values in the new zealand curriculum - Ministry of Education

VALUES IN THE NEW ZEALAND CURRICULUM 

A Literature Review on Values in the Curriculum 

Paul Keown, Lisa Parker and Sarah Tiakiwai 

July 2005 

This Literature Review on Values in the New Zealand Curriculum was completed under 

contract to the Ministry of Education, New Zealand by the Wilf Malcolm Institute of 

Educational Research, School of Education, The University of Waikato. It forms part of 

a larger project, headed by Paul Keown, that examines attitudes and beliefs held by 

New Zealanders about values in the curriculum.

Table of Contents 

Section 1: Introduction.....................................................................................................1 

Section 2: Methodology ...................................................................................................3 

The Overall Review Process........................................................................................3 

General Literature Search Criteria. ..............................................................................3 

Search Methods...........................................................................................................4 

Definitions and Key Concepts ......................................................................................4 

Values..........................................................................................................................4 

Curriculum....................................................................................................................6 

Values in a curriculum..................................................................................................7 

Section 3: New Zealand Literature - Values in NZ Society ..............................................9 

Values in the Curriculum: An Aotearoa New Zealand Frame......................................9 

“Pākehā” and Western Values ...................................................................................10 

Western Values ......................................................................................................11 

Pākehā Values .......................................................................................................14 

Values Differences Within Pākehā.............................................................................15 

Māori Values ..............................................................................................................17 

Background ............................................................................................................17 

Māori values articulated by Māori writers ...............................................................19 

Māori Values in Education......................................................................................24 

Pacific Peoples and Values........................................................................................28 

Background ............................................................................................................28 

Learning, culture and values ..................................................................................39 

Asian Peoples and values..........................................................................................52 

Background ............................................................................................................52 

Learning, culture and values ..................................................................................58 

The concept of Agreed “Kiwi” Values.........................................................................67 

Other Cultures and Communities...............................................................................68 

Section 4: New Zealand Literature and Practice - Values and Curriculum ....................69 

Values and the National Curriculum – Recent History ...............................................69 

The Johnston Report..............................................................................................69 

The Curriculum Review ..........................................................................................70 

Some Recent Literature on Values in the New Zealand Curriculum ..........................72 

The Ways in which Values are Addressed in the Current Curriculum........................77

Te Whāriki and Values in the New Zealand Curriculum.............................................81 

Existing and Emerging Practice: Values Programmes Operating in New Zealand 

schools........................................................................................................................... 

The Living Values Project.......................................................................................82 

The Cornerstone Values Project ............................................................................84 

Philosophy for Children ..........................................................................................85 

Virtues Project ........................................................................................................86 

The Character Education Programme of New Zealand (CEPNZ) ..........................87 

The Dialogue Australasia Network (DAN) ..............................................................87 

The New Zealand Churches Education Commission Programme..........................88 

Quality Public Education Coalition Values project. .................................................90 

Other Values Based Programs ..................................................................................90 

Existing and Emerging Practice: Specific Examples of Values Programmes in Schools 

...................................................................................................................................90 

School One:............................................................................................................91 

School Two:............................................................................................................92 

School Three: .........................................................................................................93 

School Four : Waipahihi School .............................................................................94 

School Five: Otari School .......................................................................................95 

School Six: Upper Hutt College ..............................................................................96 

School Seven: Kadimah College ............................................................................97 

Research on Values in the Curriculum in NZ Schools ...............................................98 

Section 5: International Comparisons..........................................................................105 

International Review of Curriculum and Assessment Frameworks Project ..............105 

Le Metais (1997) ..................................................................................................105 

The NIER Study – 1999........................................................................................107 

The Australian Values Study Literature Review – Hooper, 2003..........................108 

International Initiatives in developing Values in the curriculum ................................110 

UNESCO – Learning to Be...................................................................................110 

Europe – CIDREE / UNESCO ..............................................................................114 

Example National Curriculum Developments...........................................................115 

Values Explicit Curricula.......................................................................................115 

Values Implicit Curricula .......................................................................................123 

Section 6: Values, and the Essential Learning Areas ..................................................126 

Introduction ..............................................................................................................126

Arts.......................................................................................................................127 

English..................................................................................................................129 

Health and Physical Well-being............................................................................132 

Mathematics .........................................................................................................136 

Science.................................................................................................................139 

Social Studies.......................................................................................................142 

Technology...........................................................................................................147 

Languages............................................................................................................150 

The New Zealand Guidelines for Environmental Education .................................151 

Section 7: Some Issues for Values in the New Zealand Curriculum............................153 

Introduction ..............................................................................................................153 

Section 8: Conclusions and Recommendations ..........................................................172 

Key conclusions and findings...................................................................................172 

Recommendations ...................................................................................................176 

Section 9: References .................................................................................................177 

Section 10: Appendices...............................................................................................195 

Appendix 1 - Current New Zealand Curriculum Statement ......................................195 

Appendix 2 - The United Kingdom National Curriculum Values Statement..............196 

Common Values and Purposes Statement...........................................................196 

Aims for the school curriculum .............................................................................196 

The interdependence of the two aims.....................................................................197 

A Values Statement for the National Curriculum ..................................................198 

Appendix 4 - Australian Values Education Framework ............................................201 

1. Introduction.......................................................................................................201 

2. Context .............................................................................................................201 

3. Vision................................................................................................................203 

4. Values for Australian Schooling........................................................................203 

5. Guiding Principles.............................................................................................205 

6. Key Elements and approaches that inform good practice ................................205 

7. Glossary ...........................................................................................................208 

Appendix 5 – The West Australian State Curriculum - Articulation of values in the 

Curriculum Framework.............................................................................................209 

Background ..........................................................................................................209 

The Process .........................................................................................................209 

Summary ..............................................................................................................209

Table of Tables 

Table 1. New Zealand Census Counts by Island Population Estimate.........................32 

Table 2. New Zealand Census Counts by Language Spoken ......................................55 

Table 3. The Living Values Trust Project - Eight Stage Model .....................................82 

Table 4. Values and Virtues Table - .............................................................................89 

Table 5. Values set out by School One. .......................................................................91 

Table 6. Values and personal development assessment criteria set out by School Two 

92 

Table 7. Values set out by School Three......................................................................93 

Table 8. Otari School Core values ...............................................................................95 

Table 9. School Values Statement Upper Hutt College................................................97 

Table 10. Kadimah College Values Statement .............................................................97 

Table 11. The UNESCO initiative eight shared values ...............................................112 

Table 12. Dispositions that enhance citizen effectiveness and promote the healthy 

functioning of American democracy. ....................................................................121 

Table 13. Attitudes and Values to be developed through learning in Health and 

Physical Education. ..............................................................................................135 

Table 14. The Critical Affiliation Model .......................................................................158 

Table 15. Key Elements .............................................................................................207

S ECTION 1: I NTRODUCTION 

The Ministry of Education contracted the University of Waikato to develop a literature 

review on values in the curriculum. A small research team working within the Wilf Malcom 

Institute for Educational Research, (WMIER) was assembled to undertake this work. The 

project director was Paul Keown and two research officers, Lisa Parker and Sarah Tiakiwai 

were also employed to assist with the project. The terms of the contract require that the 

project team consider the most recent research literature in national curriculum policy and 

practice and examine current and developing school practices. The team was asked to 

determine what are currently considered to be the best ways to address values in a 

national curriculum statement. This report describes the process of the review and 

outlines the key findings. The project team acknowledges the invaluable editorial 

administrative and secretarial support provided by WMIER staff, Professor Clive McGee, 

Carolyn Jones and Margaret Drummond. 

Values in the curriculum implicitly and directly affect all members of Aotearoa New 

Zealand schooling communities. The curriculum itself is not value-neutral. The Ministry of 

Education has long acknowledged that education is neither value-free nor neutral, and 

most policy documents attempt to include statements about the kind of educational aims 

(such as key learning areas and competencies) that the curriculum, and therefore 

teachers, parents and pupils, should aspire to promote and achieve. Education in 

Aotearoa New Zealand is, by and large, bonded to key Western values about knowledge, 

learning-teaching, and the purpose of education. As a result, both in the sections of this 

report centred on our own nation, and in the international sections, a considerable amount 

of the discussion will be couched in Western terms. 

However, it is also important to ask what values in the curriculum mean, and how these 

values play out for diverse groups of peoples from non-Western traditions. This is an 

important but difficult area to address: Important because a wide variety of peoples are 

part of Aotearoa schools and communities, and difficult because values themselves are 

diverse and grounded within complex historical, economic, and political contexts that 

contain their meanings. This review, unlike reviews developed in other countries, sets out 

to ensure that the unique mix of cultures and ethnicities that make up New Zealand society 

are considered in a reasonably comprehensive way. Thus this review examines literature 

on values in Māori, Pacific and Asian communities and in schooling, alongside that of the 

Values in the New Zealand Curriculum: A Literature Review 1

Pākehā and European majority. This raises significant questions about the so-called 

Western values that tend to saturate curricula in Aotearoa. 

The report begins by briefly outlining the methodologies employed in preparing this review. 

This section includes definitions that shapes the scope of the report and clarifies language 

and terminology used throughout the report. In Section 3 the report examines aspects of 

the values landscape of Aotearoa New Zealand as a backdrop for the sections that follow. 

The fourth section examines, in some detail, values in the curriculum literature from 

Aotearoa New Zealand. The fifth section reviews some of the most important international 

literature on values in the curriculum. The sixth section focuses on the essential learning 

areas of the New Zealand Curriculum and addresses some of the issues surrounding 

values within the learning areas. The seventh section discusses two key issues that 

emerge from Sections 3,4,5 and 6, as a background to the recommendations that follow in 

Section 8. 


S ECTION 2: M ETHODOLOGY 

THE OVERALL REVIEW PROCESS 

There is large volume of literature on values in education and in the curriculum. 

Fortunately, the requirements for this contract narrow down the range of literature that 

needs to be reviewed to the most recent research literature in national curriculum policy 

and practice, current and developing school practices, and what are considered to be the 

best ways to address values in a national curriculum statement. However, in order to do 

this well the research team has felt it necessary to examine in some depth the Aotearoa 

New Zealand context for a genuinely Aotearoa New Zealand statement about values in the 

curriculum. 

In the initial phase of the literature review, the extensive literature base built up by Keown 

(2004) in the scoping report was reviewed. Key sources such as Halstead and Taylor 

(1996); Le Metais (1997); Taylor (1998); Hooper (2003); Keown (2003) were used as 

starting points to identify and review key literature sources. This early work on the 

literature relevant to this project established the areas in which there is a rich literature 

base, and areas in which the literature base is thin. The gap areas identified in this 

process were: Māori values, Pasifika values; Asian values; the values of each of the 

essential learning areas on the New Zealand Curriculum; and the values of recent national 

and state curricula. 

The three researchers in the project team then began working on finding quality literature 

in these gap areas and taking notes to fill out the information base of the weaker areas. In 

both the initial literature search work and in more detailed investigations taken to cover 

gap areas, the three researchers used the same methodology. 

GENERAL LITERATURE SEARCH CRITERIA. 

Firstly, in line with the contract requirements, date of publication was a key criterion. 

Literature searching was, in most cases, limited to documents written between 1994 - 

2004, though a limited number of seminal works from before this time have been used. 

These documents have only been reviewed where recent and current literature frequently 

refers to them as very important in the field or where they supply background in areas not 

adequately addressed in current literature accessed by the research team. 


Secondly, location and culture were important criteria. The review was limited to local 

Aotearoa New Zealand material and to material from nations geographically close to New 

Zealand, or similar to New Zealand in political, economic, social and economic terms. 

Thirdly, literature searching was conducted in limited content areas. The main areas 

researched were: values and community, values and culture, values and philosophy; 

values in the curriculum, values in education, curriculum policy and values. 

SEARCH METHODS 

The research team used a mix of search methods. Local, national and international online 

database searches were used to identify key educational books and journal articles. 

Institutional searches of universities, colleges and schools of education, wananga, and 

public/private training establishments used by MOE were undertaken. Some searching of 

government departments, business, community groups, NGO’s (non-government 

organizations) and other relevant sources was also employed. The researchers also 

identified leading scholars in the field and used search techniques to source key 

publications of these scholars. Special attention was given throughout to ensure that 

diverse cultural and ethnic sources were located. Searching also focussed on ensuring 

that the wide range of philosophies and approaches to be found in the values and values 

in the curriculum fields were included. 

DEFINITIONS AND KEY CONCEPTS 

This literature review is focused on values in the curriculum. Primarily, this review 

investigates values in a national curriculum, in this case the national curriculum for 

Aotearoa New Zealand. Curricula operate at a number of levels within an education 

system, from the national curriculum at the overall framework level, to the individual 

learning area curricula and competency or skill curricula contained within the framework. In 

its broadest sense, curriculum also includes the curriculum of individual schools and 

individual classrooms, although these are not the primary focus of this review. The focus 

on values in the curriculum in this review means it is important to clearly define the terms 

‘values’, ‘curriculum’ and ‘values in the curriculum.’ 

VALUES 

One working definition of values widely accepted in the UK and adopted by the Values 

Education Study in Australia is that of Halstead and Taylor, “Values are principles, 


fundamental convictions, ideals, standards or life stances which act as general guides to 

behaviour or as reference points in decision-making or the evaluation of beliefs or 

action…” (1996, p. 5). 

However, Brian Hill (2004) considers this to be a relatively narrow definition with a strong 

cognitive focus which minimises motivational aspects of values. His preferred definition is 

“the priorities individuals and societies attach to certain beliefs, experiences and objects, in 

deciding how they shall live and what they shall treasure” (p. 4). 

Gilbert and Hoepper cite Rokeach (1973) who defines a value as “an enduring belief that a 

particular mode of conduct (being courageous, honest, loving, obedient, etc.) or a state of 

existence (peace, equality, freedom, pleasure, happiness) is personally and socially 

desirable” (1996, p. 59). 

After surveying extensive international and New Zealand literature (including - Halstead & 

Taylor,1996; Taylor, 1998; Splitter, 1996; Hill, 1994; Ministry of Education, New Zealand 

Curriculum Framework (NZCF) 1993; Department of Education, 1977 the National 

Consultation Group (NCG) adopted the following definition: 

Values are internalised sets of beliefs or principles of behaviour held by 

individuals or groups. They are expressed in the way people think and act. They 

are based on our cultural, religious, philosophic and spiritual traditions, and on 

current critical reflection, dialogue and debate ( NCG statement, 2004; NZCF, 

1993). 

There are often questions about the difference between, values and attitudes and beliefs. 

The Ministry of Education (1997; 1999) has attempted to define these in recent curriculum 

documents, (see Social Studies in the New Zealand Curriculum, (1997) pp 56-58; Health 

and Physical Education, (1999) pp 56-7). Beliefs are defined as principles, propositions 

and ideas accepted as true (especially without positive proof), which are often based on 

some knowledge or experience (beliefs about things) or on faith (belief in things). Values, 

on the other hand, are considered as more abstract and more generalised principles by 

which we judge ideas, actions and events. New Zealand curriculum documents define 

them as “a person’s principles or standards: judgments of what is valuable or important in 

life” (Ministry of Education, 1999, p. 57). In the context of the subject under discussion, in 

this report we could perhaps scale this up to values (in a curriculum) are a nation’s 


principles or standards: judgments of what is valuable or important in life and in the 

education of young people. 

Attitudes in the New Zealand curriculum documents are defined as “a disposition to think 

or act in a certain way” (Ministry of Education, 1999, p. 56). Some have described attitudes 

as a pre-disposition to act in a particular way. Attitudes are often considered to be based 

on, or underpinned by, values and beliefs. Some claim that often, the underlying values 

on which people’s attitudes and actions are based remain unexamined and individuals 

may not really know what deep-seated beliefs and values shape their attitudes and actions 

(Shaver & Strong, 1976). 

Recent values writers, such as Hill (1994; 2004), suggest that values is the big concept 

and that values includes elements of belief, attitude and disposition. This is the position 

we adopt in this report. 

There are a number of different types of values, each with their own associated concepts 

and ideas. Aesthetic values are related to ideas and concepts such as beauty and 

symmetry; economic values to efficiency and productivity; intellectual values to truth and 

clarity; political values to justice and freedom; environmental values to ecological harmony 

and sustainability; moral values to ideas and concepts of right actions toward other people 

such as respect, care, and integrity (Gilbert & Hoepper, 1996, p. 60). Values types or 

groups are often inter-related and overlapping. 

There is often confusion about what kinds of values are included in a curriculum. For 

many, the main focus is on moral values: the values surrounding what is worthwhile and 

desirable, what is good and bad in life and living. However, moral behaviour is just one of 

the many realms of values as illustrated above. The wide range of values types such as 

those above, but also including technical, religious (spiritual) and social values, means that 

each and every area of a curriculum is affected by values. 

CURRICULUM 

What is meant by the word ‘curriculum’ is arguably much better understood. The Values in 

the Curriculum (ViC) project has adapted material from NZCF to form a working definition 

of the curriculum as: 


… a framework for learning and assessment which provides direction in the form of 

principles, aims and outcomes. It identifies key content for learning including 

knowledge, competencies and values. It is the basis for planning and action and is 

used by schools and teachers to implement learning programmes (Adapted from 

Ministry of Education, 1993, pp 3-4 by Keown, Parker & Tiakiwai, 2005a). 

VALUES IN A CURRICULUM 

Taylor (1998) defines “values in education” as “the values which a school adopts,” and this 

can apply equally to the curriculum at a national level. Values in a curriculum can be 

thought of as the values that a curriculum adopts. These can have a number of 

dimensions. 

Firstly, the values that the curriculum adopts will include the values conveyed in the aims, 

purposes and principles of the curriculum. They will also be evident in the structure of the 

curriculum and in its content. For example, the values will be evident in the choice of 

learning areas or subjects for the curriculum, and will also be expressed in the learning 

processes, the skills and competencies, chosen. The values of any specific curriculum 

can be explicit and fully acknowledged and explained, or they can be implicit, not 

explained and remain somewhat hidden. 

Some curricula have quite specific values learning goals. Some national curricula have 

particular parts of their curriculum that focus on values learning. Some, for example the 

Philippines, include values education directly as a learning area within the curriculum. 

Some include somewhat broader subjects that focus on values, such as personal, social 

and moral education in the UK National Curriculum prior to 2000. In some curricula, 

particular learning areas such as civics and citizenship, carry a strong values emphasis. 

Even when there is not a subject specifically addressing values, particular learning areas 

may be seen as values education carrier subjects. In New Zealand, Social Studies has 

long been considered an important values subject within the curriculum and recently 

Health and Physical Education and Environmental Education have also been seen as 

important sites in the curriculum for values learning. 

Taylor (1998) points out that a wide variety of values curriculum experiences are included 

in national curriculum documents and/or in the curricula of individual schools. She lists 


these as: spiritual, moral, social and cultural education; personal and social education; 

religious education; multicultural/anti-racist education; and citizenship, environmental and 

health education. She suggests that whole school experiences such as pastoral care, 

school ethos, wider community links, assemblies, and the life of the school as a learning 

community are also values curriculum experiences. Taylor observes that such 

experiences can focus on substantive values such as honesty and respect, and on 

process values such as reflection and caring. 

Thus, values in the curriculum operate at three main levels. At one level, the values are 

high level values related to the choices made about the overall structure and content of the 

curriculum. At a second level, curricula can identify values learning goals or outcomes that 

are expected across the whole curriculum. At a third level, values are focused on, and/or 

are implicit in, particular learning areas, subjects, and skill and competency dimensions of 

a curriculum. 

At all levels, the values of a curriculum are likely to reflect the values and structures of 

society and the education system. They will be influenced by the values of the educational 

philosophies and policy frameworks of the day as well as the current values and concerns 

of the society within which the curriculum is developed and set. 


S ECTION 3: N EW Z EALAND L ITERATURE - V ALUES IN NZ S OCIETY 

VALUES IN THE CURRICULUM: AN AOTEAROA NEW ZEALAND FRAME. 

Values in the curriculum implicitly and directly affect all members of Aotearoa New 

Zealand schooling communities. As was outlined earlier, education in Aotearoa remains, 

for the most part, bonded to key Western values. However, what values in the curriculum 

mean for the diverse groups of peoples within Māori, Pākehā, Pacific, Asian and other 

schooling communities in Aotearoa is also important if the often expressed educational 

values of equity and equality of opportunity, and bicultural and multicultural attentiveness 

are to be given substance. 

The complexity of values in relation to culture and ethnicity in Aotearoa New Zealand is 

well illustrated by Webster (2001). Work on the values of people in the Aotearoa New 

Zealand population over a number of years has been recorded and examined by the New 

Zealand Values Study operating under the auspices of the World Values Study and 

summarised by Webster in his book Spiral of Values. Webster’s analysis of the New 

Zealand data suggests that there are seven distinct values groupings in New Zealand. He 

describes these as: Māori-Māori; Māori-New Zealander; Pākehā; New Zealander; 

European; Pacific Islander and Asian. 

This review examines literature on values in four of the most significant ethnic and cultural 

contexts of the New Zealand population. It begins by considering the Pākehā, or New 

Zealand European, context and in three further sub-sections reviews Māori, Pacific and 

Asian values perspectives and contexts. The second to fourth subsections raise questions 

about the Western values that tend to saturate curricula in Aotearoa and probes the extent 

to which the values perspectives of non-Western communities in Aotearoa New Zealand 

might be addressed in a mainstream school curriculum. 

We need to qualify what follows by pointing out that this is a vast and complex field and 

the time and resources available to our team limit the scope of what we have been able to 

cover. Further, while two of the authors of this report are of Pākehā/European ethnicity 

and one of Māori ethnicity, none of the authors are of Pacific, Asian or other ethnicities 

discussed in the report. What follows, then, is a summary of the literature on values that is 

already written down by Aotearoa New Zealand writers of Pākehā, Māori, Pacific and 

Asian descent we were able to access. We have attempted to identify key points 


important for the main issue addressed in this report – what should be said about values in 

the New Zealand school curriculum. It is acknowledged that much about values in the 

curriculum from different perspectives is yet to be written down, and it is probable that 

much of the work that Māori, Pacific, Asian and other peoples do with and for schools in 

Aotearoa is informed by culturally specific educational values that are not fully addressed 

in this report. 

PĀKEHĀ AND WESTERN VALUES 

For over 150 years after 1800, most people who migrated to New Zealand were from 

Britain (England, Scotland, Wales) and Ireland. This pattern of migration continued until 

the 1960s, when Pacific migration to New Zealand accelerated. While New Zealand has 

become much more multicultural since the Second World War, in the year 2001 "about 

seven of ten New Zealanders had an exclusively European background" (Phillips, 2005). 

Furthermore, Pākehā culture is very pervasive in New Zealand society. Michael King 

notes: 

the dominant realities of New Zealand life, however, are still those of mainstream 

Pākehā culture, in which almost every citizen has to participate in order to be 

educated, secure employment, play sport and engage in most other forms of 

recreation (King, 2003, p. 515). 

The number of European New Zealanders born in Europe is now relatively small - less 

than 10% of the total population. In spite of this, there is much about the way New 

Zealanders of European heritage think, feel and act that remains strongly rooted in the 

cultures, ideas and values of the Europe. As one commentator has noted, “geographically 

they are halfway round the world, but culturally Australia and New Zealand are next-door 

neighbours of Great Britain and Canada,” (Baker, 2005 p. 28). Michael King (1985) 

reflected that, although he was a third generation New Zealander: 

my generation ... was not allowed to forget where we had come from. But 

consciousness of our Irish and Scottish origins was diluted by the passage of time 

and by the wider British and European and reference points impressed on us by 

secondary and tertiary education. In spite of all this, the values we learned and, the 

things that gave us cohesion as a family and as a community were those derived 

from the Irish and Catholic ingredients of our background,” (King, 1985, p. 182). 


Most Pākehā families would have similar strong values, links to their relatively recent 

European roots, even if the nature of these influences is not discussed very often. 

Pākehā children general feel at home in New Zealand schools. This is to be expected as 

the New Zealand school system is largely a transplant from Europe and therefore the 

match between the culture and values of schools and that of Pākehā children is a close 

one. English is the medium of instruction and most the teachers are Pākehā. Pākehā 

young people are generally successful in the schooling system. A relatively high 

proportion (87.6%), leave secondary school with a formal qualification. The comparisons 

for other student groups addressed in this report are: Māori, 66.6%; Pasifika 75.2% and 

Asian 92.0% (Ministry of Youth and Development, 2005) 

Western Values 

The culture and values of European New Zealanders are based on Western value 

systems. Western values are often traced back to Judeo-Christian religious traditions and 

Greek and Roman philosophic and legal traditions. Values such as honesty, individual 

rights, and respect for property are derived from these sources. The Judeo-Christian 

heritage holds the belief that there is one God, who created the universe and is master 

over it and that human beings were created as free agents with the ability to chose 

between good and evil. It holds too, that the relationship between people should be based 

upon love, respect and understanding and that all individuals, regardless of their 

background, are deserving of care and respect. 

Below five major values clusters of Western thinking are outlined. These clusters have 

developed over time and will continue to be adapted and changed into the future. Each 

cluster contains within it a number of associated values, ideas and concepts. These could 

be developed into a longer list of Western values, but as such lists are explored in other 

parts of this report, they are not discussed further here. This summary of Western values 

is based on the work of a number of authors but is primarily drawn from Baugh (1991). 

1. The individual rights and equality cluster. A strong belief in natural rights is very 

powerful in Western societies. This view holds that all persons have certain rights 

whether or not this is recognized by the government of the country in which they live. 

These rights are inalienable, and all persons share the same rights to life, liberty and 


property and pursuit of happiness. The Magna Carta (signed in 1215) is often cited 

as the document which provided protection of individual liberties and other rights 

such as due process, no taxation without representation, and equality of rights 

before the law. However, much of the detail was developed by enlightenment 

thinkers in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. More recently, the United 

Nations, (1948) Declaration of Human Rights and consequent changing attitudes, 

now recognize that discrimination is a vice which should no longer be tolerated. 

Greater equality for all citizens is now enshrined in laws prohibiting discrimination 

based upon race, gender or religion. 

2. The social contract responsibility cluster. This value cluster focuses on the 

relationship between people and in and through society. These, the western heritage 

suggests, should be based upon love, respect and understanding and the idea that 

all individuals, regardless of their background, are deserving of care and respect. 

Thus cluster involves the idea that we are not just a collection of individuals with 

individual rights, but that in the public social realm we need to behave in a way that 

aids the common good. The enlightenment thinker, John Locke, believed that 

people unite in society for the mutual preservation of their lives, liberty and estates. 

Because of the conflicts which invariably arise in any society, Locke believed that 

there should be a written law to decide controversies and an established judicial 

system to punish transgressions. Rousseau suggested that in this, there is an 

implied agreement, or contract, wherein all citizens agree to be responsible and 

bound by the laws of society. Yet, while agreeing to be so bound, the citizens still 

retain many individual liberties. 

The laws of a nation reflect the values of the citizens of that society. Laws defining 

criminal behaviour in Western society have their roots in the ancient societies of 

Greece and Rome, and the Judeo-Christian and Anglo-Saxon heritages. Behaviour 

such as treason, murder, wounding, assault, rape and theft have always been 

unacceptable in Western society. At times, a variety of activities such as 

drunkenness, adultery, gaming, idleness, and lying have also been outlawed. Many 

laws promote ideals which are deemed to be good for our entire society. Writing 

human rights ideals into law as mentioned above is part of this. 


3. The democracy cluster. There is a very strong belief in democracy in Western 

values. This concept links together the rights and responsibilities ideas above. In 

Western thinking, those who rule are bound by the same responsibilities and rights 

as these who are ruled. Developments flowing from the Magna Carta and the 

Enlightenment are the source of this value. Locke argued that legitimate authority is 

derived from the consent of the people, setting the foundation for the strong Western 

belief in the value of democracy. What kind of democracy should operate at various 

levels in society, is however, often vigorously contested. The strong idea in Western 

thinking that people have to deserve or earn respect and the right to have authority 

is linked to this belief in democracy and equality. 

4. The belief in reason cluster. The Enlightenment thinkers promoted reason as a 

guide for proper living and rejected many superstitions and religious traditions. 

Since this time, Western societies have become increasingly secular. While religion 

is still important to many, reason, education, science and technology are, by and 

large, seen as much more important in addressing social or political problems and 

issues. Advances in scientific and technical knowledge have developed rapidly in 

the last three centuries and, as a result, there is less reliance on faith and an 

increased belief that the world is a logical place. The Enlightenment belief in the 

virtue of reason, education and natural rights, and that people and societies can and 

should improve their lot over time, is a strong Western value. 

5. The market and capitalism cluster. Another very strong value in Western society, 

linked to belief in individualism and rights is the concept of property and wealth 

accumulation. The free, unrestricted exchange of goods and services in an open 

market is highly valued in Western societies. This is often linked with values of hard 

work and individual effort. Those who work hard and are successful should be able 

to reap the rewards of greater benefits in wealth and lifestyle. 

There can be difficult clashes between some of these values. For example, individual 

rights values often conflict with common good and responsibility values. Some believe the 

current strong commitment to free market capitalism and consumerism is overpowering 

social contract and common good values, and creating a kind of moral isolationism where 

everyone is concerned solely for self. The desire for personal gain, some suggest, is 


causing Westerners to forget the ideals of the past, ignore the future and live only for 

themselves. 

Interestingly, this list does not include a strong value on nature, the earth or the 

environment. Many writers, particularly environment and cultural authors, have noted that 

Western attitudes toward nature and the environment tend to come well after their interest 

in individual rights and the market economy. Ritchie (1992), in his work with Māori on 

resource management issues, observed that four key Western values seemed to dominate 

Pākehā discussion. Most of these link closely to the framework outlined by Baugh (1991). 

Ritchie listed the key Pākehā values in this context as: Secular Materialism – the spiritual 

is not important and not relevant in the “real” world, whereas material wealth is important; 

Individualism - individual effort, drive and optimism are the key to success ; Egalitarianism 

– it is important to be fair and equal in dealings with all – there should be no special 

treatment for anyone outside the majority; Democratism - authority is bestowed through an 

electoral process; Majortarianism - majority dominance, majority rules, what the strongest 

group wants goes (Ritchie, 1992, pp. 81-84). 

Pākehā Values 

Some have asked if there are unique Pākehā values, that is, New Zealand European 

values that are uniquely values of Aotearoa New Zealand Pākehā. Ethnic identity labels 

are often contested. Exactly what we mean in using the label “Pākehā” is an issue in itself, 

(King, 1989; 1991; Bell, 1996). In this document we use the term Pākehā in a broad sense 

as people of European descent who consider themselves as New Zealanders. 

King (1991) notes "curiously, we know far less about the development of the attitudes and 

values of Pākehā New Zealand then we should” (p. 7 ) King suggests we know a great 

deal about the 19th and 20th century Māori and about Dalmatian, Chinese, Indian, Jewish 

and Lebanese migration to New Zealand. However, we actually know a lot less about the 

origins and motivations of mainstream Pākehā migration from Britain and about “the 

baggage - cultural, spiritual, emotional, psychological - that these people bought with 

them” (p. 7). He suggests we know even less about how their attitudes and values 

changed as a consequence of interaction with the new land, with Māori, and with other 

settlers. 


King (2003) attempts to fill in some of the gaps. He notes that a number of aspects of New 

Zealand culture linked to the attitudes and values of the early Pākehā settlers are still 

evident in the present. He includes in this the notion that the country is special, and has 

features that the rest of the world could learn from - New Zealand as “God's own”. The 

man alone ideal, and the hunting-shooting-fishing ethic is strong. Bach culture based on 

“a strong desire to live simply on the margin between land and sea,” is a feature of New 

Zealand. The highly practical “do-it-yourself tradition of home maintenance” lives on. 

There is, what King calls a “fiercely egalitarian instinct” in Pākehā New Zealand, which 

prefers to see resources spread widely and equitably through the community. There is 

also, he suggests, an acceptance of strong reactions from dissenting individuals or groups 

in the face of authority. He also identifies a strong preference for informality at social 

occasions and in social situations (King, 2003, pp. 508-09). 

King further argues that Pākehā New Zealanders value discretion and tact and do not 

approve of talking loudly and a long about one's own affairs and exploits. They think it is 

important to be able to take a hint and sense an attitude as much from what is not said, as 

from what is. He points out that Pākehā New Zealand heroes and heroines epitomise 

modesty, doing practical good in the world, support of humanitarian and conservation 

causes, being reticent, strong, dependable, unboastful, good-humoured, and accepting 

responsibility quietly with patience and grace (King, 2003, pp. 509-510). 

One essential ingredient of Pākehā-ness, for King, is the acceptance of the worth of things 

Māori and being affected by Māori things such as Māori concepts, values, language and 

relationships. King claims that more than 160 years of working together around the Treaty 

of Waitangi, particularly over the last 25 years, has resulted in what might be called a 

“mutuality of respect.” He claims that both cultures have borrowed richly from each other 

and that Pākehā culture has changed some of the features of its European and Western 

cultural origin. He gives examples such as the wide acceptance of words and concepts 

such as mana, tapu, whānau, taonga, haka, turanagawaewae and attitudes such as the 

tradition of hospitality (manaakitanga). He suggests that ways of doing business and 

conducting affairs in New Zealand show an increase in the willingness to talk issues 

through and reach consensus in preference to dividing into groups for and against a given 

motion, (Hui and Kotahitanga). He also suggests that rites of passage have changed, 


such as the greater loosening up and informality in modern Pākehā funeral services after 

experience of Tangitanga, (King, 2003, pp. 514-515). 

VALUES DIFFERENCES WITHIN PĀKEHĀ 

As with any large group in society, there are in fact considerable differences in identity and 

values within the broad group, Pākehā. Webster (2001) found three distinctive groups of 

people among those who were of European heritage (78% of his New Zealand Values 

Study sample). Around 25% identified as Pākehā, 18% as European, and a large group 

(around 35%) as New Zealanders. 

The group identifing itself as Pākehā, was more traditionally religious and held more 

traditional sexual mores than the sample as a whole. People in this group were strong on 

parental authority and not in favour of special Māori rights and indeed appear somewhat 

alienated from Māori. They were strongly individualistic, and on the need for individual 

responsibility. They saw democracy as equality and considered government should 

provide work and support to those who need help. This group had moderate trust in 

others and appears as quite conservative and somewhat different from the concept of 

Pākehā held by writers like King (1991; 2003) and Bell (1996) who see Pākehā as those 

who identify as having a special relationship with Māori through the Treaty. In Webster’s 

data, this kind of Pākehā seems to be in the New Zealander group. 

The distinctive values of the European group in Webster’s data were that they were non- 

religious and strongly non-violent in their views. They appeared more elitist and were 

strongly against special rights for anyone. They were strongly technology oriented, and 

scored lower on national pride. They were quite traditional in their views on authority. This 

group appears to be those who most strongly identify with Europe as a geographic entity. 

Values particularly strong in the large New Zealand group were a strong belief in 

secularism, and in the importance of self-motivation. This group was strongly non-violent 

and highly environmentalist in their views. They were very centrist politically and 

committed to democratic relationships and broad participatory communities. They 

expected people to be competent and stand on their own feet, and were, therefore, largely 

against wealth redistribution. This group had a strong pride in New Zealand and in being 

New Zealanders. 


MĀORI VALUES 

Background 

Māori are the indigenous people of Aotearoa New Zealand. After reviewing the 

scholarship around the subject, King (2003) settles on the thirteenth century as the most 

likely date for the arrival of significant numbers of Māori in Aotearoa (King, 2003, p. 51). 

King notes that while the people who arrived at this time were Polynesian, by the time 

European navigators arrived in the 17 th and 18 th centuries they met a people and a culture 

that had evolved in New Zealand, the Māori. 

Values for Māori imply much more than a number of set phrases or choice words that can 

be plucked from a list and utilised within certain contexts. For Māori, values imply intrinsic 

beliefs and ways of doing and knowing things that inform how and why certain practices 

and approaches are followed. To ask Māori the question – What are Māori values? – is in 

essence to question what and who Māori are. Nevertheless, Māori have been and are 

expected to define, describe and articulate meaning to their cultural values in order for 

non-Māori to gain greater cognisance of how Māori think and shape their approach to the 

world. 

