
Table 16.14 L~teracy status. Chengam (SRBC command) block (1991 census)<br />
Male Female Total<br />
Rayandapuram 573 286 859<br />
Thlruvadathanur 378 182 560<br />
Thondamanur 225 72 297<br />
-
Table 16.15 Literacy status. cumulative (1991 census)<br />
Llteracy<br />
Block Male Female Total<br />
Thachampattu (SLBC commend) 8851 5054 13905<br />
Th~rukollur (SLBC command) 3715 2115 5830<br />
Chengam (SLBC command) 6558 3642 10200<br />
Rlshivandlyam (SRBC command) 10699 566 1 16320<br />
Sankarapuram (SRBC command) 7237 3518 10755<br />
Chengam (SRBC command) 1423 700 2123<br />
SRBC command 19359 9839 29198<br />
SLBC command 19124 10811 29935<br />
SCA 38483 20650 59133<br />
- -
Table 16.16 Rank correlations between the villages based on the ElUs of<br />
ecological indicators in SLBC command<br />
lnd~cators Agnculture lrr~gatlon Canal and tank Soc~o-<br />
. - maintenance economlc<br />
Agriculture I o 23 o 26 o 47<br />
lrr~gat~on 1 0 31 0 30<br />
Canal and tank 1 0 62<br />
malntenance<br />
Soclo economlc 1<br />
Table 16.17 Rank correlations between the villages based on the ElUs of<br />
ecological indicators In SRBC command<br />
lnd~cators Agriculture Irrigation Canal and tank Socio-<br />
- - ma~ptenance economlc<br />
Aqnculture 1 0 39 0 60 0 55<br />
lrngation 1 0.01 0.21<br />
Canal and tank 1 0.46<br />
ma~ntenance<br />
Socio economic 1
Fi~un<br />
16.2 Water logglng In SRBC command (as encountered dunng the<br />
field survey)
17.1.0 INTRODUCTION<br />
Chapter 17<br />
Forestry, industry and water supply<br />
Forestry<br />
Apart from the aspect of dislocation of people, the loss of forests is arguably the<br />
most harmful of the impacts of large water resources projects. Unlike the few very<br />
opportune situations - such as the one existing with Hoover dam (Lake Mead) USA<br />
where the storage site had no forests at all - most water resources projects entail<br />
loss of natural forests. For a long while this loss was considered inconsequential.<br />
From 1970 onwards Increasing attention was paid to deforestation caused by large<br />
water resources projects; yet the impact was, more often than not, undervalued by<br />
the authorities Interested In pushing through new projects. In India, matters reached<br />
a head during late 1970s when a major project was approved by the authorities, in<br />
the state of Kerala, which would have submerged large tract of a tropical rainforest.<br />
The region, called 'Silent Valley' has since become a part of the environmental<br />
folklore, more so because protracted public agitation eventually succeeded in<br />
stalling the project.<br />
In this chapter we have presented an account of the status of the forests in the<br />
Sathanur Command Area (SCA). The impacts of the forest on the environment and<br />
the eco-restoration attempts on the part of the officials have also been evaluated.
17.1.1 STATUS<br />
SCA has a meagre forest cover as evident from the rather bleak statistics of area<br />
under forest in the various villages (Chapter 11). Vanapuram, Kadavanur, Athiyur<br />
and Periyakallipadi have some of their land under the designation 'reserve forest'<br />
but In reality all that Kadavanur and Athiyur have by way of 'forest' is eucalyptus<br />
(Eucalyptus globulus) (Plate 17.1.1). The flora is a little more diverse in the forests<br />
associated with Vanapuram and Periyakallipadi which consists of teak (Tectona<br />
grandis), Tamarindus indica Acacia nilotica, Acacia planifom. Albizia amara and<br />
Azadirachta /mitea etC. The flora underrlines the southern umbrella thorn forest.<br />
typical of southern peninsular India. The 'reserve forest' is the responsibility of<br />
Forest Department functioning in the Tamil Nadu state. The villages as such have<br />
very scarce forest cover. The only trees encountered in the v~llages were that of<br />
Acacia nilotica, especially in the dry regions of SRBC command.<br />
17.1.2 IMPACT<br />
The scarce resources of trees in the SCA put tremendous pressure on the village<br />
folks in terms of fuel wood. The villagers use wood of Acacia sp, for thls purpose.<br />
According to the villagers, the Acacia nilotica trees are becoming a nuisance now<br />
as they crop up along with the crops in the fields and also in the vicinity of canals<br />
and on the tank beds. Acacia trees are planted in some tanks of Arur and many<br />
other villages in the name of social forestry by the Forest Department. The villagers<br />
are not allowed to take wood products form the reserve forests. The villagers were<br />
also conscious of the water table conditions of their regions. Most of them had<br />
complaint regarding the plantation of Eucalyptus trees in the vicinity of their villages<br />
(Vanapuram, Varagur, Arulampadi) (Plate 17.1.1). Extreme reactions were<br />
encountered form the villagers of Arulampadi who insisted on the removal of those<br />
trees which according to them were depleting the ground water in their vlllage.<br />
The follow up visits to the officials of Forest Departments (Thiruvannamalal,<br />
Villupuram and Kallakurichi) were made. The officials laid the blame for the scarce<br />
forest cover in the region squarely on the villagers. According to them the villagers<br />
in their greed to bring more and more area under cropping have started<br />
encroaching upon even the graveyards let alone forests. The programmes of social<br />
forestry and agro forestry have failed in the SCA partly because of the extreme heat<br />
and dry conditions prevailing in the regions but more strongly due to the non-<br />
coopemtlon of the villrgere. The ~turdy Acaclo nllotlcr tree8 have been planted by<br />
the Forest Department to cater to the fuel wood needs of the villagers because no<br />
other species survives in the prevailing agro climatic conditions. Also there is a lack
Plate 17.1.1 Eucalyptus plantat~on r~ght across the varagur tank
of space for planting other trees as the villagers refuse to allot their land for forestry<br />
purposes. The inclination of the villagers at large is to bring more and more of<br />
available land under the cultivation of cash crops vb paddy (Oryza sativa) and<br />
groundnut. The officials denied the role of Euralyptus plantations in the depletion of<br />
ground water and maintained that no plantations have been undertaken for the past<br />
seven to ten years.
17.2.0 INTRODUCTION<br />
Industry<br />
Large irrigation projects often witness growth of agro-based industries In the<br />
command reglon, for utilizing the agricultural produce. These ~ndustries influence<br />
the socio - economics of the region by creating new employment and<br />
entrepreneurial opportunities.<br />
Sathanur irrigation project led to the establishment of Kallakurichi Co-operative<br />
Sugar Mill in Moongilthura~pattu village (Plate 17.2.1). This is the only one industry<br />
operat~ng in the Sathanur Command Region (SCA). Present study assesses the<br />
impact of the coming up of the sugar-mill on the environs of SCA.<br />
17.2.1 STATUS<br />
The sugar millm$ hqlt, in the year 1962, four years after the commissioning of<br />
Sathanur Reservoir Project (SRP). The mill started with the sugarcane (Saccl~arr~~tr<br />
officinanm) processing capacity of 1000 tonnes and increased to 2500 tonnes in<br />
the year 1995. The mill caters to the demand of various villages of Sathanur Left<br />
Bank Canal (SLBC) and Sathanur Right Bank Canal (SRBC) commands.<br />
17.2.2 IMPACTS<br />
During the field trip it was revealed that majority of the cultivators had grievance<br />
against the sugar mill. The cultivators doootget their payments in time as the mill<br />
tk<br />
owners claim the mill to be running in loss foypast several years, as reported by the<br />
villagers downstream. The mill delays the cutting orders of the sugarcane<br />
plantations by six months to a year or more. The plantations lose their worth with
time, accruing great loss to the cultivators. The farms remain blocked for two or<br />
more years with the plantations, as a result the cuttivators are unable to grow any<br />
other crop. In fact these were the reasons attributed to loss in productivity and<br />
income by many cultivators during the survey.<br />
The mill was also implicated in spreading pollution in the SCA by the villagers. It<br />
was alleged that the mill releases its untreated effluents into the Ponnalyar river<br />
which meanders through Jambai, Pallichandal, Melandhal and Kangaiyanur<br />
villages. The villagers have dug wells in the river and use the water for drinking and<br />
other domestlc purpose (Plate 17.2.2) According to the villagers, the water turns<br />
black and emanates a pungent odour, whenever the effluent is released in the river<br />
There were reports of fish kills also due to the toxic effect of the effluent.<br />
lnterest~ngly an official in Valavachanur village related the effluents rlch water as<br />
beneficial for the crops cultivated on for the Government owned 300 acres of farm<br />
in the village. The water was supposed to be rich in certain nutrients which<br />
enhanced the crop production.<br />
A follow up visit was made to the mill office to ascertain the facts The mill is<br />
situated r~ght across the bank of Ponnaiyar river. An Effluent Treatment Plant<br />
(ETP) is installed inside the factory. Our attempts to photograph the plant were<br />
thwarted by the officials. The officials claimed that no untreated effluents were<br />
being released into the river. According to them the effluents were treated with the<br />
aid of ETP and then let into a small farm inside the factory premises. The form<br />
consisted of coconut (Cocus nucifera), mango (Mangifera indica) and palm trees.<br />
The reasons regarding the late issuing of sugarcane cutting orders were attributed<br />
to the abundant cane production, a phenomenon being witnessed all over the<br />
country, slnce 1995 and not in SCA alone. The officials complained that the<br />
cultivators in their greed to earn more cash profusely grew sugarcane, which<br />
ultimately didn't find buyers. As to compensating the cultivators in terms of cash.<br />
the officials maintained that they had cleared all their pending dues till that date. In<br />
summary, as with other aspects of SRP, there was great difference in the<br />
perceptions of the authorities and the and users vis a vis the sugar mill as well. The<br />
sugar mill has laid roads in many of the villages for easy transportation of the cane<br />
and also gets the soil quality of the cultivators tested in the Soil Testing Laboratory,<br />
Cuddalore. Based on the test results the mill authorities prescribe the amount of<br />
fertilizers and pesticides to be used for the plantations, as stated by the mill<br />
authorities.
