Bibliografie - VU-DARE Home

Bibliografie
Antonisse R, 1980: Waterschapswerk; eb en vloed op de Bevelanden, Goes.
Antonisse R, 1991: Worsteling om water: de openbare watervoorziening in Zuidwest-Nederland, Middelburg.
Baalbergen J & JM Smits 2004: Groeiend naar eenheid: De staatkundige en militaire geschiedenis van Zeeland
in hoofdlijnen, in: Atlas van historische vestingwerken in Nederland: Zeeland, 21-34, Utrecht, 21-34.
Baan J van der 1859: Geschiedkundige beschouwing van Zaamslag van de vroegste tijden tot op heden: zoo in
het burgerlijke als voornamelijk in het kerkelijke, Ter Neuzen.
Beekman AA, 1932: Nederland als polderland: beschrijving van den eigenaardigen toestand der belangrijkste
helft van ons land, Zutphen.
Bekker ME, J de Boerd & J de Jong 1990: Kust- en oeverwerken, Culemborg,
Boeije CJ, 1993: Tien eeuwen waterschapshistorie in Zeeuws-Vlaanderen, Terneuzen.
Boddaert P. J Plevier & N van der Schatte 1751-1753: Tegenwoordige staat van Zeeland en Staats-Vlaanderen,
2 delen, Amsterdam.
Boekhout JAJ, 1988: Polder Peilen Bijdragen tot de geschiedenis van West-Zeeuws-Vlaanderen, nr. 17.
Boogaard JF, 1858: Wetten, decreten, besluiten en tractaten op den waterstaat in Nederland, ’s Gravenhage.
Borger GJ & S Bruines 1994: Binnewaeters gewelt: 450 jaar boezembeheer in Hollands Noorderkwartier,
Edam.
Bos-Boomsma EI van den & JJLVerburg (red.), 1995: De Waterschapswet. Een artikelsgewijs commentaar,
Zwolle.
Brand KJJ, 1993: Van een poging tot opheffen van polders en waterschappen in 1797, tot handhaving van deze
publieke instellingen door de keizerlijke decreten van 1811, in: Kraker AMJ de, ME De Smet & H. van
Royen (red.) ‘Over den Vier Ambachten’ 750 jaar Keure 500 jaar Graaf Jansdijk, Kloosterzande, 585-96.
Broeder Leopold 1968: Sint-Laurensklok, 71-75.
Broeder Leopold 1971: Sint-Laurensklok, 74.
Bruin MP de 1981: Waken en Bewaren: 100 jaar Provinciale Waterstaat Zeeland 1881-1981, Middelburg.
Boermans A & H Hoeneveld 1984: Tussen land en water: het wisselende beeld van de Deltawerken, Amsterdam.
Bosch A, 1998: Naar eenheid en eenvoud: De oprichting en ontwikkeling van de Rijkswaterstaat 1798-1850,
Tijdschrift voor Waterstaatsgeschiedenis. 7, nr. 2, 43-53.
Commissie waterschapsbestuur (red.), 1979: Het bestuur van het waterschap, (rapport van de commissie waterschapsbestuur),
Den Haag.
Cornelis JCC, 1955: Stad en Land van Philippine 1505- 1955.
Cruyningen PJ van 2000: Behoudend maar buigzaam: boeren in West-Zeeuws-Vlaanderen 1650-1850, Bijdragen
tot de geschiedenis van West-Zeeuws-Vlaanderen, nr. 28, Wageningen.
Decavele J, 1977: Hondervijftig jaar Kanaal Gent-Terneuzen, Gent.
Dibbits HAMC, 1950: Nederland-Waterland: een historisch-technisch overzicht, Utrecht.
Dieleman P, 1939: Zeeuwse polders en waterschappen in verleden en heden, in: Mansholt DR (red.) De waterschaplasten
in de provincie Zeeland, ’s Gravenhage, 9-52.
Dierick-van Pottelberghe C, 1993: Het waterschaprecht en de waterschapsorganisatie in de Vier Ambachten
tussen 1242 en 1450, Kraker AMJ de, ME De Smet & H. van Royen (red.) ‘Over den Vier Ambachten’
750 jaar Keure 500 jaar Graaf Jansdijk, Kloosterzande, 577-84.
Dool WH van den 1974: Canisvliet, een grensgeval, Middelburg.
Driessen AMAJ, GP van de Ven & HJ Wasser 2000: Gij beken eeuwigvloeiend: Water in de Streek van Rijn en
IJssel, Utrecht.
Feyter WAL, 2004: De ontwikkeling van de vestingbouwkunde in Zeeland, Oost-Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen, in: T
de Kruijf, (red.) Atlas van historische vestingwerken in Nederland: Zeeland, Utrecht, 209-14.
Gallé PH, 1963: Beveiligd bestaan: Grondtrekken van het Middeleeuwse waterstaatrecht in Z.W. Nederland en
hoofdlijnen van het dijksbeheer in dit gebied (1200-1963), Delft.
Geudens E, z.j.: Vorstelijke rouwstaties in de cathedraal van Antwerpen, Antwerpen.
Goede B de 1951: Het beheer in het waterstaatsrecht, Utrecht.
317

Gosselaar WA, 1993:1 De toekomst van de bestuursvormen van de waterschappen in Nederland, in: Kraker
AMJ de, ME De Smet & H. van Royen (eds.) ‘Over den Vier Ambachten’ 750 jaar Keure 500 jaar Graaf
Jansdijk, Kloosterzande, 651-4.
Gottschalk MKE, 1983: Historische geografie van Westelijk Zeeuws-Vlaanderen, 2 dln., Dieren (herdruk van
1955-1958).
Gottschalk MKE, 1971-1977: Stormvloeden en rivieroverstromingen in Nederland, 3 dln., Assen.