In this context, this section seeks to identify and provide some understanding of Māori 

values, and specifically of how Māori values might operate within an education curriculum 

setting. It should be noted that Māori values traverse the range and breadth of Māori 

cultural experience. As such, it is not uncommon for a value to have similar meaning 

across different settings. However, the way values are applied distinguishes the context 

and meaning of such value. Pere (1997) notes that values gain more meaning for Māori 

when they are put into action rather than just being talked about. It is an important point 

when considering the role Māori values might play within a curriculum framework and can 

ensure the difference between what might be perceived as a token gesture of inclusion to 

a meaningful way of incorporating tangata whenua ways of knowing and believing into a 


When examining the literature on Māori values, a common theme emerges. This theme is 

not so much about the identification of Māori-specific values, rather, it is an underlying 

theme that in articulating and attempting to understand Māori values, it is important to 


ecognise that Māori values exist in very context-specific settings. Royal (1998) refers to 

this in the following way: 

Concerning all of these concepts, it is important to remember that they reside in all 

beings located in the whakapapa of Te Ao Marama. This is their true context and 

they are not to do with human beings alone (p. 5). 

Māori Marsden (2001) refers to this as the interconnectedness of Māori values, where the 

function and purpose of one value is dependent upon the application and correct 

interpretation of another. Much of this dependency is based on ensuring a balance 

between the spiritual world or domain and that of the natural or mankind domain. Simply 

put, values coexist to ensure balance and harmony between these realms. Te Arawa kuia, 

Bubbles Mihinui (2002), agrees, stating that the maintenance of balance between all things 

is a primary function of Māori values. 

Bearing this in mind, the identification of Māori values below is based on the following 

protocols: 

1. The identification of a Māori value in an article/context; 

2. The acknowledgement of the existence of the Māori value in a number of 

contexts/articles (even if the interpretation or meaning of the value was different); 

and 

3. The verification of the Māori value by a Māori author. 

This last approach was deliberately applied to ensure that the value was interpreted 

correctly from within a Māori paradigm or setting (Smith, 1999). Writers such as Ritchie 

(1992) discuss Māori values from a bicultural perspective. However, Māori authors – 

particularly when discussing key cultural concepts – suggest that understanding Māori 

values implies a much deeper understanding of Māori culture (Pewhairangi, 2001; 

Rangihau, 2001). 

It should also be noted that the values described on the following pages will not be the 

only values known and utilised by Māori. It is acknowledged that the list of Māori values is 


indeterminate and for some, Māori values cannot simply be written down and understood. 

As Ngoi Pewhairangi (2001) states: 

Only certain people can teach. It’s like the Pākehā system. Only certain people 

can teach law, and certain people become statesmen. The same with the Māori. 

Only certain people, certain families, inherit these different aspects of our 

Māoritanga and are entitled to pass them on (p. 11). 

Similarly, John Rangihau (2001) cautions against people being too eager to learn about 

intrinsic Māori values without necessarily having an understanding of the depth and 

breadth of meaning such values entail. 

It is with these cautions in mind that attempting to define Māori values becomes 

problematic in an exercise such as this. While Rangihau and Pewhairangi acknowledge 

the importance of defining Māori values in order to understand them, their concern is to 

ensure that the essence of such values is not lost in the process. To them, such values 

connote strong and very real links to the past which have helped shape Māori values and 

how Māori themselves see and view the world. To try and manage these complexities 

within the space of this section it is recognised that the defining of Māori values could be 

seen as superficial. That is not the intention, but rather, the intention is to identify Māori 

values that are most commonly known and/or used across a range of contexts in New 

Zealand in order to better contextualise Māori values from a Māori perspective. The aim is 

to provide the reader with a glimpse into the multiple layers of meanings that each value 

entails and to provide an opportunity to understand the complex nature and belief systems 

that underline Māori values. 

Māori values articulated by Māori writers 

Aroha. Pere (1997) describes aroha as “an important concept in regard to the survival 

and true strength of whānaungatanga (kinship ties) [and a] quality that is essential to the 

survival and well-being of the world community” (p. 6). Aroha connotes goodwill and 

caring, placing emphasis on the relationships people have with each other. The 

application of aroha can be as simple as sharing a plate of food (the practice of caring). 

Mauri. As noted by Pere (1997), mauri is a difficult concept to translate or explain in 

English due to its abstract nature. It is seen as both an animate and inanimate object that 


exists in everyone and everything and is often described as a life force. Mason Durie 

(1998) agrees, noting that the distinction between animate and inanimate objects is often 

blurred because “each is afforded a spiritual existence which complements the physical 

state” (p. 23). In a spiritual context, one of the pre-eminent chiefs of the South Island 

tribes, Teone Taare Tikao distinguishes wairua from mauri where wairua emanates from or 

comes out of a physical body (such as a human) whereas mauri “remains within a person 

in the soul or seat of intelligence” (Beattie, 1990, p. 76). 

Marsden(2001) states that mauri manifests itself in a number of ways to distinguish its 

relationship between animate and inanimate objects. He comments: 

Whilst all the created order partook of mauri (life force, ethos) by which all things 

cohere in nature, in human beings this essence was of a higher order and was 

called mauriora (life principle) (p. 121). 

Understanding these two dimensions is what Rangihau (2001) believes is an 

understanding to maintain the essence and balance of mauri. Rangihau states that mauri, 

and its maintenance is working to ensure imbalance is not created. For example, Māori 

hold a particular worldview in relation to the environment that seeks to preserve or 

conserve the environment, because if the environment is not preserved or conserved an 

imbalance is created, thus unsettling or disrupting the mauri. According to Rangihau, the 

reasons for such understanding stem from Māori understanding and knowledge of the 

creation myths which situates Māori knowledge within a context that acknowledges both 

spiritual and physical dimensions. 

Rangihau (2001) also states that the way mauri is applied and practised has implications 

of which the user must be aware. To explain this, he cites the example about determining 

when a younger person (such as a son or nephew) is able to speak on the marae, saying: 

… every time you give of yourself, you are starting to lose some of the aura (mauri), 

some of the life force, which you have for yourself … This is the real reason behind 

not allowing the young man to speak before the father dies. Because it is possible 

that he will take some of the mauri that rightly belongs to the father (p. 12). 

Ensuring that mauri is balanced implies an understanding of the implications when mauri 

becomes unbalanced. Writing in the context of the Māori relationship with the 


environment, Durie (1998) states that damage to animate and inanimate objects can 

cause not only physical but also spiritual damage and has the ability to impact on the 

mauri of other objects (people included). Mutu (2002) also discusses the impact when 

mauri is disturbed or inadequately protected or looked after. In the context of the role of 

kaitiaki, Mutu cites Te Whānau Moana and Ngati Kahu kaumatua, McCully Matiu, noting 

that “tangata whenua are warned of the onset of the depletion of mauri of their ancestral 

lands when the characteristics of the hau kainga 1 start to change as they do with any 

major development” (p. 88). 

Ihi. Ihi has been described as being a “vital force or personal magnetism which, radiating 

from a person, elicits in the beholder a response of awe and respect” (Marsden, 2001, p. 

118). Marsden goes on to state that ihi is a psychic force, as opposed to a spiritual force. 

Mana. Similar to mauri, mana is multi-faceted in its meaning and application. Pere (1997) 

further defines mana as mana atua – which acknowledges the “absolute uniqueness of the 

individual” (p.14). Mana has been translated in a number of other contexts, such as mana 

motuhake, which can be defined as absolute power. Marsden (2001) states that mana 

denotes spiritual authority which distinguishes it from the physical force of ihi. Specifically, 

Marsden states that, because authority is a spiritual gift from the gods, man is always the 

“agent or channel – never the source of mana” (p. 119). 

Attached to authority within the context of mana is the notion of power. According to 

Marsden, it is important to recognise that authority and power (through mana) require the 

recognition of one’s limitations (either spiritual or delegated). Failure to do so will result in 

an inability to control power and thus loss of authority, or mana. Te Whānau Moana and 

Ngati Kau kaumatua, McCully Matiu (cited in Mutu, 2002) also refer to the consequences 

of misuse of mana: 

Human beings who are descended from the gods are likewise imbued with mana 

although that mana can be removed if violated or abused. There are many forms 

and aspects of mana, of which one is the power to sustain life (p. 87). 

Increasingly, mana is used to mean status. Common examples refer to the mana of the 

All Blacks or other top sportspeople. However, in this context mana is referred to only in 

1 Mutu translates hau kainga as winds of home. 


terms of the power or authority that is prescribed by man as opposed to the spiritual 

authority delegated by the gods, as Marsden describes. This misapplication of the term 

mana thus undermines its meaning and application from a Māori perspective. Similarly, 

Marsden notes that early missionaries and anthropologists perpetuated the “incorrect idea 

[that] mana was the positive and tapu the negative aspect of some vague psychic or 

spiritual force” (pp. 120-121). 

Mason Durie (1998) acknowledges that mana connotes both worldly and ethereal 

meanings. However, using the application of mana as used in the 1835 Declaration of 

Independence, Durie defines mana as authority and control or Māori sovereignty. 

Wairua. Often translated as spirit or spiritual, wairua to Māori signifies a sense of being 

that is premised on maintaining balance and order, or positive and negative elements. 

Pere (1997) gives the example of water having wairua where water can both give life and 

take it away. The importance of wairua to Māori is not so much having it, but ensuring that 

its presence in one’s life is aligned with how one behaves and interacts with people and 

the environment. 

Whenua. The connection between Māori and the land is a taken for granted assumption 

to Māori and they numerous proverbs explaining this connection. This connection is both 

a physical and spiritual connection, based on the creation stories of Ranginui (Sky Father) 

and Papatuanuku (Earth Mother). These representations of Ranginui and Papatuanuku 

provide a physical reminder to Māori of their connection to the environment and the world 

around them. This is further entrenched with the offspring of Ranginui and Papatuanuku, 

who are viewed by Māori as the guardians of different environmental elements, including 

the sea (Tangaroa), the forest (and all things in it) (Tane Mahuta), the wind 

(Tawhirimatea), as well as elements such as cultivation (Haumiatiketike), war 

(Tumatauenga) and peace (Rongomatane). 

Aligned with this connection, is a sense of responsibility that Māori ensure the protection of 

these various elements. Similar to wairua, it is believed that upsetting the natural balance 

or order of these elements results in consequences to the individual. As such, practices or 

rituals are implemented to ensure that the balance of these elements is maintained. Many 

of these practices underline the Māori approach to conservation which, because of this 


spiritual connection to the elements, implies a greater need to maintain the balanced 

relationship to the elements than merely a conservatory practice. 

Whānaungatanga. Royal (1998) writes that whānaungatanga denotes the 

“interconnectedness of all things” (p.5). Rangihau (2001) describes whānaungatanga as a 

“strong feeling of kinship” shown through hospitality, reciprocity and caring for others 

(p.183). 

Tapu. Māori Marsden (2001) notes that tapu is the “sacred state or condition in which a 

person, place or thing is set aside by dedication to the gods and thereby removed from 

profane use” (p. 121). Noting that “tapu is secured by the sanction of the gods and 

reinforced by endowment with mana” Marsden reinforces the interrelationship between 

tapu and mana (p. 121). 

A common understanding or translation of tapu, is sacred. However, Ngoi Pewhairangi 

(2001) states that tapu is a difficult concept to describe, particularly to non-Māori or those 

who are not brought up to believe in tapu and the consequences of the breaking of tapu. 

Giving a number of examples, Pewhairangi states that it is important for a person to: 

… see the values of Māori culture and the tapu placed on things. He’s got to see it 

and see how Māori suffer through the breaking of tapu connected with all the 

culture. Then he’ll realise there is some value in tapu. (p. 11) 

Rangatiratanga. According to Royal (1998), rangatiratanga is concerned with leadership, 

which is defined as the “ability to bind (ranga) groups (tira) together” (p. 5). MacFarlane 

(2004) defines Rangatiratanga as holding and exercising status within any event or 

community. 

Kaitiakitanga. Often associated with discussions on the Māori relationship with the 

environment, kaitiakitanga according to Mason Durie (1998), suggests a “burden 

incumbent on tangata whenua…to be guardians of a resource or taonga” (p. 23). He goes 

on to say that the application or practise of kaitiakitanga is premised on a holistic 

approach, clear lines of accountability and a sense of obligation or duty to protect or 

reduce risk or harm being passed on to future generations. Mutu (2002) notes that 

kaitiakitanga has been interpreted legislatively as the “exercise of guardianship by the 


tangata whenua of an area in accordance with tikanga Māori in relation to natural and 

physical resources; and includes the ethic of stewardship” (p. 87). However, Mutu notes 

that Te Whānau Moana and Ngati Kahu Kaumatua, McCully Matiu defines kaitiaki quite 

differently: 

Kaitikaitanga is the role played by kaitikai. Traditionally, kaitiaki are the many 

spiritual assistants of the gods, including the spirits of deceased ancestors, who 

were the spiritual minders of the elements of the natural world…In Māori cultural 

terms, all the natural, physical elements of the world are related to each other, and 

each is controlled and directed by the numerous spiritual assistants of the gods. (p. 

87) 

Manaakitanga. Royal (1998) defines manaakitanga as the “mutual elevation of mana in 

an encounter scenario” (p. 5). Macfarlane (2004) describes manaakitanga as an “ethic of 

caring,” (p105). 

Kotahitanga. Denotes the unity of all things in the world (Royal, 1998, p. 5). Macfarlane 

(2004) suggests that Kotahitanga is where everybody contributes to the well-being of the 

group. 

Māori Values in Education 

The application of Māori values in educational settings has been debated on the premise 

that deeper understanding attached to such values is often lost during this process. For 

example, aroha has been cited as a value denoting love or friendship; tapu – sacred; noa 

– not sacred. Tribal sayings have been replicated or distorted to the extent that their 

original meaning and intention is lost, and cultural practices described as being archaic 

and sexist, without understanding what Pewhairangi and Rangihau have both described as 

the reasons or rules for why things are the way they are. Such examples add weight to 

Rangihau and Pewahirangi’s concerns about passing on detailed and indepth knowledge 

about Māori values. As Rangihau states, “people like to see and know about things in 

depth, without going through the whole process of learning, to allow them to appreciate it 

when they get the whole thing” (2001, p. 13). 

Pere understands the dilemmas attached to the sharing of such intrinsic Māori knowledge. 

However, she suggests in presenting her model of Te Whēke, that education is borderless 

where “institutions do not stand in isolation, but actually merge into each other” (1982, p. 


5). From this point, Pere advocates that sharing of information in this way will provide a 

deeper and greater understanding of Māori values and concepts and thus ensure their 

application in educational contexts in appropriate ways. 

There is debate as to who can apply such Māori values and who should not in educational 

settings. One argument for all to be responsible for the inclusion of Māori values in 

education is that it connotes a sense of ownership and responsibility by all concerned to 

ensure that Māori values have value, and are applicable in a variety of educational 

contexts. Certainly, this approach can be seen in school mottos and charter documents. 

Opponents of this approach suggest that some people, (usually but not always) non-Māori, 

appropriate Māori values to be seen to fulfilling the needs and wishes of the Māori 

community, but have little or no understanding, and little or no desire to understand their 

application or relevance in an educational setting. Penetito (1997) notes that it is 

important that Māori values, knowledge and cultural practices are reflected in the 

education system and curriculum. However, he states that it is important that Māori 

themselves make these decisions about inclusion because: 

… we also have to consider the way the system should recognise the 

connectedness of all things that are implicit in the Māori world view, without 

turning it into myths or something of less than practical use in the world in 

which we live … A way must be found, within the education system, to 

perpetuate morality as perceived through Māori eyes by recognising Māori 

knowledge, values, customs, and practices (p. 57). 

Another approach to the inclusion of Māori values within education is that expressed by 

Bishop and Glynn (1999). They favour a power sharing based model for educational 

settings, which places the onus on both Māori and non-Māori. In this way, they suggest, 

all parties can take ownership of and steps towards incorporating models that are culturally 

appropriate and responsive to Māori, particularly within mainstream settings. As they 

state, “power relations cannot change unless both parties participate” (p. 132). 

There are varying perspectives expressed by Māori in relation to whether and how Māori 

values could or should be incorporated into the curriculum and education system. It is 

important, however, to distinguish the Māori values identified in the last section, from the 

Māori values described in this next section, which are those values that have specific 


elevance to or have been utilised in the curriculum and educational settings. While many 

of the above values have been incorporated into curriculum documents, plans and profiles, 

it is necessary to highlight the subtle but distinct differences in how these Māori values are 

applied in such contexts. This is necessary because how Māori values are applied in 

educational settings and how they have been described thus far, suggests that some 

Māori values which are currently being used in this way are losing much rich, cultural 

meaning in the application of values in education. 

Ako. Bishop and Glynn (1999) refer to ako in an educational sense as meaning reciprocal 

learning. Specifically, this relates to the relationship that teachers and their students have, 

and denotes that in a reciprocal learning relationship teachers are not expected to know 

everything. In particular, ako suggests that each member of the classroom or learning 

setting brings knowledge with them from which all are able to learn. Thus, the teacher is 

not expected to be the fountain of all knowledge, and allows the student to be a part of the 

teaching process as well as the learning process. 

Tino rangatiratanga. Tino rangatiratanga is most commonly translated as meaning self- 

determination, although Durie (1998) notes that even this translation is problematic. 

Bishop and Glynn (1999) state that tino rangatiratanga in an educational context, refers to 

the realignment of power relations in schools, specifically in relation to the decision-making 

process. What Bishop and Glynn suggest is that Māori participation in the decision- 

making processes of the school ensures their ability to carry out or apply their tino 

rangatiratanga. They state that children and parents should equally be involved in this 

process. 

Cherrington (2000) views tino rangatiratanga from an educational perspective as 

“representing the need for indigenous people to being the mission, the kaupapa 

(philosophy) of their work within their own cultural value systems” (p. 32). In this way, 

Cherrington places tino rangatiratanga as a core value for Māori education. 

Wairua. In the context of a learning environment, Tapine and Waiti (1997) note that the 

wairua of learners is an important value. Specifically, they identify (through one of the 

contributors to their book) that wairua, as a value practised in learning environments, 


allows Māori children to grow and have confidence and pride in themselves “to achieve to 

the best of their ability” (p. 26). 

Te reo. Pere (1997) notes that language is the “lifeline and sustenance of a culture [which 

also serves to] transmit the values and beliefs of a people” (p. 9). Mutu (1998) agrees, 

stating that te reo provides a unique means of distinguishing identity for tribal groups and 

underscores a plethora of idioms and nuances specific to such groups. 

Tikanga. Durie (1998) notes that custom as a definition of tikanga “does not denote a 

static set of rules” (p. 21). He expands on this,, stating that tikanga are “guides to moral 

behaviour” which are often determined through consensual processes, based both on the 

issue at hand and on tribal precedents. According to Durie, tikanga “is as much a 

comment on process as it is on fixed attitudes or knowledge” (p. 23). 

Taonga. A misconception of taonga, which is often defined as treasure, is that it is an 

object thus implying notions of belonging and/or ownership. For Māori, taonga is more 

about their role in the safekeeping of all things precious and particularly highly prized 

resources. In this way, sayings such as “he taonga te mokopuna” (the grandchild is a 

treasure) denote a much stronger bond and responsibility for the protection of such 

treasures. Taonga was interpreted in Article Two of the Treaty of Waitangi as meaning 

other objects, which, in a Māori sense extends beyond physical objects and refers also to 

cultural properties such as language, land and family (Durie, 1998, p. 23). 

Bishop and Glynn (1999) state that a metaphoric meaning of taonga tuku iho, which they 

translate as cultural aspirations, is “the cultural aspirations Māori people hold for their 

children” (p. 11). 

Whakawhānaungatanga. Bishop and Glynn (1999) define whakawhānaungatanga after 

Bishop (1996), as being the process of establishing relationships in a Māori context. Used 

as a way of addressing Māori concerns about research, Bishop and Glynn maintain that 

relationships or whakawhānaungatanga – the way they are established, maintained and 

manifested – is a valid educational research tool that connects researchers with those they 

are researching, creating relationships that ensure accountability and commitment. This is 

manifested through whānau of interest research groups, whereby collaborative storying 


esults in a collective response to research – rather than that traditionally conducted or 

undertaken by researchers (Bishop, 2000). 

In a schooling context, Durie (1998) maintains that the notion of whānau is a “key 

ingredient of both kura kaupapa theory and practice” (p. 65). In particular, Durie notes that 

the success of kura kaupapa as a schooling approach is largely a result of the whānau 

method, which implies cultural obligations and normalises cultural practises. Similarly, 

Bishop (2000) notes that whānau contains “both values (cultural aspirations) and social 

processes (cultural practices)” (p.12). Durie also states that “whānau-derived pedagogies 

incorporate those cultural values and beliefs which facilitate learning such as 

manaakitanga (sharing and caring), aroha (respect), whakaiti (humility)” (p. 65). 

Furthermore, whānau models of authority and respect are utilised and manifested in 

relationships between students and between students and teachers. 

At a broader, more systemic level, Penetito (1997) states that there is a greater need to 

ensure connectedness for Māori learners. This connectedness is described as being 

related to the Creation story of Ranginui and Papatuanuku, and specifically denotes “the 

connectedness of the spiritual with the material; the connectedness of the individual 

person with the outside world and the larger whānau” (p. 56). Connectedness in this way 

aligns to the value of whakawhānaungatanga, in that it links Māori knowledge and Māori 

ways of knowing and doing things into the education system. 

PACIFIC PEOPLES AND VALUES 

Background 

Pacific peoples have been living, working, worshipping, and raising their families in 

Aotearoa since the 1950s. The first generation Pacific peoples “identified as members of 

families, villages, faiths, districts and [lastly]‘nations’” (Macpherson, 2001, p. 70). 

Macpherson goes on to claim that, upon arrival in New Zealand, these ways of identifying 

through familial/aiga connections and roles, began to change as the New Zealand-born 

Pacific population grew. The diversity of Pacifica peoples has often been subsumed under 

groupings such as Polynesian or Pacific Islander. As a way of identifying these 

differences, many of these Pacific peoples re-identified themselves through connections to 

land and ‘nation’ as Samoan, Tongan, Cook Island, Niuen, etc. Furthermore, Anae (2001) 

argues that the New Zealand born Pacific peoples now identify themselves in relation to 

their socialisation experiences within New Zealand society and schools, and to their 


particular cultural and ethnic experiences as Pacific New Zealanders. The range of ways 

of identifying as Pacific is broad, but for many of the reviewed writers, Pacific identities and 

values continue to live, and as such remain relevant to any consideration of values in the 

New Zealand Curriculum. 

New Zealand formal education has played, and continues to play, an integral role in the 

way values associated with identity, culture and ethnicity are made meaningful (or not) for 

all of its participants. Education in New Zealand has taught values to all students, but as 

Vaioleti (2001) points out, it has so far not actively made room for different Pacific notions 

of learning, knowledge and values to enter into the curriculum and classrooms. 

One then cannot talk meaningfully about education/schooling appropriate to all New 

Zealand students (as promised in the NZCF and other official documents) without 

understanding other peoples’ notions of education and the values that underpin 

them (Vaioleti, 2001, p. 14). 

Much of the literature reviewed for this section acknowledges values in passing (which is 

perhaps not so different from Pākehā/Papalagi mainstream literature?). Values are often 

framed as important factors that influence Pacific students learning, achievement, peer, 

and student-teacher relations. Diversity is the key value that is mentioned within this 

literature. When attempts are made to specifically detail ‘cultural values’, the result can 

often be a further homogenising of values into prepackaged sets of information. What is 

important is the teachers and students should have a rich understanding of diversity within 

learning communities rather than seeing diversity as adding colour to existing, or business 

as usual, practices. In sum, Alton-Lee’s Best Evidence report on quality teaching for 

diverse students drew attention to teacher values towards cultural difference. 

First, there is evidence elsewhere in this synthesis that many New Zealand teachers 

bring deficit views to their understanding of cultural difference. Second, there is 

evidence that pre-packed forms of information about 'other cultural groups' or 'other 

people's children' in teacher education can contribute to stereotyped teacher views 

that do not result in better teaching of diverse students (Epstein, 2001; Lawrence, & 

Daniel Tatum, 1997). Third, the increasing diversity of students in New Zealand 

schools by ethnicity, language, multiple ethnic heritages, recency of immigration, 

family structure and so on requires specific understandings of specific families and 

cultural contexts (Biddulph, Biddulph & Biddulph, 2003). Teachers having the 


means and the strategies to construct knowledge about, and to be culturally 

responsive to, learners within their everyday pedagogical practice is necessary for 

quality teaching (Bishop, Berryman, Tiakiwai & Richardson, 2003; Alton-Lee, 2003, 

p. 19). 

Any multi-cultural packaging of information about Pacific values may often affirm rather 

than challenge convenient stereotypes and counter quite well intentioned attempts to 

create inclusive schools (Alton-Lee, 2003). Further, cultural stereotypes can be supported 

by institutional knowledge that teachers are encouraged to adopt. In the case of multiple 

intelligence and learning style advocacy, teachers who value this way of understanding 

learners may limit learning engagements and opportunities, particularly for Māori and 

Pasifika students. Alton-Lee points out that stereotyping of Pacific and Māori learners as 

having ‘kinesthetic learning styles’ or as preferring rote learning to conceptual and 

academic engagement perpetuates inappropriately limiting classroom situations and does 

not address the needs of diverse students in schools. 

A further issue that underpins literature on Pacific peoples, is that of multiculturalism. The 

term, multiculturalism has not proved to be a galvanising term, since many attempts to 

include difference have often just added culture to a system that remained founded on 

Pākehā/Papalagi terms. When the term was introduced in the early 1970s, it was, 

according to Jenkins et al., (1994) merely another way to integrate Māori. Walker (1985) 

argued that multiculturalism, as it was then envisaged, did nothing for Māori, and 

amounted to a mere cover story. Māori educators and activists have worked to ensure 

that this cover story as been critiqued and that provisions for Māori education be informed 

by the Treaty and in accordance with Māori principles and values. Today, multiculturalism 

has resurfaced, but this time, many of the calls are from those communities of the Pacific 

who today remain poorly served by New Zealand’s education system. 

The Ministry of Education, Schools of Education and schools have begun to recognise the 

relevance of multiculturalism as New Zealand communities become more demographically 

diverse. Within the Pacific literature, multiculturalism is talked about as founded upon a 

commitment to biculturalism, rather than as a progression away from biculturalism. The 

title of a paper on research with second-generation Cook Islander New Zealanders, 

expresses the idea that Pacific peoples are “paddling a multicultural canoe in bicultural 


waters” (Underhill-Sem & Fitzgerald, 1996). McIntosh has explored the interconnections 

between Māori and Pacific peoples, acknowledging the “deep sharing of values and 

heritage” alongside a shared cultural connection to the Pacific. However, she also 

cautions that the social and political realities of daily life must also be connected to this 

resurgence. 

At a time when Māori and Pacific Island peoples’ cultures are experiencing a 

significant resurgence, when Māori protocol is adhered to at the highest of levels 

and when the South Pacific is celebrated in a number of ways, the social reality of 

our collective peoples is at its lowest ebb. For too many of our people, low 

educational achievement, unemployment, illness, poor mental health, poverty and 

prison life is what being a Māori or a Pacific Island person is all about. Steven 

Webster (1998) attests to the dangers of speaking of a culture as a whole way of life 

outside of its own political economic history. Our cultures are obviously vitally 

important to our physical and spiritual wellbeing, but to achieve our aspirations we 

need to ensure that our day-to-day struggles and the solutions to them are met with 

the same determination we give to our cultural concerns and considerations. 

Identity is a site of struggle – a struggle not only for cultural integrity and autonomy 

but for economic and political standing and for access to resources, power and 

knowledge (McIntosh, 2002, p. 153). 

There are distinct cultural differences between Māori and Pacific peoples, but there is also 

a shared history of the impacts of colonialism and a common language of connection and 

collectivism: both groups have unfairly shared in the low achievement levels afforded by 

New Zealand education (McIntosh, 2002; Vaioleti, 2001). For this reason, much of the 

writing about including Pacifica values within educational protocols, curriculum and 

knowledge systems is backgrounded by a concern to first improve access to relevant 

learning experiences, to extend the achievement levels of Pacific students, to enhance 

home-school-community connections, to provide Pacific people’s languages as legitimate 

subjects within the curriculum, and to ensure that schools are free from racism and 

inclusive of all students (Donn & Schick, 1995). 

According to the 2001 Census (Statistics NZ, 2002), one in sixteen (231, 801) New 

Zealanders identified their ethnicity as Pacific. Just over half of Pacific peoples were 

identified by census categories as Samoan, followed by Cook Island Māori and Tongan. 


Table 1. New Zealand Census Counts by Island Population Estimate 

Ethnicity New Zealand 

Census 

Count 

Island 

Population 

Estimate 

Samoan 115,017 170,900 

Cook Island Maori 52,569 19,300 

Tongan 40,716 99,400 

Niuean 20,148 1,900 

Tokelauan 6,204 1,500 

Tuvalu Islander 1,965 10,000 

(1) Estimate at mid 2001 prepared by the South Pacific Commission 

demographic / Population programme. 

(Source: Statistics NZ, 2002). 

It should be noted that census measures of ethnic affiliation are subject to changes in the 

way census questions are worded and categorised (although Statistics New Zealand claim 

that these changes have had a limited effect on measures of Pacific ethnicity between 

1996 and 2001), and aggregated measures of ethnicity may not represent changes in 

ethnic identification over time (Cook, Didham, & Khawaja, 2000). The complexities and 

heterogeneous ways of identifying ethnicity are exemplified by this comment from a 

Samoan, New Zealand-born woman: 

My mother was born in a village on Suvai’i and her mother was part Samoan, part- 

Chinese. My father was born in New Zealand and is Palagi. My mother met my 

father in New Zealand, and she has lived in New Zealand for most of her adult life. 

In the 1996 census, she identified herself as a New Zealander in the question on 

ethnicity. I identified myself as both Samoan and European. 

My husband is a Palagi of Scottish descent. My teenage daughter, who spent much 

of her early childhood in the Cook Islands when we were teachers there, recorded 

her ethnicity as Samoan, Cook Island Māori, and European. She identifies very 

closely with her Pacific heritage, and sees herself as much a Cook Islander as a 

Samoan (Bedford & Didham, 2000, p. 23). 

Bedford and Didham caution against the use of statistical markers to define Pacific 

populations, and cite the Ministry of Pacific Island Affairs’ (2000, p. 12) suggestion that 


young Pacific peoples have “taken hold of many aspects of their cultural heritage and 

redefined them for modern New Zealand” (p. 43). 

Taking into account Bedford and Didham’s precautions, the Pacific population in Aotearoa 

is considerably younger (median age of 21 years) than the general population (34.8 years) 

(Blick, 2003). In addition, those people aged less than 15 years in 2001, constituted a 

larger proportion of children within each Pacific ethnic group (larger than the proportion of 

children within the total New Zealand population). 

Tongan and Tokelauan children both comprised 43 percent of their respective 

populations in 2001, while the lowest proportion of children among the Pacific ethnic 

groups was recorded for the Fijian ethnic group, at 33 percent. This was 

considerably higher than the equivalent figure recorded for the total New Zealand 

population (23 percent). The corresponding proportions for the other profiled Pacific 

groups were: Cook Island Māori (42 percent), Niuean (41 percent), and Samoan 

and Tuvaluan (both 39 percent) (Blick, 2003p. ?). 

Anae (2001) has “trace[d] the identity journeys of a group of successful, inner-city, New 

Zealand-born Samoans, who despite the pressures of a formal education, changing 

personal social networks, ethnic intermarriage and upward mobility, remain committed to 

their Samoan identities” (p.104). She contends that the English-speaking, New Zealandborn 

Samoans that she spoke with, remain committed to fa’asamoa as an integral part of 

their ethnic identities. Whilst it is confirmed that there is no one Samoan, or indeed 

Pasifika, identity, there is a process that can culminate in what is described as a “secure 

identity”. The author discusses the processes of “identity confusion” in order to 

demonstrate the New Zealand-Samoan participants’ journeys of active engagement. 

These processes of identity formation were described as confusing, yet many of the 

accounts given emphasize how each person negotiated complex identity journeys and 

expectations in innovative ways. 

Importantly, Anae sets the scene for any attempt to describe Pacific peoples by 

challenging the consequences of relying on socio-demographic information to represent 

Pasifika people. Educators need to be aware that the demographic descriptions of their 

pupils must not be mistaken for descriptions of identity and therefore the values that 

students practice and hold. Statistical projections are that New Zealand schools will 


ecome more ethnically and culturally diverse; the challenge for education is to be able to 

include this diversity within a structure that is supposed to cater for all. As cultural safety 

educators have pointed out, (Ramsden & Spoonley, 1993) in order to move beyond simply 

accepting difference, one must first be able to acknowledge one’s own frame of reference. 

Part of examining difference (identities, values, cultures, knowledge systems) may firstly 

involve examining what diversity means for those who are not categorised as different 

(and therefore located as implicitly central – namely, Pākehā/Papalagi), secondly, 

examining how difference can be meaningfully included within structures and practices, 

and thirdly, exploring how diversity can be guaranteed rather than tolerated. 

Given that most of the school population of Pacific students are born in New Zealand, it is 

also important to set the scene by noting the incredibly diverse ways that Pacific youth are 

contesting and asserting their multiple connections across the Pacific and with 

Polynesians across the globe. Some Aotearoa hip-hop collectives (like Losttribe and 

Urban Pasifika) have asserted “an urbanised, pan-Pacific identity that is connected by 

location (Aotearoa, South Auckland); by experience (colonisation, immigration, prejudice); 

by socio-economic status and situation; and by friendships based on social and musical 

bonds (i.e. interest in rap)” (Zemke-White, 2000, p. .237). Similarly, Macpherson (2002) 

asserts that for younger, New Zealand-born Pacific peoples, there has been an opening up 

of social spaces (within the media, music, dance, art and literature) where youth are 

contesting and examining the way Pacific traditions are engaged with and re-written. He 

suggests that for New Zealand-born Pacific peoples, Island ways of marking social and 

gender roles, and founding authority and faith have changed. He does not suggest that 

Pacific youth have been assimilated,; indeed, “there are, among the locally born, groups of 

people who remain staunchly committed to the values of the parents (Macpherson, 1984), 

and migrants who have rejected some or all of those values” (Macpherson, 2001, p. 72). 

Anae (2001) challenges the inference that is sometimes drawn from an over-reliance of 

socio-demographic markers of these changes in identity (and therefore values). Despite 

the caveats that many writers build into their work, it seems that some commentators do 

seem to affirm many of the assumptions that support the idea that Pacific cultures are 

ceasing to hold importance for New Zealand-born/raised Pacific peoples - simply because 

change occurs. Many writers’ assume that identity and language loss, 

intermarriage/ethnic dilution, and the impact of Western education, invariably result in a 


loss of Pasifika cultures. The following sets of assumptions need to be continually 

checked and critiqued when thinking about the contexts in which values of and about 

Pacific peoples are asserted: 

• Island identities may become lost by the fourth generation; what is actually 

being lost is a static, traditional culture embodied in grandparents who were 

born in the islands; 

• A formal education may supersede island values and beliefs; 

• New Zealand-born may take on values and beliefs of their non-Samoan 

cosmopolitan counterparts; 

• New Zealand-born may marry outside of their own ethnic group; 

• New Zealand-born may be totally incompetent in their island tongue and thus 

opt out of island rituals; 

• New Zealand-born may have become upwardly mobile at the expense of their 

island cultures; 

• International movements erode the centeredness of an island identity; and 

• Geographical dispersal may break the bonds of a central geographic locality 

associated with belonging (pp. 105-106). 