Plate 17.2.1 Kallakur~ch Cooperat~ve Sugar MI1<br />
Plate 17.2.2 Sugar m~ll effluent released nto the Ponnayar - a dr~nk~ng water<br />
source for the natlves of meandhal
17.3 0 INTRODUCTION<br />
Water supply<br />
Sathanur Reservo~r Prolect (SRP) meets the domest~c demands of<br />
Th~ruvannamala~ dlstrlct by supplying about 0 4 m~lllon lltres of water per day from<br />
the reservoir The present study glves the status of the water supply from the<br />
Sathanur reservoir.<br />
17.3.1 STATUS<br />
The deta~ls regard~ng the water demand and the varlous water supply schemes are<br />
presented below.<br />
Water supply schemes executed before SRP.<br />
1 1939 Samudram pumping StatlOn.<br />
2 1969 Otgalapadi head works<br />
3. 1989 Otgalapadi head works World bank scheme
Details of the scheme<br />
Year of original scheme - 1934, 1969 and 1989<br />
Admin~strative sanctlon number - G.O. No. 839. MA B WS Dt. 6.9.90<br />
and date<br />
Lstlrllate cosl - 1969 - Rs. 0.5 millions<br />
1989 - Rs. 14.01 millions<br />
75% grant<br />
25% loan<br />
Design year and design population - Year 2021 - Population 2,10.000<br />
Source details - 1939 - Samudram iri, Infilteration<br />
Gallery<br />
Number and Capacity of SCS<br />
System provided<br />
Number of HSCs glven<br />
Number of PFs provided<br />
Designed supply<br />
Month and year of completion and<br />
comm~ss~oning<br />
Present supply in MLD<br />
1991 and present population<br />
Present servlce level<br />
Water supply tariff<br />
Domestic<br />
Non-Domestic<br />
Commercial<br />
Industrial<br />
Annual income from water charges<br />
Annual maintenance expenditure<br />
1969 and 1989 -Thenpenni river<br />
surface water<br />
Old scheme New scheme<br />
1.6.82 lakh litres 18.00 lakh litres<br />
2. 6.82 lakh litres 10.00 lakh litres<br />
3. 4.50 lakh litres 8.00 lakh litres<br />
4 10.00 lakh litres 3.00 lakh litres<br />
Existing - 39.67 km<br />
New scheme - 45.70 km<br />
85.37 km<br />
- 9217<br />
- 595<br />
- 9OLPCD<br />
- May 1995<br />
- l2MLD<br />
- 109196and 122500<br />
- 100 LPCD<br />
- Rs.1.25 1000 litres "<br />
- Rs.2.50 1000 litres "<br />
- Rs.3.75 1000 litres"<br />
- Rs.3.75 1000 litres .'<br />
- Rs. 0.2 millions<br />
- Rs.0.6 millions
As a part of the augmentation process to the rnunic~pality water supply<br />
Thiruvannamalal a water treatment un~t was commlssloned w~th the World Bank<br />
a~d at the plck up dam near Olgalapad~ v~llage about 25 km away from the town<br />
The f~rst scheme comprlslng a cascade type aerator clarifloculator and two rap~d<br />
sand f~lters hav~ng the capacity of treatlng 55 lakhs I~tres of water per day IS<br />
functlonlng slnce 1975 and the second scheme w~th 6 rap~d sand fllters with a<br />
capaclty of treatlng 140 lakh lltres of water per day IS also funct~onlng slnce 1995<br />
At present an average of 90 lakh lltres of water 1s treated every day<br />
The aerated, clar~fied and filtered water from the Olgalapadt head works 1s<br />
pumped after prlmary chlorinat~on and IS rece~ved In a ground level reservoir (sump<br />
capacity 7 0 lakh I~tres) at Thandarampet road booster stat~on Afler secondary<br />
chlorlnat~on at the booster sump the water IS pumped at varlous h~gh level<br />
reservoirs located at Poonrandakulam (7 lakh Iitres) Somavarakumal (3 lakh I~tres)<br />
new bus stand (10 lakh Iltres) old bus stand and Th~ndlvanam (18 lakh l~tres)
SECTION V<br />
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Chapter 18<br />
Conclusions and recommendations<br />
Chapter 3<br />
Upstream impacts<br />
1 The water resources projects located upstream of the Sathanur reservoir<br />
have an indirect bearing on the Sathanur res\ervoir water quality by impact~ng<br />
the water quality of the feeder streams. In,order to rnin~mize these impacts<br />
the following steps have been taken:<br />
a) Silt detention dams have been constructed upstream of the Sathanur<br />
reservoir to check the inflow of sediments.<br />
b) Afforestation programmes In the Ponnaiyar reserve forest are taken up from<br />
time to time, by the Forest Officials, though most of the trees fail to survive<br />
due to the very hot and arid environment.<br />
Chapter 4<br />
Inundation<br />
1. There was no human displacement during the construction phase of the SRP<br />
as the project is located amidst uninhabited Ponnalyar reserve forest.<br />
2, A cash compensation was given to the Forest Department, Government of<br />
Tamil Nadu, for the 1066 ha of the forest cover lost in the establishment of<br />
SRP.<br />
3. No exotic or endangered species of flora or fauna have been reported in the<br />
dry, deciduous reserve forest.<br />
521
4. Construction of hydroelectricity unit entailed clearing of another 3.85 ha of<br />
forestland.<br />
5. Compensatory afforestation programmes have been undertaken by the<br />
Forest Department involving the plantation of mixed tree species such as<br />
Albhia amara, Azadirachta imitea, Tamarindus indica, and Acacia sp.<br />
i..ih;ie the governmental agencies perceive these initiatives to be very<br />
effective, the populace deems the efforts to be less than adequate.<br />
Seismicity<br />
1. As per the crlterla for seismicity (IS:1993-1984), Sathanur dam is located in<br />
the zone II reflecting moderate risk of the area to the seismic hazards. But<br />
there have been no instances of tremors or landslides in the region since the<br />
Sathanur reservoir was created in 1958.<br />
2. During the pre-project investigations, no major structurally weak features<br />
such as faults or major shear zones were reported. The minor sheared and<br />
weathered joints detected during the geological survey at the s~te were<br />
suitably treated with concrete backfilling, during the construction of the dam<br />
3. The criteria for design of solid gravity dams have undergone drast~c changes<br />
since 1958, the year the dam was constructed. Therefore the design of the<br />
dam needs to be rechecked with special reference to se~smic~ty and geology<br />
of the region according to the latest relevant BIS (Bureau of lnd~an<br />
Standards) codes and the state - of art techniques.<br />
Hydroelectricity<br />
1. The 7.5 MW hydroelectricity generation unit of SRP was commissioned<br />
recently in 1999 to meet the demands of Sathanur, Pachal and<br />
Thandarampet regions. It fulfills 0.2% of the demand for electr~city of the<br />
state of Tamil Nadu.<br />
2. The hydroelectricity has been priced at Rs. 1.48 per unit and the plant has<br />
been proJected to earn an annual profit of Rs.4.21 million.<br />
3. During the construction phase of the hydroelectricity un~t, the area had<br />
become susceptible to malaria but the spread of the disease was checked<br />
efficiently by the health officials (Chapter 7).
4. No adverse impacts in terms of noise from the turbine and temperature of<br />
water have been noticed on the flora and fauna.<br />
5. As the hydro-electricity unit has become operational only a few months back.<br />
its environmental impacts may become noticeable wrth the passage of time.<br />
A regular surveillance is imperative so that emerging adverse impacts are<br />
checked before they cause serious harm.<br />
Chapter 5<br />
Sedimentation<br />
1. The dead storage space provided in the Sathanur reservoir was meagre<br />
0.1232 ~m~ i.e. 0.05% of the reservoir capacity, which was very less<br />
according to the design criteria of reservoirs.<br />
2 Due to the less capacity-inflow ratio in the Sathanur reservolr (0.35), much of<br />
the sediments are discharged over the spillways as the residence time of the<br />
sediment-laden water in the reservoir decreases.<br />
3. Average annual silting rate of Sathanur reservoir is less than the silting rate<br />
criteria adopted for reservoir design purposes in India.<br />
4. The reservoir life as computed by trap efficiency method is estimated to be<br />
153 years (Table 5.8).<br />
5. Comparison of specific erosion of the Sathanur with that of projects<br />
upstream reveals that Sathanur reservoir gets some of its silt load from the<br />
hilly tracts of dry and deciduous reserve forest and from the land - use<br />
practiced upstream of the reservoir (Table 5.9).<br />
6. As per the guidelines of Central Water Commission (CWC), Government of<br />
India, the silting rate of Sathanur reservoir (0.5%) can be regarded as<br />
'significant but not serious'.<br />
7. The rate of slltatlon in Sathanur reservoir is comparable or higher when<br />
compared with some other Indian reservoirs (Table 5.1 la and 5.1 lb).<br />
8. Soil conservation measures to check erosion upstream of the reservoir have<br />
been adopted by the authorities in the form of affonstatlon and construction<br />
of silt detention dams (Plate 5.1).<br />
9, The reservoir total solids are on a constant rise (Figure 9.6) over the past<br />
years, which indicates that the reservoir is getting silted.
10. The fact that rate of the siltation of the Sathanur reservoir is higher compared<br />
to many other lndlan reservoirs calls for an Intensification of the control<br />
measures to check the sediment load in the reservoir.<br />
Chapter 6<br />
Recreation<br />
1. Sathanur reservoir is a popular tourist destination for the people living in the<br />
nearby towns of Thiruvannamalai. Thirupatthur, Cuddalore, Viilupuram.<br />
<strong>Pondicherry</strong>, Chennai etc.<br />
2. Tourism in Sathanur reservoir has earned more revenue than the<br />
expenditure incurred in developing and maintaining it.<br />
3. The main attractions of Sathanur as a tourist spot include.<br />
a) Natural beauty<br />
b) Peaceful environment which invokes the feeling of being 'far from the<br />
maddening crowd' of the urban areas<br />
c) A crocodile farm<br />
d) A swimming pool.<br />
e) A mini zoo<br />
f) An aquarium of ornamental fishes.<br />
4. As of now, the tour~st inflow hasn't generated discernable adverse impacts.<br />
5.<br />
which is due to the care and attention bestowed on the collection and<br />
treatment of wastes generated by the tourists. Eventhough Sathanur<br />
Reservoir Project (SRP) is a net revenue earner vis a vis tourism, there<br />
appears to be much greater potential of developing it as an eco tourlsm spot<br />
than realised so far.<br />
Based on our studies, and feedback from the authorities, following guidelines<br />
emerge:<br />
a) A balance should be struck between attracting tourists and maintaining<br />
the ecological well-being of SRP. In view of the depth of the reservoir and<br />
presence of crocodiles, manual bating may be avoided but motor -boats<br />
taking tourists around the reservoir and to an island within the reservoir<br />
can be contemplated.
) On-land facilities for sport and pastime in the backdrop of the reservoir<br />
can be substantially increased so that a visitor can spend a few days at<br />
the site.<br />
C) 'Tree houses' and 'meditation chambers' may be created especially for<br />
the foreigners. These have good potential for earning revenue without<br />
unduly stressing the environment.<br />
d) Simultaneously, facilities for transportation, boarding and lodging may be<br />
created partly through governmental resources and partly through private<br />
entrepreneurship.<br />
In summary, if developed in an ecologically viable manner, SRP shall<br />
become not only a much bigger tourist attraction but also a source of<br />
employment and commerce for the people of the region.<br />
Chapter 7<br />
Health<br />
1. Though the Sathanur resewoir site makes available ideal conditions for the<br />
thriviag and proliferation of disease vectors (mosquitoes), there has been a<br />
steady decline in the inc~dence of malaria in the region (Figure 7.1)<br />
2. Even the village nearest to the dam, Sathanur, had low prevalence of<br />
malaria (Figure 7.2).<br />
3. A considerable proportion of the incidence of malaria during the study period<br />
(six years), both at dam site and village, has been 'imported' through mlgrant<br />
labourers, fishermen and other workers working at the dam site (Tables 7.1<br />
and 7.2).<br />
4. The steady decline in the incidence of malaria in the study area is largely<br />
due to the various mitigating measures employed by the health officials in<br />
combating the disease.<br />
Chapter 8<br />
Aquaculture<br />
1. The annual catch of the ichthyofauna of the Sathanur reservoir displayed a<br />
wide range of fluctuation for the study period of twenty years (1978-98) as<br />
illustrated in Figures 8.1 - 8.6. Except for Labeo rohita, Labeo calabasu and<br />
525
some cat -fishes the yields of all other fishes have declined over the past<br />
twenty years Yields of Cyprinus carpio and Cyprinus cirrhosa have been<br />
reduced to zero.<br />
2. There is no significant correlation between the reservoir hydrology - annual<br />
precipitation, inflow, outflow and water level - and the annual catch of the<br />
ichthyofauna. At some points of time these do seem to influence the annual<br />
catch but there is no uniform pattern.<br />
3. The zoomass per fish of Catla calla reduced form 9.7 kg in 1979-80 to 2.9<br />
kg in 1998. while that of Labeo rohita plunged to 0.3 kg in 1998 from its' 1.7<br />
kg value in 1978. The zoomass of Cyprinus carpio reduced to 1.5 - 1.6<br />
(1997-98) from 4.9 kg in 1979-80. The zoomass of Cyprinus cirrhosa came<br />
down to 0.9 kg in 1998 form 2 kg In 1986. Cirrhinus mrigal, Labeo fimbriatus<br />
and cat-fishes maintained almost steady zoomass during the study period.<br />
4. Sathanur reservoir fisheries are currently dominated by Catla catla. Labeo<br />
mhita, Cirrhinus mrigal and Labeo caiabasu, in that order, in terms of total<br />
catch(Figure 8.18). The catch of other species - Labeo frmbrratus, Cyprrnus<br />
cirrhosa, Wallago attu, cat-fishes and others has declined considerably: that<br />
of Cyprinus cirrhosa being reduced to zero. The transplanted species of<br />
fishes have, thus, established themselves at the expense of the ind~genous<br />
inhabitants.<br />
5. The total catch of the reservoir has come down considerably from 237<br />
tonnes in 1981 to 151 tonnes in 1998 (Figure 8.6).<br />
6. Water quality of the reservoir in terms of high pH, alkalinity, hardness,<br />
turbidity and total solids concentration may have a profound impact on the<br />
fisheries (Chapter 9).<br />
7. Low concentration of dissolved oxygen in the reservoir may also have a<br />
strong bearing on the fish catch (Chapter 9).<br />
8. The brighter side of the Sathanur aquaculture is that annual revenue and<br />
profits have steadily increased (Figures 8.19 and 8.20). This is because the<br />
market value of the catch has gone up even as the quantities of the catch<br />
have declined. It also indicates that fisheries are another aspect of Sathanur<br />
reservoir, which has much greater potential than harnessed thus far.<br />
9. Water quality particularly dissolved oxygen, of the reservoir ought to be<br />
monitored and steps should be taken to check it from deteriorating further.<br />
Illegal fishing and over fishing in the reservoir also should be checked.