Gottschalk MKE, 1984: De Vier Ambachten en het Land van Saaftinge in de Middeleeuwen: Een historisch
geografisch onderzoek betreffende Oost Zeeuws-Vlaanderen c.a. (Universiteit Amsterdam; Sociaal Geografische
Studies), Assen.
Haan H & I Haagsma 1984: De Deltawerken: techniek, politiek, achtergronden, Delft.
Haar G Ter & Polhuis PL, 2004: De loop van het Friese water: Geschiedenis van het waterbeheer en de waterschappen
in Friesland, Franeker.
Ham W van der (red.) 2004: Hoge dijken diepe gronden: Land en water tussen Rotterdam en Gouda, Utrecht.
Ham W van der 2003: Meester van de zee. Johan van Veen (1893-1959), waterstaatsingenieur. De kust - de
stormvloed - de delta, Amsterdam.
Hamelink E, 2004: De ontwikkeling van de vestingbouwkunde in Zeeland, Oost-Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen, in: T de
Kruijf, (red.) Atlas van historische vestingwerken in Nederland: Zeeland, Utrecht, 228-30.
Heezik A van 1998: Subsidiën of andere beneficiën uit de publiek schatkist: subsidieverlening voor de waterstaatzorg
in de negentiende en twintigste eeuw, Tijdschrift voor Waterstaatsgeschiedenis, jrg. 7, 63-73.
Hemminga MA (red.), 2004: Deltalandschap: natuur en landschap van Zuidwest-Nederland in historisch perspectief,
Heinekenszand.
Henderickx PA & JA Lantsheer (red.), 1996: Duizend jaar Walcheren: Over gelanden, heren en geschot, over
binnen- en buitenbeheer, Werken Koninklijk Zeeuwsch Genootschap der Wetenschappen, deel 8, Middelburg.
Hullu, J de & AG Verhoeven (red.) 1920: Andries Vierlingh Tractaet van Dyckagie, Rijks Geschiedkundige Publicatiën
Kleine Serie nr. 20, ’s Gravenhage.
Keikes WH, (z.j.): Watersnood in Zeeland 12 en 13 maart 1906.
Keur D, 1952: Het kanaal van Gent naar Terneuzen, OTAR (Waterbouwkundig Tijdschrift), 37, nr. 1, 70-95.
Kley J van der & HJ Zuidweg 1969: Polders en dijken, Amsterdam/Brussel.
Kool-Blokland JL, 2003: De Rand van ’t Land: Waterschapsgeschiedenis van Schouwen en Duiveland, Werken
Koninklijk Zeeuwsch Genootschap der Wetenschappen, deel 13, Middelburg.
Kraker AMJ de 1993: De grote Landdijk van de Vier Ambachten 1494-1586, in:Kraker AMJ de, ME De Smet &
H. van Royen (red.) ‘Over den Vier Ambachten’ 750 jaar Keure 500 jaar Graaf Jansdijk, Kloosterzande,
187-92.
Kraker AMJ de 1995: Groote Huissenspolder 300 jaar 1695-1995, z.pl.
Kraker AMJ de 1997: Landschap uit balans: de invloed van de natuur, de economie en de politiek op de ontwikkeling
van het landschap in de Vier Ambachten en het Land van Saeftinghe tussen 1488 en 1609.
Utrecht.
Kraker AMJ de & WEM Bauwens 2000: Polders en Waterschappen in het Hulster Ambacht (1609-1999),
Kloosterzande.
Kraker AMJ de, 2007: Zeeuwse zekerheid verankerd in Zeeuws-Vlaamse bodem. Bedijkingen in Staats-
Vlaanderen door Noord-Nederlanders en de inrichting van het landschap tussen 1600 en 1800, in: M
Ebben & S Groenveld (red.) De Scheldedelta als verbinding en scheiding tussen Noord en Zuid, 1500-
1800, 69-91.
Kraker AMJ de & PE de Blaeij 2003: Axel 1944-2002: Een samenleving in verandering, Terneuzen.
Kraker AMJ de, R Wielinga & D de Koning 2008: Middeleeuws proces van zoutzieden als experiment herhaald,
Westerheem 57, 4, 194-209.
Kruijf T de (red.) 2004: Atlas van historische vestingwerken in Nederland: Zeeland, Utrecht.
Kuipers JB, 1998: Zeeuwen tegen het water: Sporen van de waterstaatsgeschiedenis in Zeeland, Middelburg.
Lamberty M (red.), 1972: Twintig eeuwen Vlaanderen, deel 2. Hasselt.
Ligtendag WA, 1995: De Wolden en het water: De landschaps- en waterstaatsontwikkeling in het lage land ten
oosten van de stad Groningen vanaf de volle middeleeuwen tot ca. 1870, Groningen.
Manteau van Dalem P, 1763: Tractaet in materie van zee-wercken ende dyckagie, tot verbeteringhe van de
Sassevaert, ende vermeerderinghe van de natuyrlijcke sterckte van de Stadt van ’t Sas van Gendt, S.l., 1763.
Markusse J, 1998: Ruil- en herverkavelingen in Zeeland: Landinrichting in perspectief van 1946 tot heden,
Goes.
Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat 1985: De waterhuishouding van Nederland, ’s Gravenhage.
Noort J van den 2009: Langs de rand van het zand: Waterstaatsgeschiedenis in de Brabantse Delta, Rotterdam.
Pauwels A, 1937: De oorsprong van de Belgische polderwetgeving, Antwerpen.
318

Pauwels OB, 1993: Overstromingen in Assenede in 1808 en 1809, in: Kraker AMJ de, ME De Smet & H van
Royen (red.) ‘Over den Vier Ambachten’ 750 jaar Keure 500 jaar Graaf Jansdijk, Kloosterzande, 221-6.
Potma AP (red.), 1940: Weg- en waterbouwkunde, z.pl.