Anae provides counterpoints to these assumptions. Specifically she argues that culture is 

an ongoing dynamic, and does not stop at some fixed point in time or place. Change does 

not imply loss, rather a reformulation of identities set against the impacts of the above 

changes and the history of colonialism, assimilation and/or homogenization of Pacific 

Islanders. The implications for the quality of education participation of Pacific peoples are 

that educators must be critically aware of their own cultural biases and how the New 

Zealand educational structures may enforce such homogenizing and alienating tendencies 

for Pacific learners. This is especially important as New Zealand born and raised Pacific 

learners in New Zealand schools are set to increase over the next fifty years. Pasikale 

(1999, cited in Coxon et al., 2002) identified three identity profiles, based on the extent that 

Pacific youth identify with cultural traditions of their parents and grandparents as 

traditional, New Zealand blend, and New Zealand made. Her comments are crucial when 

considering how Pacific values can be incorporated into educational practices and 

structures that are meaningful for a growing range of Pasifika youth without reducing what 


might unsatisfactorily be described as Pacific values to narrowly conceived visions of 

Pacific identity. 

… the images, information and stereotypes about Pacific Island people are rooted in 

assumptions based on the images of ‘recent island migrants’… [consequently] … 

the displacement of the majority of Pacific learners, especial [sic] in the formal 

educational establishments. By this I mean the assumptions (mostly bad) educators 

make about New Zealand born Pacific Island learners, who either fail to meet 

expectations or worse still, float by without any expectations or demands on them 

because of some misguided liberal attitude (otherwise known as the ‘soft option’). 

Either way, human potential is not recognised or developed (In Coxon et al., 2002, 

p. 91). 

In 2003, one in ten learners were identified as Pacific, and this is set to increase to one in 

five pupils by 2051 (Ministry of Education, 2005). Within primary and secondary schools, 

Pacific students made up 8.23% of the total of population. The Ministry notes that, in 

some schools, up to 90% of pupils may identify (or be identified as?) Pacific. “In 2003, 

68% of the Pasifika school population were in decile 1, 2 or 3 schools compared to 26% of 

the total school population. Due to the younger age demography of the Pasifika 

population, 67.5% of Pasifika students are enrolled in the primary sector and only 29.3% in 

the secondary sector” (Ministry of Education, 2005). 

A recent study into the status of teaching as a profession in New Zealand cites Elvidges’ 

(2002) estimate that only 3% of primary and secondary beginning teachers identify as 

Pacific (New Zealand Teachers’ Council & Ministry of Education, 2004). The report also 

cites Mara’s (1998) opinion that there is now a wider range of attractive career options 

available to Pacific young people. Coxon et al. (2002) cite a wide range of literature on 

Pacific educational issues. While many of the cited authors within the review argue that 

more Pasifika teachers are needed in schools, they also emphasise that Pacifica 

perspectives, knowledge, pedagogies and resources are essential. 

According to the 2004 school enrolment statistics kept by the Ministry of Education, 24 

schools offered Pacific-medium education. Pacific-medium education was defined as a 

medium of instruction in a Pacific language for more than three hours per week. Twenty 

one of these were in the primary sector, and two were in the secondary sector. The 


Ministry notes that this amounts to 2, 042 students, and represents an increase of 17.4% 

since 2003. Samoan was the most frequently offered language, but one school is reported 

to offer four Pacific languages (Samoan, Cook Island Māori, Nuiean, and Tongan) 

(Ministry of Education, 2004). 

The literature review of Pacific education issues (Coxon, Anae, Mara, Wendt-Samu, & 

Finau, 2002) identified key research topics and issues that require more indepth analysis, 

complimentary quantitative and qualitative research approaches, and/or larger samples 

that specifically identify multi-ethnic Pacific communities within Aotearoa education. The 

report covers education from early, primary, secondary, teacher education and tertiary 

education. The authors have used a matrix approach to structure the report around key 

issues drawn from the research. Their decisions were based on criteria set by the Ministry 

of Education, (2001b) Pasifika Education Plan )and themes from educational research. 

The main themes covered in this literature review included educational access, 

participation and outcomes that related to educational issues such as languages and 

literacy, curriculum, pedagogy, assessment, school and classroom management, 

governance, school/community interactions, research approaches and processes, and 

ethnicity/gender/social class complexities. Improving the educational achievement of 

Pasifika students is a critical and common area of concern among writers. 

All too often, Pacific peoples are represented as educational failures – more precisely, the 

people themselves are described as failing rather than the system in which Pacific peoples 

learn. Anae (2001) challenges the generally narrow and often stereotypical negative 

representations of Pacific peoples as either failures (poor health and educational 

achievement) or as successful (where depictions focus on artistic, film, music and sporting 

achievements). There is some concern that initiatives supported through the Pasifika 

Education Plan, should also support different approaches to knowledge and educational 

engagement that are based on Pasifika cultural epistemologies. Vaioletti (2001) considers 

that these initiatives are important and therefore must also be scrutinized to ensure that 

they do not amount to more Pacific learners being given access more of the same 

educational options (Vaioletti, 2001). An APEID (1992) report on affective developmental 

education, suggests that most countries in the Asia-Pacific region value education in 

general, and because most “emphasize cognitive outcomes, also tend to value intellectual 

performance over the aesthetic, physical, social, and spiritual” (p. 29). What needs to be 


considered is how the learning culture and value of educational structures, practices and 

contexts can be elaborated upon by and for Pasifika peoples. If the learning culture and 

values in New Zealand curriculum remain aligned with a narrow selection from so-called 

traditional Western epistemologies and more recently an economic rationality, ideas about 

learning as intellectual performance, and where processes remain pressed into service for 

measurable (or at least assessable) outcomes, then all learners may not be given access 

to diverse ways of knowing. 

According to Anae’s (2001) research, Samoan parents believed that getting a formal 

education was important, and many believe that it provides access to better opportunities. 

This meant that more often young women went on to University, whereas men would go 

out and get a job to the support family or become church ministers. Completion of the 

degree was less important than attendance, and throughout the degree, the Samaon 

students placed priority on loyalty to aiga/fa-alavelave (ceremonies/gift-giving). Many 

Pacific people in her study achieved School Certificate, University Entrance and went on to 

University in order to please their parents: most "found ways to balance and maximise 

both priorities without compromising the cultural va fealoaloa'i (relationships of mutual 

respect in socio-political and spiritual arrangements) and va tapuia (sacred relationship in 

the socio-political and spiritual arrangements) aspects inherent in the parent-child 

relationship in parental fa'asamoa" (pp. 107-108). 

… for Samoans in New Zealand, what is not shared with other 'Pacific' peoples – 

whether island-born or New Zealand-born - are the distinctively Samoan 

experiences of aiga, church, matai, fa'alavelave and fa'alupega (alluding to gafa: 

geneologies) systems, language and associated values and expectations of tautua 

(service), fa'aaloalo (respect), feagaiga (special relational covenant between 

sister/brother) and usita'i. Thus differentiation in terms of culture, language, 

philosophies and respective histories far outweigh the one commonality of New 

Zealand experiences, and bonds New Zealand-born Samoans to their aiga in New 

Zealand, Samoa and elsewhere, rather than to their other more transient 

cosmopolitan acquaintances. Pan-ethnic identities, whether constructed by 

Papalagi or Pacific peoples, are inevitable and are here to stay, but this does not 

mean that people (or ethnic groups) caught within these pan-ethnic identities are 

homogenous. In the case of New Zealand-born Pacific Islanders, the only 

commonality lies in the shared socialisation experiences of their place of birth. How 


these are expressed depends on the ethnic identity of parents, family and 

community, and the degree to which this ethnic identity has been instilled in their 

children (Anae, 2001, p. 112). 

Learning, culture and values 

The middle class nature of the values, attitudes and expectations of the schooling systems 

in most Western countries is well documented. The challenge for minority ethnic groups is 

how to succeed when a mismatch exists between the values and priorities of the home 

and those of the school. Research findings are variable about how successfully ethnic 

minority groups can compete and achieve in the light of such obstacles. The social 

reproduction role of schools is also prominent in the literature on school achievement and 

academic success. In other words, schools efficiently reproduce the inequalities in society 

rather than change them, although that process does not occur in a smooth and 

uncontested manner (Mara, 1998). 

The learning culture of schools, the kinds of knowledge and ways of organising and 

making knowledge accessible and contestable, will communicate what is valued (content) 

and how values are communicated (whole school atmosphere, the politics of school power 

structures, access to resources and extra-curricula supports, favoured pedagogy and 

levels of community involvement). On one level what is valued at school will be 

communicated by the emphasis that schools put on certain mission values and goals, 

certain subjects, and of course, the outputs of learning. (It is at this level that values as 

ideals about education can be explicitly discerned). On another level, school values will be 

communicated by how schools engage with learners. Here, values infuse the official and 

daily functioning of schools, and as Mara’s summary makes clear, often there is a 

mismatch between home and school values for ethnic minorities. Professor Konai 

Thaman (1998), a Tongan, provides an example of how values are both ideals and 

material to the way cultures (including those of schools) are experienced. 

I define culture as the way of life of a discrete group, which includes a language, a 

body of accumulated knowledge, skills, beliefs and values. I see culture as central 

to the understanding of human relationships and acknowledge the fact that 

members of different cultural groups have unique systems of perceiving and 

organising the world around them. I also believe that the ways in which we have 


een socialised largely influence our behaviour and way of thinking as our world 

view (p. 120, cited in Coxon et al., 2002, p. 6). 

The learning culture and values of schools and Pacific peoples have been discussed in 

terms of gaps or disparities (Jones, 1991; Nuthall, 1999). The cultural disparity model 

exists alongside the cultural deficit model: in both the culture of the minority can all too 

frequently be examined for its lack of fit with the dominant schooling culture (Vaioleti, 

2001). In the cultural disparity model, the focus is on showing how the knowledge and 

practices of schools operate according to the dominating Pākehā/European culture, so that 

success at school (achievement, but also ways that pupils can participate) is informed by a 

familiarity with the school culture. The early work by Jones (1991) therefore, deserves 

some attention in this review. 

Coxon et al., (2002) first point out that Jones’ study is dated, was written by an outsider 

(Palagi) ethnographer, and concerned a small number of Pacific and Palagi students. The 

depth of this important work is also acknowledged, including Jones’ attention to the power 

of students to effect learning and teaching in the classroom, and the impact of the 

dominant cultural capital of schools. The Jones’ study shows that schooling is based on 

cultural values that are political, and that directly exclude and disadvantage learners who 

do not participate in ways that are valued or recognised as ‘successful’. Although the 

study does not focus on values as a personal ideal, it demonstrates the systematic 

deployment of educational codes of conduct that demonstrate culturally informed values 

(where learners who ask questions, call out, debate and question teachers tend to fit the 

cultural capital of schools). In sum, the cultural capital of schools privilege dominant 

Palagi/European ways of valuing learners. More alarmingly, Jones shows that the 

educational myths of individual ability and effort as measures of success conceal the way 

success is more often dependent upon a match or coherence between the dominant 

culture’s values and school contexts. 

Nuthall, (1999) in a more recent study, reiterated the view that the learning culture of a 

classroom must be accessible and familiar to students, and this means that teachers need 

to be able to mediate between the diverse ways of sharing ideas and interacting within 

classroom life that students bring with them to school. There are a number of important 

projects in place that attempt to bridge the cultural disparities between schools and home 

values for Pacific students. Among them is the Achievement in Multicultural High Schools 


(AIMHI) project, which Hawk and Hill have independently examined. In both the study and 

the project, the concern was to examine and develop strategies that mediate conflicting 

values that may arise between family/aiga, church, peer groups, and the world of work, 

and the schooling context of Pacifica students (Coxon et al., 2002, p. 82). It was 

suggested that a first step to addressing this gap, would be to ensure that there were more 

Pacific Island teachers within schools. Pasikale (1999) also argues that all teachers must 

first value empathy when addressing the individual learning needs of Pacific students in 

order to develop appropriate learning experiences for all. In particular, empathy should be 

used to check teachers’ use of categorical or one-dimensional definitions of Pacific 

learners (cited in Coxon et al., 2002). Vaioleti (2001) argues that Pacifica students’ value 

this affective approach to learning, where students will first evaluate whether the teacher 

likes them, and secondly, whether the classroom learning has relevance to their lives. 

Part of this empathy and relevance is communicated through the role that the teacher 

takes as “model, guide and expert” (p. 8). The tuakana/teina relation is more likely to be 

supported by these ways of relating. 

Language and culture together communicate knowledge. In most New Zealand schools, 

English remains the dominant language of learning. In Anae’s (2001) study with second 

generation Samoan, most could not use their language, but most could understand it. 

Language was regarded as an assignation of Samoan identity and/or fia palagi 

accusations. However, most reported that the most important aspect of culture was being 

able to communicate through beliefs, values and ways of doing things as New Zealandborn 

Samoan. For the Cook Island Māori born in New Zealand (Underhill-Sem and 

Fitzgerald, 1996), 43% (of a small sample of 50) reported that they could speak the 

language with various levels of fluency, but most reported that they did not speak Cook 

Island Māori. While most spoke English at home, the Cook Island Māori language was 

spoken when engaged in specific contexts, particularly at Church. Churches are important 

places where many Pacifica peoples not only hear their languages spoken, but find their 

cultural values spoken and alive within their Church communities within Aotearoa, and in 

relation to their connections through genealogy and to the homeland. 

Values are communicated (in part) through language and constitute culture. The Palagi 

educational system privileges many individualised values. In most Palagi classrooms, the 

written language dominates both within the classroom, in what is produced for 


assessment, and how schools are evaluated (policy plans, learning plans, school policies) 

is English. In what follows some of the values that have been recorded and named as 

Pacifica values will be presented. The importance of oral learning of knowledge and 

values for Pacifica peoples is therefore not appropriately attended to through literature. An 

obvious limitation is that the described values have been extracted from the literature, and 

they are being re-described in English again. In much of the literature on Pacific people’s 

education, values are cited as an important classroom and curriculum consideration. 

However, there is little research that specifies what value sets may be important for the 

diverse range of Pacific learners within schools. Mitaera (1999) summarieses a serious 

shortcoming of this literature review on Pacific educational values noting that they have 

been described by writers rather than coming from communities. 

With the current political climate, few agencies would brave developing policies 

without consulting Pacific officials, Pacific communities up and down this country. 

And do you know what that means in reality? It means that the final document will 

be so compromised that it will talk about acknowledging Pacific perceptions and 

Pacific values without identifying exactly what those Pacific perceptions and Pacific 

values might be. In an effort to be inclusive, we find that development and 

implementation are too often far removed from 'who we are', 'what we said' and 

'what we need'!. 

A further limitation is that the linguistic nuances that distinguish values between Pacifica 

peoples may be lost, or at least presented as discrete value units. Donn and Schick 

(1995), in their study Promoting Positive Race Relations in New Zealand Schools: Me 

Mahi Tahi Taatou, offer some useful checks against introducing cultural values as exotic 

curiosities and in ensuring the teachers are aware of the politics of presenting knowledge 

as if it is information for consumption. 

Aspects of cultures should be taught in the context of a whole so students 

understand the complexity of interconnecting relationships. Increased knowledge 

by itself will do little to overcome prejudice. … The curriculum can present a set of 

facts that maintain the values of the status quo. McKinnon and Banks argued that 

for this to change, a curriculum that reflects both world views is needed. Teachers 

need to hand on to their students the knowledge and the skills required to 

“understand how knowledge is constructed, and how it reflects human interests, 

ideologies and the experiences of the people who create it”. Many of the resources 


currently in schools present one view of the world. Teachers, if they are to present 

a balanced view for their students, need to be aware of this, able to identify the 

shortcomings of a particular resource, and willing to find and use supplementary 

resources to give a more balanced view (p. 80). 

Overall, it would seem that formal education continues to be highly valued within Pacifica 

communities (Mara, Foliaki, & Coxon, 1994). However, the concept of education includes 

formal together with the continuing importance of informal education (Vaioleti, 2001). 

Vaioleti (2001) and Thaman (1998) argue that there is a need to include Polynesian values 

and knowledge within NZ educational discourse. The monoculture of New Zealand 

curriculum needs to shift, and, Vaioletti argues, educational institutions need to reflect 

Polynesian learning concepts and values. The argument is that by including the 

"appropriate integration of cultural based learning concepts of Polynesia" then Pacifica 

students will find the school more familiar and will enrich the "spiritual, cultural and 

intellectual worth of the educational experience of other New Zealanders" (p. 2). 

At the Pacific Vision International Conference - Identity Issues, Dr. Jean Mitaera (1999) 

outlined the importance of connections through papa’anga tupuna, genealogy, in affirming 

Pacifica identities within Aotearoa. The framework she offers contextualizes what might 

be called Pacifica values (but which the authors can not claim are Pacific values per se). 

One's identity, the person that we are, is first created, from one's papa'anga tupuna, 

genealogy. Our papa'anga pronounces to all others our individualised uniqueness, 

we each of us is special, chosen by the ancestors. We alone can hold our place 

within our genealogy, we alone can fulfil our destiny. And yet this identity, this 

papa'anga, continues to affirm for us the voyages of our ancestors to new lands. 

The same papa'anga that affirms our place here in Aotearoa New Zealand. The 

same papa'anga that affirms our connections to lands and to peoples. Papa'anga 

tupuna is the foundation, and it is from this that we first examine and experience the 

most significant tenets of our 'personhood', of our identity 

From this foundation of papa’angna tupuna, Mitaera outlined a framework from which 

Pacifica peoples understand leadership, relationship protocols and responsibilities, career 

paths, relational roles and status, distribution of wealth, and importantly, how obligations 

are met and by whom. Papa’angna tupuna grounds and informs each of these six aspects 


of the framework. For instance, Mitaera describes the way genealogies inform leadership 

through the inheritance of titles over land and people (ariki, mataiapo and rangatira), but 

also through the ascription of titles by others “in recognition of the skills and service that 

one has given to one's kopu tangata, iti tangata and wider community. Many Pacific 

cultures have transferred these understandings of leadership to Aotearoa New Zealand 

(Samoan matai). Many of our organisations acknowledge the genealogical status of 

individuals and families - long established churches are a prime example of this”. 

Importantly for schooling relationships, Mitaera points out that for those within the same 

papa’anga, responsibilities in relationship roles are based on “tuakana and teina; tungane 

and tuaine; metua and tamaiti; tupuna and mokopuna; piri'anga vaitata/piri'anga mamao. 

Significant events of the kopu tangata are prime locations to see these relationships in 

action. Pacific death rituals are a wondrous learning ground: Who is the family speaker, 

who doesn't speak, who leads the procession, who sits at the top table, who participates in 

the family meeting, who and what people contribute, who heads the kitchen, who takes 

care of the burial requirements, where do young people figure and where do in-laws 

figure?”. With the knowledge of leadership and relational forms, Pacifica peoples can 

come to understand how their career paths are also connected to those of their ancestors, 

indeed many are inherited from the past knowledge and skills of ancestors. Throughout, 

there is also an emphasis on knowing one’s role and status within one’s papa’anga. First 

and foremost, Mitaera argues that respect is integral to relationships and knowing who 

people are and their connections informs what roles one should perform when in relation 

to them. The sharing of wealth and resources is also decided on the basis of equity, 

where need, status, role and the sure knowledge of reciprocity in ritual and practise should 

take priority. Vaioleti (2001) describes this as the vahe fakatatau, where equity is about 

sharing wealth, burdens and resources. Finally, how obligations will be met and carried 

out are decided by connections and place within the papa’anga. Obligations are collective. 

Your obligations are dictated by your place, potential and by others within the 

papa'anga. Understanding that all persons are unique representations of their 

respective papa'anga necessarily obligates us to practise with them what we know 

to be right for ourselves. This is only difficult to act out when we ourselves do not 

know of our uniqueness and of our collective responsibilities. This is a trait of 

Western capitalist governments such as our own here in Aotearoa New Zealand. 

Government and its agencies are full of people, who do not recognise their own 


uniqueness and collective responsibility to others and that this responsibility is their 

obligation inherited by theirs and our papa'anga. 

Thaman (2004), Viaoletti and Viaoletti (2003), have described the importance of founding 

Pacifica values (understood broadly) through genealogical, land, family and more 

generally collective connections or social responsibilities. From a health perspective, 

Taufe’ulungaki (2004) argues that for Pacifica peoples, health involves the 

interconnections between the spiritual, mental and physical health, and that the 

interdependencies of Pacific community similarly mirror this holistic conception. 

Well-being and health refer not just to individuals but also to communities, the 

environment in which they live, and the relationships that bind them together. This 

set of interdependent relationships is what I mean by ‘fonua’ in Tongan, ‘vanua’ in Fiji 

and ‘whenua’ in Māori. In other words, ‘fonua’ is a Pacific conception of community” 

(p. 3). 

Fonua has been described as “land where one’s roots are firmly placed; where one grew 

out of or sprung out of; parents or ancestors. Place of origin. In Samoa, tupuanga is 

genealogical lineage” (Vaioleti & Vaioleti, 2003, p. 1). 

Alongside fonua, the idea of va or relationship space is important since it places the 

emphasis on the relation or connection, as opposed to the more Western preoccupation 

with individual inputs and outcomes. 

In Tongan culture ‘relationship’ is described by the concept ‘va’. Literally it means 

‘space’. But in Tongan communities, relationships or the space between any two 

individuals, groups or between communities and nature are defined by the context 

in which the interaction occurs. Thus, when the context changes, the relationship 

changes also, even [in] the case of the same two individuals or groups and 

maintaining, nurturing and developing that va so that it remains strong and flexible 

is behaving appropriately in each and every variation of the context. The well-being 

or health of the community is measured, therefore by contextualised and acceptable 

behaviour and actions that are meaningful, worthwhile and beneficial to others 

(Taufe’ulungaki, 2004, p .7). 

Vaioleti and Vaioleti (2003) explain tauhi vaa further by stating that it can be: 


Literally translated as maintaining the space or maintaining the integrity of the 

space. It is a highly developed duty of care concept that represents respect and the 

activities performed in order to maintain good relationships and harmony. It 

demands service, affection, and closeness but distance as well to maintain cultural 

space and integrity. It maintains the Tongan and Samoan covenant between sisters 

and brothers. A celestial example will be the constant interfacing and relationships 

that act to balance the gravitational pull and centrifugal forces that keep the moon at 

a perpetual safe distance from the earth. They are tied and have major influences 

on each other but allowed to maintain their distance and qualities without the 

stronger one claiming the weaker (p. 1). 

Thaman (2004) maintains that space nurturing (tauhi vahaa) is a core value within Tongan 

educational practices and within everyday life. When confronted with an educational 

system that emphasizes private and individualised mastery of the environment and mental 

concepts over protection of relationships (which includes nature and everyone including 

non-human creatures), Pacifica values and peoples may be further alienated, not only 

from education, but also from indigenous ways of knowing and being. 

The Chair of teacher education and culture for UNESCO, Thaman (2004), adds that 

knowing what to do, and doing it well underpins Pacifica conceptions of the ideal person 

and shapes how educational processes are conducted. A person’s care and maintenance 

of interpersonal relationships defines an educated person and is a key indicator of wisdom 

or poto. The ideal person is not simply distinguished by official accumulation of 

qualifications, but according to how people use their knowledge (ilo) to help family and 

community, and whether they know their relationships to “everyone and everything” (p. 7). 

Poto is achieved through the appropriate and beneficial use of ilo – defined by 

Tongans as knowledge, skills, understanding and value that a person acquires 

through the process of ako of learning. Among indigenous Fijians, similar notions 

exist. The closest equivalent of poto is vuku or yalovuku, which is the culmination of 

learning or vuli aimed at the acquisition of useful knowledge skills and values or kila 

ka. And in Solomon Islands, among the Lengo, a person of wisdom is manatha; 

s/he is a person who, through nanau (learning) obtained ligana (wisdom), seen as 

vital for living and survival in Lengo society (Thaman, 2004, p. 7). 


Pacific knowledge systems and cultural values should inform the basis of educational 

reforms that may affect Pacifica peoples. Pacific notions of the purpose of education, the 

ideal citizen, Pacifica knowledge systems, and the attendant context-specific and shared 

cultural values should be directly represented by Pacific peoples and meaningfully 

incorporated into formal educational reforms (Thaman, 2004). 

Accumulated over millennia, these [knowledge] systems included structures and 

processes of storing and transmitting knowledge, skills and values, necessary for 

the purposes of survival and continuity. These systems of education have not been 

acknowledged nor valued by most educational reformers both from within the region 

as well as from outside (p. 6). 

Prior to missionary contact and subsequent colonisation of most Pacific Islands, Pacifica 

informal education was conducted through and out of fonua, where relationship roles and 

responsibilities were context-specific and based on shared cultural and spiritual values. 

Fonua articulated the spirituality of this relationship with the gods who provided the 

bounty on which communities depended and survived as well as the notion of 

stewardship and guardianship. It meant that these resources were on loan only, 

and not owned, to be collectively cared for and sustained for future generations. 

Thus the community consisted of people who shared common values, interests and 

who had also established processes and institutions that ensured the effective 

transmission of these core values and interests to future generations and thus, 

maintain its social, economic, political and spiritual cohesion, health and well-being 

(Taufe’ulungaki, 2004, p. 6). 

The importance of fonua is likely to have changed and been changed over time and place, 

but as Anae (2001) warns, this should not be taken to mean that these cultural ways have 

been extinguished. Taufe’ulungaki proposes that New Zealand-born Pacifica peoples 

engage in a re-examination of Pacifica cultures and values in order to foster approaches 

that work for their communities. Pacifica peoples “cannot recreate our traditional Pacific 

communities in New Zealand ... we can reclaim a sense of community through 

identification of ‘core values’ that are consistent with the rebuilding and reconstruction of 

relationships that promote health and well-being for all our people” (2004, p. 8). 


Viaoleti specifically focuses on the informal educational knowledge, structures and 

possible educational values that remain important for Pacific peoples in Aotearoa. 

Importantly, he argues that the incorporation of Pacific values within New Zealand 

classrooms would do much to enhance Pacifica students learning and pedagogical 

experiences. In his experience as an educator, Viaoleti has come to believe that Pacific 

students learning is, in part, impeded through confusions over the role of learners and 

teachers within New Zealand schools. Like Thaman (2003) and many of the 

aforementioned authors, Viaoleti (2001) contends that the foundation of Pacifica learning 

communities is linked to Pacifica philosophies of education and knowledge. Here, 

educational purposes and aims are intricately linked to how knowledge is used and how it 

enables people to perform their roles (tuatua in Samoa and fatongia in Tonga) and 

collective obligations (to others, including the environment and ancestors). 

A final foundational value that has been identified is linked to the spiritual connections to 

ancestors and Gods, and often this occurs through indigenized Christian church 

affiliations. Whilst religion within state secular education system New Zealand remains 

controversial, this Christian foundation remains important to many Pacifica students and 

communities (Vaioleti & Vaioleti, 2003). 

While ongoing searches to understand both positive and negative impacts of 

Christianity.. [are important], education for Pacific students must reflect the integral 

place of God/Christianity in their lives so that their ako is respectful of their ways. 

This will help validate their ways, and shows that we as educators, have ‘ilo 

ourselves and will use it in a poto way to assist Pacific students in their own search 

for ‘ilo (p. 7). 

Values from a Pacifica context, therefore, are connected to wider ways of knowing and 

being in community with others. The foundations and frameworks identified above 

infiltrate all areas of life and therefore learning values. Thaman (2003) recommends, and 

Miteara (1999) asserts, that Pacifica peoples must be supported in developing and 

incorporating their cultural values within educational institutions within Aotearoa New 

Zealand. Learning (ako) can not take place as distinct from the wider cultural values that 

make sense for Pacifica peoples, and many Pacifica students live in a world where 

increasingly middle class consumerist values dominate, alongside traditions that link their 


success to do well in school with their obligations to fulfill their fatongia and serve their 

kainga (ancestory in Tongan) (Vaioleti & Vaioleti, 2003). 

If one does not meet this fatongia for any reason (including structural, curriculum 

and pedagogical reasons), then the spiritual and emotional implication for that 

Pacific student is often more serious than most objectivist educators can 

comprehend. The eventual results are often rejection, withdrawal and self directed 

anger. Any doubt over motivation to do well at school will show lack of 

understanding of cultural fatongia in Pacific psyche. Parents’ fatongia to provide the 

best education for children drove most migration to Aotearoa and even first- and 

second-generation Pacific students know this well (Vaioleti & Vaioleti, 2003, p. 7). 

The implications of school learning are therefore not to be understood in terms of 

individual ability/effort/interest, but are again, in relation to the symbolic and material 

connections and duties (tauhi vaa) performed in relation to fonua and papa’anga tupuna. 

Values that have been identified as central to educational practices within classrooms and 

schools also focus attention on social relationships (Anae, 2001). Anae claims that for 

many New Zealand-born Samoans, aiga (or kinship connections structured by reciprocal 

duties) are central and these relationships are maintained across national and distance 

barriers. 

[S]ocial relationships (including matai and fa'alupega systems) are structured by 

aiga or kinship, and that giving and receiving tautua, fa'aaloalo, (respect) and alofa 

(love) are crucial in the maintenance of Samoan social relations. Thus younger 

members tautua, or serve, and show fa’aaloalo, or respect, to everyone older that 

them, and expect in return love, protection, honour and name to be proud of and the 

protection of aiga (p. 113). 

Anae further noted that younger Samoans may not see the reciprocity in the system until 

they assume the roles of elder/mothers/fathers/aunties/uncles etc. 

As knowledge and values in Pacific contexts are often obtained through “myths, legends, 

dance, poetry, songs, proverbs and rituals”, learning is based on “observation, listening, 

imitation, participation and some direction instruction” (Thaman, 2003, p. 8). 


Through this process the student acquired the knowledge and expertise of the 

teacher who was always an elder; and learning was part of everyday life. The 

primary focus of learning was the extended family. Within the extended family one 

learned who one was within that particular hierarchical structure (Thaman, 1996; 

1999): a concept that does not sit well with an egalitarian society such as New 

Zealand. One discovered one's position within the family, and the role that resulted 

from that position. The skills of respect and obedience towards superiors were 

valued. As one grew, the role one's extended family had in the overall society, the 

knowledge base and skills associated with that role was learned (Viaoleti, 2001, p. 

7). 

Values that Thaman (2003) identified as central to learning in Tonga include: 

… ’ofa (compassion), faka’apa’apa (respect), feveikotai’aki (reciprocity), tauhivaha’a 

(nurturing inter-personal relations), and fakama’uma’u (restraint). The achievement 

of poto continuse to be measured against such values through people’s 

performance and behaviour in different social contexts (p. 8). 

Viaoleti (2001) clarifies that fakama'uma'u' involves restraint in service to the greater or 

common good, and adds the concepts of spirituality and the effect of lotu (Christianity or 

Churches) as important values. Knowing who one is and doing this well, is determined by 

one’s place within hierarchical structures, and within schools this means that one’s 

fatongia as teacher and learner involves distinct roles. Teachers’ fatongia is to “give ‘ofa” 

where the spritual, emotional as well as the academic are nurtured. Learners’ reciprocate 

by “tauhi vaa with the teacher with respectful tendencies and commitments to learning 

because she will feel the fatongia to honour the gift of ‘ilo gained from ako with the 

teacher” (Vaioleti & Vaioleti, 2003, p. 5). 

Tupuola, (1993) when reflecting on the process of researching adolescence within a 

Samoan context, reflects on the relevance of Fa'asamoa methodology. Fa'aaloalo 

(respect) and consensus were central to the entire process of research that Tupuola says 

is not just in line with recent academic emphasis on accountability and reflectivity, but 

iterates a communication approach that is in line with Fa'asamoa values. This would seem 

to support the infusion of values throughout the everyday life of classroom relationships. 

Considering how values mediate school and home relations, as well as considering what 


values and whose values come to dominate and/or structure the purposes of education at 

the local, national, regional, and global levels remains an issue that will affect all New 

Zealand communities, some more than others. Given that values within any cultural 

context are abstract notions that depend on economic, political, social and historical 

complexities, naming values is an inherently problematic activity – especially if these 

values are assumed to stand for or represent all. Nonetheless, the Asia South Pacific 

Bureau of Adult Education held an International Consultative Conference in Samoa in 

1999 and have compiled a general statement of shared Pacifica values. 

Members from across the Pacific (including Aotearoa Māori) advocated that the following 

values and beliefs are generally applicable to their diverse communities and should be 

considered when reforming education curriculum and pedagogy. 

We believe in the harmony and unity of family: 

In Samoa, it is fealofani; 

In Tonga, it is fe’ofo’ofani (loving, respecting one another); and 

In Māori, it is whānau. 

We believe in respect, i.e. the respect for proper roles and relationships 

In Samoan, it is fa’aaloalo; 

In Tongan, it is faka’apa’apa; and 

In Fijian, it is vakarokoroko. 

We believe in the rendering of service: 

In Samoan, it is tuatua; and 

In Tonga, it is fatongia (role within the group). 

We believe in honour and prestige: 

In Samoan, it is tamaoaiga; and 

In Tongan, it is ongoongolelei. 

We believe in Christianity and spirituality: 

In Samoan, it is Tu fa’a kerisiano; and 

In Tongan, it is anga faka kalisitiane. 

(Source: Morrison & Vaioleti, 1999, cited in Viaoleti & Viaoleti, 2003, pp. 5-6). 


ASIAN PEOPLES AND VALUES 

Background 

Up until recently, the New Zealand-born Chinese and Indian communities made up the 

majority of the so-called Asian ethnicities of New Zealand. Since the removal of the 

explicit white preference from immigration criteria and the introduction of the Immigration 

Act of 1987, there has been an increase not only in Chinese and Indian New Zealand 

citizens, but also new-New Zealanders from countries spanning the geopolitical region of 

Asia. Statistics New Zealand (2005) defined Asia as extending from Afghanistan to 

Indonesia. Alongside the increasingly multi-ethnic and cultural diversity that underpins 

categorisation as Asian, has been the unfortunate re-emergence of explicit anti-Asian 

sentiment. Chinese New Zealanders have been legally and socially defined as alien, they 

have been subject to restrictions to citizenship, democratic participation, levied with poll 

taxes and immigration fees, language tested, restricted from playing Chinese ‘gambling’ 

games, and generally treated as unequal members of New Zealand society (Ng, 1999). 

Questions about white privilege and manifest Orientalism (where latent and prejudicial 

values about the East become enacted through policies of discrimination) remain pertinent 

to the question of how the Aotearoa New Zealand curriculum can value diversity today and 

tomorrow. 

Knowledge of the ‘Other’ has served to colour Western standards of assessing value/worth 

(Said, 1979), and in order to preface this brief coverage of Asian values, it is worth 

considering the politics of diversity within a globalised world. It is also relevant given that, 

in the National Leaders Forum and within the Regional Consultations on Values in the 

Curriculum, issues of social justice, human rights, and democracy were advocated, at the 

same time that concerns were raised about the impacts of globalisation of values. Within 

the wider social science literature on Asian values, the key debates are centred on three 

issues: Is there a core set of values that are common across Asian cultures, ethnicities, 

religions, languages, and societies? Can Asian values be maintained alongside 

westernisation and capitalist expansion? And, Do Asian values contradict or cohere with 

so-called Western values of individual and universal human rights? Hill (2000) examined 

the often pragmatic assertion of Asian values by some Asian political leaders, as reverse 

Orientalism. Hill charts the complexity of the debate about Asian values within the context 

of Singapore where a moral (multi-religious) education syllabus and curriculum, and later 

civics and common values education was enacted to create, protect, and assert 


nationhood. This reverse Orientalism recasts Asian values as positive qualities, linking 

values such as collective and social duty, filial piety, thrift and sacrifice, and has attempted 

to reconcile these apparently Asian values with the influence of Western values of 

individualism and economic prosperity. As Hill notes, “the project has much in common 

with the ‘invention of tradition’, which has historically accompanied nation-building,” (2000, 

p. 188). Within New Zealand, a similar but perhaps less explicit move to build a globalised 

(sellable) nation-hood through the discourse of building a Kiwi identity can also be seen at 

work. If a discussion about Asian values is to hold any credibility, it must be a debate that 

is driven and contested by those who are subject to the implications of asserting either a 

latent or reverse Orientalism. 