Chapter 9<br />
Reservoir water quality<br />
1. The levels of most of the physic0 chemical parameters - pH, E.C, alkalinity,<br />
total hardness, calcium hardness, total solids, total dissolved solids, chloride,<br />
magnesium. sulphate etc. - are on the rise in the Sathanur reservoir.<br />
2. The concentration of dissolved and suspended solids and other limnologicai<br />
parameters are relatively low in the water of Pick - up dam compared to that<br />
of reservoir water. Pick-dam IS located 7 km downstream of the SRP.<br />
3. The comparative study of the water quality of reservoir and Pick-up dam with<br />
the Indian Standards for various usages of water reveals that the pH levels<br />
of both the reservoir and the Pick-up dam are more than the acceptable<br />
limits prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards for drinking water, f~sh<br />
culture, and swimming. The alkalinity values of reservoir also exceed the<br />
limits set for drinking water and fish culture (Table 9.23).<br />
4. The net primary productivity of the reservoir is very low.<br />
5. Studies on the possible stratification of the reservoir indicate weak chemical<br />
and thermal stratifications in the reservoir The water chemistry does not<br />
vary greatly across the reservoir surface.<br />
6. The dissolved oxygen concentration in the reservoir was very low, ranging<br />
from 5.6 mg f' to 6 mgl-' in the epilirnnion and 1.3 mgl-' to 4.9 mgl-' in<br />
hypolimnion (Table 9.26). The DO values in the hypolimnic strata of the<br />
reservoir are alarmingly lower than the limits (IS 2296-1974) set for the<br />
survival of the aquatic fauna in the reservoir, especially the fisheries.<br />
7. Higher phosphate and nitrate concentrations in the reservoir water point<br />
towards eutrophic conditions, tending towards hypereutrophy.<br />
8. Apparently, the release of nutrients from the sediments is facilitated by the<br />
low DO In the hypolimnion (Abbasi, 1997), contributing to the high<br />
concentration of dissolved solids.<br />
9, Impact of agricultural run off is also a likely major contributor to the h~gh<br />
concentration of phosphate, nltrate, chloride, zinc and sulphate in the<br />
reservoir.<br />
10.The status of dissolved oxygen and nutrients In the resewoir ought to be<br />
monitored periodically to get a forewarning if the deterioration of the water
quality becomes vary swift. There is also a need to check the inflow of<br />
nutrients and sediments into the reservoir.<br />
Chapter 10<br />
Impacts of irrigation<br />
1. Eventhough SRP was developed to provide surface water resources for<br />
irrigation and reduce the strain on groundwater; it is groundwater that<br />
continues to bear the greater burden. About 58% of the irrigated land is<br />
under groundwater irrigation while only 25% is under direct canal irrigation<br />
(Figure 10.2). The remaining 17% is provided by tanks, which existed before<br />
SRP. These tanks are partially supplied by the canals and partly by rains<br />
2. In SLBC command. 50% of the irrigated area is under canal irrigation as<br />
compared to 21% in SRBC command (Figure 10.2). This is because of the<br />
priority rights of SLBC command over SRBC in the irrigation water supply<br />
3. The gross irrigated area from all the sources in SCA is 70.2%. In SRBC and<br />
SLBC commands the gross irrigated areas are 67.6% and 72.8%<br />
respectively (Figure 10.3)<br />
4 The intensity of irrigation in the SCA is 1.33, which implies that the command<br />
area is way short of the irrigation facilities for double cropping (Table 10.1). It<br />
also points out towards the cultivation of perennial water intensive crops -<br />
paddy (Oryza saliva) and sugarcane (Saccharurn officinarurn) in the SCA.<br />
5. Only 36% of the potential created by the way of canal irrigation was actually<br />
utilized in the SCA. Only 21% of the envisaged area is covered in the SRBC<br />
command while, in SLBC only 50% of the proposed area has been brought<br />
under canal irrigation as per the 1997-98 statistics (Figure 10.4). This gulf<br />
between the potential created and actual utilization could be attributed to the<br />
absence of lining in the canals, Inadequate maintenance, and infestat~on of<br />
the canals and tanks by weeds and other vegetations(Chapter 16).<br />
6. Problems of seepage, water logging and soil alkalinity were reported in<br />
various villages in SCA due to faulty and mismanaged canals and<br />
dlstrlbutarier, especially in the fields adjacent to the canals and tanks.<br />
7. Making available the irrigation facilities by way of introducing canal irrigation<br />
has had a profound bearing on the cropping pattern of the SCA. There is a<br />
heay Hlt towards the perennial cash crops of paddy, sugarcane and
groundnut (Afachis hypogea). This has happened eventhough the SLBC<br />
command is supposed to cultivate only the dry irrigated crop of groundnut.<br />
8. In the absence of proper understanding between the cultivators and project<br />
authorities and also amongst the cultivators, occasional clashes were<br />
reported with regards to the proper allocation and distribution of water both<br />
at the macro and micro levels.<br />
9. The two canal systems have bifurcated the SCA not only in terms of<br />
supplying the water through separate canals but also by way of introducing<br />
conflicts between the cultivators of both the commands. End-users of both<br />
the commands find the canal water insufficient for the irrigation purposes and<br />
blame each other for the shortage.<br />
10.There is an immediate need to line the sub-canals and distributaries and to<br />
de-silt the traditional tanks in the villages.<br />
11. Conveyance and seepage losses by the channels should be accounted for<br />
12,There should be a proper framework, and guidelines for the efficient<br />
utilisation of irrigation water in relation to the cropping pattern and the water<br />
demands of the crops.<br />
13.The governmental as well as non - governmental agencies should generate<br />
strong thrust towards involvement, understanding and partic~pation of the<br />
end users with regard to the water distribution. This may help towards<br />
optlmai utilization of the water through the canalltank system. It may also<br />
reduce social tensions and inculcate in the farmers sense of belonging for<br />
SRP.<br />
Chapter 1 I<br />
Land use<br />
1. The forest cover in SCA is a mere 1.1% as against the Tamil Nadu state's<br />
proportion of 16.4% and Thiruvannamalai district's (which encompasses<br />
most of the study area) share of 24 3%.<br />
2. Barren and uncultivable land constitutes 7.5% of the total reported area<br />
(TRA) of 84219.3 ha in SCA. which is double the state's proportion of 3.7%.<br />
SRBC command has higher proportion of barren and uncultivable land<br />
(8.3%) compared to SLBC command (0.0%) because of the fact that the
terrain of SRBC command region is rocky with hard, stony and modulus soil<br />
(Chapter 12).<br />
3. Cultivable wasteland forms just 2.3% of the TRA in the study area<br />
(Figure 11.11).<br />
4. Permanent pasture and grazing lands constitute only 0.1% of proportion in<br />
the SCA. In the absence of pastures and grazing land, the cattle population<br />
has dwindled to one-fourth of what it was 10 years ago in the SCA as per the<br />
statements of villagers. The sight of the cattle was rare during the field trip.<br />
5. Land under m~scellaneous trees and groves constitutes jus 0.3% of the TRA<br />
in the study area against Tamil Nadu's share of 1.4%.<br />
6. The fallow lands for the year 1997-98 were reported to be 17 6% of the TRA<br />
in SCA. The SLBC command had its 15.5% of land under this category wh~le<br />
SRBC command had 21.6%. The reason for the fallow land being more in<br />
SRBC command than in SLBC is the presence of coarse loamy soil (Chapter<br />
12).<br />
7. The net cultivated area in SCA is - 60% which is considerably h~gher than<br />
Tamil Nadu's proportion of 42.2%. Following the introduction of canal<br />
irrigation there has been a tendency of the farmers downstream SRP to brlng<br />
more and more of land under cultivation The total cultivable land in SCA<br />
when compared with other baslns in the country is far higher: 79% of TRA<br />
For example the total cultivable land in the Tapi basln is 62% and in Krishna<br />
basin 61% of the total available land.<br />
8. Efforts should be made to improve land use management in SCA to ease the<br />
pressure on the land. The barren and uncultivable lands should be reclaimed<br />
and made productive. More of the land should be brought under forest cover,<br />
with poly cultures. Villagers should be encouraged to participate in social<br />
forestry programmes. Some land should be utilized in growing fodder, and<br />
cattle rearing ought to be encouraged.<br />
Chapter 12<br />
Soil<br />
1. The soil In the SLBC and SRBC commands is predominantly fine loamy and<br />
coarse loamy respectively.<br />
2. As per the land capability classification, the SLBC command is susceptible to<br />
water stagnation due to the poor permeability and erodibility of the topsoil.<br />
530
The lands in SRBC command are even more susceptible to erosion, salinity<br />
and alkalinity hazards.<br />
3 The drainage in SLBC command is good than in the SRBC command due to<br />
the fine loamy texture of the soil.<br />
4. The crops considered suitable for both the commands are groundnut<br />
(Amchis hypogea), millet (Pennisetum typhoides) , sunflower (Helianthus<br />
annus), maize (Zea mays), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) sugarcane<br />
(Sacchawm officinawm), banana (Musa psmdisiaca), coconut (Cocos<br />
nucifera), Chilli (Capsicum annum), pulses and other horticulture crops.<br />
5. The current cropping pattern is tilted towards paddy, groundnut and<br />
sugarcane that require profuse irrigation. Only millet and maize are grown as<br />
dry crops in the absence of sufficient water for irrigation.<br />
6. Cultivators should be encouraged to take up cropping patterns appropriate<br />
for their land-water conditions. Much more diversity in the cropping pattern is<br />
needed to maintain soil fertility and optimize water use.<br />
7. Technical support may be made available to guide the cultivators in the<br />
matters of fertilizer use, pesticide use, irrigation, cropping, and value -<br />
addition<br />
Chapter 13<br />
Agriculture<br />
1. Food crops paddy, cereals, pulses, spices, vegetables and fruits constitute<br />
major produce of the agricultural land (78.6%) in SCA. Of these, paddy<br />
occupies the bulk - 37.3% of the total cropped area. It is followed by<br />
sugarcane 17.13%, cereals 18.02%, pulses 4.75% and spices 2.4%.<br />
2. Among the 22.4% of the area under non-food crops, the bulk (four - fifth) is<br />
under groundnut. The remaining cropped area is shared by sesamum<br />
(Sesamum indicum), castor (Riccinus communis), Sunflower, cotton<br />
(Gossypium arborium) etc. which constitute a mere 3.9% of the gross<br />
cropped area in the SCA.<br />
3. The cropping pattern of the SCA is, thus, dominated by paddy, cereals<br />
(millet, maize), sugarcane and groundnut. Of these paddy and sugarcane<br />
are perennial water intensive crops. This cropping pattern is the direct result<br />
of the introduction of canal irrigation in SCA, making available plentiful water
for long durations. Also it Is governed more by short-term socic-ewnomic<br />
factors rather than ecological considerations and their long -term socio-<br />
economic implications.<br />
4 TO cater to the needs of sugarcane plantations many sugar mills (one of<br />
them being located in SCA) and other agro-based industries dealing with<br />
fertilizers, pesticides and other agro products have come up in the vicinity of<br />
SCA. Better roads, transportation felicities and marketing facilities have also<br />
resulted, contributing significantly to the development of the region.<br />
5 The intensity of cultivation is only 1.38 in SCA, which indicates that the area<br />
has not reached the status of double cropping (Table 13.15). This could be<br />
either due to insufficient irrigation water, which may be the direct result of<br />
damaged and unlined canals, or due to the cultivation of water intens~ve<br />
perennial crops like paddy, sugarcane and banana.<br />
6. The population supported per hectare of the sown area in SCA is 6.<br />
Cultivators constitute 40.5% of the work force and 50% of the workers are<br />
landless labourers. Among the labourers, 53% are female. This data reflects<br />
the general poor socio-economic condition of the majority of the populace in<br />