Prinsen AJHM, 1993: De bedijking van de polder beoosten-Blij-Benoorden 1595-1655, in: Kraker AMJ de, ME
De Smet & H van Royen (red.) ‘Over den Vier Ambachten’ 750 jaar Keure 500 jaar Graaf Jansdijk,
Kloosterzande, 201-8.
Priester P, 1998: Geschiedenis van de Zeeuwse landbouw circa 1600-1910, Wageningen.
Raadschelders JCN & ThAJ Thonnen (red.), 1993: Waterschappen in Nederland; Een bestuurskundige verkenning
van de institutionele ontwikkeling, Hilversum.
Ridder NA, JH Voorthuysen, JH van der Grient & JH Beltman 1957: Agrohydrologische profielen van Zeeland
: een geologische en hydro-lithologische verkenning van de ondergrond van een estuarien gebied tot een
diepte van maximaal 40 meter, (2 delen) ’s Gravenhage.
Riemens L, JJ de Regt-Dekker & R Willemsen 1985: Landbouw beleven in Zaamslag, Terneuzen.
Riemens L, JJ de Regt-Dekker & R Willemsen 1988: Landbouw beleven in Terneuzen, Terneuzen.
Roosbroeck R (red.), 1936: Geschiedenis van Vlaanderen, Antwerpen.
Sarneel EP, 2004: De ontwikkeling van de vestingbouwkunde in Zeeland, Oost-Zeeuws-Vlaanderen, in: T. de
Kruijf (red.), Atlas van historische vestingwerken in Nederland: Zeeland, Utrecht, 214-22.
Sponselee G & E Steijns 1993: De watersnood in Zeeuws-Vlaanderen 1 februari 1953, Hulst.
Studiecommissie Waterschappen 1974: Het waterschap en zijn toekomst, (Rapport van de Studiecommissie
Waterschappen), ’s Gravenhage.
Stockman PEM, 2004: De ontwikkeling van de vestingbouwkunde in Zeeland, Oost-Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen, in:T
de Kruijff (red.), Atlas van historische vestingwerken in Nederland: Zeeland, Utrecht, 231- 41.
Stuij PW, 1990: Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen: De geschiedenis van een grensgebied, Zutphen.
Tielhof M & PJEM van Dam 2006: Waterstaat in stedenland: Het hoogheemraadschap van Rijnland voor 1857,
Utrecht.
Tweede Kamer der Staten Generaal 1977: Naar een nieuw waterschapsbestel?: regeringsnota over de toekomst
van de waterschappen, Den Haag.
Ven GP van de (red.), 2003: Leefbaar laagland: Geschiedenis van de waterbeheersing en landaanwinning in
Nederland, Utrecht.
Vleesschauwer MLM de 1992: Over het ontstaan en ondergang van de “Swarte Sluijs”, Appeltjes van het Meetjesland
43, 241-54.
Vleesschauwer MLM de 1993: De bedijking van de Albertpolder in 1612 en het ontstaan van de heerlijkheid St.
Albert in 1614, in: Kraker AMJ de, ME De Smet & H van Royen (red.) ‘Over den Vier Ambachten’ 750
jaar Keure 500 jaar Graaf Jansdijk, Kloosterzande, 209-20.
Vleesschauwer MLM de, & R Tondat 1993: De St. Janscapelle in Assenederambacht, in: Kraker AMJ de, ME
De Smet & H van Royen (red.) ‘Over den Vier Ambachten’ 750 jaar Keure 500 jaar Graaf Jansdijk,
Kloosterzande,183-6.
Vleesschauwer MLM de 1996: De bedijking van de Van Remoorterepolder, Kroniek van de Stichting Heemkundige
Kring Sas van Gent, nr. 31.
Vries JJ de 1982: Anderhalve eeuw hydrologisch onderzoek in Nederland. Overzicht van de ontwikkeling van de
wetenschappelijke kennis van het water tussen 1830 en 1980, beschouwd vanuit een geohydrologische
gezichtshoek, Amsterdam.
Wesseling J, 1966: De geschiedenis van Axel, Groningen.
Wilderom MH, 1973: Tussen afsluitdammen en deltadijken IV: Zeeuwsch Vlaanderen, Vlissingen.
Wolters MJ, 1869: Recueil de lois, arrêtés, règlements etc., concernant l’administration des eaux et poldres de
la Flandre Oriëntale (Tome 2), Gand.
Onuitgegeven werk
Matelé J, 1731: Corte lessen discoursen en opmerckingen raeckende de wercken en directie van nieuwe
dijckagien, (onuitgegeven traktaat), 1731.
319

Inventarissen en catalogi
Barth AJ & JJ Geene-Heijboer 1977: Inventaris van het archief van het waterschap Axeler Ambacht 1965-1981,
Goes.
Barth AJ, JJ Geene-Heijboer & AEM Kuiper-Temmerman 1996: Inventaris van het archief van het waterschap
De Verenigde Braakmanpolders 1965-1981, Goes.
Coppejans-Desmedt H, 1960: Inventaris van het Archief van de Heerlijkheid en van de Polder van Sint-Albert,
Brussel.
Desplanque M, Deshaisnes en Finot, 1872-1906: Inventaire sommaire des Archives départementales antérieure
à 1790. Archives civiles. Série B. Chambre des comptes de Lille (8 delen), Lille.
Herwegh-van Rijsbergen VJ, 2002 : Inventaris van het archief van het waterschap De Drie Ambachten (1965)
1982-1989 (1999), Terneuzen.
Hingman JH, 1871: Inventaris van verzameling Binnenlandse Kaarten Hingman, Den Haag.
Hollestelle LM, 1989: Gebundelde inventarissen van de archieven van de polders en waterschappen van het
voormalige waterschap Axeler Ambacht 1595-1965, Terneuzen.
Wiersum E, 1903: Het archief van de ambachtsheerlijkheden Zaamslag, Aandijke en Othene. In : Verslagen en
Mededeelingen van de Vereeniging tot Uitgaaf der Bronbnen van het Oudvadersche Recht, 1-20.