New Zealand schools will become more demographically diverse. However, just because 

demographers have made this projection, does not mean that diversity in both appearance 

and substance will be supported within an increasingly globalised world. With the 

continuing expansion of neo-liberal regimes of globalisation, where economic indices of 

development and progress continue to be pushed as primary, where corporate cover 

stories of social responsibility and sustainability (of the bottom line!) continue to threaten 

subsistence economies, and where even the seeds of crops are being intellectually 

copyrighted, and where the very ecosystem is threatened by anthropogenic forces, 

diversity itself is starting to look like a myth. At local and international levels, diversity of 

internationalism (where the core values promoted include tolerance, pluralism, democracy, 

intergovernmental co-operation, and world peace) is distinct from the diversity of 

globalisation (where the core values are often presented as value free or impartial realities, 

where the globe is cast as an integrated free marketplace and where development is 

exponential, capitalist, and rational). An internationalist education would serve to extend 

pupils understanding of themselves as global citizens, whilst caring for and protecting 

cross-cultural diversities of people and the environment. A globalised education would 

serve to prepare pupils to serve in an economically driven and shifting job market where 

they would refit themselves through ‘life-long learning’ for vocational changes (Cambridge, 

2005). In an increasingly commodified world, diversity, as Naomi Klein (2000) argued, has 

become another marketing tool (used by multinational giants and educational institutions 

alike) where different peoples are depicted as having the same goals, aspirations, lifestyles 

and values; she quite aptly calls this version of diversity, ‘monomulticulturalism’. 


A further potential problem with the term diversity is that it can cement the idea that 

diversity reflects fixed and definable differences between ethnic or cultural groups, and 

further, that difference is a property of the non-white. In addition, if diversity is limited to 

supplementing existing curricula with observations of difference, (by including Asian 

studies within social studies, or by supporting Diwali or Chinese New Year festivals), then 

Asian values may not be examined as dynamic, contested and connected to wider Asian 

philosophical and religious traditions that include Confucianism, Taoism/Daoism, 

Buddhism, Hinduism, Sikhism, Jainism, and Islamism. Diasporas and transnationalism of 

Asian peoples across the world, also add to the complexity of naming a set of enduring 

Asian values. Given the above reservations and cautions (that apply differently to 

Pākehā/Europeans whose values have been privileged in New Zealand), in what follows, 

we will mainly discuss values that have been associated with Chinese and Indian 

communities, as the third largest ethnic group of New Zealanders. The values addressed 

will be drawn from educational and social science literature, where the notion of Asian 

values remains contentious and unresolved, at the same time that values are being given 

a prominent and directive role within national educational programmes in the broad 

geopolitical region of Asia. 

In the 2001 census, those who identified as Chinese comprised 44% of the Asian 

population, or 3% of the total New Zealand population in New Zealand. The Indian ethnic 

group accounted for 26 % of the Asian population. Other ethnic groups that were counted 

included in the census figures included, Korean (8 percent), Filipino (5 percent), Japanese 

(4 percent), Sri Lankan (3 percent), Cambodian (2 percent) and Thai (2 percent) ethnic 

groups. Between 1991 and 2001, the Chinese group increased by 59,790 (or 133%), and 

the Indian ethnic group increased by 31,197 (or 102%). By proportion of existing 

populations, the Korean and Thai ethnic groups experienced the highest growth rates 

(Statistics NZ, 2005). 

Early Chinese New Zealanders were mainly from the Guandong Province of China, and 

the main affiliations were Cantonese, Hakka and Fukienese. Recent Chinese New 

Zealanders include those from Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, Viet Nam, 

Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and the Philippines. The diversity of recent immigrants means 

that Chinese affiliation is likely to be secondary to their particular ethnic, religious, linguistic 

and regional experiences. The New Zealand Indian groups are similarly diverse, but 

Census NZ categorisations tend not to capture the diverse groups of Indian Gujarati, 


Punjab, Fijian-Indian or South African Indians. The Hindu Gujarati community is the 

largest and oldest group of Indian New Zealanders. 

Of all the migrants from Asia, Indians represent especially strong divisions among 

themselves based upon the language they speak and the religions they practice or 

belong to. Except for the four Hindi-speaking states of the Indian Union, all other 

states are distinctive speech communities with their own different languages, 

cultures and shared histories going back several millennia…These various speech 

communities in India effectively constitute separate nationalities” (Vasil & Yoon, 

1996, p. 20). 

According to statistics derived from the 2001 Census, apart from English, Cantonese (Yue) 

is the fourth most common second language spoken in New Zealand. It is unclear 

whether these languages are the primary language spoken, but it is likely that there is a 

wide linguistic diversity within Asian New Zealand communities. 

Table 2. New Zealand Census Counts by Language Spoken 

Language Count 

Māori 160,527 

Samoan 81,036 

French 49,722 

Yue (Cantonese) 37,143 

German 33,981 

(Source: Statistics NZ, 2005). 

Vasil and Yoon (1996) contend that Asian is not an identity that is likely to be attractive, 

meaningful or politically useful term. Many adopt a dual identity of Chinese New 

Zealander, Taiwanese New Zealander, Indian New Zealander, and assert and protect their 

primary identities “to the extent of attempting to ensure that in this regard even their 

children follow in their footsteps” (p. 13). Aside from ethnic, religious, regional, sociopolitical 

diversity, peoples of Asian origin are also further diversified when English 

language familiarity, class and educational background are taken into account. Recent 

immigrants tend to be more highly educated, with approximately 20% having tertiary 

qualifications, compared to only 8% in the total New Zealand population. 


The Chinese and Indian born/raised-New Zealanders’ values have to be placed into the 

context of historical context of New Zealand. For many mainland Chinese, maintaining 

homeland links was made difficult because of the New Zealand government’s restrictions, 

but also because of the difficulties presented by the post WWII period of Maoist 

communism in the People’s Republic. Many Indian New Zealanders today, have visited 

and maintain close homeland links (Vasil and Yoon, 1996). The Indian community too 

were subject to institutional racism in New Zealand. Early communities of migrants tended 

to adapt to this host hostility by maintaining strong within-family alliances and presenting 

as a model minority (Ip, 1996): 

The Chinese have been in New Zealand for over 130 years, from the days of the 

Otago gold-rushes. Since then, this largely self-contained community has flourished 

and established itself in its country of adoption. It became 'the Model Minority‘ - 

law-abiding, hardworking, humble and inoffensive. Few people wish to probe 

deeper to see what price the Chinese had paid to gain acceptance, or ask 

themselves whether the ghost of historical anti-Chinese feelings had truly been laid 

to rest (Ip, 1996, p. 8). 

The model minority is something that was made or created as a response to overt 

discrimination. As a defense mechanism, many Chinese responded by "clinging fiercely to 

elements of their culture which they saw as superior...and sought refuge in an existence 

that was separate and not equal" (Ip, 1996, p. 123). As this model minority became more 

visible with the rise in Asian immigration, mainstream New Zealand began to talk of an 

Asian Invasion. This racist revival resulted in an initial distancing by Chinese New 

Zealanders from new migrants: 

A local-born Chinese friend remarked rather perplexedly to me [Manying Ip], 'All my 

life I have always regarded myself as Chinese. Suddenly these last few years I 

have become "Asian". He is not alone in his feelings of estrangement and confused 

identity. Our self-image is inevitably influenced by how others treat us (Ip, 1996, p. 

9). 

However, this immigration panic has spurred questions about Chinese-ness in New 

Zealand. According to Ip, (1996) Chinese have been regarded as superficially assimilated 

(that is, quiet/integrated in the 50s and 60s), but largely as un-assimilatable. The 


implication is that somehow Asian New Zealanders should discard their ethnic identities by 

integrating, while accepting that they will not be considered as New Zealanders. 

“Immigrants from Asia find it difficult to understand why Pākehā tend to have such an 

extreme and irrational obsession about getting them to integrate and adopt their ways and 

values of life” (Vasil and Yoon, 1996, p. 49). As many peoples from Asia come from 

regions where diversity is already a given, this much publicised anti-Asian sentiment might 

seem to be a sign of cultural insecurity on the part of those who advertise it. According to 

Wong, (2003) one of the responses to this anti-Asian sentiment of the 1990s was to re- 

assert a Chinese identity. Wong cites the rise in Cantonese language classes, preschools, 

and an increase in visits to family villages in China, reinforcing the importance of 

connecting with Chinese ancestry. 

In 2004, the Ministry of Education estimated that there were 750,111 domestic students 

(excluding foreign fee-paying students). Of these, Asian students made up 7.8% (58,737) 

of students, Pasifika students constituted 8.5%, Māori students constituted 21.4%, and 

European/Pākehā and Other European students made up 60.5% (1.7% of students were 

in the other ethnic category). There has been a slower growth in New Zealand Asian 

students in 2004 than in 2003. Overall, there has been a decrease in foreign fee-paying 

students attending New Zealand schools and it is assumed that many of these fee-paying 

students come from the Asian region. 

Asian students are often categorised as academically gifted. For example, Ayman-Nolley 

and Taira (2000) studied six US-based developmental journals between 1985 and 1995. 

For single ethnic studies (41%), American White adolescents were most often studied in 

relation to the family, Asian adolescents were most often studied for academic success, 

whilst studies of American Blacks and Hispanics were predominantly focussed on risk- 

taking behaviours. In New Zealand, educational success has been associated with the 

high value that Asian families place on education. According to Ip (1996): 

… traditional Chinese parents tended to be goal-orientated and regarded the 

acquisition of concrete knowledge as the chief benefit of education. They seldom 

considered the widening of social circles, heightened perceptiveness, or the 

acquisition of problem solving skills as the gains that their children could reap from 

education. In reality, how education impacts on the integration process of the 

Chinese may be far more significant than the more immediate short term material 


enefits. The spirit of enquiry and the ability for independent thinking that a 

successful New Zealand education system nurtures could well be the most 

significant gift of the host society to its Chinese minority (p. 75). 

Learning, culture and values 

There has been a debate about Asian values since the 1990s: there were those who 

pegged Asian economic success to Asian values, or those who pegged the Asian 

economic crisis, to Asian values. Much of the debate was centred on the economics of 

development. Xiaorong Li (1996) has examined the Asian values debate (underpinned by 

Hill’s reverse Orientalism) and the way its Asian values have been portrayed as antithetical 

to human rights. Li argues that human rights as a concept may have originated in the 

West, but this should not mean that universal human rights are neither applicable nor valid 

across diverse cultural settings and political circumstances. To claim that there are Asian 

values could signify the import of considering cultural specificity and the relevance of local 

ways of knowing, just as it also works to deny and entrench the power of those who would 

deny the relevance of extending civil and political rights to Asian peoples: 

... the assertion of "Asian values" gains political prominence only when it is 

articulated in government rhetoric and official statements. In asserting these 

values, leaders from the region find that they have a convenient tool to silence 

internal criticism and to fan anti-Western nationalist sentiments. At the same time, 

the concept is welcomed by cultural relativists, cultural supremacists, and 

isolationists alike, as fresh evidence for their various positions against a political 

liberalism that defends universal human rights and democracy (Li, 1996). 

There are also those who argue that Asian values (particularly of East Asia, but excluding 

Japan) have been negatively portrayed for their over-emphasis on “patriarchal 

authoritarianism, cronyism (weiqin zhuyi), lack of transparency in the operation of 

businesses or organisations, injustice and corruption. Of these factors, the first two are 

associated with Confucianism” but are not peculiar to Asia (Song, 2002, pp. 110-111). 

Those who argue for an Asian view of human rights, contend that Asian values: a) are 

culturally specific to Asian conditions; b) put community before individuals within Asia; c) 

put social and economic rights over civil and political rights; and d) see rights as a matter 

for National sovereignty. Li (1996) argues that the first three of these values as being 

premised on arbitrary interpretations of Asian values, a genetic fallacy (where an idea is 


only relevant if it comes from within a culture), for collapsing community rights into state 

rights, and the assumption that political, civil, economic and social rights are indivisible. 

The debate is complex but it is underpinned by a concern that was highlighted by the 

Delors commission (Delors, 1996) and thought to be relevant to values education within 

the Asia-Pacific: “namely, the tension between the local and the global, the individual and 

the universal, between tradition and modernity and the spiritual and the material” 

(APNIEVE 2 , 2000, pp. 6-7). 

In regard to Asian educational values, these are difficult to separate from the various 

schools of philosophy, religion and politics within each region. Apropos of Confucian 

values and contemporary reinterpretations, there are those who regard the Confucian or 

neo-Confucian values of educating scholar-officials to become superior by committing to 

living a life dedicated to illustrating moral virtues, as either serving to legitimate existing 

(State) power, or as a gross misrepresentation of the implications of Confucian ethics for 

education. According to the more traditional view of Confucian ethics, the cosmic order is 

not defined by a distinction between an immortal heaven, of souls, or of hell, but is divined 

by nature: hierarchies are not necessarily described as indicating that one had power over 

all others, but rather they are all as they should be. In nature everything is connected but 

there is no underlying ‘reality’ behind or beyond nature. Harmony is an ideal that is strived 

for by all, but it would exist unless the ‘superior’ (litterati-officials) and the ‘inferior’ 

(common people) all strove to suppress self-interest and understood that neither could 

survive without the other fulfilling their roles by sacrificing self-interest and remaining 

faithful to their respective “stations in life” (Fung, 1948; Song, 2002). The issue is not so 

much whether there is a fixed interpretation of Confucian ethics, but whether Asian values 

(regardless of whether they exist or not) are compatible with life in an increasingly 

globalised world, and alongside a human rights approach to values. Hence the idea of the 

individual is itself also a debatable concept. 

Pye (1996) argues that in traditional Chinese culture the individual was not regarded as 

having either a sacred dimension or inalienable rights, but rather each individual was best 

understood as member of society. “It [the individual] is always in some relationship, such 

as position within the family or other particularistic consideration, which determines self- 

2 APNEIVE (Asia Pacific Network for International Education and Valued Education) was established in 1995 to 

promote peace, tolerance and understanding through education 


identity for Chinese. Therefore they are expected to make sacrifices without hesitation for 

the group which provides them with their identities” (p. 18). In addition, this self-sacrifice 

can conflict with the emphasis placed on self-cultivation through selflessness, towards 

‘moral perfection’ (p. 20). There is, as Pye notes, a paradoxical individualism at work 

within traditional Chinese cultures. 

De Barry (1998) argues that Confucianism’s original premises are consistent with 

Western ideas about human rights. De Barry argues that reciprocity within social relations 

provides a check against power imbalances, that rites (rather than laws) promote values of 

mutual aid, cooperation, social order and free speech. On the other hand, there are those 

who doubt that these values necessarily resolve themselves in such communal harmony 

and instead argue that the reciprocity within collectivism occurs within a network of uneven 

social relations, where reliance on leaders/scholars moral cultivation may not serve to 

protect those who are oppressed, violated or denied speaking ‘rites’ (Yu, 2000). When 

considering the implication of values education, the critical questions raised by Bruun and 

Jacobsen, (2000) the editors of Human rights and Asian values are just as applicable to 

so-called Western values. 

Evaluating this debate is acutely important in identifying exactly who claim to be the 

true bearers of cultural traditions and by what means they defend their right to 

interpret, or ‘publish’, common values for others to ‘subscribe’ to. Another, derived, 

question is of even greater importance to this volume: who do not have the right to 

speak up in public? and what alternative voices are heard underneath the official 

rhetoric in the countries in question? (p. 6). 

Whether we talk about Asian or Western values (both misleading and falsely polarised and 

homogenised blocs), values talk has often been linked to the promotion of particular (often 

existing) political interests in the name of those who are ruled (Friedman, 2000). For 

Friedman, cultural essentialism cuts both ways, and it is important to continually question 

what cultural values are meant to stand for, but more importantly, how they are deployed 

within power relations. In much of the literature, Asian values of collectivism are treated 

not only as peculiar to Asia but in opposition to Western individualism. Disputing this 

simplification, Friedman believes that it is important to protect individual rights, but not to 

make the mistake that human rights are limited to individual rights. “Historically, rights 

have been denied to groups, to genders, races, religions, etc.” (p. 27). He urges ‘The 

West’ to become more “aware of its cultural presuppositions to explain itself. The Western 


discourse on rights often detours serious discussions on human rights. It is full of arrogant 

and ignorant claims about the individual. Historically, after all, it is groups that have been 

excluded” (p. 27). 

In relation to filial piety, an archetypical communal Asian value that appears very 

prominently within the literature, Yu (2000) summarises both a Confucian understanding 

and a contestation of filial piety as requiring the person who is lowly classified (subject, 

son, child, daughter): 

… to serve the interest and end of the higher. “For a man who is both filial and 

obedient as a younger brother” declares the ancient philosopher Youzi, “it is rare 

that such a person would love to transgress against his superiors (fan shang); a 

person without such an inclination and still desirous of starting a rebellion has never 

been heard of … Being filial and obedient as a younger brother is the root of 

benevolence” (Analects, 1.2). This declaration, preserved so prominently in the 

forefront of the classic text that it would have been committed to memory by every 

schoolchild in the imperial era, articulates far better than any modern interpreter the 

fundamental logic animating all subsequent Confucian efforts in elevating filial piety 

to a foundational virtue (pp. 300 – 301). 

A literature review of studies concerning filial piety across East Asian countries, (China, 

Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines) concluded that filial piety 

continues to be an important ideal and practice. Of the 14 modern forms cited as modern 

forms of filial piety, seven classical forms were cited by all. These included care respect, 

victual respect, gift respect, linguistic respect, presentational respect, public respect and 

consulting respect. A further five were cited in three of the four studies reviewed: spatial 

respect, celebrative respect, acquiescent respect, salutatory respect, and precedential 

respect (Pang, 2000). Pang later argues that consulting respect tends to be practiced in 

more egalitarian ways by Asian-Americans. Pang describes these forms of filial piety as: 

Care respect: Providing care and services for elders; 

Victual respect: Serving foods and drinks of elders' choice; 

Gift respect: Bestowing gifts on elders; 

Linguistic respect: Using respectful language in speaking to elders; 

Presentational respect: Holding courteous appearances; 


Spatial respect: Furnishing elders with honorable seats or places. At family events and 

holiday festivals, the elders of the family are always greeted with respect and 

seated in the highest positions; 

Celebrative respect: Celebrating birthdays in honor of elders. As an expression to 

honor their parents, adult children invite family and relatives to celebrate their 

parent's birthdays; 

Public respect: Respecting all elders of society. Public respect involves not only 

parents but also relatives bearing the same last name, and the relationship goes 

beyond the family to the village and to all elderly people who may need their 

concern and affection. Confucius said: 

"Treat with reverence elders in your own family, so that elders in other families shall 

be similarly treated (Teaching of Filial Piety, Ch.2);. 

Acquiescent respect: Being obedient to elders and carrying out their wishes; 

Salutatory respect: Greeting elders with pleasant disposition; and 

Precedential respect: Giving precedential treatment to elders; 

(Source: Pang, 2000, pp. 5-6) 

As Fung (1948) in his History of Chinese Philosophy commented, the distinctive concern 

of Chinese philosophy, religion, and politics has been to do with ethics, and the breadth of 

interpretations are as wide as Western interpretations of Greek and Biblical writings. 

Despite this breadth, the quest to define particular cultural values continues. The Dentsu 

Institute for Human Studies in Japan conducted a survey of Asian and Western values in 

1997 and 1998. Western households sampled were from Britain, France, Germany, 

Sweden, and the USA. Asian households included Japan, China, South Korea, Thailand, 

Singapore, Indonesia, and India. Some claimed that the report dispelled the idea that 

Asian values are more similar than different from Western values. However, three of 

researchers at Dentsu disagree,, saying that they think there are distinct Asian values, and 

that there has been a fusion of values and systems. 

Against the backdrop of globalization, Asian and Western States (and of course 

other States) are entering a phase of revolutionary change. We believe by looking 

at the changes both in the values people embrace and the political, economic and 

social systems, and understanding the dynamism between the two, we will reach a 


etter understanding of what is happening now and in which direction our world is 

heading (Fukukawa, Yamazaki, & Odaka, quoted by Koh, 2000, p. 134). 

Koh (2000) summarised the findings of Hitchcock, from the Centre for Strategic and 

International Studies in Washington, who, in 1994, interviewed over 100 researchers, 

officials, business people, journalists, cultural and religious leaders from Singapore, Kuala 

Lumpur, Jakarta, Bangkok, Shanghai, Beijing, Seoul, and Tokyo and compared these 

values with USA values. For personal values, Hitchcock claimed that East Asians 

emphasise respect for learning, honesty and self-discipline, and Americans emphasised 

achieving success in life, personal achievement, and helping others. For social values, 

East Asians were described as valuing an orderly society, while Americans were described 

as placing most value on personal freedom and individual rights (p. 133). 

Within the Asian-Pacific region, APNEIVE (Asia Pacific Network for International Education 

and Valued Education) was established in 1995 to promote peace, tolerance and 

understanding through education. With affiliations to UNESCO member states of the Asia- 

Pacific Region, the organisation has published a variety of source books on values 

education that are consistent with the direction promoted by the Delors Commission 

(Learning to Know and understand, to Be, to Do, leading to Learning to live and work 

together). APNEIVE acknowledges that the Asia-Pacific region is one of the most diverse 

and populous regions in the world, but believes that there are shared values relevant to 

this region. 

APNIEVE believes that the sharing of universal values for regional and global peace 

is an effective way of counteracting the more negative effects of globalization, 

modernity and materialism, without detracting from the unique individual, local and 

traditional values in the region, which should at the same time, be strengthened and 

maintained. The core values for Learning to Be are considered timeless and 

spiritual in nature, applying as they do to all human beings, thereby transcending 

individual, social, cultural or other differences. Thus, awareness, knowledge and 

understanding of oneself through Learning to Be, enables an appreciation, 

acceptance and tolerance of the diverse cultural traditions, beliefs and practices of 

others, while at the same time contributing to the development of shared universal 

values for mutual respect and understanding, leading to a genuine and lasting 

culture of peace (APNIEVE, 2000, pp. 7-8). 


For APNEIVE, education should promote a more holistic approach to education and the 

conception of individuals. According to APEID, educational systems in the region have 

overemphasised the cognitive (and in the case of Asian educational systems, overvalued a 

transmission model of teaching) and have neglected other dimensions of personhood and 

the learning context. In this model of affective development, the human is regarded as a 

self and as a member of a community. The individual learner is regarded as existing 

within a social, physical, economic, political, intellectual, spiritual, and moral context. From 

this model of the ‘holistic’ individual, APNIEVE (2000) has promoted its vision of core 

educational values as part of the Learning to Be strand of the Delors aims for education in 

the 21 st century. 

APNIEVE believes that the human person’s individual and social development is 

anchored on eight core values: Health and Harmony with Nature, Truth and 

Wisdom, Love and Compassion, Creativity and Appreciation for Beauty, Peace and 

Justice, Sustainable Human Development, National Unity and Global Solidarity, and 

Global Spirituality, and related values (Figure 4). All these values converge around 

the central value of respect for Human Dignity (p. 24). 

One can see in this vision an attempt to reconcile claims that there have been described in 

the Asian values debates as both peculiarly Asian and Western values. The debate 

illustrates the difficulties of describing Asian values within a New Zealand context. The 

debate also illustrates the tensions between a cultural particularity (sometimes referred to 

as cultural relativism) and universality, and the tensions between views of the individual as 

collective and the Western liberal notion of a self-contained individual that possesses 

rights. Nonetheless, Kirsten Wong points out that any attempt to try to resolve cultural 

differences (both inside and outside of so-called ethnic groups) is misleading. Writing from 

a New Zealand Chinese perspective, she argues that it is important to recognise that 

Chinese is a common group that contains differences within and this is quite different from 

the racist labelling of Chinese as ‘all the same': 

It doesn't mean we have to speak with one voice ... No one ever asks for the 

"Pākehā view" but they expect one single Chinese view or one single Māori view. 

It's total rubbish, as if we all need to think the same. [On the other hand] we need 

to stop tearing each other down whenever some Chinese stand up and say 

something ... (Wong, cited in Ip 1996, p. 161). 


It is perhaps a view that many who value plurality and diversity would have sympathy with. 

The idea of tensions, or at least a mismatch, between home and schooling experiences 

have also been discussed in relation to the experience of mid 20 th New Zealand Chinese 

as ‘Growing up in Two Worlds'. 

Chinese children who were local-born or came to New Zealand at a young age grew 

up in two very different worlds. At home the Chinese way was usually dominant: 

patriarchal and with strict hierarchical control. Children were instilled with familial 

values, and taught to cherish group welfare above individual interest. Such values 

as filial piety, deference to senior authority, unquestioning obedience, and unstinting 

hard work were inculcated from an early age. Outside the home, as in schools, 

quite a different value system prevailed, and Chinese children often found to their 

amazement that behaviours commended as virtues at home often became liabilities 

outside. Quiet obedience and politeness could be interpreted as passivity, 

aloofness, unwillingness to participate, and a lack of individuality .... they were 

accused of 'staying apart' and 'keeping to themselves' when most probably they 

were trying to be inoffensive and keep a low profile (Ip, 1996 p.13 ). 

Kirsten Wong (born 1967) talked about the benefits of learning the 'habit of independent 

thinking' (p.87) from the New Zealand education system. She also experienced difficulties 

in managing competing demands. 

Kirsten speaks of the pain of trying to cope with the stress of living up to a variety of 

often contradictory expectations: to be motivated but not assertive, to excel 

academically but not to be competitive with mainstream New Zealanders, to 'know 

one's place'. She knows of many of her peers – the generation of the 1970s and 

1980s - who became frustrated, chose to 'opt out completely by leaving the 

community altogether', and others who worked their way 'back in' (Ip, 1996, p. 124). 

An Indian Newslink survey (Menezes, 2003) of ten families from the subcontinent, argued 

that each has managed to find points of connection with New Zealand whilst also 

maintaining their family and cultural values. These families have been New Zealand 

residents between five and thirty years and many have experienced life in countries across 

the globe. A Tamil man spoke of integrating without assimilating, and described how they 

had raised their children. 


Our children followed three sets of disciplines - at home, at school or college and 

with their peers. Each is different in terms of expectations and adaptability. Yet we 

successfully integrated ourselves and today we and our children feel that we live in 

a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic country (Menezes, 2003). 

The article then goes on to describe a range of peoples of Asian ethnicity, many of whom 

talk about the importance of freedom without harming others, of close family relations and 

the importance of consulting with parents. One couple described how their Indian culture 

influences their life in New Zealand: 

Indian culture is a set of guidelines that tell us how to live, behave and view the 

world that surrounds us. We meet people here who share a similar culture. This 

makes for the cohesion and continuity of our lives. Indian culture influences our 

beliefs, behaviour, language, religion, family structure, diet, dress, image and 

attitude to the changes that we face in New Zealand (Menezes, 2003). 

Dietary values and practices are diverse across India and Asia. These dietary values are 

intimately linked to schools of philosophy and religion. For instance, Jainism focuses on 

minimising harm as the primary value out of which other values and practices should flow, 

including abstaining from eating animals. Buddhists, Hindus, Taoists, Muslims and Sikhs 

also have specific dietary requirements that are linked with their value systems, and are 

often non-negotiable. Teachers need to be aware that when they offer food to their 

students (like chocolate fish) they need to check that these are not made out of animals or 

that they contravene important cultural codes associated with food and eating. This can 

include providing facilities for children to heat up home cooked lunches at schools. 

This section on Asian values has not paid enough attention to the range of so-called Asian 

values. What has become clear, is that if teachers are to become aware, and if schools 

are to become inclusive and engaged with values in any broad sense, then an 

internationalist approach to education needs to apply beyond the Social Studies 

curriculum. The last word comes from Manying Ip (1996): 

When education succeeds in nurturing young people to become independent in 

their thinking and capable of identifying values they cherish, when it opens up 

opportunities for greater self-awareness as well as for understanding of the broader 

issues of the day, it is the greatest gift that New Zealand can give to its immigrant 

ethnic minorities (Ip, 1996, p. 88). 


THE CONCEPT OF AGREED KIWI VALUES 

One of the most interesting features of the New Zealand values study data reported by 

Webster (2001) is, that on many values dimensions, New Zealanders appeared to be in 

broad agreement on a number of issues which the study probed. This is a similar finding 

to that of Baker, (2005) in the USA (see Section 7). Webster describes these strongly 

agreed common values as identifying the K-factor or Kiwi-ness, and clusters these into 

three sections: personal values, social values, public values. 

In the personal values section, Webster found strong agreement about: the importance of 

health, family, friends and leisure; being accepting of a less materialist society; having a 

good work and leisure balance; strong civic morality (although divorce was excepted), 

marriage is not outdated and there should not be complete individual sexual freedom; 

some boldness about change rather than caution; belief in an ultimate being (either a 

personal God or a spirit or life-force); and a preference for environmental harmony 

(humans must coexist with nature rather than the master nature). 

In the social values section, inclusiveness was highly valued as were: relationship values 

(the need for respect and tolerance between people; cultural and political differences do 

not justify disrespect and intolerance); caring for people in the work environment; 

acceptance of owner-manager authority; rejection of radical social change; and care of 

children as a major responsibility of parents (Webster, 2001). 

In the public values section, agreement was strong in regard to: a strong belief in human 

decency (Government is responsible to ensure a decent standard of living for all, care of the 

most vulnerable); no further strengthening of the Treaty of Waitangi; support for increased 

police powers (but not any form of army rule); low confidence in political parties; low 

participation in political activism, such as strikes; rejection of a closed-door immigration 

policy; strong affirmation of the right to work (Government responsible for employment and 

job training), importance of interesting and worthwhile work, and gender equality in the right 

to a job; a strong national feeling (pride in the nation, belief that democracy is the best 

political system and pride in the sort of nation we are) (Webster, 2001). 


Webster also found areas of marked value conflict. The most significant were: upbringing 

(conflict about whether: parents would always be respected; qualities of persistence, 

determination and imagination should be learned in the home; approval of the single 

woman as parent.); social capital (strong differences about: the importance of community 

organisations; law and order; the level of trust of other people; and the kinds of people 

disliked as neighbours); redistribution of wealth (a conflict between a help up reaction and 

a view that people should be independent and solve their own problems); and wide 

differences about the merit of special Māori rights. He found that these differences 

seemed to reflect difference between traditional and conservative on the one hand and 

liberal and permissive on the other (Webster, 2001). 

OTHER CULTURES AND COMMUNITIES 

The authors acknowledge that New Zealand’s current multicultural society has people from 

many different cultural and ethnic origins within it. The survey of Māori, Pākehā, Pacific 

and Asian values we have presented above does not reflect the full, rich and varied values 

of New Zealand society in its fullest sense. However, the time and resource constraints of 

this study do not enable us to widen the scope of this survey. 

We are confident, however, that what we have covered above in the section on Māori, 

Pacific and Asian values does raise many of the issues regarding addressing values in the 

curriculum that go beyond the dominant Western and Eurocentric values that predominate 

in the New Zealand school system. The development of these issues in relation to a wider 

range of cultural and ethnic communities will need to be addressed elsewhere. 


S ECTION 4: N EW Z EALAND L ITERATURE AND P RACTICE - 

V ALUES AND C URRICULUM 

This section reviews existing literature about values in the New Zealand curriculum and 

also examines existing and emerging practice in New Zealand school communities in 

relation to values. 

VALUES AND THE NATIONAL CURRICULUM – RECENT HISTORY 

Values have had a chequered career in the New Zealand Curriculum during the later half 

of the 20 th century. Powerful social and economic forces have influenced the values in the 

curriculum landscape in New Zealand over this period. A number of the key values which 

influenced curriculum developments over the last 30 years are briefly examined below. 

The Johnson Report (Committee on Health and Social Education, 1977) 

The final report and the Committee on Health and Social Education provoked intense 

debate about how to deal with the values issues surrounding the impact of widespread 

social changes set in train in the 1960s . The report, entitled ‘Growing, sharing, learning’ is 

often referred to as the Johnson Report. In a section entitled ‘Moral, Spiritual and Values 

Education’, the report gave considerable weight to the importance of this dimension in 

education. The report noted that the committee believed that: 

… society would like to see a reinforcement of, and a return to some basic values 

which have universal appeal and which remain cornerstones of every community. 

… awareness of the worth of the family; caring for and awareness of those around, 

including the community as a whole; recognition of the wisdom gained from life's 

experience, that is, recognition of the wisdom of elders, the people who have lived 

through life; aroha (love and caring, goodwill, empathy); concern and consideration 

for others and their property; belief in oneself and the awareness of the worth of 

self; recognition of the worth and integrity of each person; honesty, truthfulness and 

self-control; achievement in work, sport and leisure; an appreciation of beauty both 

created and natural (Committee on Health and Social Education, 1977, section 

2.4.2, p. 32). 

The Johnson committee felt that values education was a partnership between home and 

school, and that schools have the resources and the people to support the home in helping 

young people to learn values for themselves in a world of bewildering choice. Schools and 


teachers, they considered, should be encouraged to stand up and be counted in 

concerning their fostering of basic values. The committee suggested that schools should 

provide opportunity for the discussion of controversial issues and recommended the 

appointment of a senior teacher as coordinator of values education in schools. 

The report also supported a spiritual dimension in education to investigate questions such 

as: “Who am I?” “Why am I here?” “Where have I come from?” “Where am I going to?” 

They also considered that most world religions and spiritual belief systems involve: “belief 

in - or disbelief in - a spiritual world to be discovered as part of living; belief in - or disbelief 

in - a supreme being or spirit responsible for man's existence and concerned about his 

future; belief in - or disbelief in - some form of survival of the human mind or spirit after 

death” The committee considered there was a place for discussions of these questions in 

schools. They noted that “in a pluralistic and multicultural society, great care must be 

taken to understand and respect differences between people” They considered there is a 

place for learning about purpose in life without becoming enmeshed in particular religious 

viewpoints or dogmas. In taking this stance, the committee affirmed the suggestion made 

at an educational development conference in 1974 (Working Party in Aims and Objectives, 

1974, p. 10) that “the search for meaning, purpose and identity in life is necessary for the 

health of the individual and community" (Committee on Health and Social Education, 1977, 

section 2.4.2). 

While some of the committee's recommendations led to significant developments in health 

education and outdoor education, their recommendations regarding moral, values and 

spiritual education became bogged down in controversy and were not adopted. “The 

proposals were strongly opposed by many (but not all) churches, by business people 

(such as the Employers’ Federation) and by groups (like the Concerned Parents 

Association) which claimed to speak for parents,” (Snook, 2000). On the other hand, 

some aspects of values education in the curriculum were taken up by the Form One to 

Four social studies syllabus published in 1978 and in the health education syllabus 

published in 1985 (New Zealand Department of Education, 1985). 

The Curriculum Review (Committee to Review the Curriculum in Schools, 1987) 

The 1980s was a period of extensive curriculum review. A review of the core curriculum 

was carried out in 1982 -3. A Committee to Review the Curriculum for Schools was then 

established in 1984 and completed two rounds of consultation. This was a very large 


exercise with 21,500 submissions received in response a six-question community 

discussion (1987, p. 5). A Draft Curriculum Review Report was produced and the more 

than 10,000 submissions on the draft were also analysed, (p. 5). A final report, The 

Curriculum Review: Report of the Committee to Review the Curriculum for Schools was 

published in 1987. This report suggested that: 

… the curriculum must provide for learning in three equally important aspects of 

knowledge, skills, and attitudes and values, [and that] knowledge, skills, attitudes, 

and values are interdependent and interrelated. [It noted that] traditionally, schools 

had emphasised knowledge along with some planning for skills, leaving attitudes 

and values largely to chance, [and went on to suggest] that skills and attitudes are 

as important in learning as knowledge, and need to be planned for. [It also 

suggested that] schools will need to reorganise the curriculum to ensure that 

learners are aware of the connections between knowledge and skills, and the 

attitudes and values they carry. Learners must not be left to work out for 

themselves the interdependence of the aspects of learning; they must be helped to 

see and experience the relationships (Committee to Review the Curriculum in 

Schools, 1987, pp. 12-13). 

Thus the Curriculum Review, in similar fashion to the Curriculum Stocktake Report 

(Ministry of Education, 2002) strongly emphasised the importance of values and attitudes 

and the need for their integration within the curriculum. 

As part of the curriculum review a questionnaire asked schools and school communities: 

What attitudes and values should young people develop at school? The final report 

provides information on the responses (Committee to Review the Curriculum in Schools, 

1987, pp. 58-60). The Curriculum Review reported that: 

… some of the desirable attitudes and values the community mentioned most 

frequently in their responses were a sense of fairness; concern for truth; honesty; 

self respect and self-esteem; self-discipline; respect for other people and for their 

cultures, beliefs, opinions and property; responsibility for one's own actions, trust in 

other people, aroha (love) manaakitanga (hospitality); wairua (spirituality); 

tolerance; and adaptability (p. 13). 