the region. In other words, even as SCA has promoted development, the<br />
benefits do not yet seem to have reached the majority.<br />
7. As irrigation constitutes the near-total consumer of the water resources<br />
developed by SCA, there is a strong need to reorganize the cropping pattern<br />
along scientific lines so that the present over-emphasis on water-intensive<br />
crops is reduced and optimal combinations of cropping patterns are evolved<br />
which are compatible with the soil and climate of the region.<br />
8. As half of the work force in SCA comprises of landless labourers, they<br />
should be provided with a support system in terms of loans or other viable<br />
provisions to earn better livelihood.<br />
Chapter 14<br />
Ground water quality<br />
1. The pH level In most of the vlllages in the SCA was above 7 except<br />
Palayanur (6.5), Thenkarimbalur (6.9) and Jambai (6.9) in SLBC and<br />
Porasapattu (6.6) and Erudayampattu (6.9) in SRBC commands<br />
(Figures 14.1 and 14.2).<br />
532
2. The lowest EC of the Palayanur groundwater in SRBC command was<br />
2040 p mhos cm" while the lowest EC of the samples taken from<br />
Alllkondapattu, Thachampattu, Periyakallipadi, Thenmudiyanur and<br />
Melandha1 was 1500 ri mhos cm.' (Figures 14.3). In SRBC command,<br />
groundwater of S.Kolathur and Pakkam recorded an EC value of more than<br />
2000 p mhos cm" (Figure 14.4).These figures indicate salinization of the<br />
groundwater.<br />
3. The villagers of Pakkam, Kadavanur, Unnamalaipalayam and Sadakupppam<br />
complained of Pungent odour and unpalatable taste in the drinking water.<br />
4. All the samples drawn from the villages of SLBC and SRBC (except<br />
S.Kolathur) commands had alkalinity values higher than the permissible limit<br />
for drinking water (Figures 14.5 and 14.6).<br />
5. The groundwater samples drawn from Palayanur. Allikondapattu,<br />
Thachampattu, Kandiankuppam. Periyakallipadi, Velayampakkam,<br />
Sadakuppam, Thenmudiyanur, Vanapuram, Melandhal and Edathanur in<br />
SLBC command had higher hardness concentration than the permissible<br />
limits for drinking water (Figure 14.7). In SRBC command, groundwater in<br />
Melsiruvallur, Moongilthuraipattu, Vadaponparappi, S.Kolathur, Porasapattu,<br />
Erudayampattu, Arambarampattu, Jambodai, Kadavanur, Pkkam, Ath~yur,<br />
Manarpalayam had hardness concentration in excess to that of the<br />
permissible limits for drinking water (Figure 14.8).<br />
6. In terms of calcium concentration in the groundwater, the villages Palayanur.<br />
Allikondapattu, Thachampattu. Kandiankuppam, Periyakallipadi.<br />
Devariyarukuppam, Velayampakkam, Vaiavachanur, Vanapuram.<br />
Melandhal, Thenkarimbalur, Jambai and Edathanur in SLBC command had<br />
their water exceeding the limits set by Indian standards for drinking water<br />
(Figure 14.9). In SRBC command all the villages registered calcium<br />
concentration of more than 75 mg 1.' in their groundwater. The water in these<br />
villages was, thus, unfit for human consumption (Figure 14.10).<br />
7. In terms of chloride concentration, the groundwater in Palayanur, Melandhal<br />
and Edathanur in SLBC command (Figure 14.11) and Vadaponparapyi.<br />
S.Kolathur, Erudayampattu, Kadavanur, Pakkam, Athiyur, Manarpalayam<br />
and Kidagudayampattu in SRBC command (Figure 14.12) is unfit for drinking<br />
as per the standards (IS 10500-1993) of drinking water (Table 9.23).
8. The groundwaters from Palayanur, Velayampakkam. Sadakuppam.<br />
Valavachanur, Unnamalalpalayam, Agarampallipattu and Vanapuram<br />
villages in SLBC command contained greater nitrate concentration than the<br />
limit of 10 mg I-', thus rendering the water unflt for drinking (Figure 14.15).<br />
In SRBC command the groundwater samples drawn from<br />
Moongilthuraipattu. S.kolathur, Erudayampattu, Kaduvanur and Pakkam<br />
contained nitrate concentrations greater than the permissible limit of<br />
10 mg 1" (Figure 14.16).<br />
9. The concentration of phosphate in the groundwater of all the villages<br />
surveyed in SLBC and SRBC commands (Figures 14.17 and 14.18) was<br />
greater than 0.2 mgl", exceeding the limit set by Canadian Department of<br />
National Health and Welfare (1969).The Indian standards have not yet been<br />
set for phosphate concentration in drinking water.<br />
10. Athiyur (SRBC command) had 100 pg r' chromium in its groundwater which<br />
exceeded the permissible limit for drinking water (Figure 14.26).<br />
Palayanur (SLBC command), porasapattu, Kadavanur and Arur had higher<br />
concentration of zrnc in their ground water than specified by the IS for<br />
drinking water (Figure 14.27). Palayanur, Kadavanur and Arur also had<br />
higher concentration of cadmium in their groundwater (Figure 14.28).<br />
11. Higher concentration of all the major ions and other chemical parameters-<br />
alkalinity hardness, EC- in the groundwater of SCA could be attributed to the<br />
phenomenal growth in agriculture in the region thus leading to the shift<br />
towards higher and rather indiscriminate application of fertilizers and<br />
pesticides.<br />
12.The groundwater quality of the villages in SCA should be monitored<br />
periodically and the villagers should be made aware of the harmful effects of<br />
the indiscriminate use of chemicals<br />
Chapter 15<br />
Health<br />
1. Of the 49 villages in the SLBC command, 16 indicated greater impact of<br />
malaria as evidenced by higher API (Annual Parasite Index) values than<br />
other villages (Figures 15.1-1 5.6).
2. In SRBC command, 8 out of 44 villages had higher proportion of malaria<br />
incidence (Figures 15.9-15.12).<br />
3. As per the 1998-99 health survey. Palayanur PHC in SLBC command<br />
recorded the highest API values for elephantiasis; Pavithram, Palayanur and<br />
Thenmudlyanur being the endemic villages (Table 15.4).<br />
4. The SLBC command registered higher malaria incidences compared to the<br />
SRBC command (Figure 15.19). The reasons could be attributed to higher<br />
availability of water leading to higher intensity of irrigation. Irrigation practices<br />
without adequate attention to drainage often generate pools of stagnated<br />
water favouring the breeding and perpetuation of disease vectors,<br />
particularly mosquitoes, in the SLBC command.<br />
5. Malaria also owes its prevalence in SCA to availability of excess water<br />
through reservoir outflow and rains resulting in conditions favouring breeding<br />
and thriving of mosquitoes. Faulty irrigation practice as stated above,<br />
unlined and vegetation infested water conveyance channels provide lentic<br />
conditions favourable to mosquito breeding<br />
6. Large-scale migration, illiteracy, and poor socioeconomic status of the<br />
natives of SCA also have a large bearing on the prevalence and propagation<br />
of malaria in the region. Majority of the malaria incidences in the SCA are<br />
'~mported' - brought into SCA by migrants work~ng in malar~a endemic belts<br />
outside the study area. Poor nutrition unhyg~en~c conditions, and careless<br />
attitude of the villagers downstream SRP leads to further worsening of the<br />
situation.<br />
7. The riverine conditions of the villages - Moongiltturaipattu, Porasapattu,<br />
Melandhal and Vadaponparappi - which are situated on the banks of the<br />
river, make them susceptible to the risk of malaria.<br />
8. There is a declining trend in the malaria incidence in most of the villages in<br />
SCA during the study period with the exceptions of Alappanur, Vanapuram,<br />
Katampoondi, Thenmudiyanur, Valavachanur and Periyampattu in the SLBC<br />
command and Rayandapuram and Poravalur in the SRBC command.<br />
9. The preventive measures adopted by the health officials in checking the<br />
menace of water-borne diseases in SCA appear adequate as evident form<br />
the declining rate of disease in most of the villages. It would appear that<br />
largely due to their efforts, no outbreak of epidemics has occurred in the
SCA, in spite of a large number of factors, listed above, which favour the<br />
propagation of water - borne diseases,<br />
IO.Surprislngly, in the perception of the villagers in the SCA, the health facilit~es<br />
are inadequate in terms of poor infrastructure, absence or irregularity of<br />
doctors and nurses, and lack of medicines and proper attention.<br />
11. The ratio of PHC (Primary health centres) to population is very low in SCA.<br />
Only thirteen PHCs offer health service to a population of over 100,000<br />
(Figure 15.21).<br />
12.There is an urgent need for proper lining of conveyance channels, better<br />
management of irrigation practices, and monitoring of the migrant workforce<br />
Health care facil~ties also need improvement vis a vis establishment of more<br />
PHCs and induction of more doctors and medical staff. Some of the<br />
alternative systems of medicine, such as homeopathy, are based on<br />
inexpensive yet effective remedies These may be encouraged so that larger<br />
number of people can be covered at lower costs.<br />
13.The chemicals - DDT, malathion, temphos, organophosphorus and diesel<br />
employed for spraying and fogging to check the mosquitoes and their larvae,<br />
pollute the environment with dangerous portents. Attempts are needed to<br />
educate the villagers on personal hygiene and moderation in pest~cide use.<br />
Chapter 16<br />
Socio economics<br />
Extensive survey and matrix analyses indicate that in the perception of the<br />
end-users, SRP has generated the following impacts.<br />
Agriculture<br />
Beneficiel<br />
a) There has been an overall increase in the area under cultivation.<br />
Government statistics also supports this fact (Chapter 11).<br />
b) Productivity per hectare of the cultivated land has increased.<br />
Adverse<br />
a) The use of traditional bio-fertilizers - cow dung and composted manure- has<br />
declined in the SCA whereas there is afl'increasing dependence on chemical<br />
based fertilizers, pesticides and weedicides.<br />
536
) The menace of weeds and pests in the agricultural fields has been on a rise<br />
for the past 10 years or so.<br />
c) Little attention has been paid towards guiding agricultural practices along the<br />
scientific lines.<br />
d) Though the agricultural societies and banks have mushroomed in the SCA.<br />
Irrigation<br />
Beneficial<br />
the benefits have not yet reached the common poor cultivator yet, as<br />
indicated by the lower EIU in SLBC command and negative EIU in SRBC<br />
command.<br />
a) The sources of irrigation have increased after the introduction of surface<br />
irrigation in the SCA.<br />
b) The drainage to and from the fields IS good.<br />
c) Canal irrigation has helped the cultivators downstream, especially in SLBC<br />
fa<br />
command. In SRBC command the benefits have been diluted due the lower<br />
priority r~ghts of the users and faulty canals and tanks (Chapter 10).<br />
d) The use of modern implements of agriculture and irrigation by the cultivators<br />
Adverse<br />
has increased after the introduct~on of canal irrigation.<br />
a) The mode of irrigation practiced in SCA is still the traditional flood irrigation.<br />
which does not optimize water use. The drlp, spr~nkler and lift modes of<br />
irrigation have not been implemented in the SCA.<br />
b) Low-lying fields in the SLBC command experience problems of water<br />
logging.<br />
Canal and tank maintenance<br />
Adverse (all the indicators of the maintenance of canal and tank garnered negative<br />
EIUs).<br />
a) The lining of the sub canals and distributaries in still an unfinished process<br />
due to the paucity of funds.<br />
b) The absence of lining has facilitated infestation by weeds and other<br />
vegetations.<br />
I
c) The silting of tanks and canals has reduced their water carrying capacity.<br />
Some of the canals canals and tanks have ceased to exist as no water has<br />
flown through or into them since years.<br />
d) Seepage was reported from the canals. Even the lined canals seep, flood~ng<br />
the nearby fields and causlng water logging.<br />
e) There is no optimal water release strategy from the reservoir. The water in<br />
the canals is reportedly stopped during the crucial periods of hawesting. The<br />
cultivators allege instances of bribery on the part of officials to release water<br />
in the canals There is also a conflict between the cultivators of the two<br />
commands with respect to the supply of irrigation water as the SLBC<br />
command has priority rights over SRBC (Chapter 10)<br />
f) There are no organized channels of communication or cooperation amongst<br />