Zuurdeeg JPB, 1972: Inventaris van het archief van het waterschap De verenigde Braakmanpolders 1653-1966
en het archief van de waterkering van de calamiteuze polder Nieuw-Neuzen 1873-1966.
320

Bronnen
A Nederland
A.1 Polder en waterschapsarchieven
Polder, waterschap of steenwegcommissie Geraadpleegde archiefnummers
Autrichepolder 1-8, 14-35, 44-48, 135-149.
Beoosten- en Bewestenblijpolder 1, 23, 26-28, 74, 80-82, 182, 183-192, 196, 199, 203,
205-206, 215-216, 250-252, 255-256, 258.
Beoostenblij-Benoordenpolder 4-7, 9-10, 18-20, 23, 25, 28-39, 204-223, 241-245.
Beoostenblij-Bezuidenpolder 1-3, 6, 10-14, 37, 53, 61-63100-105, 107-108,
117,124.
Braakmanpolder 20-28.
Canisvlietpolder 166-185, 200-206.
Catharinapolder 1, 16-26, 34, 36, 39, 42.
Commissie van de steenweg 1873-1965 (1973) 1-13.
Dijckmeesterpolder 31-32.
Eendragtpolder 1, 2, 7, 11, 17, 18, 30, 33, 64-65, 132-134.
Goesschepolder 86.
Groote- of Oude-St. Albertpolder 125.
Kanaalpolder 130.
Kleine Huissenspolder 1, 6, 91.
Koudepolder 233-238, 249.
Margarethapolder 1, 56, 8, 32-36, 40, 48, 115, 126.
Moerbekepolder 1, 10, 24-25.
Moerspuipolder 1, 74.
Nieuw Neuzenpolder (binnenbeheer) 414-415, 417-420, 432-437, 463-468.
Nieuw-Othenepolder 1, 4, 11, 23.
Oud-Papeschorpolder 105.
Oud-Vogelschor- of Zuidwestenrijkpolder 494.
Pierssenspolder 560-561, 580.
Ser Lippenspolder 1, 4, 34-35.
Sluispolder 683.
Stad Philippinepolder 696, 698.
Uitwateringswaterschap Hulster- en Axeler Ambacht 1, 3-5, 9, 22, 32-38, 45, 66, 78, 114-127, 138-139, 148,
150.
Van Lyndenpolder 13-14.
Van Remoorterepolder 633-635.
Vergaertpolder 736-737.
Waterkering Serlippens c.a. 1, 21, 89, 91, 224-231.
Waterkering calamiteuze polder Nieuw-Neuzen 881-883, 917, 1029-1034.
Waterschap Axeler Ambacht 1-17, 53-55, 58-60, 236, 242-253, 255, 258-259, 295,
306, 331, 333, 336-337, 364-369, 381-396.
Waterschap De Drie Ambachten 1-11, 14-16, 18-20, 21, 241-246, 250, 253, 256-264,
323-337, 371-377, 386-408, 411, 418-419, 422-426,
437-442, 451.
Waterschap De verenigde Braakmapolders 1, 2, 15-16, 18, 20, 25, 26, 28, 34, 48, 140, 141, 148,
150, 153, 155, 158, 165, 167, 169, 170, 184, 190-
192,200-201, 206-208, 281-282, 287, 291, 293, 298,
303, 306-308, 317, 320, 326, 332-333, 364, 393.
321

Waterschap Grote- en Kleine-Isabella 116-124.
Waterschap Koegors c.a. 1, 66-67, 69, 131.
Waterschap Loven- en Willemskerkepolder 320-328, 332-334, 337-342, 382-388.
Waterschap voor beheer en onderhoud van de Nol 866-873.
tussen Koude- en de Lovenpolder
Westdorpe- of Nieuw-Vogelschorpolder 826, 828.
Zaamslagpolder 1, 3, 4, 7, 12-20, 23-52, 55, 59-61,
64-66, 71, 93-99, 110-116, 167-216.
Zuiddorpe-Noordpolder 1-3, 17-18, 56-61.
Zuiddorpe-Zuidpolder 1-2, 49-54.
A.2 Zeeuws Archief
Ambachtsheerlijkheid Zaamslag, Aandijk en Othene (1523-1869)
Toegangsnr. 65.1; Nrs. 71-78.
Gedrukte Notulen Staten van Zeeland
Toegangsnr. 2.2; A o 1763.
Kaarten Zeeland (Kaarten De Waard & Aanwinsten Kaarten Rijksarchief in Zeeland, 16 de -20 ste eeuw)
Toegangsnr. 292; Nrs. 1310-1404.
Landinrichtingsdienst in Zeeland/Cultuurtechnische Dienst in Zeeland (1929) 1945-1994
Toegangsnr. 245.1; Nrs. 1.10, 1.12, 1.16.
Plaatselijke Commissies voor de Ruilverkaveling in Zeeland (1941-1998)
Plaatselijke Commissie voor de Ruilverkaveling in Koewacht, 1986-1978, nrs. 106 – 116.
Plaatselijke Commissie voor de Ruilverkaveling in Canisvliet, 1960-1970, nrs. 121 – 127.
Provinciaal Blad van Zeeland
A 0 1873.
Rijkswaterstaat Directie Zeeland, Deel IVc: Arrondissement Terneuzen, Aanvulling (1878-1963)
Toegangsnr. 361.6.; Nr. 40, 44.
Staten van Zeeland en Gecommitteerde Raden
Toegangsnr. 2.1; Nrs. 1927, 1937.
Verzameling W.A. van Citters
Toegangsnr. 106; Nr. 15.
Zelandia Illustrata, Deel I (Kaarten en plattegronden, 16 de - 20 ste eeuw)
Nrs. 654-668, 753, 785-824,
A.3 Algemeen Rijksarchief Den Haag
Verzameling Binnenlandse Kaarten Hingman
Nrs. 3438-3470.