These provided the basis for the values list on page 21 of NZCF, (Ministry of 

Education,1993). The committee concluded that “some values and are clearly understood 

and can provide a base for curriculum planning” … and that others … “are more 

controversial and need careful consideration” (Committee to Review the Curriculum in 

Schools, 1987, p. 13). 

SOME RECENT LITERATURE ON VALUES IN THE NEW ZEALAND CURRICULUM 

However, once again, and despite the wide consultation, there was similar strong 

opposition to this report from some quarters (Snook, 2000). From the late 1980s until the 

late 1990s, values education seemed to disappear off the educational radar as the neoliberal 

new right economic reforms took hold. Snook suggests, however, that in fact the: 

… most cunning and effective values education ever seen in our country occurred 

during this time as the attitudes and values encouraged became those of self 

centredness, acquisitiveness and a ‘survival of the fittest’ kind of competitiveness. 

Self interest replaced altruistism and commercial models replaced community 

models. [Such values] fly in the face of the lessons of the past and the values of 

our secular and religious traditions. To those of us with humanistic and/or religious 

perspectives this is a tragic outcome (Snook, 2000, p. 3 ). 

However, values education regained a higher profile in 1998 with the UNESCO Summit on 

Values. This was followed by a second summit in 2002 and the New Zealand Herald ran a 

series of feature articles on values education in 2001-2. Snook suggests that this 

rekindling of interest was ironic because the new interest in values in education appeared 

to be driven by those who were implicated in the new right reforms who now “recognise 

the social and personal monsters they have created; and they want values education in 

the schools to fix it up!” (Snook, 2000, p. 3.) 

This example of argument over values in schools is not an isolated one. Argument about 

the values that should drive schooling, education, the curriculum, schools and classrooms 

is ongoing. Much of the heat in this argument goes back, at the deepest level, to debates 

about the purpose of schooling. 

Hood (1998) notes that a traditional approach to school and education where school is 

seen as a place to learn the lessons of the past and of the best of the wisdom and 

knowledge of the great thinkers and teachers of humankind is still very influential in New 


Zealand. This kind of thinking, he argues, is a large part of the reason why traditional 

subjects and pedagogies are still the basis of New Zealand secondary schools. However, 

others, including Hood himself, are adamant that the world of today and the future is very 

different from that of the past, and there is a need for a paradigm shift in thinking about the 

way education, curriculum and schools are structured and run. Hood strongly encourages 

a focus on competencies and cross-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary learning. 

Hood develops ideas about values in the curriculum in a section on culture, values and in 

loco parentis. He argues that the belief that schools must transmit society’s culture is an 

outmoded idea. He notes that “in the first 18 years of a person’s life, only about ten 

percent is spent in school. In today’s world, a young person has exposure to culture every 

minute of his or her life through radio, television, movies, advertising, cinema, the internet,” 

(p. 125). The Curriculum Review stated a similar view in suggesting that “children learn 

attitudes and values from their family, from the community, from society and, increasingly 

through the media,” Ministry of Education (1987, p. 12). Culture and values in school are 

important, but, Hood argues, the cultural transmission approach is usually associated with 

traditional bodies of knowledge usually British and middle class in origin, and that 

curriculum must include a much broader view of culture. 

Hood also suggests that “the belief that the role of the school and the curriculum is to 

transmit society’s morals and values is also an outmoded idea”. He links this to an 

unfortunate interpretation of the in-loco parentis role as schools being responsible for 

ensuring “each child who comes through the door will conform to a particular image of 

what is deemed the well-behaved and correct-thinking child” (p. 126). Hood believes this 

approach leads to an approach to young people “more akin to the authoritarianism of the 

factory floor of 100 years ago” than one where student interest and trust and respect are 

central (Hood, 1998). 

Hood notes that there are currently strong calls for values education in the curriculum to 

build a values framework for personal development. He argues that this does not mean 

we create a new subject called values education, being of the view that the curriculum 

framework already emphases values in asking that students are “challenged to think 

clearly and critically about human behaviour, to explore different values and make their 

own informed judgments,” (p. 129). However, Hood feels such ideas are largely rhetoric 

unless “the schooling system practices the values it espouses [and] students have the 


opportunity to think about the application of values in solving real life problems, i.e. through 

contextual learning experiences,” (p. 129). Hood concludes that the simple list of human 

qualities outlined in Education in Change in 1969)“still provides the best general statement 

of what schools should be about” (New Zealand Post Primary Teachers Association, 1969) 

This suggested that education, the curriculum and schools should be concerned to 

promote: 

the urge to inquire; 

concern for others; and 

the desire for self respect. 

The Quality Public Education Coalition (QPEC) organisation assembled a writing group in 

1999 to produce a handbook for schools on values education, (Quality Public Education 

Coalition, 2000). This booklet is of a different order to the character education style 

materials available through the organisations most influential in New Zealand Schools. 

The booklet, entitled Values in Schools, sets out to bring together in one place an array of 

information on the issues of values in schools. It is strongly committed to the idea that 

communities and schools come up with their own sets of values and approaches to them. 

There are 20 chapters with ‘think pieces’ on a variety of topics and issues such as: schools 

and their values; the school as a moral community; and, values in conflict. These chapters 

acknowledge and address value complexity and also include, in most cases, practical 

classroom activities. The final two chapters outline a six step process for creating an 

ethical school. This has some similarities to the approach advocated by the Living Values 

Project (Lawley, 2001) but is more open ended. 

The QPEC approach is forged from a concern “for a society in which social justice, equity 

and responsibility are paramount values [It is also] committed to the sort of values 

education in which primacy is given to exploring traditions, respecting diversity and 

contributing to a just society.” The booklet acknowledges the material, the inter-personal, 

the social and the spiritual as realms where values perspectives and judgements come 

into play. It encourages discussion and thought about moral codes in various forms and 

especially focusing on the principles of minimising harm, maximising good, being fair to all, 

concern for truth and not unnecessarily hindering others. They also encourage study of 

the realms of ethics and religion in relation to such codes and principles, (QPEC, pp. 100- 

101). 


The views and approaches outlined by Hood and QPEC are typical of what some describe 

is as a ‘thinking approach’ to values in the curriculum that is not effective (Galloway 2005; 

Heenan, 2005). Heenan (2005) argues that until quite recently “character education, or 

character training, was seen as an essential component of schooling” In the 1960s and 

70s views changed, and a view that “in a pluralist liberal democracy it was inappropriate to 

promote one set of values that may violate the beliefs, values and rights of those holding 

different views” resulted in the development of values education in preference to character 

education. This, Heenan considers, is “less concerned with behavioural outcomes and 

more concerned with the quality of students’ thinking” 

Values education, he suggests, requires values teaching be non-sectarian and nondoctrinaire 

and is presented as being neutral and without religious or moralistic bias. This 

and the ‘thinking approach’, Heenan (2005) suggests, gives young people an 

“unmistakable message that right and wrong are relative, that they must not be 

judgmental; that what is right for one person may be wrong for another. Right and wrong 

are personal values, never objective, and always dependent upon time, place and 

circumstance”. He argues this is ” not a neutral position but the doctrine of situation ethics, 

moral and cultural relativism”. This, he argues, undermines the traditional understanding 

that there are core universal values and introduces an ideology of ethical relativism. 

Heenan suggests that quality education in the moral realm means using character 

education, not values education. Following Lickona (1992), this is seen as knowing the 

good, desiring the good and doing the good, understanding what character is, why 

character is important, and how character is learned. Heenan argues that the cornerstone 

values approach in addressing moral knowledge, moral attitudes and moral behaviour 

does this. 

Rod Galloway (2004), a primary school principal who has used the Cornerstone approach, 

believes the approach is effective for three reasons. Firstly, Galloway believes that 

Heenan has been thorough in his thinking, and as a result, the rationale behind the eight 

cornerstone values is strong and their definition and their relationship to teaching and 

learning objectives is very clear. Secondly the approach, Galloway suggests, combines a 

neo-classical and communitarian approach to values education. In a neo-classical manner 


the approach presents, for example, the virtues of honesty and compassion as - arguably - 

timeless and universal virtues. But, at the same time, it recognises the importance of 

these being contextualised by local communities. The school community is involved in the 

process of discussing and confirming the selection of virtues and takes partial ownership 

of the approach and provides for local autonomy and variation. 

The third factor in the success of the approach, Galloway suggests, is: 

… the organic fashion in which character education is worked into the curriculum. 

… Teachers explore and reinforce the virtue across the curriculum as it naturally 

occurs. The emphasis is not on daily preaching, but on modelling, and highlighting a 

virtue in pupil behaviour. The point is that Cornerstone is organic to the life of the 

school: in staff behaviour, lesson content, assembly, newsletters and corridor 

displays an emphasis on the virtues which create character is evident (2004). 

The theme of community and parent involvement is also a feature of a recent report 

published by the Maxim Institute (2005). The report presents one finding from a 

commissioned survey of 1000 parents that 84% believe that: 

… individual schools should be allowed to teach their individual community’s 

positive values” (p. 24). [The report argues] much is made of the freedom of New 

Zealand schools to determine core values in their charter and to have some 

discretion in what they teach, but in reality schools are required to teach the values 

of the Ministry of Education. (p. ) [The report recommends] the substance of values 

education should be determined locally to reflect the positive values of the 

community. Rather than the Ministry of Education directing this process, school 

communities should adopt values suitable to their particular context (p. 32). 

Thus at the level of what values get taught in the curriculum, the traditionalists favour the 

inculcation of traditional values ( Heenan, 2005; Galloway, 2004; 2005; Irwin, 1999). The 

more change- and futuristic-oriented argue for values thinking for current and future 

realities with room for changing values meanings and emphasis (QPEC, 2000; Codd, 

1999; Hood, 1998). Each camp is highly critical of the approach of the other and often it 

can seem there is little likelihood of being able to reconcile such disparate views. 

However, others have argued that a close reading of what various factions are arguing for, 

and careful thinking about the issues involved, can identify common ground and lead to a 

resolution of the fears of opposing groups (Keown, 2001; Clark, 2000; Donnelly, 1998). 


Clark, for example, addresses the issue of relativism and “unquestioning tolerance” and 

shows that well thought out values education can avoid the relativism problems many 

critics of the ‘thinking approach’ worry about. Donnelly (1998) suggests that we need to 

get beyond polarised positions. He suggests that much of the disagreement is created by 

the differing assumptions that protagonists bring to the debate. This results in people 

talking past each other. Schools, he suggests, are able to either reinforce or challenge the 

values and beliefs of home. Indeed, he argues that in order to achieve a cohesive society 

it is necessary for schools to do both. 

There are also a wide variety of other writings in relation to values in education and values 

in the curriculum in New Zealand. These include: Seedhouse (2005; 1998); Snook (2003); 

Francis (2003); Mutch (2000); Keown and McGee (2000); and Keown (2003). It is not 

possible within the scope of this project to include a full review of the wealth of material 

available. Broadly, this range of writing explores the nature of values work in education 

and techniques for including values-related studies in the curriculum. The writing team 

considers that, in the main, this writing includes similar themes to those covered in work 

we have reviewed and that the key issues for the treatment of values in the curriculum 

have been raised in the selection of work which has been reviewed. 

THE WAYS IN WHICH VALUES ARE ADDRESSED IN THE CURRENT CURRICULUM 

Keown (2001) reports on an analysis of the values dimension in the New Zealand 

Curriculum. The paper points out that the general overall values goals and outcomes, the 

New Zealand Curriculum Framework (NZCF) (Ministry of Education, 1993) suggest that 

the school curriculum will: 

Encourage positive attitudes toward all areas of learning; 

Reinforce the commonly held values of individual and collective responsibility which 

underpin New Zealand’s democratic society (derived from the Curriculum Review 

report); 

Help students to develop and clarify their own values and beliefs, and to be respectful 

and sensitive to attitude and value difference in society; and 

Enable students to examine the context and the implications of their own values and 

those of others, and the values on which our current social structures are based 

(p.3) 


Keown (2001, p. 3 )notes that NZCF is quite specific about what each learning area might 

address in the values realm. For example: 

Being systematic, resourceful, self -reliant and persevering in Mathematics (p. 11); 

Making responsible decisions about the environment in Science (p. 12); 

Making informed decisions about the use of technology in relation to society, 

environment and economy in Technology (p. 13); 

Fostering concern for social justice and the welfare of others, acceptance of cultural 

diversity and respect for the environment in Social Sciences (p. 14); 

Recognising the aesthetic and spiritual dimensions of their lives in the Arts (p. 15); and 

Developing personal responsibility and judgment in matters of values and ethical 

standards in Health and Physical Well-being (p. 16). 

Keown suggests that the NZCF writers seem to have considered some learning areas as 

key sites for the study of values and attitudes. The wording of pages 10 to 16 in NZCF 

suggests that science, social sciences, the arts and health and well-being were considered 

as the best areas of the curriculum in which to develop values and attitude learning. All of 

the statements on these areas mention values learning quite explicitly and refer quite 

directly to the values and attitudes statement on page 21. However, mathematics is not, it 

would seem, given any significant responsibility for developing the values set out on page 

21 of NZCF (Ministry of Education, 1993). 

Keown also notes that the NZCF essential skills listed on pages 17 to 20 articulate 

important values skills. For example, under self-management and competitive skills, it is 

suggested that students will show initiative, commitment, perseverance, courage and 

enterprise, and, develop constructive approaches to challenge and change, stress and 

conflict, and success and failure. Under social and co-operative skills they are to: 

Take responsibility as a member of a group for jointly decided actions and decisions; 

Demonstrate consideration for others through qualities such as integrity, reliability, 

trustworthiness, caring or compassion (aroha), fairness, diligence, tolerance 

(rangimarie) and hospitality or generosity (manaakitanga); and 

Develop the ability to negotiate and achieve consensus (Ministry of Education, 1993). 


However, Keown notes that there are no specific links made between pages 17 -20 and 

page 21, leading to confusion about the inter-relationships between the essential skills and 

attitudes and values. In addition, the word “essential” appears, in the early part of the 

document, to apply to skills and to attitudes and values. However, later in the document the 

word is attached only to knowledge and skills, not to attitudes and values. The explanation 

of the essential skills is quite full and is expressed as learning objectives. In contrast the 

attitudes and values section is a brief and does not outline specific learning objectives. 

Keown argues this has probably resulted in a reduced priority for the values dimension in the 

development and teaching of the seven essential learning areas. He suggests that while 

there is emphasis throughout NZCF, on the values of compliance, on values clarification and 

on a relatively unquestioning form of tolerance, there is much less encouragement of a 

socially critical approach in values learning. He also suggests that while there are worthy 

values goals in broad general terms within NZCF, they are not developed in enough detail to 

help curriculum writers and teachers to achieve these intentions. There are also mixed 

messages about the importance of values learning in the curriculum. 

Keown’s paper also examines the treatment of values in each of the curriculum learning 

areas. This is reported detail in Section 6 of this paper. Keown concludes that the 

approach to values in the New Zealand Curriculum is rather piece-meal, due in part to the 

lack of clear learning outcomes for the values and attitudes aspect of the curriculum in 

NZCF. As a result, Keown examined the learning area documents as a set, to look for 

specific ideas that could be used to begin to develop a set of cross-curriculum objectives 

and learning outcomes for values in the curriculum. This analysis revealed that three 

types of values goals or objectives appear regularly in the curriculum. There appear to 

implicit aims in the curriculum to ensure that each student will: 

Develop key knowledge about values; 

Develop important valuing skills; and, 

Be encouraged to adopt particular values (Keown, 2001, p. 10). 

In examining each of these in turn, Keown found the curriculum implicitly suggests 

students should gain knowledge of: 

A range of values perspectives; 

Their own and others values; and 

A range of values types such as aesthetic, spiritual, social and democratic values 


(Keown, 2001, p. 11). 

They should also develop the ability to: 

Express their own and others values; 

Identify and examine underlying assumptions; 

Critically analyse ideas and values; 

Make judgements using criteria and/or ethics; and 

Solve problems and make decisions using judgement and discernment (Keown, 2001, 

p. 11). 

The curriculum also implies students should be encouraged to value the substantive 

values of: 

Diversity (particularly of culture, heritage and gender); 

Equity; care (particularly for the environment); 

Social justice; and 

Responsibility (Keown, 2001, p. 11). 

The curriculum also strongly encourages the process values of: 

Open inquiry and investigation; 

Using a range of thinking styles (in particular, systematic, innovative, creative and 

flexible thinking); and 

Active participation, co-operation and teamwork (Keown, 2001, p. 11). 

This paper concludes by advocating a clearer statement of the nature of learning 

outcomes for the values and attitudes expected within the New Zealand curriculum, akin to 

the essential skill statements. This, it is suggested, would provide a sound basis for any 

reviews of the seven curriculum documents to re-examine and reshape the ways in which 

values education occurs through the essential learning areas. This the paper comes to a 

similar conclusion to that of the Curriculum Stocktake Report (Ministry of Education, 2002), 

that values need to be better integrated into the essential learning area of the curriculum. 


TE WHĀRIKI AND VALUES IN THE NEW ZEALAND CURRICULUM 

The Curriculum Marautanga Project 3 is attempting to ensure that there is consistency 

across all sectors of education and particularly between early childhood, primary and 

secondary curricula. The Te Whāriki document (Mininstry of Education, 1996) does not 

include a specific section on values, but the principles and strands of the curriculum are 

clearly values-orientated. The four principles at the centre of the curriculum are: 

empowerment, recognising the curriculum empowers the child to learn and grow; holistic 

development, reflecting the holistic way children learn and grow; family and community, 

which acknowledges the wider world of the family and the community as an integral part of 

the curriculum; relationships, which acknowledges that children learn through 

responsiveness and which includes reciprocal relationships with people, places and things. 

The strands of this curriculum are: 

Well-being, emphasising that health and well-being of the child are protected and 

nurtured; 

Belonging, emphasising the need for children and their families to feel a sense of 

belonging; 

Contribution, emphasising that opportunities for learning should be equitable and each 

child's contribution is valued; 

Communication, where the languages and symbols of their own and other cultures are 

promoted and protected; and 

Exploration, acknowledging that the child learns through active exploration of the 

environment (Ministry of Education, 1996.). 

Clearly this curriculum has a strong emphasis on the values of equity, diversity, inclusion, 

family and whānau, community, relationship, belonging, caring, well-being, contributing, 

inquiry and exploration. 

EXISTING AND EMERGING PRACTICE: 

VALUES PROGRAMMES OPERATING IN NEW ZEALAND SCHOOLS 

3 

The Curriculum Marautanga Project is a current Ministry of Education porject to revise the New Zealand Curriculum 

Framework. 


There are a number of values programs operating in New Zealand schools. This section 

of the literature and practice review identifies and briefly describes some of the most 

significant programmes operating in, or used by, schools currently or within the last five 

years. New Zealand is a small country with a very small population by international 

standards. It is, therefore, interesting to note that there are a surprisingly large number of 

values programmes and/or support systems offered to, and operating in, schools in New 

Zealand. 

The Living Values Project 

The Independent Schools Council with support from the Fletcher Challenge Trust and the 

Ministry of Education established the Living Values Trust in 1999. Between 1999 and 

2001, 25 schools were involved in the Living Values Trust Project, (LTVP). The focus of 

this programme was on assisting schools is to implement the values component in the 

New Zealand curriculum by using an eight stage model. 

Table 3. 

The Living Values Trust Project - Eight Stage Model 

1. Form a living values project lead team to conduct a school community values 

survey. 

2. Discuss and evaluate the results of the values survey. 

3. Generate and publish an agreed school values statement and or vision. 

4. Develop a school-wide values education action plan. 

5. Develop and implement a values education training programme for all teaching 

staff. 

6. Establish a bank of resources to support values education programmes in 

classrooms. 

7. Develop values education programmes and all activities in various curriculum 

areas. 

8. Monitor student outcomes from the value values education programmes and 

all activities implemented. 

(Keown, 2002, pp. 7-8) 

This project was evaluated during 2001. The results of the evaluation were forwarded to 

the Ministry of Education in the Living Values Project Evaluation in a final report dated 

March 2002, (Keown, 2002). The report concluded that the project was successful in 

assisting schools to conduct a values survey and develop an agreed school values 

statement and or vision from the results. However, the schools in the programme were 

less successful with other parts of the model. A number of schools in the programme were 


not able to develop a values education action plan, staff training, banks of resources and 

activities. Only one school successfully monitored student outcomes. The report 

concluded that the whole school model for implementing the values of the New Zealand 

curriculum was very ambitious and demanding. While most schools were successful with 

the first three steps in the model, only a few schools were able to make significant 

progress from there on. 

The living values programme was a valuable exercise in the way it involved a number of 

schools in working through the issues involved in placing a stronger focus on values in 

schools. The project also collected, publicised and disseminated a wide range of helpful 

resources. Another interesting aspect of the project was the production of two action kits 

for schools. The first of these, The Living Values School Survey Kit, (Lawley, 2000) 

introduces values education in schools and provides the material needed to conduct a 

school community values audit survey. 

The second kit, The Living Values Action Kit, (Lawley, 2001) subtitled A Values Education 

curriculum for schools with guidelines and resources, is a wide-ranging document 

presented as ten chapters organised in three parts. The first part is presented as a set of 

guidelines for schools in seven chapters. These outline suggested approaches, and 

possible topics. The fourth chapter describes the project and provides valuable examples 

of vision statements and action plans from nine of the project’s 20 schools. A list of key 

values education initiatives from each of the schools is also included. Parts Two and Three 

of the kit provide helpful annotated lists of organizations and resources that can support 

schools in the establishment and development of values education programmes. 

The Living Values Programme ran seminars and training programmes in schools during 

1999 and 2002. The programme worked with the Virtues Project and the Philosophy for 

Children organisations and promoted these programmes as suitable in supporting values 

in the curriculum in schools. The Living Values Programme programme ceased to be an 

active force in schools at the end of 2002, when Ministry of Education funding of the 

project ended. 


The Cornerstone Values Project 

The Cornerstone Values Project (CVP) was developed by John Heenan in the mid 1990s 

in Southland. The New Zealand Foundation for Character Education Incorporated 

(NZFCE) was established to fund the preparation, publication and promotion of a values 

education curriculum. The objective of the approach is to build character through the 

teaching of cornerstone values. Cornerstone values are seen as principles which are 

consistent, universal and trans-cultural and which inform and direct our behaviour. 

Cornerstone values has become a very well known programme throughout New Zealand 

but particularly in the southern half of the South Island. 

The ideas and the philosophy of the project are outlined in Heenan (2002). The eight 

cornerstone values are: honesty and truthfulness; kindness; consideration and concern for 

others; compassion; obedience; responsibility; respect; duty. The approach uses open 

discussion of the alternatives, examination of the consequences of the alternatives, and 

stresses students will make their own decisions. The cornerstone curriculum aims to build 

moral literacy and development in children a vision of the ways things should be and how 

people can act when they are at their best. The programme makes use of stories, 

histories, poems, fables, and other writing that enable students to ‘see’ what cornerstone 

values look like, and how they work 

The programme also places emphasis on the Law of Consequences, which the 

programme explains, is sometimes referred to as cause and effect, or reaping and sowing. 

A three step decision-making process is used in the approach. This includes: firstly, 

consideration of all possible alternatives; secondly a realistic examination of the possible 

consequences of the alternatives; and, thirdly a willingness to accept responsibility for the 

consequences of the decisions made. 

This programme has been very influential in a considerable number of schools, although 

number of schools using this programme is not known. Heenan, McDonald and Perera, 

(2004) report on 26 schools formally using the programme. However, the organisation 

also offers an extensive range of teaching resources, school and teacher guide books and 

kits, and a range of teacher training seminars and courses. CVP also maintains a very 

well developed and informative website, (Cornerstone Values, 2005). The CVP clearly 


influences many schools, as was evidenced by mention of the programme by many of the 

schools represented at the regional consultation meetings. 

NZFCE has run two national character education conferences, one in 2002 and the other 

in 2003. In addition to the two books written by John Heenan, CVP and NZFCE have 

commissioned research on values and character education. This is reported in a subsection 

on research below. Some schools using the CVP are discussed later in this 

section. 

Philosophy for Children 

Philosophy for Children (P4C) is a philosophy-based approach to values in education. It is 

based of the work of Matthew Lipman and his associates, (Lipman, Sharp & Oscanyan, 

1977). The approach is based around a dialogue-oriented technique known as the 

community of inquiry. The P4C approach is much more open-ended, student centred and 

’thinking approach‘ oriented than character education and virtues programmes. 

There is a very good New Zealand Website maintained by P4C with extensive readings, 

resources and activities to support the approach, (Philosophy for Children, 2005). P4C 

runs regular training programmes for teachers and facilitators and holds an annual 

conference. A total of 183 teachers have attended level one workshops run by P4C 

between 2003 and 2003, (Kovach, 2005). In addition, an unknown number of teachers 

also took part in refresher, advanced and training for trainers workshops. The P4C 

approach is, it would appear, used by a much smaller number of schools than those using 

character-oriented programmes. 

There have also been some excellent resource booklets on the use of the approach in 

association with School Journal stories written by a New Zealand teacher, (Olley, 2001a, 

2001b, 2002). One of the leading facilitators of P4C in New Zealand has also written two 

books on the field (Golding, 2003; 2005). 

There has been some research completed on the use of this approach in the curriculum in 

New Zealand schools (Cook, 2002) which is reported in the research sub-section below. 


Virtues Project 

The Virtues Project is a US-based initiative founded by Linda Kavelin Popov and Dr Dan 

Popov. The Virtues Project programme aims to empower individuals and families to live 

by their highest values, and was inspired by the desire to do something to counteract the 

rising violence in and around families. It calls people to a remembrance of the virtues, the 

qualities of character and the simple elements of spirituality honoured by all cultures and 

sacred traditions. 

Virtues Project New Zealand (VPNZ) seeks to promote The Virtues Project through 

personal contact, formal and informal presentations and workshops as well as the use of 

the media, in order to make The Virtues Project known and used throughout New Zealand. 

It provides an extensive array of resources, educator’s guides, CDs and activity books. 

The VPNZ website lists two people as certified trainers and seven as certified facilitators. 

They also have nine regional coordinators throughout the country. VPNZ runs regular 

mentoring and training meetings each year (Virtues New Zealand, 2005). 

A considerable number of schools in New Zealand are using their resources, and some 

schools have had all staff involved in VPNZ training. There are currently 14 primary 

schools that have done full staff training and are using VPNZ in classes and across the 

school. The national coordinator reports that Virtues New Zealand has heard from all of 

these schools within the last year and all are very enthusiastic about the Project and its 

effect on their schools - seeing a difference in students, staff, parents and even sometimes 

wider communities, (Kay Miller, personal communication). Miller has personal knowledge 

of another 25 schools that are consistently using Virtues strategies extensively in their 

schools. She also reports that there is another group of schools that have one or two 

Virtues Project advocates and they are using the Virtues strategies at syndicate level. 

There are no records on how many schools and teachers are in this category. Miller also 

reports that a few high schools use also use Virtues Project materials, but there are no 

reliable figures on how many. Some example Virtue schools are discussed below. 

The Virtues Project Trust is also collaborating with Kiwi Can and integrating the virtues 

strategies into the Kiwi Can self-esteem programme 


The Character Education Programme of New Zealand (CEPNZ) 

The CEPNZ is an Auckland based organisation that offers resources and support for a 

character education approach in schools. They began in mid-2000 as Holistic Educational 

Leadership Programme (H.E.L.P.) and changed to CEPNZ in 2001. They advocate 

building core virtues such as responsibility, respect, integrity, and honesty in schools. 

They claim to be “the first and only provider of a fully interactive, online and stand-alone 

character education programme for schools and the community developed in New Zealand 

for New Zealanders” (Character Education Programme of New Zealand, 2005) 

The main feature of the CEPNZ programme appears to be their Character Education 

Starter pack on a CD-ROM which “gives you all the resources you will need to get started 

and supplies access to additional online resources and ongoing support for all the 

teachers in your school” (Character Education Programme of New Zealand, 2005). The 

Starter Pack, CEPNZ suggests, “will show you how to establish character education into 

the life and ethos of the school and integrating [sic] it into all facets of the curriculum 

without creating an extra subject to teach” (Character Education Programme of New 

Zealand, 2005). 

CEPNZ also offers a course to teachers and student teachers who wish to become a 

CEPNZ certified Character Education Co-ordinator. The CEPNZ website currently lists 

just over 50 schools as “partner schools”. A press release, dated August 3, 2004, reported 

that 72 schools were using the CEPNZ programme, (Character Education Programme of 

New Zealand, 2005). 

The Dialogue Australasia Network (DAN) 

This Australian-based organisation is grounded in the work of Dr Peter Vardy, Vice 

Principal of Heythrop College, the Philosophy and Theology College of the University of 

London. Vardy has devised a religious and values education programme for schools, 

based on five strands. The Five Strands approach is described on the DAN website as “a 

rigorous and critical approach to values education including five essential areas: 

“philosophy of religion; silence and stillness; theoretical and applied ethics; the biblical and 

christian tradition; and world religions,” (Dialogue Australasia Network, 2005). 


Vardy is active in promoting and supporting this programme in Australasia and visits 

Australia and New Zealand two or three times each year. During these visits, he runs 

senior student ethics seminars and seminars and courses for teachers. In New Zealand, 

seminars are usually run in Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch. In 2005 the senior 

student seminar was also run in Timaru. The 2005 the half day senior students’ ethics 

seminar (for Year 12 and 13 students in the New Zealand context) included material on: 

the theoretical bases for Christian ethics; just war; globalisation and business ethics; 

human reproductive technologies; and euthanasia. 

The Dialogue Australasia Network maintains an extensive website to support schools 

using the ‘Five Strand’ Programme. This site lists 36 New Zealand Schools as paid up 

members of the network (Dialogue Australasia Network, 2005). Most of the schools listed 

are independent schools. The New Zealand coordinator of the DAN, and the New Zealand 

co-editor of the Dialogue Journal, reports that around 50 New Zealand schools are on their 

data base (Stevens, 2004). 

The DAN website provides an extensive selection of teaching units for each of the five 

strands of the programme. These are written at five levels: Y1-2: Y3-5; Y6-7; Y8-10; and 

Y11-12. The DAN organisation also produces a journal twice a year which provides a 

range of articles on religious, values and philosophical topics. 

The New Zealand Churches Education Commission Programme 

The Churches Education Commission (CEC) has offered Christian religious education in 

New Zealand schools for more than a century. It is supported by 15 denominations and 

delivers programmes to 140,000 students per week (Churches Education Commission, 

2005). The Life Focus Programme devised by the CEC and sub-titled ’a values 

programme for State Primary Schools’ is designed for use in those schools who wish to 

run their CEC programme in large groups, usually full school assemblies. 

The objectives for the programme suggest that it aims “to provide a Christian values 

programme that enhances the values of the New Zealand Curriculum Framework,” 

(Churches Education Commission, 2004, p. 2). They further suggest that the programme 

aims to “help children focus on some of the important ‘non-material’ issues of life such as: 


the value and maintenance of interpersonal relationships; the place of basic morality; the 

need for self management; the acquisition of various social skills; an awareness of the 

spiritual dimension, …” (p. 2). 

The Life Focused Curriculum links strongly to NZCF (Ministry of Education, 1993). It 

draws out key values statements from the social sciences, health and physical well-being, 

and arts curriculum documents. It also links to the essential skills, particularly self- 

management and competitive skills, social and cooperative skills, work and study skills, 

and communication skills. It also examines closely the attitudes and values page of NZCF 

(Ministry of Education, 1993, p. 21). 

One interesting aspect of the life focus booklet is a table which links the values of the 

curriculum framework, Cornerstone Values, and the 52 virtues of the Virtues Project. 

Table 4. Values and Virtues Table - 

NZ Curriculum 

Framework 

Cornerstone Values The Virtues of the Virtues Programme 

Honesty Honesty Honestly, integrity, truthfulness, trust. 

Fairness Kindness Kindness, helpfulness, gentleness, 

forgiveness, peacefulness, Justice. 

Tolerance, non sexism, 

non racism 

Consideration for 

others 

Tolerance, consideration, courtesy, 

flexibility, patience, friendliness, 

generosity 

Compassion, caring Compassion Compassion, caring, love, 

understanding, joyfulness 

Respect for the law Obedience Self discipline, co-operation, honour 

Reliability Responsibility Reliability, responsibility, diligence, 

enthusiasm, excellence, cleanliness, 

assertiveness, orderliness, moderation 

Duty Commitment, determination, the loyalty, 

perseverance, courage, idealism, 

purposefulness, trustworthiness 

Respect for others Respect Respect and, service, tact, unity, 

humility, thankfulness, modesty 

(Churches Education Commission, 2004, p 8.) 

Confidence, creativity, detachment. 


Quality Public Education Coalition Values project. 

QPEC is a voluntary coalition of parents and educators concerned to promote high quality 

within each sector of public education. It was launched in mid-1997, and has taken a 

strong interest in Values Education and provides resources and support in the values 

education area. It has produced a helpful booklet, Values in Schools (2002), which 

includes a host of suggestions, ideas and activities for the development of values in the 

classroom curriculum. Key aspects of the work of QPEC relevant for this review have 

been included in other parts of this report. 

OTHER VALUES-BASED PROGRAMS 

There are a considerable number of other organisations and curriculum-based 

programmes that address values in New Zealand schools. UNESCO New Zealand has a 

significant organisation in various ways over the last decade. UNESCO New Zealand held 

major forum meetings in 1998 (Rose, 1998) and 2002 (Cartwright, 2002). UNESCO also 

has significant international programmes that operate in schools at the local level. The 

Associated Schools Network which fosters school studies and experiences related to 

peace, non-violence, and cross-cultural values operates in New Zealand. 

There are also a whole host of other programmes and initiatives that have a significant 

values emphasis operating in New Zealand schools. These are too numerous for us to 

review each separately and our brief list below will inevitably miss the worthy contributions 

of groups we were either not aware or on which we have no information. Some of the 

additional values oriented programmes operation in New Zealand include: Human Rights 

Community Schools, Enviro schools, Kool Schools (Project K), Kiwi Can, No Bully, and Kia 

Kaha. 

EXISTING AND EMERGING PRACTICE: SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF VALUES 

PROGRAMMES IN SCHOOLS 

The number of schools with specific values policies and programmes is unknown. It is 

clear from the review of values education oriented programmes above, and reports from a 

number of schools at the regional consultation meetings, that the number of schools who 

have some programme for including values in their curriculum programs is probably quite 

substantial. In this section of the review we used a small number of selected example 

schools to illustrate the kinds of values provision existing and emerging in New Zealand 


schools. This is merely a selection of example schools drawn from material handed in 

during the VIC regional consultation process, or evident in literature and internet searches 

undertaken while collecting information for this report. The selection aims to illustrate the 

range of approaches used in schools evident in our research and to include a range of 

New Zealand School types. 

In line with the ethical procedures used in the regional consultation process, we are not 

identifying any of the schools from the regional consultation process by name and we will 

ensure that detailed information about specific programmes from these schools is not 

made public. We report on these schools (schools 1 – 3) in the first part of this subsection. 

However, a number of schools have made their activities and programmes public 

in one of the publications reviewed in preparing this report, or by posting details publicly on 

their school websites. These schools(schools 4 – 7) have been appropriately 

acknowledged. Details of the values work of these schools is presented in the second part 

of this sub-section. 

School One: 

Rural coastal town; state co-ed; Years 1-8; decile 10; roll 181. 

This school held a values consultation with its community in 2003. Eight values appeared 

emerged from this: respect; resilience; honesty/integrity; tolerance; inquiring; persistence; 

adaptability; and resourcefulness. A shortlist of five key school values was then 

established, and brief descriptions of each of value drafted. These values were adopted 

as school values and are considered to be values held by the entire school community, not 

just the children. 

Table 5. Values set out by School One. 

Value Description 

Respect 

We respect ourselves and respect each other, embracing 

our differences and the opportunity to learn from each 

other. 