the farmers. This leads to clashes and misunderstandings between them<br />
wlth regard to the distribution of water in the fields. The tail - enders usually<br />
suffer as the water is totally consumed by the farmers at the upper reaches<br />
of the canals.<br />
g) The canals and tanks are mutilated and encroached upon by the cultivators<br />
Socio economics<br />
Beneficial<br />
a) There is improvement in the income level of an average farmer.<br />
b) The establishment of primary health centres has resulted in the<br />
establishment of health care in the SCA when compared to the status before<br />
the coming up the SRP.<br />
c) The status of schools and education is good as every village has a primary<br />
school and about 60% of the villages Surveyed have secondary schools.<br />
d) Infrastructure facilities - roads, power supply and drinking water - have<br />
Adverse<br />
improved after the introduction of canal irrigation.<br />
a) SCA bcks forest cover, which puts tremendous pressure on the fuel wood<br />
supply of the region, especially for women.<br />
b) The employment opportunities are less in the SCA as there is only one major<br />
agro - based industry (the Kallakurichi Sugar Mill) in the entire region. In the<br />
absence of sufficient irrigation water, especially in SRBC command, there IS<br />
a large-scale migration of the villagers to the cities.<br />
538
c) Health care facilities by the way of infrastructure and attention on the parts of<br />
health Officials were reported to be inadequate by the villagers as discussed<br />
under the conclusions of health (Chapter 15) as well as in the chapter.<br />
The points that emerge are:<br />
1. The strong divergence in the views of the project authorities and the end<br />
users as reflected from the widely different ElUs generated by the two sides<br />
reflects the cornmuntcation gap that exists between the executive and the<br />
end-users. This gap must be drastically narrowed if SRP is to benefit the<br />
region as it has been aimed to.<br />
2. The results of interparametric correlations based on the perceptions of the<br />
end users show significant correlations (Table 16.8). This indicates the<br />
inter-dependenc~es of ail the impacts in one hand and the better<br />
understanding of the various indicators on the part of an average farmer in<br />
the other.<br />
3 Steps should be taken by the authorities to educate the cultivators to adopt<br />
judicious and sclentiflc approach towards agriculture. The farmers should be<br />
encouraged to use traditional fertilizers in the form of cow dung and<br />
cornposted manure along with the chemical fertilizers.<br />
4. There is an urgent need to introduce drip, furrow and sprinkler irrigation The<br />
traditional practice of flooding the flelds should be phased out. The beneflts<br />
through the canal and tank irrigation to the SRBC command should be<br />
maximized by the efficient use of water and maintenance and upkeep of<br />
conveyance channels.<br />
5. Canals and tanks should be desilted and cleared of the vegetation.<br />
Appropriate measures should be taken to reduce the seepage losses.<br />
Optimal flow of water from the reservoir and its judicious distribution to the<br />
cultivators should be ensured (as per the recommendations in chapter 10).<br />
Instances of brlbery lo release water In the channels ought to be looked Into.<br />
6. k concluded earlier, more of the land should be brought under forests in<br />
SCA. Measures ought to be taken to ensure judicious and efficient supply of<br />
irrigation water through canals and tanks by way of proper infrastructure and<br />
manrgement as discussed in previous section and in chapter 10. This will<br />
slepup the agrlcutture production and may check large-scale migretion of<br />
the cultivators to the nearby cities in search of employment.
7. Monetary and infrastructual support should be extended to landless<br />
labourers and poorer cultivators.<br />
8 Public health surveys and social services should be more organized.<br />
9. Finally, all the departments related to the SRP should be brought under a<br />
common scheme of Command Area Development (CAD) that is operational<br />
in many other water resources projects in India. This may provide better<br />
administration and also better understanding between the authorities and<br />
end-users<br />
Chapter 17<br />
Forestry<br />
1. The forest cover in the SCA is very sparse-as substantiated by the<br />
governmental statistics (Chapter 11) as well as by the surveys conducted by<br />
US.<br />
2 The dominant tree species encountered in most of the villages was Acacia<br />
nilotica which has been planted by the forest Department. As per the<br />
villagers the tree IS more a nulsance than help as it colonizes agricultural<br />
lands by the manner of its propagation. According to the forest officials<br />
A.nolitica has been planted because no other tree species survive in the hot<br />
and arid conditions prevailing In the SCA. Our observation, (please sea<br />
paragraph below) are contradictory to this assertion.<br />
3 In the villages of Vanapuram, Varagur. Arulampadi, the government has<br />
4.<br />
planted eucalyptus but the villagers suspect that the trees reduces the water<br />
table. The fear is so strong that the villagers want the trees to be uprooted.<br />
On their part, the forest officials maintain that they have discontinued<br />
eucalyptus plantations and that all the existing trees were planted over 7<br />
yean back<br />
During the field trip a few trees such as tamanrind, mangoes, neem etc. were<br />
found to be thriving in the SCA The em-restoration should emphasize<br />
multi-species plantations with a good mix of appropriate species based on<br />
~e mimatic conditlonr prevailing in the region.
Industry<br />
1 There 1s only one major agro-based rndustry Kallakurlchr Cooperatwe Sugar<br />
Mill operating In SCA The mill was establrshed to provrde ready market for<br />
the sugarcane cult~vators In the SCA<br />
2 The cult~vators complarn that the mill does not l~ft the produce on trme by<br />
delay~ng the cuttlng order thus causlng heavy losses to the cult~vators<br />
3 The mill IS also lmpllcated In pollutrng the Ponna~yar rlver by releasing ~ts<br />
untreated effluents Into ~t The rlver water IS a source of drlnkrng water for<br />
many villagers downstream Flsh kills were also reported In the rlver due to<br />
the release of effluents<br />
4 The mill author~t~es deny all the allegat~ons and put the blame on the greed<br />
of cult~vators' that according to the mlll authorrt~es dr~ves them to plant more<br />
sugarcane than the mill can l~ft As for the effluents there 1s a treatment plant<br />
Installed In the factory premlses According to the author~tres the effluent IS<br />
treated and the water IS let Into a small farm malntalned lns~de the premlses<br />
In our oplnlon supported by exper~mentat~on the rn~ll does pollute the rrver<br />
slgnlflcantly<br />
5 The sugar mill has la~d down roads In many vlllages for easy transportation<br />
of cane The mill also gets the so11 of the cult~vators tested In the So11 Testlng<br />
Laboratory at Cuddalore Based on the test results appropr~ate quanttttes of<br />
fertll~zer and pestrc~des are recommended to the cult~vators for appllcat~on In<br />
thetr f~eids<br />
6 The Ponnalyar water downstream should be mon~tored regularly for poss~ble<br />
pollut~on due to the effluents be~ng released rnto the rlver by the mill<br />
7 More of agro -based ~ndustr~es should be established In the SCA It may also<br />
be consrdered to enhance the capactty of the exlstlng sugar rnrll so that ~t can<br />
process the entrre crop on tlme<br />
Water supply<br />
The Sathanur reservoir meets the domestic water needs of a population of 2.00,000<br />
by supplying 0.4 million lrtres of water per day. This is a minor but indisputably<br />
beneficial impact of SRP<br />
54 1
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112.<br />
Assistant Executive Engineer<br />
SRBC,<br />
PWD, Sankarapuram<br />
Villupuram<br />
Assistant Executive Engineer<br />
SRBC,<br />
PWD, Sankarapuram<br />
Sathanur dam<br />
Agriculture Officer<br />
Officer of Joint Director<br />
Thiruvannamalai<br />
Agriculture Officer<br />
Office of the Joint Director<br />
Villupuram<br />
Assistant Executive Engineer<br />
PWD, Moongllthuraipattu<br />
District Forest Officer<br />
Kallakurichl<br />
Villupuram<br />
Director of Public Health Service<br />
Chennal<br />
List of the departments and Officials contacted.
District Entomologist<br />
Office Deputy Director of Public Health services (DDHS)<br />
Thiruvannamalai<br />
Divisional Forest Officer<br />
Thiruvannamalai<br />
Deputy Director<br />
Watershed management board<br />
PWD, Pollachi<br />
Deputy Director<br />
IHH, Poondi<br />
Divisional Forest Officer<br />
Kallakurichi<br />
Villupuram<br />
Directorate of Satistics and Economics<br />
Thiruvannamalai<br />
Directorate of Statistics and Economics<br />
Villupurarn<br />
Deputy Director<br />
Office of The Deputy D~rector of Health Service<br />
Kallakurichi<br />
Executive Engineer<br />
Tamil Nadu Electricity Board<br />
Sathanur Dam Hydro-electricity Board<br />
Sathanur dam<br />
Executive Engineer<br />
SM and R division, PWD<br />
Chennai<br />
ExecutiveEngineer<br />
(Middle Ponnaiyar region<br />
Thiruvannamalai<br />
Forest ranger<br />
Sathanur dam<br />
Forest Ranger<br />
Thiruvannamalai<br />
Health Inspector<br />
D.D.H.S.. Kallakurichi<br />
Health Inspector<br />
Primary Health Centre<br />
Moongilthuraipattu
Joint Chief Engineer<br />
Water resources commission<br />
Tamil Nadu PWD<br />
Chennai<br />
Medical Officer<br />
Primary Health Centre (PHC)<br />
Sathanur dam<br />
Malaria Inspector<br />
Thandarampet<br />
Manager<br />
Tamil Nadu Fisheries Development Corporation<br />
Sathanur dam<br />
Office Manager<br />
Kallakurichi Cooperative Sugar Mill<br />
Kallakurichi<br />
Vlllupuram
APPENDIX
Edilorinl Advisory Council :<br />
prol. K. J. Nallr. Presldenl,<br />
IPHE. India, Prol:Diroclor. AIIHBPH,<br />
Calculla.<br />
Sri 5. K. Neogl, SecrelaryGeneral,<br />
IPHE, Inda, Member, WB. Housina<br />
Caculla<br />
Dr. Dilip Biswas, Chairman,<br />
C~rilrill l'ul1~11u11 Cur1110 Board, NCW ncllll I<br />
Cnlculla.<br />
Srl D. Roy Choudhury, Chlof Engineer,<br />
C3I Mun. Corporalion.<br />
Prol. Dr. Manae Bandopodhyay,<br />
IIT, Kharegpur<br />
Prol. Dr. Moloy Chowdhury, IIT. Knnpur.<br />
Dr. S. K. Bhallacirarya, Ch~el Engr.<br />
CMDA, Chairrna~~, IPHE. Colculla Conlra.<br />
Jounlal<br />
of the<br />
In~tifLlti~n of Public Health<br />
Engineers, India<br />
Pngcs<br />
Edllorial 3<br />
prof. Dr. A. G. ~ho~o. Chairman.<br />
Air Pollution Caused By Thcrmol Power Planl<br />
In Damodor Rivor Basit1<br />
M, K, GhOsi. and S, A. Malee 5.1 1<br />
IPHE, Nagpur Cenlre.<br />
K, K, Mlshra, Depl, o, Civil Engg<br />
RE Collegc. Rourkcia, OT~sso<br />
Dr. S. Sundilromoortllv Ex.Erlon. Drroclor.<br />
Mclro Walcr, ~honnoi: --<br />
Irnplement:tion Stralcgles lor Hospital Waslc<br />
Managemclll : An lntcgralcd Approach<br />
S. Nalh nri~ Su~non Cliallnr<br />
Blo.Accurrrlalion ol Arscnlc, Mcrcury and<br />
12.21<br />
Mr. K. M. Mohalnmcd Sooli, Ex.Clliaf Lead by W ller Hyscinlll (Eichilornia Crassipcs)<br />
rligr Kuru1.r Wi,lr:r A~~ll~or~ly, Ci1alr111:11i, N. W 11y0li 31id A C llllrilu<br />
IPHE, Kcrala Cc~ilrc,Thiruvi~na~~lhapuram<br />
22.27<br />
Srl 5. C. Lahirl, Consullo~~l.<br />
Rcjuvonotl In ol lradiliunal Drlnklng Wnlcr<br />
Sources : \ Cilse Study<br />
"' Mohan 18.33<br />
Srl Pta8onla MiIra, Chlel Engmser,<br />
PHE, Govt, of W. B., Caculta.<br />
Srl S. K. 14ukherlce. Chief Engineo~,<br />
ME Depll. Govl of W 0. Treasurer. IPHE,<br />
Indla.<br />
_ _ - - -<br />
i<br />
Some Con)mon Dclecls Obsorved in<br />
Elevated Service Rcscrvoir<br />
H. K Hirde and 5. S. Kulkarnl 34.37<br />
Small Hyd~o : Polcnllol, Technology and<br />
Edilor:<br />
Falsal I Khi n and R~clia Sharrna 38.48<br />
S.C. Dulla Gul)lo, Cl~~ul E~lultloer IFlld.)<br />
1'1-IED, Wcsl U?n[181<br />
Pcrlorman:~ Evolunliuil ol A~inoroblc Fixcd<br />
Film Movltcg Bed Rcnclor Undor Sludy Slolo<br />
Joinl Edilor:<br />
As11 K~. ~~ll~,<br />
E.x.Dircclor, CMDA<br />
and Shock Loading Condllions<br />
V. P Desllopande. C V. Dcshpa~ido and S. N Knul 49.61<br />
hssll. Edilor, I NoIcs I Ncws<br />
62 67<br />
Tarun Dulla, Cx~cul~vc Engncor<br />
\"IlIDC Celcuila Book Rcvlcw 69.70<br />
Tlic lnslilullon as a body IS not rcspons~blo lor Ihtt opinions, stnlcnionls or comnlonls rnado ill Ihc<br />
papors or spccchcs<br />
This Journal is published lour lirncs a year in lhe nonlhs 01 Apr~l, July, Oclobor and January.