A.4 Universiteitsbibliotheek Leiden
Bodel Nijenhuiscollectie
Portefeuilles 38-39.
B België:
B.1 Rijksarchief Gent (RAG):
Inventaris van het Archief van de Heerlijkheid en Polder van Sint-Albert
Toegangsnr. 130; Nrs. 761-762.
322

Chartes et documents de l´abbaye de Saint-Pierre au Mont Blandin à Gand
Toegangsnr. 252; Nr. 2164.
Inventaris van de van de parochie Moerbeke
Nr. 315.
Algemeen Polder- en Watering-Archief
Toegangsnr. 022; Nr. 206.
B.2 Rijksarchief Antwerpen
Archief O.L.V.-kapittel
Nrs. 131, 465, 484.
B.3 Universiteitsbibliotheek Antwerpen
Autrichepolder
Nrs. 65-69.
C Frankrijk
C.1 Archives départementales du Nord
Registres des chartres
Nr. B 1642.
323

Gebruikte afkortingen
AA Archief waterschap Axeler Ambacht
RAG Rijksarchief Gent
RAA Rijksarchief Antwerpen
UBA Universiteitsbibliotheek Antwerpen
UBL Universiteitsbibliotheek Leiden
VBP Archief waterschap De Verenigde Braakmanpolders
Wst Waterstaat
WZV Archief Waterschap Zeeuws-Vlaanderen
ZA Zeeuws Archief
324

Summary
This PhD project deals with the history of the process of embanking (polders) and of water boards in
the central part of Zealand Flanders (the Netherlands) since 1600. The main objective was how this
embanking process and the tasks of the water boards have developed between 1600 and 1999 and,
also how the development of the area proceeding 1600, has had an impact on later developments. This
has led to the following two research questions.
The first one addresses the historic development prior to 1600 and how the location in a border region
with Belgium has influenced the organization of water boards and water governance of the research
area. Did the process of embanking and the development of water boards differ here from areas
elsewhere in the Netherlands? The second question concentrates on how different the organization of
water boards and water governance were at the end of the twentieth century compared with their start
in 1600 and what kinds of developments must be held responsible for these differences. In order to
answers these questions a wide range of developments has been studied, which is summarized below.
Chapter two describes how the landscape has developed from salt marshes and peat lands into a
mosaic of embankments from 1000 AD onwards. The embanking was interrupted by storm surges and
flooding (1375) and later on by intentional flooding during warfare. After the concluding of the Peace
of Cadzand (1492) a 25 km long and new wall was built (Landtdyck in 1494) to prevent the flooding
from extending further inland. During the 16 th century the landscape was flooded for military reasons,
mainly due to the Eighty Year’s War with Spain. As a consequence neither the medieval nor the 16 th
century landscape went through a gradual and linear development of embanking. Political stability
and rising corn prices were the main incentives for venture capitalists to invest in re-embanking the
area during the Twelve Year’s Truce (1609-1621) and after the Peace of Munster (1648). From the
1650s onwards, however, shortage of salt marshes and decreasing corn prices has resulted in a decrease
of re-embanking, which demonstrates the dynamic interaction between natural and human factors
that determined landscape change. Due to the low corn prices, the spending on dike maintenance was
often curtailed by the water boards and the embanked areas (polders) became exposed to flooding
during storm surges. The storm surges of 1682, 1715 and 1808 caused huge damage across Zealand
and western North Brabant.
The tidal channel of the Axelse Gat was remained open for a long time as a line of defense in case of
war. When the area has lost its strategic interest it was embanked (Beoosten- and Bewestenblijpolder).
However, by the end of the 18 th century locks were built to take water in during times of war.
Strategic inundations did not have a great impact in other parts of the Netherlands as they had here.
During the French Period (1795-1813) a Flemish-French company was allowed to embank areas
between Antwerp and the Braakman and to use salt marsh areas for 32 years. This novelty would
never occur again in the area. The impact of the Western Scheldt and the Flemish hinterland made the
difference for the area described in this thesis.
In Chapter three the history of the water boards and how they did function is described. The 1242
Charter of the Vier Ambachten was a first major step in legislating regional water governance, stating
that neighboring polder areas were obliged to give aid in case of flooding. During the 16 th century
some polders temporary and voluntary cooperated in building secondary dikes. However, in 1494 the
government compelled areas to maintain the Landtdyck. In 1576 again the government intervened in
matters of dike maintenance and water governance of Terneuzen and its vicinity.
325

During the 17 th century local water boards defined their own policy. At that time there was no threat
of changing tidal channels in the Honte. In 1715, however, several small water boards were unable to
carry out repairs caused by the flood. This left them with the options of abandonment of the polder or
asking neighbouring polders or the government for financial aid. The last option proved to be most
beneficial, because small polders could be preserved while the government continued to collect taxes.
As the number of requests for financial aid of small polders grew, the provincial government issued a
number of regulations which also aimed to stop misuse. This was leading to a growing provincial
interference in matters of water governance and dike maintenance of these polders. The General
Regulation, issued in 1791, summarizes all decrees on this matter. This again underlines the interest
of the 1715 flooding and demonstrates how the interaction between nature and man has influenced
matters of water governance.
In 1797 the French government tried to increase its range of influence on matters of water governance
of ‘free’ polders through the support of ‘free’ water boards. Although this failed, the 1808 and 1809
storm surges inspired the government to try again by consulting all water boards. This was resulting in
the Imperial Decree of 11 January 1811 that compelled polders to install a water board consisting of a
chair (dijkgraaf), members (gezworenen) and a treasure (ontvanger-griffier) guarding the interest of
land owners. Cooperation of water boards on issues of drainage was also regulated by this decree.