Resilience 

Love of learning 

We allow ourselves to ask questions and take risks and to 

be persistent in the face of difficulty. 

We look for ways to make learning as enjoyable as 

possible and celebrate our achievements every day. 

Honestly/integrity We are honest with each other and honest with ourselves, 

opening the pathways to learning. 


Kindness 

We show consideration and kindness towards each other 

and are generous in the way we share ideas, skills and 

knowledge. 

The school also has two values charts posted on classroom walls that resonate with the 

school values. The first of these states “everything we do reflects and celebrates 

biculturalism in New Zealand.” The second states “the strong partnership between our 

school and community provides unique learning opportunities for our children.” The school 

is also part of the Cool Choices behaviour management programme, has a pupil council, 

and operates a peer mediation programme. 

School Two: 

Suburban school in a regional city; state coed; Years 1-8; decile 10; roll 353. 

School Two has operated a values programme for a number of years. They began by 

using the Cornerstone Values programme and using readings, storybooks and units of 

work from this programme. The staff selected a three-year cycle programme from the 

Cornerstone Values programme. In Year One, the focus was on the three C’s: caring, cooperation, 

courtesy. In the second year, the three P’s; politeness, perseverance, and 

patients. The third year the programme focused on the three R’s: responsibility, respect, 

and reliability. 

However, after a few years, the school felt that this approach did not cement the focus of 

values in the children's mind. The Board of Trustees at the time, while reviewing their 

charter, consulted with the community and decided on a core set of values that would be 

addressed in the school every year. Core values selected are: caring; cooperation; 

perseverance; responsibility. These four values are used extensively throughout the 

school. The school charter states them specifically and they are reported individually with 

the criteria indicators in each child's end-of-year report (see Table 6 below). The school 

has a ‘caught being good’ playground rewards scheme and classroom behaviour rules that 

reinforce the core values. The school develops the core values through integrated units 

and peer programmes. 

Table 6. Values and personal development assessment criteria set out by School Two 

Caring Acts safely and looks after own things; appreciation of others in 

different cultures; shows concern and empathy for others; can 


Responsibility 

Perseverance 

accept a different point of view; respects the rights of others. 

Accepts responsibility for own actions; reliable; polite and 

respectful; uses manners. 

Prepared to take on appropriate risks; is prepared to try more 

than once; completes tasks; can work independently; can 

review and set goals; can cope with a degree of frustration and 

failure. 

Cooperation Cooperates with peers; responsible group member; flexible 

and able to compromise; can provide leadership; can tolerate 

losing. 

These expectations are further spelled out at different levels. For example, Middle School 

classroom expectations are expressed as: 

We are expected to: care; cooperate; persevere; and be responsible, by having: 

Respect for ourselves, looking after myself and my belongings, having a positive 

attitude in everything I do; Respect for others - I will not tease or call other people 

names, I will not hurt others; Respect for our school - I will be in the right place at 

the right time, I will walk and talk quietly. 

A motto for the school is "I will do the right thing." 

School Three: 

Rural school near a regional city; state co-ed; Years 1-6; decile 18; roll 212. 

This school uses an approach based on Glasser’s Choice Theory. At the heart of their 

choices were core values and beliefs to enhance personal well-being across the whole 

school. The five core values and beliefs are; integrity; self-discipline; self-confidence; 

perseverance; resilience. Each of these is clearly defined and clear descriptors of each 

value/belief in action are listed in the core values and beliefs statement for the school as 

outlined in Table 7 below. 

Table 7. Values set out by School Three 

Value Explanation Descriptors 

Integrity You are genuinely honest in your I am truthful; I keep my promises; I 

actions and words to selves and can be counted on; I can be 

others; others can rely on you. depended on; I can be trusted. 

Self discipline Exercising self-control to manage 

your feelings and actions; being 

able to take ownership of your 

actions. 

Selfconfidence 

When you have self-confidence you 

trust that you have what it takes to 

I think before I act or speak; I 

choose my actions and wisely; I 

learn from my mistakes; I take 

responsibility for what I say and do. 

I am confident I can do this; I have 

the capacity to try new things in 


manage yourself in a situation; you 

know that obstacles can be 

surmounted; you believe you are 

capable of finding a way to achieve 

Perseverance Being self-motivated is staying on 

task to achieve realistic goals; 

recognising you may need to 

overcome obstacles along the way. 

Resilience Finding strength within yourself to 

overcome difficult experiences; 

keeping things in perspective. 

School Four : Waipahihi School 

http://www.waipahihi.school.nz/behaviour_plan.htm 

new ways. 

I am accountable for my actions; I 

set goals and keep going until 

achievement; I stay on task. 

I have strength to deal with 

adversity; I can move on and use 

the experience to help me; I keep 

calm. 

Waipahihi School is a ‘Virtues Project’ school and all staff are trained by VPNZ trainers. 

Virtues are positive qualities that are universally valued by all cultures. The Virtues Project 

aims to help children act on the best within them, supporting our goal of helping children to 

make good choices for themselves. 

After consultation, the school selected the 20 virtues considered most appropriate for 

Waipahihi School and each virtue will be highlighted for two weeks throughout the 40 week 

school year. During the two weeks, there is talk about this virtue in all classrooms, at 

Assembly and in the School Newsletter. The school uses a variety of strategies to 

acknowledge students using this virtue. Many parents support the programme by talking 

about the virtue being emphasised with their child at home. 

The three overarching Virtues have been used by the school over a number of years are 

the 3 Cs’. Courtesy – We show good manners at all times; Caring - We think of others 

feelings and We care about pupils and staff; Courage - We need to be brave to do the right 

thing. These Three ‘Cs’ are just as important as ever, and still form the basis of our 

Behaviour Programme. Every child at Waipahihi School learns about these from the day 

they start school. 

Our Core Beliefs are lived out in the culture of our school. They are a reflection of the 

way we do things at Waipahihi School. The core beliefs are: 

All pupils at Waipahihi School have the right to reach their learning potential; 

Waipahihi School is a community of learners; 


We believe that self-esteem and security are essential for the success of all students in 

a positive and secure environment; 

We value and nurture creativity; 

We celebrate diversity and difference in an inclusive school climate; 

We want to maintain a strong value-centred culture where respect, caring and honesty 

are practiced by all; 

We want our students to show courage and commitment and be guided towards 

accepting responsibility for their learning and their behaviour; and 

We want a happy school where fun and laughter are an everyday occurrence. 

The school has a Strategic Plan that was formulated by a group made up of staff, Board of 

Trustees and parents, and included consultation with our entire community. This operates 

hand in hand with the above Core Beliefs and represents the direction the school is 

committed to follow, whilst the Core Beliefs represent the philosophy behind our policies 

and practices. 

We have a Whole School Behaviour Plan, which once again is consistent with our Core 

Beliefs, especially guiding our children towards accepting responsibility for their learning 

and behaviour. 

School Five: Otari School From the school web site and from Lawley, 2000, p. 46. - 

http://www.otari.school.nz/values.html 

Otari School is a co-educational primary school in Wellington with a roll of 135. The 

school has three teaching units - the Tui Total Immersion Māori unit, the Montessori 

Education unit, and the Mainstream unit. Through our values programme, our school 

enhances the well-being of the self, other people and society; and creates awareness of 

people's connection with the land. A core set of values is very important to unify the whole 

school across the three units. 

Table 8. Otari School Core values 

Self acceptance and 

Self Respect 

To ensure that children have the right to be themselves, 

able to develop their own potential, physical, emotional, 

aesthetic, spiritual, intellectual, moral and social. To have a 

sense of personal meaning and identity. 

Respect and Concern for Sensitivity and concern for the well-being of other people 


Others and their Rights and respect for life and property. 

Social Responsibility Commitment to exploring and promoting the common good. 

Includes the encouragement of each person to participate in 

democratic processes - value diversity of cultural 

expression. 

Environmental 

Responsibility 

Appreciating the interdependence of all elements of the 

environment encourages respect and concern for natural 

heritage. 

Values Education Initiatives initiated as part of the school values programme are: 

Professional Development in Health and PE for all teachers; Professional Development in 

Virtues Project - all teachers; Development of an Environmental Education Scheme; 

Parent workshops on Virtues Project organised; School philosophy of teaching methods 

written for parent information; Purchase of resource material on world religions and social 

issues; Homework Centre for underachieving students developed Curriculum plans 

includes units of work in all four areas; Treaty of Waitangi workshop for teachers; 

Professional development on Glasser Quality School model; and Philosophy for Children 

professional development. 

The Values Education Programme at Otari School teaches and models behaviour that 

promotes these values. Some of the things taught covered in this programme are the 

world's religions, consumerism and racism. The Virtues project, as used in the school, has 

a vision to empower adults and children in diverse cultures to live by their highest values. 

Some of the virtues include self-discipline, respect, determination, honesty, excellence, 

peacefulness, caring, and friendliness. 

In the school Environmental Education Programme, students from throughout the school 

are involved daily in a range of activities and experiences to address one of our core 

values - respect for the environment. Using our school nursery and gardens and the 

neighbouring Otari Wilton's Bush Reserve, the students develop the virtues of commitment 

and responsibility, reflecting the Māori concept of Kaitiakitanga. Children are regularly 

involved in the gardening programme as part of this programme (school web site: Lawley, 

2000, p. 46.). 

School Six: Upper Hutt College - from Lawley, 2000, p. 54 


Upper Hutt College is a co-educational secondary school, Years 9-13 with a roll of 1000. 

Table 9. School Values Statement Upper Hutt College. 

Value Including 

A commitment to learning and 

achievement to the best of one's ability 

The pursuit of personal excellence, 

Commitment, Self discipline, Accepting 

challenges. 

Self acceptance and self respect Acting with integrity and honesty, Taking 

responsibility for our actions, Admitting 

mistakes, Taking pride in our 

achievements. 

Respect and concern for others: Respecting people's differences, 

Respecting other people's rights, No 

putting down or hurting other people. 

Social responsibility Respect for the environment, making a 

positive contribution to the school and the 

wider community, accepting the school's 

rules and authority. 

Key initiatives in values education in the school are: Large core team of staff meet 

regularly; Virtue a month programme - rewards system used through year; New staff 

interviews to include values; Curriculum planning in faculties to include values; School 

gardens project; Values-lead team of senior students; School reports, reviews to include 

values (Lawley, 2000, p. 54). 

School Seven: Kadimah College – from Lawley, 2000, p. 41 

Kadimah College is a co-educational composite school, with a Jewish special character 

status; a Years 1 to 11 school with a roll of 270. The Kadimah College Values Statement 

was launched in June 2000 with a special parents' evening and songs for each Living 

Value. They are displayed at the college gate and used in school documentation and 


Table 10. Kadimah College Values Statement 

Value Description 

Identity Respect for the individual, tolerance for diversity and commitment to 

community. 

Learning Fostering a culture which promotes knowledge, fulfilment and creativity. 


T’Fillah Prayer, beliefs and spirituality. 

Middot Encouraging good deeds exemplified by compassion, kindness and 

empathy. 

RESEARCH ON VALUES IN THE CURRICULUM IN NZ SCHOOLS 

There is, on the whole, a lack of research into the nature and effect of values in curriculum 

in New Zealand schools. A summary of some of the small number of studies the project 

team was able to access are set out below. 

The Business and Training Services division of the Southland Polytechnic carried out 

research in four Southland schools on behalf of the Cornerstone Values Project, 

(Southland Polytechnic Business and Training Services, 1999). Parents and caregivers 

ranked honest and truthful as the most important quality that they would like their children 

to possess. Willingness to be accountable for own behaviour was ranked second, and 

respectful was ranked as the third most important quality. A majority of those surveyed 

viewed teaching moral values as a very important part of a school’s curriculum. Around 

57% considered it ‘absolutely essential’ and 40% considered it ‘very important’. The 

number who thought it was ‘not important’ was around 2%. Parents thought teaching 

moral values at school reinforced what is taught at home; was important for personal 

growth, children’s future and that of society; and could also teach what home life does not 

cover. The values parents would most like to be emphasised were honesty, responsibility 

and respect. About 85% to 90 % of parents said a good values education component in 

the curriculum would make it ‘more likely’ that they would send their children to a particular 

school. 

Heenan, McDonald and Perera (2004) completed research in 26 schools identified as 

‘established’ or ‘emerging’ character education schools. The study concluded that schools 

that have had character education as part of their curriculum for over two years, show 

notable improvements in the school learning environment. Sixy eight percent of 

established character schools considered that character education had a ‘highly 

significant’ impact on their schools. Improvements included better relationships in the 

school such as more: mutual respect; commitment to success; awareness of “doing the 

right thing”; supportive and caring students; and parents more involved in school events. 


The study found that established character education schools also noticed a significant 

improvement in student behaviour reflected in fewer detentions; fewer recorded incidents; 

and a decline in aggressive behaviour. Students were considered to be more aware of 

core values and more responsible for their decisions. Just over 60% of the established 

schools reported that management of the school had become ‘highly’ or ‘quite significantly’ 

easier since the implementation of character education in the school. Fifty five percent also 

thought that there had been a ‘highly significant’ or ‘quite significant’ improvement in the 

effectiveness of teaching and learning. Principals reported that there had been a notable 

improvement in their schools as caring communities, and more respect and care for each 

other was evident; children were more co-operative in the playground; and more positive 

support for one another across age ranges evident. 

Keown and McGee (2000) in reviewing the research undertaken in the Waikato Values in 

the Curriculum Project in the 1990s, noted that teachers believed that values education is 

important as a part of their classroom programmes. However, there was a lack of 

knowledge about precisely what values education is, and how values should or could be 

taught. Action research was found to be effective in developing teachers’ views and 

practices. Students surprised researchers and teachers with their ability to conceptualise 

values issues, and the express quite complex values ideas. When students were given a 

chance to engage in discussion and other activities, they demonstrated more prior 

knowledge than teachers had assumed. Most students seemed to be more capable of 

conceptualising values issues than adults gave them credit for, and were interested in 

values issues relating to their own lives outside the school. Many students exhibited 

altruistic ideals of improving practices to improve their world. 

During 2001, one of the authors of this report was contracted by the Ministry of Education 

to conduct a review of the Living Values Project (Keown, 2002). The study found that 

most schools were successful with the early parts of the Eight Step Living Values 

programme but found the later stages more difficult. The development and adoption of a 

school values statement made a real impact at a number of levels in most schools 

involved in the project, resulting in schools becoming more explicit about the values they 

hold and more concerned to ensure the policies and practices of the school reflected their 

espoused values. A number of schools noted changes in school tone. Many schools and 


teachers noted that the implementation of the programme strengthened pupil management 

systems. There was considerable change in many of the schools in the school-wide 

approach to values education, so that values are now spoken about and encouraged more 

consistently across the school through assemblies, notices, in form class time and in 

incidental ways in classroom interactions. There has been some work done on values in 

particular curriculum areas in some schools. However, overall there appears to have been 

less change in the way values are approached in individual curriculum areas. The 

programme was particularly successful in assisting schools to develop values statements 

and ensured that, in most schools, an action plan to implement the values vision was 

developed. The Project was successful in providing a rich array of ideas and resources for 

schools, and arranged and ran successful staff development workshops. 

A number of important lessons emerged from the study. It was found, for example, that for 

many teachers values education is an unfamiliar and often controversial area. Working 

successfully in this area requires a good deal of time and staff input. Schools varied 

considerably in their capacity to implement values education action plans. It was found 

that values education is more easily developed when it meshes with other values-oriented 

and/or action-oriented programmes such as Kia Kaha, Peer Support, Peer Mediation, 

Glasser's Choice Theory, or Religious Education. 

The study also found that as values is a difficult and controversial area it is important to 

take special care to ensure that trust and informed commitment is built up and very 

carefully maintained. It is important that schools and staff are helped through the fear 

barrier associated with an unfamiliar and risky new area in education. This process 

operates best when there is: a clear and secure philosophy and body of knowledge 

available; regular quality communication, consultation and discussion; and sufficient staff 

development time devoted to the task. 

The study also found that most schools, particularly primary schools, find it relatively easy 

to implement values education activities in school wide contexts, short classroom values 

education sessions and incidentally in some classroom lessons and teacher-pupil 

interactions. This is often based on the study and encouragement of particular values or 

virtues and often employs a values inculcation approach. These activities appear to be 

successful, particularly with younger students. Field data collected indicated fewer 

teachers and schools were using open-ended discussion and community of inquiry 


approaches in values education lessons. Where they existed, these approaches appear to 

be successful with students of all ages , but, in particular with older students. 

This study also noted that it appeared more difficult to develop values education in 

secondary schools than in primary schools. Subject discipline structures, the time 

demands of high stake assessment and a range of other factors create more difficulties in 

developing values education in secondary schools. 

Cook (2003) completed a master thesis study on the effects of integrating Philosophy for 

Children methods in a school classroom programme across all subjects. The study 

reports on the experiences of a classroom teacher who was integrating the skills and 

processes of Philosophy for Children through the teaching and learning of the New 

Zealand Curriculum in a primary classroom. 

The study found that participating students did benefit in their interpersonal relationships 

and cognitive skills, and their self-esteem and confidence appeared to increase. They 

experienced an increase in their confidence when talking to groups and when completing 

their class work and were more comfortable working with fellow class-members who were 

not in their social group and they appeared to be more open to inviting students to join 

their social groupings. Students developed a greater ethos of caring and became more 

supportive of one another. They became more confident in voicing their thoughts, ideas 

feelings and opinions and better at listening to each other’s point of view. It was also 

found that students became more willing to own their actions and behaviour (Cook, 2003). 

While it was difficult, statistically, to state the extent to which Philosophy for Children 

assisted the students to increase their reading comprehension, there were significant 

gains from the students in Class A and Class B in both the NJTRS:B 4 and TORCH 5 pre- 

post-test results. Integration of Philosophy for Children into the teaching and learning of 

the New Zealand curriculum was found to acknowledge the value of students questions, 

the importance of the student voice in the classroom, and to provide a forum for actively 

engaging the students in their learning, and thereby enhancing their learning experiences. 

4 NJTRS:B: New Jersey Test of Reasoning Skills: Form B. 

5 TORCH: The Australian Tests of Reading Comprehension. 


The Quality Public Education Coalition (2002) reported on the implementation of a pilot 

programme in using the Coalition’s 2000 publication Values in Schools. This project 

involved four schools. The values coordinators of the four schools attended a “Getting 

Started” workshop in July 2001, where staff were introduced to the Values in Schools 

resource and worked on planning to begin implementation of the “creating and ethical 

school process” outlined in the resource, in their schools. Schools were to carry out 

community consultation and begin to develop an action plan between the first and second 

workshop. 

A second workshop was held in September of 2001. This workshop focused on using the 

Values in Schools resource to address specific issues emerging from each school’s work 

with the resource. There was a particular focus on Chapter 11 The School as a Moral 

Community and on Chapter 16 Values Education and Contemporary Culture. Further 

discussion and work on implementing the ’creating and ethical school process‘ also took 

place. 

The report outlines the progress made by each of the four schools. School A, a secondary 

school, made little progress overall, but the Values coordinator was able to trial some of 

the Resource activities. School B, an integrated secondary school, ran a paper-based 

consultation, but did not appear to get very far in implementing an action plan. School C, a 

primary school, ran a full consultation and also implemented material from the resource in 

Health and Social Studies. The school was planning to complete staff development in 

2002 and implement values education throughout the curriculum in 2003. School C found 

the resource valuable. School D, another primary school, conducted a full consultation as 

outlined in the resource and used the findings to produce a “core attitudes and teaching 

philosophy” document. A key finding was that while the BOT placed academic 

achievement high on the list of values for the school, students prioritized being cared for 

and happy; wanting fairness and consistency; and issues of stealing and bullying 

addressed. 

The conclusion of the report noted that the values coordinators were introduced to Values 

in Schools and challenged to reflect on their own values. Action in schools included the 

surveys and consultations; a developing understanding of the need to work in meaningful 

ways toward transformation of teachers and the school; maintaining ongoing consultation; 

and using the Values in Schools resource for professional development. 


The appendices to the report include some sample survey, values statement, action plan 

material and some classroom material from one school. 

The overall outcomes from this project appear to be very similar to those experienced in 

the Living Values Project. That is, schools can, given the right organizational and support 

structures are in place, make progress on whole-school value statements and plans, but 

following these through in classroom curricula is much more difficult. 

Jorgensen and Ryan (2004) note that the New Zealand Curriculum Framework (NZCF) 

and documents derived from such subject areas as Science, Biology and Technology 

require that students not only explore their own and other values, and the values of 

society, but also ask the students to use their values knowledge and skill in ethical 

problem-solving. The authors note that NZCF encourages tolerance for a range of 

attitudes and values. However, in their view, it does not explain how to move from this 

point to establishing how the ethical implications of applying of multiplicity of values can be 

used to solve universal problems. They suggest that as a result, unless careful training is 

undertaken students may absorb the message that right and wrong are relative to time, 

place and personal beliefs. They consider that this position is not helpful in establishing 

teaching to solve potential values conflicts and applying findings to making ethical 

decisions. 

The authors suggest that the Science, Biology and Technology documents have clear 

statements requiring ethical decision-making but do not provide guidelines on what ethics 

is, how to teach it, and how to make ethical decisions. Their interviews with teacher 

education students suggest that teachers are able to focus on scientific honestly, 

objectivity and open-mindedness. They will also examine underlying values involved in 

issues and explore student’s own values in relation to these. In some cases, they will also 

examine the implications of science and technology within the issues and uncover 

inconsistencies and conflicts. 

However, Jorgensen and Ryan conclude that teachers do not know enough about values 

and ethical decision-making to do the job asked of them by NZFC and the curriculum 

documents. In particular, they consider that student teachers need clearer and more 


precise definitions of terms such as values, morals and ethics, and they need to participate 

in more study and debate about prescriptive and descriptive ethics, relativism and 

universalism, and normative versus applied ethics. 


S ECTION 5: I NTERNATIONAL C OMPARISONS 

This section of the report examines key international curriculum literature on values in the 

curriculum. This is a large field and a great deal has been written on this topic. Our 

approach has to been to select some of the most recent, most comprehensive work and 

that of most relevance to the Aotearoa/New Zealand context. 

INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORKS 

PROJECT 

Le Metais (1997) 

A recent comprehensive review of values and aims within curriculum and assessment 

frameworks is that written by Le Metias in 1997. This study is grounded in a study of 

values in 16 national curriculum statements. Most of the countries in the study are 

European or former European colonies. Only two countries in the study, Korea and Japan 

were from outside this tradition. The only other non-Western country involved was 

Singapore (a former British territory). 

Le Metias suggests that ‘basic values’ are those which seek to monitor and maintain 

values within the system as a whole. In some cases, key basic values for curriculum and 

assessment frameworks can be found in the Constitution of a country. “These may 

include freedom, equity, the value of the unique individual, community, family and defence 

of society and social justice” (p. 1). These basic values may be supported or contradicted 

by operational values or principles relating to the way in which tasks are executed at 

different levels. Ideally, national values that are clearly understood and shared by all can 

form a coherent and thread which permeates the education system from aims through to 

outcomes. In reality, this is difficult to achieve. Le Metais notes that it may be difficult for a 

single educational structure to reflect the diversity of values and aims in society and the 

inherent dissonance and conflict with in them. The review summarises national 

differences in the use of educational aims under five headings. These are: expressing 

values and aims; structural influences; national identity; character and moral education; 

measuring progress. 

Le Metais divides international curriculum assessment and assessment frameworks into 

three broad groups according to the degree of detail with which national values are 

expressed or prescribed in education legislation. In the first group, there is minimal 


eference to values in legislation and frameworks. The countries in this group share a 

commitment to pluralism and devolved authority. Values are often considered to be 

expressed in the Constitution and, or other statutes, and provide a framework for the 

expression of values through devolved educational structures. For example, in the 

Netherlands, the state does not prescribe values, and the education system is 

characterised by pluralism and autonomy. Le Metais considers that Canada, Hungary, the 

Netherlands and the United States of America are all in this group. (Le Metais included 

England in this category but the new National Curriculum introduced in 2000, after the Le 

Metais’ study, changed the approach used in the UK considerably – see later in this 

section). 

In a second group of countries, national values are expressed but in general terms. Le 

Metais considers the current New Zealand curriculum falls into this category. She 

suggests that attitudes and values, along with knowledge and skills, are an integral part of 

the New Zealand curriculum. However, in her view, the curriculum does not prescribe 

specific values, recognising that the values held by individuals and by various groups may 

vary greatly. She notes however, that the curriculum assumes that the values of individual 

and collective responsibility which underpin New Zealand's democratic society are 

supported by most people in most communities. Le Metais positions New Zealand and 

Spain in this group. 

A third group of countries state national values in detail. Le Metais considers that these 

countries have highly centralised systems that tend to express very detailed aims and 

clear educational and social values. For example, the fundamental law of education in 

Japan states “ education shall aim for development of personality, at rearing a people, 

sound in mind and body, who love truth and justice, esteem individual values, respect 

labour, have a deep sense of responsibility and are imbued with an independent spirit as 

the builders of a peaceful state and society” (Government of Japan, 1949 cited in Le 

Metais, 1997, p. 7). Le Metais suggests that Japan, Korea, and Sweden are countries 

typical of this category. 

Le Metais notes that educational aims often fall into clear categories across the 

international scene. She also notes there is a clear link between values and educational 

aims. Typically, aims include: artistic, cultural, developmental, economic, environmental, 


personal, political, social, moral or religious and physical considerations. Further, issues 

of national identity are often included. Thus aims and values promoting social cohesion 

through respect for, and reconciliation of, diversity are often included. Statements of 

commitment to the preservation of cultural and or linguistic heritage are also common. 

Similarly, national assertiveness within an international framework is often included. 

Le Metais notes, in support of a key point identified by Hooper (2003) later in this section, 

that curricula frequently refer to values, character or moral education. This is usually 

included within the personal development and social relationships aspects of curriculum. 

In some cases there are few details concerning specific values and aims, although shared 

acceptance of the Confucian, humanistic, Christian or Islamic values underpinning the 

education system are often explicitly assumed. However, many international curricula, she 

suggests, seem to show a degree of consistency in the focus on shared values on self, 

relationships, society and environment. 

The Le Metais review notes that in some countries, for example, Germany, teachers are 

obliged by law to teach values. In some countries, for example, Singapore, civic and 

moral education are compulsory throughout primary and secondary education. However, 

Le Metais observed that due to the considerable difficulties involved, there is little if any 

formal assessment of student growth in terms of attitudes, values and moral judgments in 

most countries. 

The National Institute for Education of Japan Study – 1999. 

In a study of the school curriculum in 18 Asian and Pacific Rim countries the National 

Institute for Education of Japan (NIER) identified five policy imperatives evident through 

many curricula in their study. They found that curricula frequently reflected a desire to: 

build social cohesion, national identity and to preserve cultural heritage; impart important 

cultural, ethical and moral values; foster economic well-being and international 

competitiveness; achieve equal opportunity and equity; and, raise achievement for all 

students. 

This study also found that throughout the 18 national curricula studied, key goals and aims 

were frequently evident. Two goals were paramount and found in virtually every 

curriculum. These were stated as key goals for all students to achieve during their 


experience with the curriculum. The first of these is establishing key foundational 

knowledge such as literacy, numeracy and life skills and the second is maximising the 

intellectual, emotional and spiritual growth and potential in students (including critical 

thinking and problem-solving skills). 

A number of other goals were also frequently mentioned, although not in every curriculum. 

These were: knowledge of the world of work; respect for human dignity and human rights; 

understanding of ecology and appreciation of the environment; international understanding 

and ‘one-world view’; promotion of civic and moral values; and ability to change. 

It should be noted, that this study identified values as important at both the policy 

imperative level and at the national aim and goal level. Indeed a number of the policy 

imperatives and the frequently mentioned aims and goals could be considered as with the 

values domain. 

The Australian Values Study Literature Review – Hooper, 2003. 

Dr Carol Hooper of the University of Melbourne completed a 43 page values education 

literature review in June 2003 (Australian Government Department of Education Science 

and Training, 2003). This literature review was part of the Australian values education 

study final report and includes 95 references. Hooper concluded that research in the area 

has been disparate, and in many important aspects related to teaching and learning in 

particular, have received insufficient attention. Hooper quotes Purple (1998)as suggesting 

that perhaps it is better to give up the values education discourse altogether as the 

concept is seriously problematic. Purple notes “it is an issue so deeply fraught with 

cultural conflicts, political designs, and intellectual perplexity that one is extremely reluctant 

to take hold of this tiger's tail!” (Purple, 1998, p. 203). However, by way of balance, 

Hooper also notes that others believe that values education should form a key part of 

schooling, despite the difficulties this might pose. As a final comment she states “the 

debate goes on!” Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training 

(2003, p. 204). Below we review some of the main points made by Hooper that are 

relevant for this report. 

Hooper notes that identifying universal core values is a contentious issue in the research 

literature. Some literature suggests that it is impossible to reach consensus on anything 

but moral fundamentals in a pluralistic society. Others argue that while it is easy to identify 


agreed values, this is only true at the most abstract of levels. Bebeau, Rest and Narvaez 

(1999), cited in Hooper, suggest that “while it may be possible to achieve an appearance 

of consensus by sticking with a list of traditional values … such consensual consensus is 

superficial at best. What is respectful in one culture may not be respectful and another” (p. 

25). On the other hand, Kristjansson (2002) cited in Hooper (p. 172), suggests that it is 

possible to identify moral universals and still accept there will be conflicting cultural values 

and increasing pluralism in the way these are applied. 

However, in spite of the controversy, Hooper notes that there is overwhelming evidence 

that the authors of many policy and curriculum documents internationally appear to 

strongly support the position that core values can be identified and promoted within 

curriculum documents and within schools. Hooper cites the New South Wales and West 

Australian curricula and the National Curriculum of England and Wales as examples. 

Hooper notes that contrasting underlying premises and different views of human nature 

mean that different authors make significantly different assumptions about teaching and 

learning in the values domain, and identifies two main contrasting perspectives, 

prescriptive and descriptive. 

The first approach commonly called ‘character education’, concentrates on the 

development of character attributes or virtues. This approach favours values transmission 

and places emphasis on shared or approved values. This view had been classified by Lee 

(2001), cited in Hooper(2003, p. 175), as ‘prescriptive’. This approach is usually based on 

the presumption that it is possible to identify a set of universal values, and that adults have 

a duty to teach these to children. Less emphasis is placed on study and reflection, and 

much more on encouraging students to behave in accordance with the designated values. 

This approach tends to assume that social stability is at risk and moral standards are 

weakening and thus a strong and affirmative type of values education is needed. On the 

other hand, critics suggest that this approach is little more than an attempt to promote 

conservative social ideology. 

The second perspective, which Lee classifies as ‘descriptive’, places emphasis on 

reasoning, problem-solving, and critical thinking. This approach emphasises ways of 

thinking and reasoning that students need to acquire if they are to be morally educated. 


Some writers describe this perspective as the cognitive development approach to values 

education. Typically, this approach draws heavily on the moral reasoning work of 

Kohlberg (1984) and the values clarification models of Raths and Simon (1978). Critics of 

this approach suggest that merely thinking about values fails to address the behavioural 

and emotional components of character. As a result, it has little influence on changes in 

behaviour. Some have suggested that this kind of approach is based on spurious 

relativism and fails to teach core values. 

Hooper suggests that while there are no definitive conclusions as to what constitutes the 

best approach to values or character education, there are significant findings to be drawn 

from the literature. Firstly, didactic methods alone are unlikely to have lasting effects on 

character. Secondly, the development of students’ capacity to reason about questions of 

moral conduct does not necessarily result in related change in behaviour. Thirdly, 

character develops within a social environment. Fourthly, character educators should not 

expect character formation to be easy. Finally, she concludes that empirical research 

suggests the adoption of different teaching and learning approaches is much more 

effective than the use of a single approach in isolation. 

Hooper suggests that values education now tends to favour eclecticism, with widespread 

support for comprehensive approaches that combine elements from both the traditional, 

prescriptive character education approach and the cognitive, descriptive and thinking 

approaches. However, some researchers are of the opinion the character education 

approach is the most strongly favoured approach at the present time. 

INTERNATIONAL INITIATIVES IN DEVELOPING VALUES IN THE CURRICULUM 

UNESCO – Learning to Be 

UNESCO has long been a strong advocate of the importance of values in education. The 

organisation, particularly in the Asia Pacific region, has devoted a considerable amount of 

time and effort to articulating the role of values in education and providing resources to 

support values in the curriculum. Some of their most recent work is traced back to the 

‘Kuala Lumpur Declaration’ adopted at the Sixth Regional Conference of Ministers of 

Education and those Responsible for Economic Planning in 1993, which expressed a 

conviction that “the only path to the restoration of a balanced value system in a world 

increasingly shaped by materialism was to assign a significant place for the teaching of 

ethics, values and culture in the school curriculum” (MINEDAP, 1993, cited in UNESCO, 


2002, p. ii). The Declaration called upon the countries of the region, upon UNESCO and 

upon the international community to ”formulate appropriate values education within the 

curriculum at all levels of the education system [and] promote the use of effective 

pedagogical strategies and curriculum to inculcate ethical, cultural, and moral values” 

(MINEDAP, 1993, cited in UNESCO, 2002, p. ii). 

The UNESCO Task Force on Education for the Twenty-first Century (1996), Learning the 

Treasure Within, often know as the Delors Report, (Delors, 1996) incorporates this 

thinking. The Delors Report identifies four pillars of learning (i.e. learning to know, learning 

to do, learning to live together, and learning to be) as foundations of education and 

fundamental types of learning in the reorganization of education in twenty-first century. 

These pillars are seen as coherent, interrelated and encompassing. While learning to 

know focuses on knowledge and learning to do on skills and competencies, learning to live 

together and learning to be are both strongly values-oriented. 

The learning to be pillar was seen by the Delors Commission as a broad, encompassing 

view of learning that aims to enable each individual to discover and enrich his or her 

creative potential, to reveal the treasure within; thus going beyond an instrumental view of 

education to emphasize the development of the complete person. Key to this are the 

human values and social skills most necessary for learners to be a complete person. The 

Delors Report considered that education for the whole person "must contribute to the allround 

development of each individual - mind and body, intelligence, sensitivity, aesthetic 

sense, personal responsibility and spiritual values" (UNESCO Task Force, 1996, p. 94). 

The Delors Committee suggested that learning to live together [involves] developing an an 

understanding of other people and an appreciation of interdepencendence – carrying out 

joint projects and learning to manage conflicts in a spirit of respect and for the values of 

pluralism, mutual understanding and peace (UNESCO Task Force, 1997) 

The introduction to Learning to Be, notes that “thoughtful educationists have observed that 

‘the failure of education in the (twentieth) century is not the failure to teach humankind 

science, language or mathematics, but the failure to teach humankind to live together in 

peace and to harness the potential in individuals and societies for full and equitable 

development’. Committed and persistent efforts are urgently needed to cultivate the 


positive values and social skills and the ethical foundations upon which such skills and 

knowledge must be based,” (UNESCO, 2002, p. ii). 

A number of source books to assist in the implementation of the Delors Report have been 

developed since 1996. The first volume in this series, Learning to Live Together in Peace 

and Harmony was published in 1998( UNESCO, 1998). This book identifies and defines 

"shared values [required to live together] in peace and harmony, in order to work together 

towards peace, human rights, democracy and social justice in an ecologically sustainable 

environment” (UNESCO, 1998). The second sourcebook, Learning to Be: A Holistic and 

Integrated Approach to Values Education for Human Development (UNESCO, 2002) 

outlines a list of “core and related values anchored on human dignity.” This list comprises 

eight suggested core values. These are: Health and Harmony with Nature; Truth and 

Wisdom: Love and Compassion; Creativity and Appreciation of Beauty; Peace and Justice; 

Sustainable Human Development; National Unity and Global Solidarity; Global Spirituality, 

(UNESCO, 2002, p. 28). 

The sourcebook writing teams recognised that there is wide racial, ethnic, social, cultural, 

linguistic, and religious diversity among individuals and groups likely to use the 

sourcebooks. They note that the shared values are, therefore, framed in a way that 

accepts that rich diversity and also aims to strengthen local culture and traditional 

knowledge in the face of advancing globalisation. 