:;mall Hydro : Potcntial,Technology and Envlronmontal Impacts<br />
S. A. Abbasl, Nasaema Abbasl, K. K. S. Bhatla<br />
Sclenllsl . F 8 Hasd of D~vlslon, Nalional lnslilule of Hydrology, Roorkee<br />
Falsal l Khan<br />
Assislanl Prolessor, Blrla lnslilule of Tech~~ology 6 Scienoe, Pllani.<br />
Richa Sharma<br />
Canlro for Pollulion Conlrol and Energy Technolofly<br />
Pondlchery Universlly, Kalapel. Po~ldicherry 605 014<br />
Emall : abbasi@g~asmdOl.vsnI.nel.in<br />
Abstract<br />
Largo hydrooleclric power plants, which were once thought lo be a vory clean<br />
source of energy, are now regarded as major polluters of the environmenl. Slrong<br />
lhrusl has since been glven to 'small' hydro -which includes 'micro', 'mini, and<br />
'midi' hydro electric power ganerallon sysloms.<br />
In this paper we discuss the polenlial, the lechnology, and the likely envlronmenlal<br />
impacls of 'small hydro'. A dislurbing conclusion emerges lrom the paper<br />
lhal once small hydro ls used eulensively, ils adverse environmental im.<br />
pacts may not bo signll~canlly losser than the impacls known lo be caused by<br />
large hydropower projecls.<br />
In roduction: What is small Hydro As per Central Electricity Authority and<br />
As the name implies, small hydro is Burelu of Indian slandards, small hydros:<br />
aller version of large hydro. But how to<br />
gi anlify the 'largeness' or 'smallness'? In<br />
power stations are classified as follows :<br />
'e ms ol height or impoundmenl? Storage<br />
:, pacity? Power output? Cost of cornmls.<br />
a. D,?pending on capacity<br />
Ntme ~nlt size inslallalion<br />
s, wng? M cro uplo loo kW loo kw<br />
As ycl ll~crc Is 110 ~nlorr~alio~~ally ac. M~nl 101 to 1000 kw 2000 LW<br />
cr pled formal delinition of small hydro S.nali 1001 lo 6000 kw 15,000 kw<br />
:h )ugll il is generally taken as power sta.<br />
;I( nlplant having output uplo 5000 kW. Sta- b. Depending on head<br />
li ns upto output of 1000 kW are often ultra low head Below 3me1ors<br />
c: Iled micro and uplo 5000 kW as mini Low head Less Illan 30 melsrs<br />
" del planls, Indeed equipment technology Medium head Belwaen 30 lo 75 meters<br />
s available to utilise discharges as small High head Above 75 lnelers<br />
a 200 literslsec (0.2 cumsec), heads down<br />
I! 1 m, and a power output of just 1 kW<br />
8 lh reasonable cosl!The definitions vary<br />
InTable 1 the upper limit of power gem<br />
eration capacity set by dilferent countries<br />
)m country to country. In USAeven 15000 to define smallness of their hydro projects<br />
6 VIS considered small hydro development is given.<br />
't Ille in France and some other counlries<br />
':mall' means upto 3000 kW. It must be<br />
Broadly small hydro schemes are of<br />
two types - one utilising small discharges<br />
:arI~ed that source 01 energy from sea but high heads and the second utilising<br />
i.aves, coastal tides and ocean water, are largo discharges bul smaller hends.Thcsc<br />
'31 lncludcd ulldcr the un~brclla ol 'small facclls also influence llle nature ol lhc<br />
1 idro' even though hydropower is central power generating planls associated w~tll<br />
1 those concepls. the glven slte. In high-hoad units the dis-<br />
Jurnni ol tho IPHE, India, Vol 2000 NO. 3<br />
38
Table 1 - Upper limits ol power genrnlion<br />
ca~aclllos ol 'small' hvdro unlls<br />
s~l by various co;nlrles<br />
-<br />
cauiilrlos Limit8 (MW)<br />
-<br />
UK (NFFO)<br />
UNlDO<br />
lndia<br />
Swoden<br />
Colombia<br />
AuSll~liB<br />
China<br />
Philippines<br />
~ e Zealand w<br />
able energy sources which have gained<br />
currency during the last two decades, small<br />
hydro is not something lhat has boon in-<br />
vented recently but Is In lact one of the<br />
technologies mankind has been using<br />
since centuries (just as It has been using<br />
wind energy, bioniass energy, geothermal<br />
energy and dlrecl solar energy). Water -<br />
mill which Is colloquially known as<br />
panchakkl, Gharat, ghatta, water wheel etc<br />
has been employed since ages in India. It<br />
has been estimated that as many as<br />
200,000 sites InJndia as suitable lor Install.<br />
ing water -mills which can do work equiva.<br />
lent lo 2000 megawatt of power1<br />
1<br />
(barges bung small, the physical size of<br />
I le plant required is also small. In the sec-<br />
I nd lype, as the discharges handled are<br />
I ah, the physical size of the generating unit<br />
; nd the power station is consequently quite<br />
I ,gh, Also for Ihe latter type proper arrange-<br />
I lent for enlry of water and Its discharge is<br />
fiquired to be made.<br />
The small hydro development of the<br />
lrsl type which is confined.mainly to hilly<br />
ireas is character~sed by relatively very<br />
! mple features of works. The civii works<br />
voved comprise a small structure to dim<br />
:?rl the llow of the hill slreamlriver, small<br />
baler conductor system such as a chan-<br />
:?I. lume or buried conduits, power house<br />
t~idlng and a small length of transmission<br />
:e. In these un~ls there is no need for sub-<br />
! anlial storage and generally run of river<br />
The first-ever small hydro unit for gen.<br />
eratlng electricity (unl~ke wind -mills which<br />
used water power directly In getting the<br />
wo~k done) was commissioned in lndia<br />
exactly a 100 years ago, in 1897, at<br />
Darjeeling. It had acapacity of 130 KW and<br />
is operational even this day! Another small<br />
hydropower unit of 4.5 MW capacity came<br />
up at Sivasamudram, in Karnataka In 1902.<br />
It had the express purpose of supplying<br />
power to the Kolar gold mines. In the prelndependence<br />
lndia a substantial proportion<br />
of the than installed capacity of 508<br />
MW of hydropower came from small and<br />
medium units. After Independence the lo.<br />
cus was on large projects leading to a to.<br />
tal hydropower generat~on capacity ol<br />
21000 MW. Of lhese small hydro contrib.<br />
uted only about500 MW.<br />
Ivaler falls) is utilised. The power is gen-<br />
"ally consumed near the site of genera-<br />
Potenlial of Small Hydro in India<br />
I,n thus preclud~ng roquiromenls of long Some 2000 silos linvo boen ide~llllied<br />
I ansmission lines.<br />
in 13 states in lndia with a potential of gen.<br />
In the second type, as the heads avail- eratlng about 5000 megawatt (MW) ol<br />
'310 are rather low and discharges have to power (Table 2). Anolher 1200 MW ol po-<br />
I?COmparalively larger to be economically tential has been identified in the 13 Hima-<br />
'' able, there are development can only take layan states for mini hydel units of less than<br />
:lace on small rivers, irrigation outlets, 3 MW capacity (Table 3). In addition about<br />
Li"l falls etc.Their power output is gen- 10 MW is proposed to be generated using<br />
connected to the larger power grids. tall ends of the cooling water systems of<br />
thermal power plans (Table 4). Furthermore<br />
I Brief History<br />
5000 MW potential is estimated to be avail-<br />
AS is Ilio cnso ol most othur rtlllcw. ;iblc lro~rl yob\o.bu itlunllllod sltcs.<br />
'IUrnal 01 Iho IPHE, Iiid~a, VOI 2000 NO 3
able 2 - Potanllel lor small hydropower units<br />
~donl~liod In lnd~a<br />
ato Nurnbor Cilpaclly<br />
01 sites lMWl<br />
111<br />
134<br />
859<br />
216 561<br />
80 238<br />
122 68<br />
36 8<br />
48 28<br />
198 186<br />
328 1128<br />
69 69<br />
2023 4950<br />
501 rco W~ler Puuor ,irld 0,1111 COIIS~~UC~IOII 1999<br />
En lineering considerations<br />
Ci il works<br />
Civil works form a ~najor part of the<br />
tot I cost ol small hydel projects. Therelor<br />
, elforts towards reduction in the cost<br />
of cibil works will play a major role 11) en.<br />
hanc$ny the economic viab~lity ol these<br />
projects. Tho main compononls of civil<br />
works are: diversion structure, water con-<br />
ductor system, desilling lank, lorebay, spill-<br />
way, penstock, power house, tailrace chaw<br />
nei and protoctiori works.<br />
Ellorts should be made to use the lo.<br />
cally available matertal.The material gen-<br />
erally used is reinforced concrete, struc-<br />
lural steel, stone masonry, brick masonry<br />
elc. R8D is going on towards the use ol<br />
new malerials such as ferro-cement and<br />
steel fibre [elnlorced concreh<br />
Generators<br />
Conventionally hydroelectric A.C. syn.<br />
chronous generators are used. The gen.<br />
eralor (rotor) should w~lhstand turbine run.<br />
away speed i.e, speed atlained on sudden<br />
load through oll. Brushless excitation sys.<br />
lem generators are used in small hydro<br />
power stations which reduco maintenance<br />
costs and lime. Induction goriorators noed<br />
excitalion sourco and as such can only op.<br />
erale when connected to an existing electrical<br />
system.<br />
Table 3 -Number ol sites ldenlllied by UNDP.GEF lor small hydsl units In<br />
-<br />
itale<br />
-<br />
dorlh<br />
ammu and Kashrn~r<br />
llrr~:~rl~:\l ~'I~III~I~II~<br />
Illor I'riidasti<br />
lasl<br />
I jikk~m<br />
Vest Dongal<br />
h~lly repions In 13 Indian alals~<br />
Sites ldentil~ed<br />
Numbers MW<br />
415 370<br />
04 122<br />
141 162<br />
180 106<br />
164 175<br />
47 48<br />
10 47<br />
Addllionnl<br />
8l1es<br />
Idenlilied<br />
147<br />
45<br />
22<br />
80<br />
Tola1<br />
~118s<br />
562<br />
130<br />
103<br />
260<br />
164<br />
47<br />
49<br />
Ilhnr<br />
Iorlh.sasI<br />
!ssam<br />
,runachal Pradesh<br />
4eghalaya<br />
danipur<br />
lagaland<br />
'lizoram<br />
60<br />
550<br />
26<br />
364<br />
66<br />
66<br />
10<br />
17<br />
80<br />
465<br />
28<br />
34 6<br />
22<br />
52<br />
9<br />
7<br />
90<br />
14<br />
13<br />
42<br />
21<br />
68<br />
64<br />
26<br />
364<br />
80<br />
79<br />
52<br />
38<br />
rioura t I 1<br />
-<br />
Joui ~al 01 Ihe IPHE, Ind~a. Vol 2000 No 3 40
Tablc 4 - Mlnl hydol prolocts propocod a1 Iho 1oll.onds 01 colllng wnlor syrlorns of lhor~rlnl powor pln111s<br />
Power alallon Slals Capacity Company unll<br />
