Managing Marine Protected Areas Managing Marine Protected Areas

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The following characteristics affect the use of maps: Scale - The size of the MPA, the scale required and the size of the printed map (and thus the paper to be used) must be chosen on the basis of needs and expected uses. Scale refers to the degree of reduction of the graphic representation compared to the true size of the feature. Scale bars are used to indicate the length of miles or kilometres as represented on the map, or may be given as a ratio. A scale of 1:50,000 means that a measurement on the map represents a distance 50,000 times greater on the land or sea; thus 1cm on the map represents 500m in reality. Maps of 1:50,000 (used to show buildings, roads, etc) are considered large-scale compared to those of 1:1,000,000, which are considered small-scale and are used for whole countries or oceans. Resolution and Accuracy - This refers to how accurately a feature can be depicted on a map: the larger the scale, the higher the resolution. Using a scale of 1:50,000, a 30m long building would be just over 0.5mm on the map. The choice of line widths used can introduce errors; for example, on a map with a scale of 1:50,000, a road represented by a line 0.5mm thick will mean that it is 25m wide in reality. Similarly, a 1mm error in the location of the line on the map will mean a 50m deviation from reality. Factors affecting accuracy can also have cumulative effects. Coordinates - These are usually marked as intervals along the margins. They can be in the form of latitude and longitude (as used on charts) or UTM units (frequently used by government cartographers). Most GPS and GIS can convert between these two, and other settings. GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS) GIS is a program that incorporates a database for positional (geo-referenced) data, allowing manipulation and analysis. A major benefit is that it allows different data layers to be overlaid, e.g. data on coral reef status can be overlain onto data on fishing activity, permitting analysis of any spatial relationships between the two parameters. GIS is thus far more than a mapping tool, but is particularly useful in map production as prints or digital images can be produced as required, containing the selection of data layers needed for a particular use. Setting up and developing a GIS usually requires considerable experience and MPAs are advised to collaborate with relevant institutions. MPA staff will be able to operate the system, once trained, provided there is expert supervision and appropriate maintenance. KEY POINTS FOR THE MPA Sources of further information Butler, M.J.A. et al. 1987. Marine Resource Mapping: an Introductory Manual. FAO Tech. Paper 274. FAO, Rome. 256pp. Green, E.P. et al. 1996. A review of remote sensing for the assessment and management of tropical coastal resources. Coastal Management 24: 1-40. Mumby, P.J. et al. 1988. Digital analysis of multispectral airborne imagery of coral reefs. Coral Reefs 17: 59-69. Mumby, P. J. et al. 1999. The cost-effectiveness of remote sensing for tropical coastal resources assessment and management. J. Environ. Management 55: 157-166. Roelfsema, C. M., Phinn, S.R. & Dennison, W.C. 2002. Spatial distribution of benthic microalgae on coral reefs determined by remote sensing. Coral Reefs 21: 264-274. www.esri.com – a commercial website providing information and advice on GIS products, training and support in relation to natural resources. CASE STUDY Mnazi Bay - Ruvuma Estuary Marine Park (MBREMP) GIS and maps Gazetted in 2000, one of the first requirements of MBREMP was a good map to guide development of the management plan and monitoring programmes. With funding from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the Government of France, and technical support from IUCN, a geographical database and GIS are being established. Baseline information on biodiversity (mangroves, coral reefs and intertidal areas) and socioeconomic issues was collected by survey teams, in cooperation with MBREMP staff. GPS readings were taken at each site surveyed. Data on infrastructure (e.g. roads) and other physical characteristics, like bathymetry, were also collected. Additional data (e.g. topography and mangrove distribution) were obtained by digitising existing maps and interpreting aerial photographs and satellite images (see overleaf). For the design of the database and GIS, MBREMP is working with a local unit, the GIS Information Centre (GISic) of the Agricultural Research Institute Naliendele. The database is designed so that it can be extended over time, used for long-term monitoring, and takes into account the financial, technical and staff limitations. To ensure long term maintenance of the information system, Park staff are being trained in geographical skills, including databases, GIS, the use of GPS and mapping. ❑ Ensure that the necessary maps for the MPA are produced and available in printed or digital form as appropriate. ❑ Use a team approach for preparing maps, involving local stakeholders and technical institutions; involve relevant MPA personnel in the collection of ground and sea survey data and aerial photography, and in finalising the maps (e.g. editing, choosing colours and other details). Sheet C1 Managing Marine Protected Areas: A TOOLKIT for the Western Indian Ocean