Table 11. The UNESCO initiative eight shared values 

Health and Harmony with Nature: Holistic Health 

Respect for Life 

Physical Fitness 

Environmental Care 

Truth and Wisdom 

Love and Compassion 

Critical Thinking/ Holistic Thinking 

Enlightenment/ Insight 

Futures Orientation 

Scientific Humanism 

Self-worth/Self-confidence/Selfactualization 

Honesty/Integrity 

Self-Discipline 

Empathy/Caring and Sharing 


Creativity and Appreciation of 

Beauty 

Peace and Justice 

Sustainable Human Development 

National Unity and Global Solidarity 

Global Spirituality 

Imagination Intuitive Sense 

Artistic Expression Sensitivity 

Respect for Human Rights 

Social Responsibility 

Tolerance 

Equality 

Co-operation 

Active Non-violence 

Economic Justice and Equity 

Productivity/Efficiency 

Stewardship of resources 

Work Ethic/Industry 

Simplicity 

Love of Country 

Interdependence 

Democracy 

International Understanding 

Active & Responsible Citizenship 

Global Peace 

Unity in diversity 

Faith in the Sacred Source 

Religious Tolerance 

Inner Peace Unity and 

Interconnectedness 

(Source: Learning to Be, UNESCO, 2002, pp. 28-38). 

The UNESCO initiative is an important one to consider as part of this report because it has 

been negotiated by a broadly cross-cultural team of educationalists. It therefore attempts 

to weave together a set of values that considers both Western and non-Western values 

systems. As the New Zealand statement of values must do something similar, this work 

should be seriously considered in the final statement on values in the New Zealand 

curriculum when it is drafted. 


Europe – CIDREE 6 / UNESCO 

As Europe has developed a stronger profile as a cross-national community, within the 

framework of the European Community, there has been strong interest in developing a 

sense of common identity and common purpose for the Community. The European Union 

has established a set of core values enshrined in the proposed the European Union 

constitution. They are; human dignity; liberty; democracy; equality; the rule of law; and 

respect for human rights (European Union, 2005). 

In the early 1990s, a group of seven countries within the European Community worked on 

a set of guidelines for values in education. These were published in 1995 as A Sense of 

Belonging: Guidelines for values in the humanistic and international dimension of 

education (CIDREE/UNESCO, 1995). The Guidelines suggest that schools (and by 

implication the curriculum) should: 

… support the development of the humanistic and international dimension of 

education by promoting in all pupils: independence of mind; consideration for 

others; a sense of fairness, together with a respect for justice and the rights of 

others; respect for ways of life, opinions and ideas different from one's own, 

provided they are based on consideration for others; a sense of decency; a 

commitment to the promotion of democratic processes; a concern for the well-being 

of themselves, other individuals and society (CIDREE/UNESCO, 1995, p. 24). 

The Guidelines suggested that values in education need to be addressed at all levels in 

education. They should be reflected in school policy through recognition of the importance 

of the values dimension in all aspects of the curriculum, which should be collaboratively 

planned with all staff. They also suggested there should be policy to develop staff 

understanding, monitored for effectiveness and regular review. At the classroom level, 

every classroom should reflect: respect for each individual; respect for self; respect for a 

variety of cultures; a sense of belonging to the community of the classroom; caring, 

consideration, empathy; co-operative working skills; learner autonomy; appreciation of 

learning; rights, responsibilities and rules; a continuing evaluation and development of the 

classroom climate; trust, a sense of valuing the individual; (and) a joy of learning, 

(CIDREE/UNESCO, 1995, p. 25). 

6 CIDREE: Consortium of Institutions for Development and Research in Education in Europe. 


The Teaching/Learning Process should be: “active; participative; investigative; varied; cooperative; 

supportive; learner-centred; and differentiated. [It should also encourage:] 

independent learning; personal autonomy; critical thinking; self-esteem; investigation; 

(and) imagination,” (CIDREE/UNESCO, 1995, p. 26) 

Another interesting aspect of the CIDREE/UNESCO statement is the various suggestions 

for implementation. They note these mainly at a school level, but they can apply equally at 

a national curriculum level. The strategies for implementation are some or all of: the 

development of a clear overall values statement, permeation of values throughout the 

curriculum, a special focus on values in curriculum inserts within units and lessons, 

specialised values subjects or courses and the use of a curriculum audit process to check 

the expression of values in all aspects of the curriculum. 

EXAMPLES OF NATIONAL CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENTS 

The research team examined a number of national curriculum documents in order to 

ascertain the ways in which other recently developed curricula have approached values. 

There is very large bank of curricula globally, and it is naturally not possible in a project 

such as this to examine them all. In this review, we have chosen to focus mainly on those 

that are from countries relatively similar to New Zealand. Thus, we focussed in the main 

on the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australian curricula. South Africa, while in some 

senses quite different, has also been included as a country with strong ties to New 

Zealand and one that is currently seeking to construct a genuine post-colonial, 

multicultural curriculum. 

Values-Explicit Curricula 

SOUTH AFRICA 

In some curricula, values are identified as a key elements of the structure and thinking of a 

curriculum. Sometimes the values are linked to other high level policy documents such as 

the national or state constitution or national and state aims for education. For example, in 

the preface of the recent South African curriculum, Kader Asmal, Minister of Education, 

notes that: 

At its broadest level, our education system and its curriculum express our idea of 

ourselves as a society and our vision as to how we see the new form of society 


eing realised through our children and learners. Through its selection of what is to 

be in the curriculum, it represents our priorities and assumptions of what constitutes 

a ‘good education’ at its deepest level (Department of Education, South Africa, 

2005, p. 1). 

The South African curriculum is based firmly on the Constitution of the Republic of South 

Africa 1996. The aims of the Constitution are stated in the first few pages of the national 

curriculum statement. Ten fundamental values of the Constitution, as drafted in the 

Manifesto on Values, Education and Democracy (Department of Education, 2001) and 16 

strategies for familiarising young South Africans with the values of the Constitution, are 

also included. 

The South African curriculum values statement also refers to the nation's Bill of Rights and 

concludes that the revised National Curriculum statement seeks to embody the values of 

the Constitution and the Bill of Rights in the knowledge and schools it develops. (This 

statement is included as Appendix 5.) This statement appears at the top of the curriculum, 

above the principles of the South African national curriculum and the structure and 

concepts of the learning areas (Department of Education of South Africa, 2005). 

THE UNITED KINGDOM 

The United Kingdom has always had a strong values dimension to their curriculum. This is 

evident not only in the values and purpose statements of recent curricula but also in the 

structure of the curriculum. In the current UK curriculum, values are clearly articulated in 

the two broad aims of the curriculum and in a formal statement of values, both of which are 

to be achieved in collaboration with families and the local community. These values 

articulations are very detailed and can not be fully explained here. (They are attached to 

this report as Appendix 2.) It is important, however, to discuss the nature of these 

statements and some of the key content (Government of the United Kingdom, 2005). 

The first aim is to “provide opportunities for all pupils to learn and to achieve” (p. 1) This 

aim has important values emphases such as to: develop enjoyment of, and commitment 

to, learning; develop capacity to learn and work independently and collaboratively; 

promote an enquiring mind and capacity to think rationally; develop identity through 

knowledge and understanding of the spiritual, moral, social and cultural heritages of 

Britain's diverse society and of the local, national, European, Commonwealth and global 


dimensions of their lives; encourage appreciation of human aspirations and achievements 

in aesthetic, scientific, technological and social fields; solve problems and to make a 

difference for the better; become creative, innovative, enterprising and capable of 

leadership; 

The second aim is strongly values-oriented. It reads, “To promote pupils' spiritual, moral, 

social and cultural development and prepare all pupils for the opportunities, responsibilities 

and experiences of life” (p. 2) This aim is explained in some detail suggesting that the 

curriculum will: 

Promote pupils' spiritual, moral, social and cultural development; 

Develop principles for distinguishing between right and wrong; 

Develop their knowledge, understanding and appreciation of their own and different 

beliefs and cultures, and how these influence individuals and societies; 

Pass on enduring values, develop pupils' integrity and autonomy and help them to be 

responsible and caring citizens capable of contributing to the development of a just 

society; 

Promote equal opportunities and enable pupils to challenge discrimination and 

stereotyping; 

Develop their awareness and understanding of, and respect for, the environments in 

which they live; 

Secure their commitment to sustainable development at a personal, local, national and 

global level; 

Equip pupils as consumers to make informed judgements and independent decisions 

and to understand their responsibilities and rights; 

Promote pupils' self-esteem and emotional well-being and help them to form and 

maintain worthwhile and satisfying relationships, based on respect for themselves 

and for others, at home, school, work and in the community; 

Develop their ability to relate to others and work for the common good; and 

Enable pupils to respond positively to opportunities, challenges and responsibilities, to 

manage risk and to cope with change and adversity (p. 2). 


Clearly, this curriculum has a strong and specific values statement at the top. However, 

the way in which these values dimensions are explored in classrooms is very dependent 

on the way lessons and units of work are structured within the subjects of the curriculum. 

There are currently 13 compulsory subjects in the national curriculum. John White (2004), 

has examined the extent to which the subjects, as officially conceived, are suitable 

instruments for realising the general aims and values. He concludes that the results are 

patchy. The best match was in subjects recently introduced to the curriculum, such as 

design and technology, ICT, and citizenship. All the more established subjects were, to 

greater or lesser extent, found to be problematic. This includes art and design, English, 

geography, history, mathematics, foreign languages, music, physical education, religious 

education, and science. The nature of these matches and mismatches will be examined in 

Section 6 of this report. 

AUSTRALIA 

The Australian Government launched a major values in the curriculum initiative in 2003. 

The focus of this work has been on developing a values education framework for schools 

rather than on a national statement about values in the curriculum. Nevertheless, while the 

purpose of this work is slightly different from the current work going on in New Zealand, it 

is still a valuable development to examine. 

The National Framework was agreed to and endorsed by all the state and territory 

Ministers of Education, and distributed to all Australian schools in February 2005. The 

Framework sets out: a context; an underpinning vision for improved values education in 

Australian schools; eight Guiding Principles to support schools in implementing values 

education; key elements and approaches providing practical guidance to schools in 

implementing values education; and nine Values for Australian Schooling that emerged 

from Australian school communities and from the National Goals for Schooling in Australia 

in the Twenty-First Century. This statement is presented in full in Appendix 4 of this report 

(Australian Government, 2004). 

The framework represents a very clear and succinct statement on values for Australian 

schools. The vision suggests that all Australian schools provide values education in a 

planned and systematic way by articulating school mission/ethos; developing student 

responsibility, resilience and social skills; ensuring values are incorporated into school 


policies and teaching programs; and reviewing the outcomes of their values education 

practices. 

The values for the Australian schooling section of the statement outlines nine values. 

These are described as shared values that are part of Australia's common democratic way 

of life and reflected in the commitment to a multicultural and environmentally sustainable 

society where all are entitled to justice. The nine values are: care and compassion; doing 

your best; fair go; freedom; honesty and trustworthiness; integrity; respect; responsibility; 

and understanding tolerance and inclusion. 

The statement notes that individual schools will develop their own approaches to values 

education in partnership with local school communities. Guiding principles that emerged 

from the values education study and subsequent consultation are articulated. Effective 

values education is said to include: the shared values; explicit goals promoting the 

democratic way of life and values diversity; articulation of the values of the school 

community; partnership with the community; a safe and supportive learning environment; 

trained and resourced teachers; curricula that meet individual needs; and regular review to 

check outcomes. 

These principles are matched to the key elements and approaches of good values 

education practice. These include; school planning, partnerships with the school 

community, whole school approach, safe and supportive learning environments, support 

for students and quality teaching. 

The way in which this statement will be worked out in reality is not yet clear. Because 

individual curricula are the responsibility of each state, how this statement is translated into 

curriculum documents and programmes has yet to be seen. There are projects under way 

to develop school level units and programmes, but curricula derived from the statement 

will take some time to emerge. 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 

In the United States, education is the responsibility of individual states. Thus, assessing 

the way values is addressed in the United States education system would require 

consideration of more than 50 individual curricula. However, the United States Congress 

has enacted some legislation covering the national scene, in particular the Goals 2000: 


Educate America Act (United States Congress, 1994). There are also some curriculum 

standards that are used as national guidelines. 

The Goals 2000: Educate America Act was signed into law in 1994. The act sets eight 

goals for American education, and two of these goals are particularly relevant in the values 

domain. Goal 3 states that all students will demonstrate competency in nine learning 

areas, including civics and government, and that they "will learn to use their minds well, so 

that they will be prepared for responsible citizenship" United States Congress, 1994 (p. 1). 

Goal 6 requires students acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to exercise the rights 

and responsibilities of citizenship. 

The act also established a National Education Standards and Improvement Council. 

Standards have been developed in an in a total of twelve learning areas. One of these 

learning areas, Civics and Government, addresses values very directly. Extracts from two 

standards at the kindergarten to year four level are described below to illustrate the 

American approach to values in the curriculum (Centre for Civic Education, 1994). 

Standard II, is entitled The Basic Values and Principles of American Democracy. This 

standard investigates five questions: What are the most important values and principles of 

American democracy? What are some important beliefs Americans have about 

themselves and their government? Why is it important for Americans to share certain 

values, principles, and beliefs? What are the benefits of diversity in the United States? 

How should conflicts about diversity be prevented or managed? and, How can people 

work together to promote the values and principles of American democracy? (Centre for 

Civic Education, 1994, p. 1) 

Under the first question the standards document states that: 

… although the United States is one of the most diverse nations in the world, amidst 

this diversity there are a number of important values, principles, and beliefs that 

Americans hold in common. First among them is a commitment to the fundamental 

values and principles of American democracy, such as the right to freedom of 

religion, speech, the press, and to the rule of law. Americans also hold other beliefs 

and values in common, such as the importance placed on the individual and 

individual rights, equality of opportunity, education, the law, work, and voluntarism 

(p. 3) 


In the standard that follows, students are expected to explain the importance for 

themselves, their school, their community, and their nation of each of the following 

fundamental values of American democracy: individual rights to life, liberty, property, and 

the pursuit of happiness; the public or common good; justice; equality of opportunity; 

diversity; truth; and, patriotism. 

Under question three, Why is it important for Americans to share certain values, principles, 

and beliefs? it is suggested that: 

… in contrast to most other nations, the identity of an American is defined by shared 

political values, principles, and beliefs rather than by ethnicity, race, religion, class, 

language, gender, or national origin. These shared values and principles have 

helped to promote cohesion in the daily life of Americans and in times of crisis they 

have enabled Americans to find common ground with those who differ from them (p. 

4). 

Under Question Five, How should conflicts about diversity be prevented or managed? it is 

suggested that conflicts arising from diversity are inevitable but that some “can be 

prevented by enhancing communication, by learning how and why people differ and by 

sharing common beliefs and goals” … and … “by adhering to fundamental principles of 

procedural justice such as providing an opportunity for all sides to present their points of 

view and by arranging for arbitration by an impartial third party.” As part of this standard, 

students are to understand and to be able to “explain the importance of certain 

dispositions to themselves and American democracy” (p. 5). These are set out in the 

Table below. 

Table 12. Dispositions that enhance citizen effectiveness and promote the healthy 

functioning of American democracy. 

Disposition Explanation 

Individual 

responsibility 

Self-discipline/selfgovernance 

Civility 

Respect for the rights 

of other individuals 

Fulfilling one's responsibilities to family, friends, and others in 

one's community and nation. 

Obeying reasonable rules and laws voluntarily and not 

requiring others to force one to do so. 

Treating other people with respect regardless of whether or not 

one likes them or agrees with their viewpoints, being willing to 

listen to other points of view, not being insulting when arguing 

with others. 

Respect for the right of other people to hold and express their 

own opinions, respect for their right to a voice in their 

government. 


Honesty Telling the truth. 

Respect for the law 

Willingness to abide by laws, even though one may not be in 

complete agreement with every law. 

Open mindedness Willingness to consider other points of view. 

Critical mindedness 

Negotiation and 

compromise 

Persistence 

The inclination to question the truth of various positions, 

including one's own. 

Willingness to try to come to agreement with those with whom 

one may differ, when it is reasonable and morally justifiable. 

Willingness to attempt again and again to accomplish a 

worthwhile goal. 

Civic mindedness Concern for the well-being of one's community and nation. 

Compassion Concern for the well-being of others, especially for the less 

fortunate. 

Patriotism Loyalty to the values and principles underlying American. 

constitutional democracy 

Source: Centre for Civic Education (1994) 


TASMANIA 

Values also appear at a very high level in the curriculum framework for Tasmania, but in a 

very different way. The Tasmanian curriculum identifies at the outset a set of core values 

and shared purposes for education. The values listed are: connectedness; resilience; 

achievement; creativity; integrity; responsibility; and equity. This curriculum is based 

around five essential learnings that have been constructed in light of the values and 

purposes and clearly embody them. For example, Personal Futures includes being 

ethical; Social Responsibility includes valuing diversity, acting democratically; and World 

Futures includes creating sustainable futures. The culminating outcomes for this 

curriculum include the intention that students will be: self-directed and ethical people, 

responsible citizens, and world contributors (Department of Education, SED, Tasmania, 

2005). 

Values-Implicit Curricula 

QUEBEC 

The Quebec Education Programme 2001 (Government of Quebec, 2001) is a curriculum 

which does not use the word values and includes values in a rather low key and implicit 

way. The curriculum is structured around four key interrelated elements. These are crosscurricula 

competencies, broad areas of learning, specific subject areas and student world 

view. The introduction to this curriculum states that constructing a world view is seen as 

the focal point of all student learning. The organising diagram for the curriculum places 

student world view at the centre and depicts the other three elements as surrounding, 

contributing to and being affected by student world view. The curriculum introduction 

states: 

… The development of world view is fostered by reflection on the great existential 

issues (life-and-death, love and hate, success and failure, peace and violence, 

etc.). It also depends on the extent to which students are willing to compare their 

world view with those of others and to look critically at themselves and their actions, 

reactions, opinions, beliefs, values and attitudes (Government of Quebec, 2001, p. 

6). 

It is suggested that while only one of a number of influences on the development of world 

view: 


the official part of the schools curriculum can be a decisive influence on the way 

students choose to construct, alter and develop their world view. There are 

numerous areas for action, both subject-specific and cross-curricula, and all 

members of the school community should be on the lookout for opportunities to 

support students in their process of reflection (p. 6). 

Thus, while not addressing values as specifically as the curricula outlined above, this 

curriculum, in an implicit way, places consideration of values issues in the form of ‘world 

view’ which is a central aspect of the curriculum. 

The second chapter of this curriculum outlines nine cross-curricula competencies grouped 

in four categories. A number of these include values or values rich aspects. For example 

intellectual competencies “draw on attitudes such as open-mindedness, curiosity and 

willingness to make and effort; the methodological competencies involve “development of 

attitudes such as responsibility, pride in work well done, and discipline and rigour. The 

personal and social competencies “concern both the cognitive and the socio-affective 

dimensions of learning and are expressed in cooperation and in standing up for one’s 

values while showing respect for others. They also relate to open-mindedness, 

adaptability, commitment and mutual aid.” 

The Quebec curriculum then outlines four broad areas of learning. All of these are 

relatively strong in values, in particular – citizenship and community life, health and wellbeing 

and environmental awareness and consumer rights and responsibilities. Citizenship 

and community life focuses on social conduct and democratic institutions, involvement in 

action in a spirit of cooperation and solidarity, and a culture of peace. This curriculum 

appears to be very much in the descriptive and thinking tradition. 

QUEENSLAND NEW BASICS CURRICULUM 

The Queensland ‘New Basics Project’ (2005) is another curriculum that is implicit in its 

treatment of values. This curriculum is based around four key curriculum organisers: life 

pathways and social futures; multi-literacies and communications media; active citizenship; 

environments and technologies. All of these. involve values, and particularly the first, third 

and fourth (Government of Queensland, 2005). 


Life pathways and social futures is underpinned by a very values focused question - Who 

am I and where am I going? Key dimensions in this area include; living in and preparing 

for diverse family relationships, and collaborating with peers and others. The active 

citizenship key question - What are my rights and responsibilities in communities, cultures 

and economies? - includes interacting within local and a global communities; operating 

within shifting cultural identities; and understanding social movements and civic 

institutions. Environments and technologies include building and sustaining environments. 

The Queensland new basics curriculum also includes 20 productive pedagogies. Again, 

many of these have an implied values dimension or they could be considered key aspects 

in a values-oriented curriculum. Examples of this are: substantive conversation, 

knowledge as problematic; problem-based curriculum; supportive classroom environment; 

social support; self regulation; recognition of difference; cultural knowledge; inclusivity; 

group and community identity; and active citizenship. 

NORTHERN IRELAND 

In a rather different style, the curriculum for Northern Ireland does not use the word values, 

but it is quite specific about values in other ways. The objectives of this curriculum are 

expressed in values-rich terms. The first of these objectives seeks to develop individuals 

who have: national understanding, mutual understanding, personal health, moral character 

and spiritual awareness. The second objective suggests that the curriculum will develop 

people who are contributors to society and includes: citizenship, cultural understanding, 

media awareness and ethical awareness. The third objective is to develop contributors to 

the economy and environment and includes: employability, economical awareness, 

sustainable development and environmental responsibility (Council for the Curriculum of 

Northern Ireland, 2005). 

Three other elements in this curriculum appear underneath the three objectives. These 

are: learning for life and work, skills and capabilities, and learning areas. Beneath this 

again, the Northern Ireland curriculum also identifies learning experiences, assessment for 

learning, and, attitudes and dispositions for the curriculum. The attitudes and dispositions 

identified are: personal responsibility; concern for others; commitment, determination, 

resourcefulness; openness to new ideas; self belief, optimism, pragmatism; curiosity; 

community spirit; flexibility; tolerance; integrity and moral courage; respect. Clearly these 

are what many other curricula label as values. 


S ECTION 6: V ALUES, AND THE E SSENTIAL L EARNING A REAS 

INTRODUCTION 

The main focus of this report, to this point, has been on the place of values in the structure 

of national curricula and the ways in which values statements of a general nature are 

addressed in national curricula. However, the values within the curriculum are also 

reflected in other key elements of a curriculum structure. In particular, values also appear 

within learning area statements, and within statements about skills and competencies. 

This section of the report briefly examines the way the values are expressed in the 

essential learning areas adopted in the New Zealand Curriculum. Statements about 

values in relation to skills and competency will be addressed elsewhere. Both New 

Zealand and international literature is used to examine the way values are addressed in 

ELAs (essential learning areas). 

In most curricula, the aims of the curriculum, including the values aims, are addressed in 

concrete terms at the whole school level (the policies practices and ethos of the whole 

school community) and at the school department/faculty and classroom level (within 

specific units and lessons – the taught curriculum). The second level will only be effective 

when individual subject curricula need address the overall curriculum values aims. In this 

sub-section of the report we briefly examine some of the key values of each essential 

learning area of the curriculum, and, the extent to which individual learning areas pick up 

on whole curriculum values. Our approach will be to examine each of the nine learning 

areas of the New Zealand curriculum and international literature. 

The individual learning areas of any curriculum have a role to play in the overall value 

objectives of the curriculum. They can do this in a number of ways. Firstly, learning areas 

ought to reflect any overall value goals for the curriculum. That is, if the curriculum as a 

whole identifies certain values as overarching or underpinning, then these values will need 

to be developed in and through all other parts of the curriculum, including the essential 

learning areas. Secondly, the learning areas themselves are often based on specific 

disciplines or fields of learning that have their own inherent values. These values should 

be acknowledged and made explicit. In both instances, there may be encouragement for 

students to adopt particular values and/or encouragement for particular values processes 

to be used and developed within the learning area. These learning areas are; Arts, 


English, Health and Physical Education, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies, 

Technology, Languages and Environmental Education. 

Arts 

A number of international authors have seen the Arts as a learning area of rich potential 

for values learning. Such authors see Art and the Arts as a witness to the element of 

mystery in human experience across the centuries and, in every culture, the expression of 

the human spirit through creation and appreciation, (Chapman, 1999). Indeed arts 

education may, it is suggested, be thought of as exploration of what it is to be human 

(Steers, 2004). As one student put it, “making sense of life through making art myself, 

looking at art made by others and thinking about the whole lot,” Smith, 2000, p. 34). 

It is also often seen as an opportunity for students to engage in a journey of personal 

discovery, exploring hopes and fears and plans for the future. As such, it is an opportunity 

to explore, develop and refine personal values (Chapman, 1999). It is also a way pursuing 

things that actually matter in the lives of students (Steers, 2004). 

Works of dance, drama, music, art and literature have long been seen as exploring moral 

and social values issues such as life and death, birth and nurturing, human relationships, 

ageing, good and evil, war and conflict, use and misuse of resources, wealth and poverty, 

and all forms of change (Chapman, 1999). Universal themes of love, gender, disease, 

spirituality and identity can be fully explored in the context of a diverse post-modern, 

society (Steers, 2004). Clearly there is much potential for values learning here. 

Arts and art can also be an act of social action, a response to the ‘so what’ question. They 

are way of making learning real and relevant to the here and now (Chapman, 1999). This 

involves critical disclosure, decisions and judgments, transformation and empowerment 

(Smith, 2000). Arts in the post-modern world engage with difference, plurality, and 

independent thinking. They promote risk-taking, personal inquiry and creative action, and 

are a medium for presenting and provoking future action, (Steers, 2004). 

However, while the points made above describe what can happen, some consider this is 

idealized, and that the classroom reality is often different. White (2004) notes that the 

Arts, and many of the curricula in the UK National Curriculum, seem to be rather inward 


looking and more concerned with imparting key discipline knowledge and skills and less 

interested in helping students to explore the meaning of life and address key values issues 

in current society. 

Boyask (2004) considers the New Zealand Arts curriculum fails to encourage complex or 

creative thinking because it dissects art and the creative processes into a linear order and 

progression terms. As a result, creativity and imagination are marginalised and enterprise 

culture dominates. This approach, Boyask suggests, sees economic considerations as the 

primary means of evaluating the worth of curriculum and marginalizes the wider values of 

art education. Arts learning is, she believes, underpinned by an arts literacy approach 

which conceives the arts as products valued in a singularly economic sense. She believes 

the humanistic tradition of arts education, as an exploration of what it is to be human, is 

thus minimised. 

However, an analysis of The Arts in the New Zealand Curriculum (ANZC), (Ministry of 

Education, 2000) shows that ANZC addresses values in its nature and purpose of arts 

education section by Keown (2003b, pp 10 – 11). These place an emphasis on three key 

items. Firstly, developing understanding about the value of the arts within society. 

Secondly, the role of the arts in exploring and expressing students own values and beliefs 

and in hearing the values and beliefs of others, and thirdly, exploring the arts traditions of a 

range of cultures, and in particular, developing some understanding of Māori values and 

traditions in the arts. The curriculum does not develop though the ‘essence statement’ 

idea (MOE, NZCF p. 15) that the arts can help students to recognise the aesthetic and 

spiritual dimensions of their lives. 

Further, the ANZC statement of aims (Ministry of Education, 2000, p. 12) and the structure 

of the curriculum (p. 13) address values only implicitly. On the other hand, the curriculum 

does include an attitudes and values section, (p. 102), which links directly to page 21 of 

NZCF. This emphasises that “the arts provide ways in which individuals and societies look 

at themselves, consider their origins and project their visions for the future” (p. 102), and 

sets out seven specific ways in which learning in arts does this in values terms. These 

mirror the three values dimensions as reported above. Arts is also said to help the 

development of a range of “values that are collectively held within our democratic society,” 

a direct reference to NZCF p. 21, paragraph 7 (Keown, 2003b). 


However, the individual discipline strand statements and achievement objectives vary in 

the extent to which they deliver on the values ideals espoused. The visual arts strand 

asks that “students identify contexts in which objects and images are made, viewed and 

valued”, and “understand that visual culture reflects and is shaped by the beliefs, 

technologies, needs and values of society” (p. 73). A number of dance objectives are 

strongly value-oriented, but values in the drama and music sections of the document are 

much weaker and implicit (Keown, 2003). 

English 

As in the case of the Arts, many who write about values in English note that the full range 

of human experiences can be explored through English and particularly through literature, 

(Disney & Pound, 1999). It is a means of introducing children and young people to the 

social, cultural, moral and political values through texts used and in the discussion of 

issues arising from them. Themes such as democracy and autocracy; cooperation and 

conflict; equality and diversity; fairness, justice, the rule of law; human rights; freedom; the 

relationship between the individual and society; power and authority; rights and 

responsibilities are all found in the literature in English (Bearne, 2000). 

Speaking and listening, a key component of English is an ideal site for moral debate and 

cultural understanding, as students are exposed to the ideas of other people and through 

the interaction and thinking involved, develop a sense of self as a person with a distinct 

spiritual, moral, social and cultural identity (Disney & Pound, 1999). Story and narrative is 

a particularly good way to explore values issues. In most societies and communities, story 

and narrative have long been used as a means of passing on the mores of the group, of 

teaching the community just what fairness and justice and the rule of law etc. implies and 

involves (Bearne, 2000). One real advantage of a narrative approach in values learning 

Bearne suggests, is that it does not tell us what to think, but poses a series of mysteries 

and perplexities that we have to think out for ourselves, or ponder over with others. 

Drama and role play are an opportunity to explore ideas values and morals and for valuing 

diversity. Empathy and identification with the thoughts, feelings ideas and values of others 

can be explored through these means. Literature, drama and role play are all ways of 

helping children to work through values issues and problems in a non-threatening way. 

English is also a key site for the important issue of critical literacy where the reading of not 

only standard word-based texts, but also various forms of media including radio, film, 


music lyrics, magazines, etc. takes place. Such issues are values-rich and a key part of 

helping children become critical consumers, capable of managing the growing 

technological sophistication of life (Bearne, 2000). 

Again, as in the case of the Arts, writing and speaking provides opportunities to raise 

issues of bias and prejudice and to engage in persuasive and social change writing 

(Disney & Pound, 1999). The speaking, listening and writing aspects of English enable 

young people to have a voice which can advocate for what they see as important in life 

and in the way society is structured and run (Bearne, 2000). English, in its content and its 

methods, is able to draw out the complexity of moral and values issues, and become a 

place where students are exploring issues rather than being offered solutions. This helps 

young people to identify, develop and adapt a personal point of view and to think it through 

in the process of discussion, debate, justification and negotiation of ideas. It is, Bearne 

believes, the responsibility of English to present the complexities, diversity, paradoxes, 

tough issues, harsh realities of life as reflected in texts, both spoken and written (Bearne, 

2000). 

The New Zealand writer McFarlane (2004) is critical of a number of aspects of the existing 

English curriculum in values terms. She considers that it focuses on the teaching of 

literacy and positions Pākehā culture as dominant and acknowledges Māori as ‘other’ and 

thus in an inferior position. She feels the document fails to acknowledge the social, 

cultural and political context in which texts are produced, and that all knowledge has been 

formed in terms of valuing of some aspects over others. The Western bias of English 

values rationalism, intellect and the mind above intuition, human spirit and body. She 

doubts claims that the teaching of English can promote gender equity in isolation from 

wider cultural and social processes. She argues that the curriculum does not really 

encourage critical thinking about the world, but rather focuses on literary criticism and, in 

using a competency-based, banking approach, uncritically grooms students to meet the 

requirements contemporary society. The curriculum, she feels, fails to open up dialogue 

on the real questions of values beliefs. Issues of what kind of world we want are 

marginalised from consideration or else arbitrarily decided upon (McFarlane, 2004). 

Keown (2003) notes that Values in English in the New Zealand Curriculum, (Ministry of 

Education, 1994) makes a very promising start by stating that: 


… the curriculum in English provides opportunities for students to explore, 

challenge, think critically about, and clarify both their own attitudes and values, and 

those of others. In exploring an oral, written, or visual text, students may consider 

the values and viewpoint, which it expresses and compare them with their own. This 

is an essential part of the process of thinking critically about literature, for instance 

(p. 8). 

One of the 14 characteristics of English, entitled Thinking Critically, suggests English 

learning should cause student to “reflect on the different social assumptions, judgements, 

and beliefs which are embodied in texts, and which different people bring to language and 

learning,” (p. 12). The section English for All states that “through analysing the language 

of a range of texts, students can find out what they reveal about attitudes towards sex 

roles and gender, and how these attitudes are constructed” (p. 13). The curriculum 

actively supports the NZCF’s Treaty of Waitangi and multicultural principles in recognising 

the “traditions, histories and values” of Māori, Pacific Island, and Asian cultures as well as 

those of the Pākehā community (pp. 14-15). 

However, the general aims, and the achievement objectives of the curriculum, tend to 

leave attitudes and values in the background rather than make the opportunities for the 

examination of values explicit. Indeed only two achievement objectives specifically 

prescribe study of attitudes and beliefs These are in the thinking critically aspect of the 

listening and speaking and reading and writing processes at Levels 5 and 6. In the other 

hand, there are places in the achievement objectives at all levels where key words invite a 

values approach to learning. For example, the critical thinking objectives use terms such 

as “identify, clarify and question meanings,” … “discuss and interpret … personal 

experiences and other points of view” (p. 30). The terms “state facts and opinions”, 

“express personal viewpoints” and, “express” and “argue” and “justify” a point of view, 

appear in the transactional writing objectives (p. 35). Listening and speaking objectives 

include “debate ideas and opinions” and “communicate information and contrasting points 

of view” (pp. 27). 

The teaching, learning, and assessment examples section of English in the New Zealand 

Curriculum does present some ideas for the development of the values domain (pp. 44- 

136). For example, deciding “on an appropriate way to greet visitors … taking into account 


their own greeting rituals … and … the cultural or social factors which will make the visitors 

feel welcome” and comparing texts and current events or documentary programmes “in 

terms of attitudes and beliefs, justifying their points by identifying verbal and non verbal 

features which care explicit and implied message” (p. 55). A number of the examples refer 

to substantive moral values but, as one would expect in a subject incorporating a study of 

literature, some provide opportunity to investigate aesthetic values using discussion and 

dialogue about what makes good poetry or good live theatre. 

Health and Physical Education 

Health and Physical Education is an interesting learning area as it brings together two 

subjects that can stand alone in the curriculum. Physical education has had a long history 

in the curriculum, and in contrast, Health is a very new subject. In this section, we will look 

at the contribution of both to values in the curriculum, but because most of the literature 

deals with them a separate entities we will often have to discuss them separately. 

Physical Education (PE), games and the physical disciplines within PE have often been 

seen as character-building (Gray, 1999). The origin of physical education in schools can 

be traced back to the need for physical training in readiness for possible military action 

during the time of Empire (Culpan, 2004). Some of the key values associated with the 

character-building tradition in PE are: responsibility, teamwork, discipline, excellence, trust, 

self-confidence, perseverance, competition and cooperation. Outdoor Education (OE) is 

often seen as part of PE and includes similar values and some additional ones such as; 

problem-solving, overcoming challenges, planning, and organisation (Gray, 1999). Other 

values associated with PE and OE include the spiritual experience of pitting oneself 

against nature, the concepts of rules and fair play, respect for opponents, team-mates, and 

coach. 

Some point out that the values experience individuals take from physical education and 

sport can be very different. For some, the challenge aspects represent ideal opportunities 

to learn about success and failure, overcoming obstacles, retraining one's own selfish 

desires for the good of the team and so on. However, others see PE as enshrining a 

selfish antagonistic structure in which players attempt to defeat others to ensure their 

superiority over others them, values which are no longer appropriate to instil in the young. 

In addition, while some experience great fulfilment through the rigors of PE, others emerge 


determined never to subject themselves to demanding physical challenges again (Bailey, 

2000; Penny, 2004). 

A number of authors point out that Physical Education is also, as with other subjects in the 

curriculum, a rich source of controversial values issues for discussion. Issues such as: the 

role of sporting idols; drugs, violence and racism in sport; stardom and the media; and so 

on, have considerable values learning potential (Gray, 1999). Such discussion can also 

include themes such as intimidation of officials, tantrums, corruption and making moral 

decisions about hard choices (Bailey, 2000). 