Through the Imperial Decree of 28 December 1811 the water boards got a more democratic character,
and smaller landowners were allowed to vote in the general assembly of their polder. The decree also
reduced the term of members of the executive water boards and specified their tasks. After the French
Period these decrees were maintained, underlining their importance and how well they met the needs
of that time in matters of water governance.
During the first half of the nineteenth century the provincial government gradually took over tasks of
the water boards. This is demonstrated by the Regulation on the Administration of Water Boards in
Zealand (1841) and by the General Regulation for Water Boards (1973). An example is the deprivation
of Belgian landowners of their right to vote; however, their opposition was successful.
Because of the 1906 storm surge the provincial government inspected the secondary dikes and the
water boards were compelled to raise these dikes. After the 1953 flooding again a change in regulations
was made without serious protest of the boards (1954). They had become used to the provincial
supervision and the fear of the flooding of 1953 functioned as a stimulus.
During the 1920s the small scaled structure of water boards could not handle the drainage problems in
the area of Hulst. Therefore the provincial government required an up-scaling by installing a new kind
of water board: Suatieschap Hulster en Axeler Ambacht.
Since the Peace of Westphalia (1648) the new border was creating international polders, which had to
abide the regulations of two national governments. Besides the so-called calamitous polders these
international polders are part of the unique contribution of Zealand to the Dutch history of water
governance.
In comparison with areas elsewhere in the Netherlands, large scale water boards in the study area
were absent. The large water boards on the island of Schouwen, Rijnland, and North Holland mainly
supervised on a distance. This could be counterproductive, as is seen in North Holland with the
introduction of steam power which failed. Through the issue of regulations the provincial government
of Zealand tried to reduce the power of ‘free’ water boards in the 18 th century, which differs from the
Netherlands in general. During the French Period one decree was issued for the island of Walcheren
in which one chapter concerned the water boards of the island of Schouwen.
From the mid nineteenth century onwards the control of the provincial government with regard to the
organization and functioning of water boards increased. Provincial governments were implemented by
the 1848 Constitution to supervise the water boards. Nevertheless the past kept on dominating the
world of water boards in our research area.
In the eastern part of the province of Gelderland water management became institutionalized in the
late nineteenth century in order to stop the continuous problem of flooding. Although flooding events
in the past did already led higher authorities to interfere with local or regional water boards, also
recent floodings, such as in 1916 in Holland, contributed to create an integrated water board system.
As a result the water board ‘Hoogheemraadschap Noordhollands Noorderkwartier’ was founded. A
similar development is seen in the province of Zealand after 1953.
326

Chapter four deals with the impact of the 1953 flooding on the water boards. The many small water
boards could not pay for the repairs needed and aid was given by the national government. This was
reinforced by the Deltawet (1958) that introduced the so-called deltanorm for repairing existing dikes
and building new ones. As maintenance had to be carried out by the local water boards, the many
small boards were forced to merge into larger ones. In spite of expected protests against anticipated
higher costs, the provincial government issued the abolishment of all existing ‘free’ water boards and
the installment of larger new boards. As an example the canal Gent-Terneuzen is mentioned that has
split up the area into the Waterschap Verenigde Braakmanpolders in the west and the Waterschap
Axeler Ambacht to the east. It also gave rise to a new category of officials on the board. In 1977 the
calamitous water boards also merged into the two new water boards.
In 1970 the Wet Verontreiniging Oppervlakte Water (Water Treatment Legislation) came into effect.
This legislation was also leading to one large water board, the ‘De Drie Ambachten’. New categories
of officials were introduced in the board, with a decreasing influence of farmers as a result. The new
Waterschapswet (1992) introduced three new categories of officials: tenants, inhabitants and those
representing business; it further prescribed that water board elections should be held simultaneously to
other public elections. On 1 January 1999 three water boards in Zealand Flanders finally merged into
a new big one: the ‘Waterschap Zeeuws-Vlaanderen’.
Reorganization of water boards during the second half of the twentieth century also occurred elsewhere
in the Netherlands, but was probably most prominent in Zealand. Key factor in this process has
been the 1953 flooding, although Zealand Flanders suffered far less damage. After a second merge in
1980 and a third one in 1996 one new water board was installed for Zealand north of the Western
Scheldt, the ‘Waterschap Zeeuwse Eilanden’.
Chapter five deals with the building of dikes. Dikes had to be built within six months in summer time
and had to be finished by mid-autumn. This was performed by a huge labour force using spades and
carts. Clay was used as the basic building material and extra protection was created by putting wicker
mats on the sods. In the 18 th century a new method of fixing sods was introduced by using a sledgehammer.
Later innovations introduced summer dikes (vercortingen). These dikes were built across
very large embankments in order to reduce the damage in times of flooding. From the 19 th century
onwards stone was used, while shortly after 1900 concrete was applied in so-called Muralt walls that
were put on top of the dikes. Since 1953 these walls became out of use. According to the deltanorm
top levels of the dikes were defined and in Zealand Flanders this norm is fixed on 9.25 m +NAP
(National Ordnance Datum) since the 1980s. Within 60 years the levels were raised by 250%.
At some locations the stability of the dikes was threatened by tidal currents. Until the mid-19 th century
building secondary dikes was the only remedy. Since then groins were built perpendicular to the dike.
By this and other innovations Rijkswaterstaat got the lead in the application of these science-based
techniques.
After the 1715 storm surge some dikes on the island of Schouwen have been fitted with horizontal
parts in the seaside slope. These so-called plasbermen made the dikes more solid and less vulnerable
for the overflow of and erosion by water at high tides. Also the use of sods and bundles of wicker to
be fastened on the sea ward slope of sea walls became common practice. Furthermore rafts of wicker
were positioned onto the weaker spots of banks, first roundish rafts, later on flat ones which proved to
be successful.