MPA design and zonation Design aspects include size and shape, location, position of boundaries, zoning, ecological representation, and links or connectivity with other MPAs. There are also practical considerations in terms of ease of management (e.g. whether the MPA is adjacent to sources of threats such as urban areas or major fishing grounds) and access. BOUNDARY LOCATION The location of MPA boundaries should be based on ecological factors including breeding, recruitment and nursery grounds, fish aggregation sites, resilient habitats (e.g. reefs that survive bleaching), current patterns, and stability of populations of key species and communities. If the original designation was driven by socio-economicpolitical factors (e.g. interests of the stakeholders, immediate availability of an area), key ecological sites may lie outside the boundaries of the MPA but it may be feasible to change this with relatively minor alterations. It is essential to include within the boundaries ecosystems that can withstand damaging impacts, and areas of high biodiversity that have been degraded, to enable them to recover. For example, coral reefs known to be particularly resistant or resilient to bleaching (see sheet H7) should be included wherever possible, and given high protection under any zoning scheme. New threats may also necessitate changes, e.g. increasing shipping traffic has led to a proposal to extend the ship exclusion zone around Aldabra World Heritage Site. Stakeholders must be closely involved in establishing or changing boundaries. In Menai Bay Conservation Area, Zanzibar, for example, consultations were held with fishers and village leaders to identify guiding features on which the boundaries could be based. A draft map was then prepared with key boundary points identified by GPS and this was ground truthed by government officers, MPA management personnel, fishers and scientists. Clearly marking and maintaining the boundaries of an MPA is often difficult particularly in deep waters and/or strong currents but, if this is not done, confusion and conflict may arise. Good concise descriptions are also needed that can be translated into legally defensible boundaries in the field and make it easier for technicians, GIS specialists, and cartographers to map them. SIZE For ecological reasons, MPAs should be as large as possible because of the open nature of marine ecosystems. Mozambique has recently increased the size of Bazaruto Archipelago National Park from 600 to 1,430 km 2 to provide greater protection for the dugong. Large MPAs have C2 Careful attention to design is often over-ridden by social, political and economic issues when establishing an MPA. As a result some MPAs are poorly located, or are inappropriate in size or shape for achieving their objectives. This sheet describes key design components and suggests how managers may be able to progressively improve the design, even once the MPA is established. better buffering capacity, can be zoned to accommodate a variety of uses and levels of protection, will protect a higher diversity of habitats and are more likely to retain viable populations and maintain ecological processes. However, small MPAs are often more acceptable to local communities and therefore easier to implement. Small MPAs are effective conservation tools for many marine resources, depending on their location, connectivity to other MPAs, and how well adjacent areas are managed. ZONING Zoning is a key management tool for multiple-use MPAs. It allows areas to be set aside for particular activities such as protection of key habitats or nursery areas and breeding sites, research, education, anchoring, fishing and tourism. Zoning helps to reduce or eliminate conflict between different users of the MPA, to improve the quality of activities such as tourism, and to facilitate compliance. A zoning scheme generally includes areas under strict protection (see sheet I1) and areas with increasingly fewer restrictions. There may also be sub-zones, which might be modified on a seasonal or temporal basis, e.g. for boat access or because of breeding cycles of organisms. The scheme should aim to provide a balance between conservation and use, and should be as simple as possible. If it is too complex, it will be difficult to enforce as stakeholders may have difficulty distinguishing the different zones. The zoning plan may be part of the management plan or a separate document, and in some cases the zone types are laid out in the MPA legislation. The plan should identify the boundaries of the different zones and explain how each area can be used. As with the outer boundaries of the MPA, it is essential that zones are clearly marked once agreed and approved. CONNECTIVITY Connections with other MPAs and other ecologically important areas should be considered. An MPA ideally needs to be part of a network of protected areas that takes account of the movements of species, dispersal of larvae, and exchange of nutrients and other matter between ecosystems. In the WIO, information on such parameters is largely lacking, but where it is known or can be obtained, it should be used. For example, information on current patterns is increasingly available, and methodologies are being developed to track the movements of animals (e.g. satellite tagging for fish and turtles, and acoustic tracking of fish). MPA design should also take into account any existing framework of integrated coastal management (see sheet A5). Managing Marine Protected Areas: A TOOLKIT for the Western Indian Ocean Sheet C2