proposed ~nvolved<br />
(MWt<br />
Slngraull Ullar Pradesh 3 00 NTPC<br />
R~hand Ullar Pradesh 1 50 .do.<br />
Unchahar Ullar Pradesh 0 25 .do.<br />
Fardkka We31 Bengal 0 75 .do.<br />
Korba Madhyo Pradosh 1 50 .do.<br />
Anla Ralarlhon 0 20 .do.<br />
Ramagundnm Andhra Pradssh 0 50 .do.<br />
Korba . I Madhya Pradesh 0 00 MPEB<br />
Korba . II Madhya Pradesh 1 00 .do<br />
Solpurn M~dhyn Prodosh 100 ado.<br />
Parlchha .I Ultor Pradssh 0 50 UPSEB<br />
Parichha I Ullor Pradesh 0 50 .do.<br />
Protection, control and management of lncent~ves for Small Hydro<br />
equipment The Government ol lndla (GOI),<br />
A maror comoonenl In smali hvdros 1s through rls M~nrstrv of Non.convent~onal<br />
for operation and'management ~ n o rSourcos i ~ (MNES) is elending muli-<br />
These costs can be prohibitive In dimensional support to the development ol<br />
mycrohydel. Low cost automation is, there mini hydels (uplo 3 MW). In tune with Ihe<br />
fore, of imporlance if min~ and micro hydels Government's overall lhrust on liberalizaare<br />
to lunction econom~cally.The unit start. lion of economy and private seclor parlicl.<br />
Ing and synchronising can be manual, but patlon in power development, small hydro<br />
emergency shut down must be full~prool sector has been given tho lollow~ng l~scal<br />
lo avold damage. Development of strate. 1n::enlives.<br />
gles lor simple.lo.use or accordingly, de.<br />
pendable and rcrnole control devices for<br />
i) Scllcmes involving capllal up lo Rs.<br />
1000 million need to have prior clearsuch<br />
units is required.<br />
ance lrom the CEA, even if they are<br />
single sourced.<br />
Hybrid Systems<br />
Hybrid systems may be used lo harii)<br />
Schemes involving capital up10 Rs.<br />
500 million need no environmental<br />
ness and upgrade other available renew- clearance lrom Ministry ol Environable<br />
resources which are olherwsie ment and Foresls (MoEF).<br />
unulil~sed or under utilised.<br />
A rnejor cnuso ol low bonolil-cost ra.<br />
110 (rcporlcd lo be 1.68) of lsolated small<br />
hydro plants IS due lo poor ulilisalion of<br />
iii) Income Tax holiday lor power.<br />
lv: Torrn loans through lndia~r nurtrl En.<br />
ergy Develop~ncnl Agoncy (IREDA) lor<br />
schemes tlpto 25 MW.<br />
power (low head faclor).This can be over<br />
corrlo by uslny surplus oll-peak tiigli grade<br />
v) Concessional customs duly @ 20 per<br />
cent lo 10 per cent lor non-caplive use,<br />
energy in running hybrid systems. Forex.<br />
a micrO-h~del system may Operate<br />
as base load plant and biomass gasilica<br />
For scllcmos uplo 15 MW there is I,o<br />
excise duty lor turbines and acceleral~d<br />
depreciation lor lax Is con.<br />
lion based eloclr~cai generation system as<br />
peak load plant. A typical 'ystem<br />
~ncorooratina 300 kW micro.hyde1 and 200<br />
sideration (sirnilor lo other new and renew.<br />
able sources of energy (NRSE) systems),<br />
kW b/omass"gasification based co-genera- Additional incenlives have been given<br />
llon has come up at Kakroi (Haryana), b) MINES for small hydro as follows :<br />
Journal 01 llle IPHE, Indin, Vol. 2000 No. 3<br />
41
1 or power sclic~rics o/ < 3 MW<br />
i Incentives lor detailed survey and in.<br />
Fra~lcls, cross-llow, or Pollon (Figuro 2)<br />
Governor - hydraulic, solid-state, or<br />
vcsligalron (DSI) 100 per cent grantin.a~d<br />
subject to certain ceilings de.<br />
programmable logic controllors<br />
11<br />
pcridlng upon tile type ol scliemes.<br />
In~entlVCS for prclnralion ol detailed<br />
plolect reports ppRs, : grant.in.aid<br />
of 50 cent 01 the DPR sublect lo<br />
cerlslll ceilings dependlog upon the<br />
type 01 schemes.<br />
Material lor<br />
Penstocks - stecl, concrete, concretc with<br />
sleel lining, rock tunnel, woodlave, open<br />
high densil~ P ~ ~ Y Or ~<br />
glass fibre<br />
~ ~<br />
I ) interest subsidy scheme through fi- Civ11 slructures . pre-labr~cated material<br />
nancial inslilul~ons: (saving construction I~me), or locally avail.<br />
able materlal/labour<br />
For lillly regions Rs 11 2 miil~on/MW,<br />
a ,pllcable project . maximum R~ 60 De~~Q*modul~rand standardized, orcusn<br />
1il1on1MW<br />
tomrzed<br />
For non-hilly rcglons: Rs 3.83 million1 Equipmenl. oll-the shell or tallor.mado<br />
h W; applicable prolcct cost: maximum Rs ' ' '<br />
4 1 millionIMW<br />
Controls. manunily-operated or remotely.<br />
supervised<br />
For schemes uplo 100 KW<br />
Capital sub:;~dy (11 Rs 16OOOlkW (lillly<br />
r ,gions, Norlh.East, and Andamanb<br />
cobar only)<br />
In addltlon to tile above liscal incen.<br />
11 jes, MNES has adv~sed the electricity<br />
b lards of the concerned slates lo 011-take<br />
p rwcr from reriewables on concessional<br />
The list ol choices could bo olidless.<br />
Moro tilan 10 lridian rna~iulacturors are<br />
already in business ollering equipment and<br />
consultancy.The wide variety ol technologles<br />
being used is illustrated In Table 5.<br />
TheThrust is Great ....<br />
From lhe loregoing deta~is it is evidenl<br />
II rms in respect of power wheeling bankir<br />
3, arid buy-back. Following MNES'modol<br />
that lndia is pushing for small hydro with a<br />
groat sonso of dynnn~lsm, urgoncy and<br />
g ridellnes, nirie slates of India have an.<br />
munced their private sector pol;cy incenhopo.<br />
We are going lor the small in a big<br />
way!<br />
11 ,e package tor small hydro sector (Table But is Ihe optimism wholly lusliliod7<br />
1 5). Tllcso stotcs have also lde~itllled We, personally, would be vory glad ll this<br />
s nall hydro sites for allotment to privale<br />
s !ctor lor dcvelopmenl.<br />
largo scale use of small hydro proves lo<br />
be llie unrnlllgatod blossing we are hoping<br />
it to be.<br />
T~chnologies Available<br />
But we are also apprehensive. Filly<br />
Design of small hydro is not merely the years back when lndia had gone for me.<br />
n iniaturization of larger hydropower sys-<br />
11 ms . of which the technology has been<br />
dlum and large hydro it was with similar<br />
(rather higher) expectations. As moritionod<br />
a lvariced to near perfection. For thls rea- In the previous chapters dams seemed to<br />
s In R&D on the design 01 small hydro units hold promise of helping us in alleviating<br />
i: attracting attention, with its aim at cost poverty and build a strong, modern nalion.<br />
e fecliveness coupled with suitability to the<br />
c ~nditlons provailttig at dillcront typos 01<br />
Hydropower promised to give us the<br />
clennost possiblo sourco ol cnorgy - no<br />
s ies (Abbasi g Abbasi 1999). Numerous soot and Iiy ash of thermal power plants,<br />
o ~tions are available :<br />
Turbine - propeller, Kaplan, (Figure I),<br />
no l~lrking dangers ol nuclear energy, no<br />
tox~i.: emiss~o~is 01 polroleun~~drivcn sys.<br />
J urnul ul 11w IIJ1iE. ltldtu, VOI. 2000 No. 3<br />
42
Flgure 1. Kapalan lurbine<br />
ournal ol lhe PHE 8nd1a Vol 2000 No 3 43
1 ~blo 5 - Tochnolo!j~es belng used In the World Bank projects llnanced by Indian Renewable Energy<br />
Developmot~l Agetlcy<br />
Nalna 01 Ihe Capac~ty Nel C~vtl Works E & W Works<br />
pel lecl Hoad<br />
(KWl (M)<br />
Type Walor Galoi Turbino Control Power Gonors.<br />
ol conduc. valve houee lion<br />
-<br />
~~llolno Iur<br />
sysloln<br />
votlngo<br />
(KVI<br />
An jhm Prndcsli<br />
Cu ~dur DC . II 2 x 2150 U 5 Calldl Opurl Galos S lypo kolilo~i D~gilitl HCC+S I1<br />
drop clionnol .do. .do. 11<br />
Lo k In Sula 2 x 2000 12.2 .do .do .do. .do. .do. .do 3.3<br />
Yo nalaka, S lypo seml- .do .do. 3.3<br />
Ivl; a Prabha 2 x 1200 10 Canal .do. .do. kaplan<br />
drop .do .do. RCCtM 3 3<br />
St va 2 x 1500 8.3 .do. .do. BV S type kaplan .do. RCCtS 3 3<br />
Dl 1pda1 2 x 1400 18 Daln Pons Gales .do. .do 40. 3.3<br />
loo lock + OV 40. .do. .do. 3.3<br />
Sl ihpur . 1 1 x 1300 6.2 Cono .do. .do. .do .do. .do. 3 3<br />
drop .do. .do. .do. 3 3<br />
SI llipur. 2 1 x 1300 hi 2 -dil .do. .do Franc~s .do. .do. 3 3<br />
Sl lhpur . 3 1 x 1300 11 2 40. -do. .do S type koplar~ .do. .do. 11<br />
Sl shpur - 4 1 x 1300 6 2 .do- .do. .do S lype semi .do. .do. 3 3<br />
Sl ahpur. 5 I x 1400 9 8 .do. .do. .do kaplan<br />
AI vorl 2 x 750 22 .do. .do. Galas .do. .do. .do. 3,3<br />
H mavalhy 4 x 4000 16 Dam Pens Gales .do- .do. .do. 3.3<br />
lo@ lock t BV<br />
M~ddur 2 x 1000 13.2 Canal .do. Gales<br />
drop<br />
M ldhol 1 x 1000 13 1 .do .do. .do.<br />
D ,verobalckare 2 x 1000 10.9 Dam IoePenslock .do.<br />
K rala.<br />
N ~slorn Kallar 1 x 3000 + 6G R.0.R .do Gales Francis .do .do. 6 G<br />
2 x 1000 + OV<br />
K~rtkkayam 2 x 7500 20 .do. Penslock .do. V01lic~l .do. .do. 11<br />
knplnll<br />
U tungal 2 x 3500 10 .do. Pcnslock ,do. S lypo 40. RCCtM 6 6<br />
kaplan<br />
E ~olhathankellu 4 x 4000 9 5 Dam loe -do. Gales S lyp0 .do. .do. 11<br />
Y ,1hungal 3 x 7000 134 R.0.R Pressure -do. Franc~s .do. 40. I1<br />
tunnel<br />
1 lmll Nadu:<br />
I'eriyar Voigat 3 x 2200 17 Conal Open .do S type semt .do. .do. 11<br />
drop chanllol kaplon<br />
.d,urnol of lho IPHE, ll~d~a, Vol. 2000 NO 3<br />
45
lei IS. .Just WalOr, falling over turbines and<br />
thc n flowing on to agricultural fields to get<br />
us 'IUmper harveslslThure were olher'bonu.:es'-<br />
fish culture, llood control, sports,<br />
re( reilliofl, tourism clc rlol to mention sesenled<br />
below each of the main argunlents.<br />
Small hydro is more consislent compared<br />
lo other renewables like wind, solar,<br />
biomass with regard to its availabilily lor<br />
power' generation .., evon run.off-tho rivor<br />
cute wi~ler supply nlo~icjsidc powor supply schemes car1 havo small pondago lo nlool<br />
1111 IIIIIII':II~,II IJIIIWIIIJ I IVIIIIIJIIIWIII I>lnl~~i:l~j Ill11 1111ily ~"'ltlc 1111~11iltt1111111I 111 III1WIlI<br />
ii! jgci tl~c prcttlur wule icorls ol progress il wl~id energy depends on wrnd, and<br />
an .I prosperity.<br />
0111, ill tliu ClOtli yi!arol Illdopondcrice,<br />
wc talk aboul largc l~ydropcwcr projecls<br />
(ilr d darris 111 gerieral) wit11 mixed ornqtlons.<br />