Chapter six deals with water management and water treatment. Since 1600 the small number of locks
grew along with the number of dikes. Initially locks were made of wood, but since the destructive
woodborer was introduced in the area, locks were made of brick. Although this was more expensive,
the maintenance of these locks was cheaper and they lasted longer.
Silting up of tidal channels made it more difficult for the most southern areas to drain on the Western
Scheldt, Hellegat or Braakman. As a consequence, the lower parts of the embanked areas were
frequently threatened by flooding. The strong flow of water coming from the Belgian hinterland made
this worse. The construction of a lock (Moerspuipoldersluis) only temporarily solved these problems.
Drainage became also hindered by the embankment of the larger part of the Axelse Gat. This resulted
in the building of the Gent-Terneuzen canal (1825-1827) by the national government.
327

As this canal proved to be unable to serve shipping as well as drainage, two new drainage canals were
built, the Oostelijke Rijkswaterleiding and Westelijke Rijkswaterleiding. At the same time vast parts
of the uncultivated heath lands in Belgium were drained and reclaimed. The Oostelijke Rijkswaterleiding
could not handle the huge increase in the flow of the drainage water coming from the Belgian
hinterland and the threat of flooding continued. In 1934, in order to improve drainage conditions, the
new water board ‘Suatieschap Hulster en Axeler Ambacht’ took over control of the drainage canal.
Problems that arose at the Westelijke Rijkswaterleiding, could be solved in 1965 by the founding of
the ‘Waterschap De verenigde Braakmanpolders’. Both this water board and the newly founded
‘Waterschap Axeler Ambacht’ (1965) in the eastern drainage area developed long term water management
plans for sub regions. The drawing of these plans was largely subsidized by the national government.
These plans proved to be effective and brought the long-lasting threat of flooding to an end.
In the 1980s, during dry summers, attention shifted towards the handling of water shortage in the
southern sandy areas of Zuiddorpe and Koewacht. The problems were solved by the construction of
dams with water gates. In order to enhance the efficiency of this system a network of measuring
instruments was installed as well. As more water had to be handled, the distance towards the Braakman
and Western Scheldt grew and the management of the polder water became more precise, international
treaties had to be made between the Netherlands and Belgium. In the past arrangements on
the issue of handling drainage water from the hinterland were made by the water boards themselves
(suatiecontracten).
Elsewhere in the Netherlands more progress has been made by introducing new drainage technologies
and enlarging drainage capacities. In the 1870s polder mills were substituted by steam pumping
stations in the north of North Holland. In 1872 the first steam pumping station was built on Schouwen
to be substituted by a diesel power in 1932. In 1929 a pumping station was built on Walcheren powered
by electricity. In Easter Zealand Flanders a diesel pumping station was installed at Stoppeldijke.
In the research area the polders still managed for a long time to discharge water at low tide. The influx
of polder water in de sluices is depending on the dimensions of the drainage canals. These need to be
broad and deep and this also holds for the locks. When a pumping station is brought into operation,
the drainage canals have to be adapted to the new capacity of discharge. Because of the reorganization
of the water boards it was possible to build a pumping station at Othene in 1990. This station combined
technology of a classic sluice with a pumping engine powered by electricity. At the same time
the locks of masonry were substituted by concrete and the supervision on the maintenance of the
hydraulic works was professionalized. The enacting of the Wet Verontreiniging Oppervlaktewateren
(1970) led to the founding of the ‘Waterschap De Drie Ambachten’ and as a result of this a station for
water treatment was put into operation in 1990 (RWZI).
Elsewhere in the Netherlands areas also faced drainage problems, mostly caused by interference of
man with the natural conditions of the landscape. Human impact was mainly economy-driven. In
Rijnland many new ‘mill-embankments’ significantly improved the drainage capacity from the 15 th
century onwards, but at the same time also increased the pressure on the Haarlemmermeer area as a
vast retention area. As problems increased in the course of the 17 th century, these new mill-embankments
could only be made succesful if vast quantities of water could be discharged in time, but gradual
subsidence of surface level made things worse.
In the province of Groningen the switch over from pasture to arable land during the 18 th century
increased the need for improving drainage and discharge of water, which created the need for water
management in neighboring areas. At the same time those switch over created drainage problems in
the lower parts of the island of Walcheren. In the eastern part of the province of Gelderland the first
Markewet (1809) became the starting point for large scale reclamations of waste lands, resulting in a
bigger pressure on existing drainage capacity.
In our research area drainage problems had two reasons. One reason was the fast increase in the
amount of water to be discharged from the Belgian hinterland. The second cause was the systematic
embanking with an increase of the drainage network. A solution to the problem was found in building
the canal Gent-Terneuzen as was described before. In eastern Gelderland a similar solution was
found, but canal building was postponed, because no agreement on its double function (shipping and
drainage) was reached. In this sandy part of the Netherlands drought occurs in a similar way as in the
southern most areas and higher sections of Zuiddorpe-Koewacht. In both areas weirs were built to
solve the drought problem which as such is not unique in the Netherlands.
328

In Chapter seven the role of landowners and water boards in the improvement of the road network is
discussed. The landowners that bordered on a road were obliged to maintain it. Twice per year the
roads were inspected by the water board. Shortly after 1800 inspection was carried out by the provincial
governments. For the advancement of road improvement the provincial government founded a
Fund for Road Improvement in 1840. Given that many roads of the polders also had to be improved,
the polders were obliged to contribute 0.35 guilders per hectare.
Since the mid-19 th century water boards and local governments were encouraged to improve their
road network through interest free loans. As a result initiatives were taken to build a gravel road
between Hulst and Sas van Gent in 1854. It was the first road of its kind in Zealand Flanders and was
exploited as a toll road. Although many would follow, road improvement turned out to be a slow
process, because of the high costs.