Page 1 and 2: Managing Marine This Protected Area
Page 3 and 4: Preface Introduction - How to use t
Page 5 and 6: MPAs in the WIO are supported by a
Page 7 and 8: The Western Indian Ocean MAPUTO SOU
Page 9 and 10: Marine Protected Areas of the Weste
Page 11 and 12: This sheet describes the main inter
Page 13 and 14: This sheet shows how to obtain some
Page 15 and 16: BACKGROUND TO THE PRODUCTION The MP
Page 17 and 18: Types and categories of MPAs Termin
Page 19 and 20: MPA goals and objectives The goals
Page 21 and 22: Organisational structures The manag
Page 23 and 24: INTERNATIONAL LAW The overall frame
Page 25 and 26: M. Richmond Integrated coastal mana
Page 27 and 28: Environmental impact assessment An
Page 29 and 30: Participatory techniques A particip
Page 31 and 32: A variety of conflicts may arise in
Page 33 and 34: The term ‘gender’ refers to the
Page 35 and 36: Local and traditional knowledge Fis
Page 37: Mapping and surveying A map of the
Page 41 and 42: The Management Plan is the main too
Page 43 and 44: Logical framework approach Good pla
Page 45 and 46: Progress and donor reports Most MPA
Page 47 and 48: S.Wells The personnel of an MPA are
Page 49 and 50: It is often necessary to contract o
Page 51 and 52: Partnerships and volunteers MPAs ca
Page 53 and 54: Safety and emergency procedures The
Page 55 and 56: Recent studies have shown that the
Page 57 and 58: Financial management involves forec
Page 59 and 60: USER FEES User fees and direct reve
Page 61 and 62: Environmental trust funds A trust f
Page 63 and 64: Donors vary considerably in their i
Page 65 and 66: Marine ecosystems have many benefit
Page 67 and 68: An MPA needs some or all of the fol
Page 69 and 70: S. Wells The management of an MPA r
Page 71 and 72: The MPA office is the focal point f
Page 73 and 74: Equipment purchase & maintenance An
Page 75 and 76: S. Wells Within an MPA, boats are u
Page 77 and 78: Most MPAs use vehicles to transport
Page 79 and 80: Radio and telecommunication MPAs ne
Page 81 and 82: SCUBA & snorkelling equipment MPA s
Page 83 and 84: The main uses for buoys in an MPA a
Page 85 and 86: Monitoring and evaluation principle
Page 87 and 88: Compliance and enforcement Patrolli
Page 89 and 90:
Most coral reef monitoring programm
Page 91 and 92:
Monitoring mangroves & seagrasses J
Page 93 and 94:
Monitoring physical conditions Phys
Page 95 and 96:
Socio-economic monitoring Few MPAs
Page 97 and 98:
Fishing both affects and is affecte
Page 99 and 100:
Information management Large quanti
Page 101 and 102:
Assessing management success Assess
Page 103 and 104:
Evaluations and reviews The terms
Page 105 and 106:
The natural sciences are vital to u
Page 107 and 108:
Threatened marine species Marine sp
Page 109 and 110:
J. Rubens Five of the seven species
Page 111 and 112:
SEABIRDS Seabirds and shorebirds Ma
Page 113 and 114:
About 34 species of marine mammals
Page 115 and 116:
Biodiversity & ecosystem health The
Page 117 and 118:
Coral reef rehabilitation Active re
Page 119 and 120:
Coral bleaching is the whitening or
Page 121 and 122:
Crown-of-thorns outbreaks Adult Cro
Page 123 and 124:
M. Richmond Most mangroves in the W
Page 125 and 126:
Red tides & harmful algal blooms Re
Page 127 and 128:
During the last two decades, the po
Page 129 and 130:
No-take areas (sometimes called mar
Page 131 and 132:
J. Rubens Many MPAs in the WIO have
Page 133 and 134:
Mariculture is the farming of marin
Page 135 and 136:
Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs) SEA
Page 137 and 138:
S. Wells Sharks and rays, with over
Page 139 and 140:
Octopus and sea cucumber fisheries
Page 141 and 142:
S. Wells Sport and recreational fis
Page 143 and 144:
M. Richmond Marine organisms for aq
Page 145 and 146:
Marine curios, and handicrafts or s
Page 147 and 148:
Tourism policy and planning Tourism
Page 149 and 150:
Visitors and carrying capacity Prom
Page 151 and 152:
Publicity materials & promotion Pub
Page 153 and 154:
The management plan for the MPA may
Page 155 and 156:
A visitor centre is extremely usefu
Page 157 and 158:
S. Wells SCUBA diving and snorkelli
Page 159 and 160:
An artificial reef is a structure t
Page 161 and 162:
WALKS, SNORKELLING AND BOAT TRIPS F
Page 163 and 164:
S.Wells Coastal dynamics are a comp
Page 165 and 166:
Nutrient and sewage pollution Waste
Page 167 and 168:
Each year about 5,000 tankers use t
Page 169 and 170:
S. Wells Increasingly, there is a v
Page 171 and 172:
Terrestrial, marine and freshwater
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Managing Marine Protected Areas Managing Marine Protected Areas

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