Thy seemed to have harmed as much as<br />
he md us and not a lew believe that the<br />
ha m has oulweighed the gain by a wide<br />
rnprgin. Evcn in tcrrns 01 contributing to<br />
solar on sun.shine, hydro energy too de ponds on avoilabll~ly ol walor. During sum.<br />
mer when power noeds are geriorally<br />
higher than rest ol the year, all hydropower<br />
schemes can suller from loss of capacily<br />
utilization if the water level in the slorage<br />
reservoir falls (which often does happen).<br />
A run-011-thodver scheme would bo oven<br />
grt enhouse elfect dam-based projects ri- more succeptible to water availability,<br />
val thermal power projects (Abbasi 1997,<br />
Ab ~asi 8 Mishra 1997, Abbasi et al 1887).<br />
whether il has facility 01 a slorape pond or<br />
not. Shallow reservoirs and ponds - such<br />
'Th I former do not belch out C02 the way as as the one that accompany small Iiydro<br />
lht rmal power plants do but nevertheless are likely to dry up quicker lhan deeper<br />
coi tribute to greenhouse effect by releas- reservoirs used in large hydropower<br />
InL large quantilies of methane.<br />
projects. Lastly it is no1 quite correcl to club<br />
Now we are pinnrig great hopes on biornhss with wlnd, solar, and hydro as<br />
srr 311 hydro. Small hydropower projects do examples ol'incons~stanl sources'bocause<br />
no sufler from the drawbacks of med~um it is vciy easy and inexpensive to store bio.<br />
an I large projects IS the refrain. The ape mass energy by just stockpill~ng llic horn.<br />
prt honsion ol lhcso authors are :How can ass when il is available a plenly lor us111g il<br />
we be so surc?The environmenlal impacts later. Water for use in generaling hydro-<br />
01 ; ny acllv~ly become apparent only when<br />
thc activity is carried out over significantly<br />
larqe areas andlor on a srgnilicanlly large<br />
sc;:le. Be it biomass energy, solar energy,<br />
ger~thermal energy, or sol~dwaste energy<br />
it 1, oks benign when used sporadically in<br />
srr all units here or there but Ihe perspec.<br />
tivr. changes drastically when any of lhese<br />
op:ons are used continuously, widely, and1<br />
power or the w~nd or solar energy can not<br />
bo slorod away in godowrls as biornass can<br />
be.<br />
It (small hydro) needs lillle investment,<br />
allordable by private housesyes. So does<br />
wind, soiar elc.<br />
Short gestalion, enabling quicker eleclricily<br />
and financial returns.<br />
True. But numerous conventional and<br />
or on a large scale (Abbasi & Abbasi 1997). non-conventional eriergy sources also<br />
Would the situation be belter if small have this allribute.<br />
hyvro is put lo widespread use? Let us look Small hydro is sfgnificanl lor 011-grid,<br />
at ,he expectations and try to see how re- rural, in larliung is~lated communilies havali:,tic<br />
they are and where the likely pitlalls ing no chances of grid exlension tor years<br />
arc. Presonlod bolow In ilalics, are a Sol lo cor110<br />
of ~rgurncrlls cullcd 111;lrrily lrom a rcccnl Again, wrrid, solar, biornass ilrirl olllor<br />
rer,ew authored by Dr. B.S.K.Naidu, Execu- sources are equally relevant in such situativt<br />
D~reclor 01 Indian Renewable Energy tions.<br />
Oetclopr~i~rll Aycr~cy, New Dclhl (Nald~ a) Lovel~zed cost ot ger~cration from srnall<br />
19 17). The counter arguments are Pre- hydro wo~~ld be less lhan hall that of<br />
Jot nal 01 Ihe IPHE, India, \'ol. 2000 NO. 3<br />
46
thermal:<br />
b) real cap~lal inveslmenlis less lhanthat<br />
sated by allorestation of equivalent area<br />
or clouble the area of degraded loresl.<br />
(.I<br />
of tlicrmal (power plank); These projects do no1 involve construction<br />
on the basis ol proiecl Itfe~cycle costs ol dams and therelore, generally no rehain<br />
rcul lulil~s . .. s~ti:~ll liydro bocorl~os bllllnllo~i probloms oriso. l~lowovor, In cnso<br />
I<br />
several ltmes cheaper than the (herma1<br />
option .....<br />
of formation ot sniall pondages and also<br />
any removal of trabitatlon along the diver.<br />
sion canals, etc suitable arrangements are<br />
Even if we accept all the assurnptionsl made in consultatton with llie governmcnl<br />
rlresumpllons thal have led lo the above authorilies. Pollution and reiated negative<br />
'nentloned resuns vis a vis cost ol small elfects are not expected in hydro prolects.<br />
'iydro compared to thermal powcr, it tells However the projecls pass lhrough the<br />
riothing about cost ol small hydro relative pollullon clearance mechsnl~ms of Ihe<br />
o medium and large hydro. By using con- state governments and also the lorest<br />
'enlional wisdom about the economics of clearance in case ol involvement of forest<br />
'calf? one would imagine small hydro to be lands.The eflect on the downstream water<br />
.~gnilrcantly cosllicr per k~lowatt of energy suppiy aiid drainage Is one ol 1110 Impor-<br />
$)eneraled. Furthermore the positive at. tant concerns which is addressed during<br />
'ribute, that small hydro can provide power the SHP design.The dry area of the stream<br />
n remote and hilly localities, carries with it of canal from the diverston struclure till the<br />
hc logistic problems of providing support tail race vis-a-vis the water needs of habi.<br />
or maintenance and trouble-shootlng In tat for drinking and irrigalion and ellecls<br />
emote areas. on aquatic and lish lile are lo be sludted In<br />
detail. Necessary compensatory measures<br />
Environmental Impacts like provision of separale drtnking water,<br />
The argument most often put lorward irrigation lines, fish ladders, etc are to be<br />
lo support Ihe case ol small hydro is : it is ~ncorporaled In the design lo mitigate such<br />
environmenlally benign. impacts.<br />
But 1s II? Or would il remain so once il Due to the environmenlally.bonign<br />
IS used extensively? What is the existing nalure ol these small schemes and lo rcevidence<br />
with which we can assume that duce the lime involved in clearance proce.<br />
small hydropower plants shall have no, or dures, MoEF has exempled hydelprojecls<br />
slgnil~cantly less, adverse environmenlai wilh an outlay of less than Rs 500 mill~on<br />
i~npacls?<br />
According to the authors it would be<br />
good if large-scale use of small hydro turns<br />
out to be free (or mostly Iree) fromthe environmenlal<br />
problems we have found with<br />
med~um and large scale hydropower<br />
projects. But there is little concrete evidence<br />
to give up worrying. In his review<br />
mentioned above, Naidu (1997) writes :<br />
from cnvirorimcntol cloaranco.<br />
This passage IS liberaily peppered with<br />
however. There is optimism but the basis<br />
for it is not given.The mitigation measures<br />
- rehabilitation, compensatory aflorestation,<br />
provision lor lish ladders elc . are the<br />
ones always mentioned by the proponents<br />
of larger hydropower projects as well. Bul<br />
we all know that lheir elfecllveness in prac.<br />
Smallhydroprojects are generally en- lice has been far below the expectations.<br />
vironment friendly and non-poiluting.They Of particular concern is the observado<br />
not involve serious deforeslation, lion (quoted above) that, due to the envi.<br />
rehabililalion, and submergence. However,<br />
depending on the stlc and the layout of the<br />
scheme, Irccr, \nay have to be rcmoved in<br />
ronmentally benign nature of these small<br />
schemes ... h!oEF has exempted hydel<br />
projccls .... of less than Rs 500 million fro111<br />
III,J~~,II;II ;jrc;I8; I III:, I!, ~t~vart~~bly culli~lcn. PIIV~~OI~~II~!I~I~II cl~!;~r:\~icfl ,,, Aro~l'l wc Iak.<br />
Jouri>al ol ille IPHC.. Ihd~n. Vol 2000 No 3<br />
47
I ig the environmentally benign nature for<br />
{.ranted?<br />
These authors are worried (and would<br />
I e extremely glad to be proved wrong) that<br />
c~nce a large number of small hydropower<br />
!,themes become operational their adverse<br />
I nvironmental impacts shall come to the<br />
Ixe.<br />
'lo these ault~ors it appear that envi.<br />
I jnmental problems per kilowatt generated<br />
t y small hydel power projects may not be<br />
: ~gnllicnnlly icss than those wo $ssoclate<br />
i.~lh larger hydei projects (Abbasi 1991,<br />
i bbasi 8 Abbasl 1997, Abbasi & Nipanny<br />
1993, Abbasi el al 1989). Among the lac.<br />
I ,rs lo coris~der iri rnak~ng a comparison<br />
:re the reach of river habitat allected by<br />
t te interruption of waler flow, barriers to<br />
: 11ma1 movement in the water, water loss<br />
f om evaporation, w~lderness quality of tho<br />
: ~cr~liccd portlon ol river and the amount<br />
of access road needed. With smaller dams,<br />
storage 1s an increasingly imporlant prob-<br />
lem and could lead to Ihe noccssity lor<br />
constructing more low-head systems than<br />
anticipated.The problems of situation and<br />
eutrophication which are common with<br />
major reservoir are likely to be even more<br />
serious with smaller and shallower bodies<br />
of hater crealed by mini and micro projects.<br />
Lastly the emission of greenhouse gases<br />
are as likely to occur lrom shallow reser-<br />
voirs - which aro siniilar lo paddy llolds<br />
known lo conlribule substantially to meth-<br />
ane emissions (Lindan and Bollich 1993,<br />
Wang et al 1993). as from large reservoirs,<br />
11 not moro. All in all, llio o~rvironrilorital<br />
impacts of smaller and dispersed hydro-<br />
power projects are not likely to be lnsig.<br />
nificant. It is a moot point whether they<br />
would be as severe as of 'known devils' .<br />
largo hydropower projects,<br />
Relerences<br />
P rbasl S A. and Abbasl N. (1998). Etrvlronmenlal lmpocl 01 non.convent!onol onergy sources lnlor~in.<br />
tlonal Journal 01 Enorgy-Environmenl.Econom~cs, USA. 3 : 1.50.<br />
P )bas S.A. (1997). Wellands 01 lndla .ecology and threals, Vol l endangered wellands ol peninsular lnd~a<br />
Discovery Publlshlng House, New Delhi. 279 pages.<br />
P ,bas1 S. A, and M~shra P I
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