As transport of sugar beets proved to be ruinous to the improved roads, square pieces of rock (kassei)
were used to create a more solid pavement. First of all the road between Westdorpe and Sas van Gent
was rebuilt in this way over a length of 6.6 km in 1873. Mainly larger water boards followed and
financed the new roads by long-term loans which were paid back in instalments through the raising of
the land tax (geschot). ‘Kassei’ and gravel roads remained the dominant type of roads even after the
Second World War. Because of the considerable costs the provincial government adopted the
maintenance of a growing number of improved roads since the assessment of the Tertiary Road Plan
in 1938.
At the end of the 19 th century the first initiatives were taken in the Netherlands for land consolidation
in order to end the piecemeal structure of the lots. In the long run these initiatives resulted in three
land consolidation laws (1924, 1938 and 1954), the last one widening the scope from purely agricultural
aims towards improving the development of areas in general. In 1985 the Rural Spatial
Planning Act (Landinrichtingswet) broadened the scope even further. The response of landowners in
the study area was very different. In the south eastern area the first initiatives for land consolidation
date from the 1940s. In the western area landowners were less eager. It was not until the founding of
the water board ‘De verenigde Braakmanpolders’ that the first initiative was taken (1967). After
having made preparations for about a decade, the proposal was rejected due to rather unclear procedures.
Enthusiasm remained low after the merging of the two remaining water boards in 1982. Drainage and
roads were already modernised. In fact landowners were only interested in redistributing lots and for
that reason a concept of a merely administrative land consolidation (RAK) was embraced. This again
was a novelty in the study area. The administrative land consolidation affected 9,000 hectares and was
realised at very low costs.
A special type of re-allotment aimed at re-allotting farmlands among private landowners. The initiative
for this was also taken by private landowners who could apply for funding from the national
government and for expertise. From 1950 until 1988 several re-allotments have been carried out as a
kind of ‘blessing’ for farmers and rural inhabitants in order to improve agriculture in terms of yield
and quality.
Finally in Chapter eigth, the objectives of this research is addressed by answering the two questions
defined in Chapter one. The first one is about the way in which water boards were organized and have
functioned from about 1600 onwards and how this has changed. Around 1600 the water boards were
responsible for dike maintenance and water management of their polder. In nearly each polder a lock
was built in order to drain fresh water. Maintenance of hydrological engineering works was made
possible through a land tax, levied per hectare and paid by land owners. Maintenance of roads was
carried out by those of whom the landed property of rented lands bordered on the road. Ongoing
embankment increased the number of polders and water boards, most of them being small and
therefore not always able to govern its own area.
As is stated in the general introduction, the functioning of the water boards has been influenced by
changes caused by both natural and human factor and processes. One such a natural factor are storm
surges, another is the tidal impact of the Western Scheldt, in particular the erosive action in the tidal
channels approaching the baseline of dikes. A third natural factor is soil composition which could be
different from one location to another. The 1715 storm surge did the groundwork for provincial
regulations of the water boards and the coming into being of the calamitous water boards.
329

The 1808 and 1809 storm surges laid the foundation of the Imperial Decrees of 1811 giving the
national government more authority over the water boards and the 1953 storm surge marked the
abolishment of the ‘free’ water boards.
Concerning the human induced changes it may be stated that the process of embankment was mainly
steered by the economy in terms of high corn prices which made the investment of huge capital
profitable. In the long run the process of embankment was not linear and at some points in time it
slowed down very strongly. Another human factor is in politics. In the second half of the 16 th century
the northern part of the research area rose in revolt against the king of Spain whereas the southern part
remained loyal. For a long time the study area was threatened by warfare and political unsteadiness.
In 1648 the Peace Treaty of Munster concluded that nearly the entire research area would become part
of the new Dutch Republic, except for a few embankments across which now ran the new frontier.
This was the start of international embankments as a unique kind of water board in Dutch history of
water boards and water management. These embankments have existed until 1965, only during the
French Occupation (1795-1813) they were shortly re-united. When the national state of Belgium was
founded in 1830 a new border line ran across these embankments and across areas that jointly drained
through Dutch embankments towards the Western Scheldt. Because of the increasing amount of fresh
water coming from the Belgian hinterland, international water treaties between Belgium and
Netherlands were concluded aiming at the building of two long drainage canals (Rijkswaterleidingen).
The second sub question deals with the impact of the past and the location in a border area on the
organization and functioning of water boards and how they have evolved. Are there differences
noticeable with other areas in the Netherlands in these matters?
In matters of sea defence and the protection of the seaward banks there are hardly differences with
other areas in Zealand. Compared with the eastern part of the province of Gelderland, the
southernmost section of our area faced similar drought problems.
On matters of drainage and discharge of water the studied area is quite different. As the amount of
polders grew, drainage became an ever growing issue. On one hand the Western Scheldt was confined
to a smaller space, while on the other the length of the drainage network grew. As a result the distance
the water had to flow from the Belgian hinterland towards the Western Scheldt increased. As the
drainage areas were split up into a number of larger and smaller water boards, each of them having
their own authority and interests, the problems could not be dealt with efficiently anymore. This has
led to the government to interfere and after the independence of Belgian in 1830 it was necessary to
solve this by an international water treaty. Next to the already mentioned storm surges, political
change has also led to changes in the development of organization and functioning of the water boards
in particular in water management and water governance.
The building of the Gent-Terneuzen canal and the Rijkswaterleidingen (main drainage canals) proved
to be efficient for only a short time. Again interference by the government was needed to get the
drainage problems of the area under control. Therefore the provincial government installed the water
board ‘Suatieschap Hulster en Axeler Ambacht’ (1934), compelling the water boards that joint to
hand over part of their autonomy to this new board. Three decades later the 1953 storm surge hit
the area and swept away the last remnants of the pretended autonomy and independency of
the ‘free’ polders.
A major extension of tasks of water boards in the 1970s was sewage water treatment. It also led to the
coming of new categories of members on the water board which until then had traditionally been the
bastion of farmers.
330