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Wet rice cultivation in Indonesia Chapter two
Following independence in 1945, rice production in Indonesia lagged behind the increasing
domestic demand. The situation, in combination with the inability to expand production
sufficiency, resulted in large-scale importation of grain and a serious drain on the Indonesian
economy.
By the 1970s and early 1980s, Indonesia ranked among the world’s largest purchasers of
rice, with imports peaking at two million tons in 1980. After 1979, the government applied
new measures and techniques (FAO and UNDP, 2001).
However, the Green Revolution in Asia already started in the 1960s, with the
introduction of high-yielding semi-dwarf rice varieties. Since then, we have seen the
introduction of almost 2,000 different rice varieties 8 . Rice harvests in Asia have more than
doubled, racing slightly ahead of population growth. The Green Revolution has increased
the use of chemicals significantly, and this has an impact on both humans as the
environment. From the 1980s onwards, farmers, governments, NGOs and researchers are
more aware of this problem. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs where used to
control the use of pesticides in a more subtle manner. Eventually this led to a Second Green
Revolution, which can be characterised by the introduction of new hybrid variances, new
rice plant types and the implementation of genomics research (Cantrell & Hettel, 2004). But
it was not until 1984 that Indonesia had achieved self-sufficiency in rice. Between then and
1996, the total production of rice in Indonesia was even higher than the total domestic
consumption (FAO and UNDP, 2001).
It can be concluded that the combination of larger irrigation systems, together with the
introduction of HYVs and fertilizers, made it possible that in the early 1970s farmers could
achieve a harvest of two times per year, instead of one harvest a year. The second Green
Revolution has contributed to increase the yields even more, because nowadays farmers
are able to harvest up to three times per year.
2.4 Social aspects around wet rice cultivation
As mentioned above, especially the organisation around the irrigation of wet rice fields
implies the cooperation between individuals and organisations on different levels. In this
paragraph, we will explore this in more depth. We will first shortly focus on how farmers
organise the work on the sawahs. After that, we will review the relevant aspects of the
organisation and management of irrigation systems.
2.4.1 Labour and organisation in relation to wet rice cultivation
The work on sawahs takes place by manual labour or with buffalos. The most attractive
option for a farmer is to use the free labour of his adult children and wife. Although under
aged children are obligated to go to school until the age of sixteen, they often help their
parents or other older family members on the sawah. Generally, children start to assist from
the age of twelve. Due to education obligations and lack of strengthness, these children are
not able to work full time 9 .
If financially possible, farmers will hire labour during the preparation period. Most of
the time the landless neighbours in the same village are asked to help, for a payment
between Rp. 10,000 (€ 0.85) and Rp. 15,000 (€ 1,25) per day on average and a free meal 10 .
Note that the work on the sawah and the processing of the paddy afterwards is divided
between both females and males. As a consequence, the allocation of different tasks
8
Consult appendix 8 for local rice varieties and high-yielding rice varieties
9
See for more information on the labour division in relation to wet rice cultivation the publications of
Husken, 1979; Stoler, 1977
10
In 2006 exchange rates were Rp 12,000 for € 1,00.
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