Again though, some think the claims for positive values learning for PE may be 

overplayed. Claims of the development of creative enterprising leadership; of contribution 

to a sense of identity and cultural heritage; of fostering enduring social values of integrity, 

autonomy, respect and tolerance are often exaggerated (Penny, 2004). Penny believes 

PE tends toward a limited vision of pupil’s development as performers and apprentices to 

elite performers. Artistic and aesthetic understanding and personal qualities such as 

independent citizenship, tolerance and personal and social skills are, she feels, somewhat 

under-developed. 

Culpan (2004) notes that the militaristic, and, then later, the scientific basis of PE can be 

criticised as dualistic and separating mind and body. He also links PE to a role in the 

maintenance of western capitalism. Achieving body control and body discipline among the 

masses can be seen to benefit industrialisation and corporate capitalism. The New 

Zealand Treasury report of 1987, and the market reforms of 1989 and beyond, he 

suggests, orientated education toward benefits, or a market economy leaving little space in 

the curriculum to promote personal and social development of the individual. He sees the 

linking of PE to Health as a positive move in this regard. The adoption of the ecological 

perspective achieved a shift away from technocratic physical education based on scientific 

models, liberating PE from the discourse of scientific functionalism, and allowed health and 

physical education to integrate and work together in one curriculum. 

Tasker (2004) and Culpan (2004) also make it clear how different health and physical 

education curriculum is in New Zealand when compared to the UK. Both authors locate 

this curriculum/learning area in socio-cultural, socially critical, ecological and post-modern 


ealms. This can be seen as very different from the older conceptions of education in the 

northern hemisphere. They also note that the New Zealand approach avoids a moralist 

approach to the development of appropriate and attitudes and values. It acknowledges 

the interrelatedness of science and social endeavours and cultural influences. 

The Health dimension of curriculum is, Tasker suggests, a response to changing 

paradigms of the structure and function of schooling, current political and community 

values and expectations for health outcomes, and societal perceptions of the meaning of 

health. Current theories of teaching and learning and contemporary social economic and 

political issues also played a part. Changes away from individualistic approaches to health 

and health education took place it in the wider environmental contexts. Interestingly, the 

role of the World Health Organisation and its Ottawa Charter are seen as significant in this. 

The Ottawa Charter identified nine broad preview requisites for health: peace, education, 

food, shelter, income, a stable ecosystem, sustainable resources, social justice, and 

equity. Thus the Health and Physical Education curriculum aimed to improve the social 

and learning environments of schools, and to enhance the health prospects of all students 

in a changing and challenging 21st century. 

Tasker (2004) sees the curriculum as firmly post-modern and socially critical. She notes 

that the MOE policy specifications required the writers to identify the attitudes and values 

the curriculum area would foster. After much discussion and debate, a set of values that 

was considered to be consistent with the underlying concepts of hauora, health promotion 

and ecological perspective were drafted. The values adopted were: positive and 

responsible attitudes to their own physical, mental and emotional, social and spiritual wellbeing; 

respect for the rights of other people; care and concern for other people in the 

community and in their environment; and, a sense of social justice. These were included 

to encourage students to analyze the attitudes and values implicit or explicit in actions and 

situations. It was believed that this kind of critical consciousness can create challenges to 

the prevailing economic system which has exacerbated personal and structural 

inequalities in society and associated ill-health. 

Tasker suggests the health curriculum aims to address equity through examining the 

hidden processes of gender, sexual and racial bias. She also sees it as a curriculum that 

enables students to bring their own perspectives on values and experiences to the 


learning context. This, she suggests, is likely to be inclusive and preferable for girls and 

for Māori and Pacific Island students as opposed to a more competitive and teacher- 

directed approach. Tasker also notes that the curriculum is underpinned by the concept of 

social justice and recognises that inequality can be a major barrier to wellness. She 

suggests that highly publicised health and social issues such as unwanted teenage 

pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections, drug misuse, adolescent mental health 

problems, poor interpersonal skills, disruptive behaviours, negative self concepts, 

harassment and bullying require a quality curriculum response, one that recognizes the 

complex interplay of social and economic factors and lifestyle choices needed in making a 

difference. 

Values in Health and Physical Education in the New Zealand Curriculum, (Ministry of 

Education, 1999), according to Keown (2003a) develops a strong values emphasis in the 

health, physical education and home economics aspects in the document. Values are 

acknowledged and addressed quite explicitly in every section. A strong emphasis on 

attitudes and motivation and on informed decision-making and action orients the 

curriculum toward a strong values education emphasis. 

The four underpinning concepts for the curriculum reinforce this. Well-being (Hauora), the 

first concept, encompasses the “physical, mental and emotional, social and spiritual 

dimensions of health” (p. 31). The Māori concepts used in this curriculum, Taha hinengaro, 

mental and emotional well-being, Taha whanāu, social well-being and Taha wairua, 

spiritual well-being, all have a strong values focus. Taha wairua (spiritual well-being) is 

defined as “the values and beliefs that determine the way people live, search for meaning 

and purpose in life, and personal identity and self awareness” (p. 31). 

A second concept, attitudes and values, is explicitly developed through this learning area 

in learning objective terms. See Table below. 

Table 13. Attitudes and Values to be developed through learning in Health and Physical 

Education. 

Major Attitudes and Values Aspects/ Components involved 

A positive and responsible attitude to 

their own physical, mental and 

emotional, social and spiritual wellbeing. 

• 

• 

• 

valuing themselves and other people; 

a willingness to reflect on beliefs; 

the strengthening of integrity, 

commitment, perseverance, and courage. 


Respect for the rights of other people. • acceptance of a range of abilities; 

• acknowledgement of diverse viewpoints; 

• tolerance, rangimarie, and openmindedness. 

Care and concern for other people in 

their community and for the 

environment. 

• 

• 

co-operation and awhina; 

applying aroha, manaakitanga, care, 

compassion, and maha a ngakau; 

• constructive challenge and competition; 

• positive involvement and participation. 

Sense of social justice. • Fairness; 

• Inclusive and non-discriminatory 

practices. 

(Adapted from Health and Physical Education in the New Zealand Curriculum, p. 34). 

The two other concepts are also values laden. Health promotion, involves encouraging 

students to make a positive contribution to their own well-being and that of their 

communities and environments, (p. 32) and the social and ecological perspective, involves 

recognising the need for “mutual care and shared responsibility” (p. 33), and actively 

contributing to the well-being of self, others, society, and the environment. 

The general aims of Health and Physical Education in the New Zealand Curriculum 

similarly have a strong values emphasis and the seven key areas of learning in health and 

physical education, (pp 36–47) also involve values in a very direct way. This strong 

emphasis on values in the aims, strands underlying concepts and key learning areas 

means that values are quite explicit in the strand aims and the achievement objectives as 

well. Examples are: “examine how peoples’ attitudes, values and actions contribute to 

healthy physical and social environments” (p. 17) … “recognise instances of discrimination 

and act responsibly to support their own rights and feelings and those of other people” (p. 

18) … “analyse dilemmas and contemporary ethical issues that influence their own health 

and safety and that of other people” (p. 28). 

Mathematics 

Mathematics has had more difficulty than other curriculum area in developing a values 

dimension and in playing a role in the values of the wider curriculum. This is often seen by 

authors as more to do with the approach adapted to mathematics in education adopted, 


than to the potential of the area to be a values vehicle. Some argue that mathematics 

education has become entrapped in a scientific rationalism model which sees mathematics 

as value-free, a matter of fact and not open to any debate depending on values (Malvern, 

2000). Others argue that the hierarchical, levelled outcome-based model of learning 

applied to Mathematics in recent times does not allow for an open-ended investigative 

approach and thus limits the scope more value-oriented work in Mathematics (Neyland, 

2004). 

However, any approach to teaching and learning is values drenched. Malvern reports on 

Ernest, (1991) who considers there are five competing ideologies of mathematics 

education. The first is the back to basics industrial training approach, focusing on 

numeracy, social training and obedience. The moral values that Earnest associates with 

this approach are: “authoritarian Victorian values; choice; effort; self help work; moral 

weakness; us-good and them-bad” (p. 138). The second, the technological pragmatist 

approach, has a focus on levels and certification, and useful, industry-centred 

mathematics. Associated values are “utilitarian; pragmatic expediency; wealth creation; 

technological development” (p. 138) A third, the old humanist approach has a strong focus 

on transmitting key mathematical disciplinary knowledge and is very mathematics-centred. 

Associated values are: blind justice; objectivity; rule-centred structure; hierarchy; 

paternalistic classical view” (p. 138) The fourth, he terms progressive educator 

mathematics, is very child-centred and focused on creativity and self-realisation through 

mathematics. The values Earnest associates with this approach are: “person-centred; 

caring; empathy; human values; nurturing materialistic; ‘romantic’ view” (p. 138). The fifth 

and final approach, Earnest describes as a public educator approach, which focuses on 

critical awareness and democratic citizenship via mathematics education. Associated 

values include: “social justice; liberty; equality fraternity; social awareness engagement 

and citizenship” (p. 138). Earnest’s analysis makes it clear that values are very much a 

part of mathematics education, even when this is not realized and not acknowledged 

(Earnest, 1991, pp. 138-139, as cited in Malvern, 2000, p. 103). 

Others have made a case that mathematics has good values potential, along the same 

lines we have seen argued by other subject areas so far. Some point to spiritual qualities 

through the awe factor in the symmetry and patterns of mathematics and the way this is 

captured in religious and cultural art and in building (Jones, 1999). Mathematics is also 


said to develop some moral values such as honesty, respecting other people, and a 

commitment to truth (Jones, 1999). Mathematics is also important in investigating social 

issues and can provide evidence for quality moral and social decision-making, a clear link 

to Ernest’s public educator approach (Jones, 1999). 

Malvern (2000) sees mathematics well taught as: empowering in providing the student with 

life skill tools and protection against financial exploitation; teaching a useful and necessary 

training in logic; as a protection against partial truth often peddled in the media and 

politics, and thus freeing students from indoctrination and prejudice. More deeply, he 

concludes, along with other disciplines it has much to tell us about the human condition 

and the quest for truth and meaning. 

As with the other curriculum areas reviewed so far, a number of authors note that 

mathematics does not live up to many of its values claims. The ideal that it can deliver 

moments of pleasure and wonder, open understanding of culture and heritage, be 

personally empowering, and assist in socially-critical thinking about society often fails to 

eventuate (Gill, 2004). In the New Zealand context Neyland (2004) laments that the 

current New Zealand curriculum for mathematics is entrapped in a scientific management 

approach to education, using a behavioural and outcomes based approach, which is antidemocratic, 

in his view, and attempts to reengineer society as an enterprise culture. He 

notes that, despite including some good features, the hierarchy level approach undercuts 

the idea of an open learning approach and creates a document with mixed messages 

which makes it unable to develop the values problem-solving and socially critical potential 

of the subject. 

Keown’s 2003 analysis of values in Mathematics in the New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry 

of Education, 1992), surmised that as the first of the 1990s curriculum documents and 

published before the NZCF there is less discussion of the place of attitudes and values 

learning in mathematics than in some later documents. There is specific mention of values 

in the first and second aims, but these are mainly of the “encourage a positive attitude 

toward learning” type. The contribution of mathematics education in developing 

“innovation, and problem-solving and decision making skills,” (p. 7) is mentioned as is the 

“critical appraisal of mathematical argument, and using mathematics to explore and 

conjecture” (p. 9). 


Using mathematics as part of the study of values issues does come through in places 

within the document. For example, one learning and assessment example suggests 

“Students discuss an issue of interest or concern, for example: Are there trends that would 

indicate that global warming is taking place? Is there a need for more rubbish or recycling 

bins to be placed around our school?” (p. 186) This is linked to Achievement Objective 4 

“make statements about implications and possible actions consistent with the results of a 

statistical investigation” (p. 186) and provides opportunities for discussion of values issues 

as well as developing student’s ability to think mathematically. However, overall, there is 

less evidence of a clear vision of how this learning area addresses the integral nature of 

values and attitudes in the school curriculum than in other documents. 

Science 

McFadden (1999) notes that science has long been concerned with fundamental spiritual 

questions on both the origins of the universe and of life itself. Science, she observes, is 

also heavily implicated in many of the vital social and moral issues confronting 

contemporary society. There is, she suggests, much emphasis on choice in science and 

this will inevitably reflect the values of society, but also need to be scientifically informed. 

However, and somewhat surprisingly, science is often perceived as clinical, impersonal 

and dehumanized. There are, however, some clear and compelling arguments about the 

centrality of values in the science learning area. 

Some point out that science addresses the spiritual in terms of: promotion of inner and 

personal growth around questions of the nature of life and the role of care and nurture in 

sustaining it; expression of creativity and imagination; a sense of wonder, awe and 

curiosity around concepts of size, diversity, complexity, time, extremes and distance; 

expression of innermost thoughts, feelings and belief addressing areas of personal 

meaning. McFadden notes that students can meet these issues in science just as they do 

in arts, English and social sciences (McFadden, 1999). 

Key moral issues are regularly raised in the science curriculum in dilemmas such as: 

genetic screening; DNA fingerprinting; cloning; genetic engineering; human population 

growth; pollution; radiation and nuclear technology; health issues - transplants, embryos, 

life support; in vitro fertilisation; care of the environment and living things and the 

environmental agenda - ozone depletion, global warming, biodiversity, etc. (McFadden, 


1999). Science also demands that pupils draw conclusions from data collected and base 

judgments on the evidence and thereby values accuracy, honesty and integrity. Further, 

the role of values and morals in quality decision-making on political, civic and social issues 

related to scientific information and knowledge is vital. Decision-making in science can 

help the pupils confront their values, prejudices and biases, and to consider other views as 

well as their own (Nicholls, 2000). 

Social values are also evident in science education. Science includes practical work, 

teamwork and cooperation. Science raises questions of the relationship between 

economic, industrial, social and cultural in the world of science and technology 

(McFadden, 1999). Recent emphases on citizenship demand that people think of 

themselves as active citizens, willing, able and equipped have an influence in public life 

and with the critical capacities to weigh up evidence before speaking and acting. This 

requires both scientific knowledge and critical engagement with issues and arguments 

(Nicholls, 2000). 

Science is often considered to be a white male middle class subject, and there has been 

considerable work done around science education in making it more open to non-Western 

non-male approaches. Looking at science issues in different cultural contexts, the history 

of science and the role of people in science can all help focus on non-Western science 

concepts. White (2004) notes that science makes much of its claims that it raises 

awareness of the impact of science on industry and the quality of life and discussing 

science-based issues that may affect the future of the world. However, these are often not 

reflected to any great extent in attainment targets and achievement objectives which tend 

to focus on mastering specific areas of knowledge, and techniques of inquiry, in science. 

He suggests that science curricula typically give little attention to the lives and thinking of 

great scientists, the great turning points in the history of science, or the interface between 

science, religion and beliefs. 

In relation to the New Zealand Science curriculum, Clark (2004) applauds page 43 of the 

curriculum which outlines the importance of curiosity, honesty in the recording and 

validation of data, flexibility, persistence, critical mindedness, open-mindedness, 

willingness to suspend judgment, willingness to tolerate uncertainty, and acceptance of the 

provisional nature of science and scientific explanation. However, he considers that the 


constructivist approach used in the curriculum that tends to emphasise the individual 

making sense of the world and divorces the learner from a deep examination of social, 

political, economic contexts of science. He suggests that those who wrote the science 

curriculum did not follow their own advice on p. 43 and that critical evaluation of the 

consequences of the application of scientific discoveries is seriously underplayed in the 


Values in Science in the New Zealand Curriculum (Ministry of Education, 1993), according 

to Keown’s analysis (2003a), makes frequent reference to the values dimension of science 

study throughout the document. Five of the twelve general aims of science education, 

have a clear values education focus. For example, “helping students to explore issues 

and to make responsible and considered about the use of science and technology in the 

environment,” (p. 9), and “assisting students to use scientific knowledge and skills to make 

decisions about the usefulness and worth of ideas” (p. 9) There is also strong 

encouragement to consider a wide range of perspectives including those of 

… both male and female, and of all races and ethnic groups, … [where all have 

opportunities to] … express their experiences, concerns, interests, and opinions; 

examine the historical and philosophical construction of science; … [and] … view 

science from a range of perspectives (pp. 11). . 

The structure of the curriculum also reflects an emphasis on values. The two integrating 

strands of the curriculum, “making sense of the nature of science and its relationship to 

technology,” and “developing scientific skills and attitudes,” both have significant values 

content. These aims are explicitly developed in the achievement objectives throughout. 

For example, “investigate the impact of some well-known technological innovation or 

scientific discovery on people and/or the local environment” (p. 30), … [and] ... “research 

the personal and ethical issues which arise from the impact of science and technology on 

people and the environment” (p. 38). 

The introduction to the developing scientific skills and attitudes strand, has some explicit 

and clear ideas about the values and attitudes associated with science and science 

education. Problem-solving is given a high value and is expressed in a way that highlights 

the use of value judgements. The sole objective for this strand is very values explicit 

stating: 


… as students learn in science, they should be encouraged to develop the attitudes 

on which scientific investigation depends. These attitudes include curiosity, honesty 

in the recording and validating of data, flexibility, persistence, critical-mindedness, 

open-mindedness, willingness to suspend judgement, willingness to tolerate 

uncertainty, and an acceptance of the provisional nature of scientific explanation; … 

[and] … other attitudes which arise out of a reflection about the past, present, and 

future involvement of science in social and political affairs should also be 

encouraged. These include a positive and responsible regard for both the living and 

the non-living components of the earths environment, and a desire for critical 

evaluation of the consequences of the applications of scientific discoveries (pp. 43). 

The four contextual strands of the science curriculum also have strong, values-related 

content. Each of these strands has four achievement aims, and in each strand the fourth 

aim has a strong values focus. For example: 

… make informed decisions about the interrelationship of chemical substances and 

processes, with technology, people and the environment (p. 88); … [and] … 

investigate how people’s decisions and activities change planet earth’s physical 

environment, and develop a responsibility for the guardianship of planet earth and 

its resources (p. 106; ) 

These values-oriented objectives mean that the possible learning experiences, 

assessment examples, and sample learning contexts for these strands provide numerous 

suggestions for values-oriented science studies. Many of these have a strong 

environmental education focus and others relate to cultural, social and ethical issues and 

values. 

Social Studies 

Social studies has long been associated with a values and citizenship-based approach to 

learning about society. This means that values have always had a high profile in this 

learning area. The United States National Council for Social Studies (NCSS, 1992), in its 

Vision of Powerful Teaching and Learning in the Social Studies; Building Social 

Understanding and Civic Efficacy, identified values-based social studies has one of five 

key features of powerful social studies. They considered social studies teaching needs to 

consider the ethical dimensions of topics and address controversial issues, providing an 


arena for reflective development of concern for the common good and the application of 

social values. The NCSS produced curriculum standards the social studies for the United 

States, (National Council for Social Studies, 1994), and in the introduction to these 

standards note that social studies plays a key role in developing “the knowledge, skills and 

attitudes to understand, respect and practice the ways of the scholar, the artisan, the 

leader and the citizen and in support of the common good” (p. 5). They continue, “our 

moral imperative as educators is to see all children as precious and recognise that they 

will inherit a world of baffling complexity” (p. 5) They note that this involves both common 

and multiple perspectives and includes such fundamental rights is the right to life, liberty, 

individual dignity, equality of opportunity, Justice, privacy, security, and the ownership of 

private property. They include as well the basic freedoms of worship, thought, conscience, 

expression, inquiry, assembly, and participation in the political process. They further note, 

that in some instances, the social studies curriculum will focus on core values for all, but in 

other instances will help students to weigh up priorities where conflict exists between or 

among desirable values. Persistent issues and dilemmas for society that need to be 

addressed in this way are: individual beliefs v majority rule; obeying the law v the right to 

dissent; community progress v individual liberties; workers security v employer rights; free 

enterprise v public planning and globalization v national interest. The NCSS document 

also includes list of key democratic beliefs and values, (p. 152). Values are clearly at the 

heart of this learning area. 

Gilbert and Hoepper (1996) note that there are three shared values clusters which have 

always been important to this curriculum area, known in Australia as Studies of Society 

and the Environment (SOSE). These are the democratic process, social justice and 

ecological sustainability. They point out that nominating these three clusters is important 

for the social science learning area as it avoids the vacuum of values relativism which can 

result from approaches such as values clarification often involved in values exploration 

studies. However, they also point out that there can be widely varying interpretations of 

each of these three values clusters. For example, democratic process can be seen as any 

proposal agreed to by over 50% of the members of a group. Alternatively, it can be seen 

as trying to reach consensus, a proposal that everyone is prepared to support, even if it is 

no one's first preference. Social justice can be seen as providing equality of opportunity to 

all, even though it results in inequalities of outcome in terms of wealth, status, etc. 

Alternatively, it can be considered as equality of outcome to all members by compensating 


those who are unable to achieve as highly as others, for various reasons. Ecological 

sustainability can be seen as either, achieving the highest level of material affluence 

possible without causing serious ecological damage, or as everyone living as simply and 

minimally as possible in material terms and achieving the least ecological impact possible. 

Three chapters in Gilbert (1996) explore in detail the nature and importance of these three 

values clusters in social sciences. 

Gilbert and Hoepper (1996)suggest that two main approaches would seem to be the most 

acceptable way to address values in the social science curriculum. The first of these they 

call critical rationalism which includes the ethical theories and cultural traditions of 

democracy and justice that allow us to ask questions about universal values and the role 

of values in human experience. They include in this category moral reasoning approaches 

such as those of Kohlberg (1984); Frankel (1977), and Hill (1994), (see Hill’s Critical 

Affiliation Model below). They note that; 

… critical rationalism places of values teaching in a substantive context of a history, 

ethnics and culture. A critical approach to our culture’s past and present ways of 

dealing with values issues gives students a language and context in which to 

address values for themselves. It also emphasises that coming to values decisions 

in a democratic society is something that we need to do together, and that this 

requires at least some commonly understood set of values and traditions (Gilbert & 

Hoepper, 1996, p. 69). 

They also consider a human rights approach is particularly valuable. They consider this 

approach provides a strong framework for values discussion based on well-established 

sets of general principles and values. They point out that such general principles and 

values will need to be interpreted and that they will have different meanings and be given a 

different emphasis in different contexts. They may also conflict with each other, so that we 

may have to choose some over others in particular situations. Therefore, moral or values 

discussion must always have a critical element so that the frameworks, principles, criteria 

etc are always evaluated. They identify the United Nations Universal Declaration of 

Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child as significant sets of 

principles, with official status, and a strong body of educational practice and research 

behind them. Batelaan and Gundara (1991) have provided a useful educational model for 

using these as a basis for values discussion within the curriculum. (See Section 7.) 


Many social studies writers have pointed out that, as social studies (social sciences) aim to 

help students understand the society they are part of and to develop the knowledge, skills 

and values necessary to thrive within society and to contribute positively to it, it is 

inevitable that students must learn about values and how to work with values complexity in 

a diverse world. Hill, (1994) sees the critical affiliation process as the best way to deal with 

values and social studies/social science. Some key guidelines for using this model are 

outlined in Section 7 

The Position Paper on Social Studies (Barr et al., 1997) noted that Social Studies should 

help students to know, understand and practice the following values: the importance of 

inclusiveness in human affairs and establishing inclusive practices; the nature of the 

human rights entitlements of all people and how to achieve and uphold them; how to 

exercise care and concern for others; the need for appropriate respect for difference and 

practical means of showing this; the principles of social justice and how to uphold them; 

ways and means of showing respect for and care of the environment; how to develop and 

accept individual and collective responsibility as individuals and groups in society; various 

forms of competition and how to use competitiveness constructively. 

The paper also noted that student should be able to describe and/or use: feelings and 

attitudes; values clarification; values analysis; ethical analysis; trans-cultural critique; 

critical affiliation; participation. Thus, this paper emphasized that substantive values and a 

process of values exploration are both important to this learning area. 

Keown (2003a) in his analysis of Social Studies in the New Zealand Curriculum, (Ministry 

of Education, 1997), reports that in the social studies (social science) learning area 

students “investigate society, explore issues, make decisions, and work cooperatively with 

others” (p. 7). The aim of social studies education is “to enable students to participate in 

society as informed, confident and responsible citizens” (p. 8). Learning about society and 

people and about being an active citizen in society, along with others, in a pluralistic and 

multicultural country, is bound to involve values at many points. 

The structure of the curriculum itself recognises this by including values study as one of 

the key dimensions of the subject. One of the three processes of the curriculum is “values 


exploration [which includes] examining and clarifying their own values … in relation to 

issues in society, … examining and clarifying the values of others in relation to issues in 

society,[ and] examin[ing] the collective values upon which social structures and systems 

are based” (p. 17). In order to do this, students develop the ability to; “identify and explain 

a range of values positions in relation to a concept or issue, ... critique particular 

viewpoints, … reflect on their own position, re-evaluating it in the light of their findings (p. 

17). Further, it is suggested that students can come to “an understanding of the ways in 

which communities and societies attempt to deal with values conflict” (p. 17); understand 

the ways in which communities and societies “seek to come to some agreement on 

underlying values in order to establish a basis for people and groups to live and work 

together;” (p. 17) and “recognise that people’s values are formed by many influences and 

that they change over time” (p. 17). A second of the processes in the curriculum, social 

decision making, is also a very values oriented activity. It involves the students in making 

“decisions about actions that could be taken on a range of issues and problems in society” 

(p. 18) which involves making value judgements. 

The five strands of the curriculum, social organisation; culture and heritage; place and 

environment; time, continuity, and change; and resources and economic activities also 

include many opportunities for the examination of values. Example achievement 

objectives illustrate this, “how and why people seek to gain and maintain social justice and 

human rights, (p.32); [and] … attitudes of individuals and groups toward cultural diversity 

within communities and nations, and the implications of these attitudes (p. 37); [and] … 

beliefs and ideas that have changed society and continue to change it” (pp. 44). 

Other aspects of the curriculum also take teachers and students firmly into the values 

dimension. For example, the five perspectives required in all social studies programmes 

are all values-oriented, especially the bicultural, multicultural, and gender perspectives. 

Similarly the “essential learning about New Zealand” required involves examining vales 

and values issues such as, “the effects of colonisation for Māori and Pākehā; … Māori 

culture and heritage (and European cultures and heritages) and the influence of (these) 

heritage(s) on New Zealand’s social, cultural, political and religious beliefs and systems” 

(pp. 23). On the other hand, Social Studies in the New Zealand Curriculum does not 

develop thinking about ways in which people “meet their emotional, and spiritual needs” (p. 

14) two values-rich aspects of the NZCF social science statement. 


Technology 

A number of those writing about Technology as a learning area within the curriculum see 

values as a key part of the learning area. They argue that technology education 

addresses people’s spiritual, moral, social and cultural needs and differences in asking 

What is needed for the future? What do people want? By what means could it be 

achieved? At what cost? and, How will what has been planned affect people their 

environment now and in the future? Looking at the way we use technology to solve 

problems and meet our needs and wants, means pupils need to explore decisions that 

influence what we design. These decisions mean balancing aesthetic, environmental and 

moral criteria, all of which is strongly values-laden and often involves weighing up the 

conflicting values that shape the community in which we live (Coates & Rose, 1999; 

Kimbell, 2004). 

Technology, like science, is sometimes seen very negatively as is having a harmful impact 

on natural and social life. But those involved in technology education are quick to point out 

that good practice in technology and design is value-laden and seeks to identify the 

stakeholders in any task and to make their values explicit from the outset. Discussion 

about whether a new design is an improvement will in reality be a values-based dispute 

about what is to count as a good solution. Designers need to be able to see the task 

through other's eyes, by getting inside the values and cultural priorities of all stakeholders, 

ensuring these values become explicit in the technology and design solution. School 

technology should be transformative and offer a critique of current values. It should 

involve head, hand, and heart or feelings, the cognitive, the emotional and the 

manipulative. 

Value judgments about technologies are a significant feature of debate in the real world 

and schools should reflect this. Technology, like science, raises the issue of moral 

dilemmas associated with the evaluation of products and technologies. Landmines, 

nuclear power, fossil fuels, factory farming and appropriate technology are just a sample of 

the many current issues in this field. Technology in the curriculum helps ask and answer 

the important questions of What is worthwhile?, What is feasible? What might the 

consequences be? (Kimbell, 2004). 


Technology writers also point to recent shifts in curriculum design such as the two new 

aims of the UK national curriculum as having moved away from the certainties of high 

status discipline knowledge to the difficult territory of values, teamwork, problem-solving, 

communication, learning to learn, creativity and knowledge management. This brings 

values, teamwork and problem-solving to the forefront, and this, they point out, is exactly 

what technology is all about, (Kimbell, 2004). 

However, in the New Zealand context, O’Neill & Jolley (2004) argue that technology as a 

curriculum is at the heart of the economic, social and cultural reconstruction begun in New 

Zealand in the 1990s and that this subject far more than any other in the curriculum 

framework has been fashioned by this agenda. They consider it is technologically 

deterministic assuming technology as a neutral, progressive and inevitable. It embraces, 

they believe, technological literacy and capability and links it to the Kiwi tradition of ‘how to, 

can do’. They claim the technology curriculum promotes a crude form of training or 

industrial pedagogy through an uncritical induction into the values and ethics of 

commercial production. They consider that it trains uncritical consumers of mass 

produced products and mindless consumption of goods we do not need. They see this as 

part of a push to ensure the growth of national and global economies and that it upholds 

the dominant economic models. They, therefore, see the core values of the technology 

curriculum are those of economic and commercial enterprise technology. 

The authors acknowledge that Strand C of the curriculum could critically examine the 

technology-society relationship and that some of the overall rhetoric of the curriculum 

makes the right noises. However, they suggest Strand C is seriously under-emphasised in 

the document. Further, they consider that only 16 of the 40 achievement objectives in 

Strand C invite a critical perspective on technology. In their view, the curriculum as a 

whole upholds the dollar model of economic growth based on the exploitation of natural 

resources, perpetuation of global poverty, loss of species, ecosystem disruption, and 

environmental cultural and social degradation. They use the case study of food 

technology in the curriculum to illustrate their arguments that the curriculum adopts an 

industrial pedagogy, promoting the values and products of commercial production and 

consumption. 


On the other hand, Keown (2003a) considered that Values in Technology in the New 

Zealand Curriculum, (Ministry of Education, 1995), in contrast to the NZCF statement on 

technology, is quite explicit about values. The Curriculum suggests that Technology 

education: 

… contributes to the intellectual and practical development of students, as 

individuals and as informed members of a technological society, … [including 

contributing] to informed decision making about technological development; … 

understanding of the beliefs values and traditions of other people and how these 

influence technological development; … [and] tak[ing] informed roles in debate on 

technological change … [including] … apprais[ing] the appropriateness of 

technological solutions to environmental problems” (p. 7). 

There is, therefore, a strong emphasis on the interrelationship between technology and 

society and the need for people to think carefully about personal, business, community, 

and society decisions on the use of technology. The third strand (Strand C), Keown 

considered, is particularly strong in its values emphasis as it seeks to develop awareness 

and understanding of the ways: “the beliefs, values, and ethics of individuals and groups 

who promote or constrain technological development”; [and] … “influence attitudes toward 

technological development in society and the environment, in the past, present, and 

possible future and in local, national, and international settings” (p. 10). 

The achievement objectives through the levels for this strand provide good opportunities 

for in-depth values education learning such as: 

… identify different views about a specific technological development within the 

local community such as a roading or waste disposal project, … [and,] analyse and 

critically evaluate the social and economic impacts of some significant technological 

developments in a variety of settings, debating viewpoints, and exploring options for 

the future” (Ministry of Education, 1995, pp. 42-43). 

The two other strands also offer opportunities for values study. A number of the 

achievement objectives for technological knowledge and understanding and technological 

capabilities provide good opportunities for values discussion. 


Languages 

As Languages is a new learning area of the New Zealand curriculum, there is very little 

established literature about their role the curriculum. However, there are some points that 

can be made about the role of languages in the values dimension of curriculum from 

international literature. 

Smith and Dobson (1999) note that arguments for language learning are often focused on 

the acquisition of specific language facility in terms of economic competition and 

development. However, there are also very good values arguments for language learning. 

Learning languages can be a springboard for students to re-examine of spiritual, moral, 

social and cultural questions in a broader context than that provided by their own 

immediate experience. 

Learning a new language that is not one’s own is a commitment to communication across 

cultural boundaries. In doing this, students gain insight into other societies and cultures 

and into the beliefs and values that shape different world societies and cultures. Crosscultural 

language learning can “engender cultural decentring,” foster individual openness 

to others and give symbolic expression of the openness of the host society to other 

cultures (Williams, 2004). 

The kinds of dialogues that students are asked to engage in as part of language learning 

can provide opportunities for moral reflection and develop the ability to listen carefully, 

patiently and supportively to others. Rich opportunities to discuss broad human hopes, 

fears, emotions, beliefs and motivations can follow. This can often work to overcome 

prejudice, which can block communication as students are learning about what is socially 

acceptable in a different cultural context. There may be affirmation and relevance in 

seeing one's own beliefs and values shared by people in other cultural sittings (Smith & 

Dobson, 1999). 

There is a long tradition of linking language learning to the moral virtue of discipline in 

mastering a new and considerable challenge. Key elements of the literature, arts, 

customs, traditions and lifestyles of different societies and cultures are also often 

investigated as part of language learning. 


The process of learning a new language also helps learners to achieve a critical distance 

from their own culture and to provide what is being described as an ‘unsettling” of the 

perspectives assumed in their own native culture. In this language learning has a key role 

to play in what Brian Hill (1994) calls ‘trans-cultural critique’. This critical distance 

experience can be achieved within one's own culture and language alone, but the 

experience of learning a new language, and therefore something of its culture, adds a new 

and probably more effective dimension to the trans-cultural critique process (Williams, 

2004). 

The New Zealand Guidelines for Environmental Education 

These Guidelines (henceforth referred to as Environmental Education Guidelines or EEG) 

were produced in 1999 and have been a significant addition to the New Zealand 

Curriculum. The development and implementation of these guidelines reflects 

international and local concern that the environment is one of the most important issues 

facing humanity in the 21 st century. One of the most important considerations in 

addressing environmental issues and challenges involves the values we hold as 

individuals and nations toward the environment and toward development. 

The EEG link directly to the attitudes and values of NZCF and note that “environmental 

education provides a relevant context for identifying, exploring, and developing values and 

attitudes that can ensure the students active participation in the maintaining and improving 

the quality of the local, national, and global environment” (p. 16). 

The EEG includes as Aim 3 “for students to develop attitudes and values that reflect 

feelings of concern for the environment” (p. 9). The four key concepts of the EEG also 

have a strong values focus. Interdependence involves valuing all aspects of the cultural 

and natural environment and particularly maintaining a balance that does not severely 

“damage” any part of the whole. Sustainability involves notions of well-being and 

conservation through time and ensuring intergenerational equity. Biodiversity values all 

forms of life and seeks to ensure that the desires of one species (humankind), does not 

compromise the existence of other species. Personal and social responsibility for action 

places emphasis on the importance of individual and collective decision-making that 

values and supports the environment and ameliorates, rather than exacerbates, 

environmental degradation. 


It is interesting to note that the EEG inter-weave Māori concepts, terms and values 

throughout. For example, kaitiakitanga, rangatititanga, taonga, whenua, mauri, hauora 

and rahui tapu are some of the Māori words and concepts used in this document. 


S ECTION 7: S OME I SSUES FOR V ALUES IN THE N EW Z EALAND 

C URRICULUM 

INTRODUCTION 

The issues in addressing values in the curriculum in Aotearoa New Zealand in the early 

21 st century are similar to those for curriculum developers anywhere in the globalised and 

interconnected world of today. However, as we have been careful to point out throughout 

this report, Aotearoa New Zealand is a unique society and we do have to keep our own 

specific and unique circumstances in mind. Nevertheless, in many respects we are just 

one of a number of similar multicultural liberal democratic nations around the world all 

facing similar issues in developing 21 st century curricula. Thus, in this discussion section, 

we examine the issues and challenges in quite generic terms, drawing on both the rich 

international literature on values in the curriculum and our own Aotearoa literature and 

experiences. 

The central concern of this report is values in the curriculum. The material reviewed in this 

report makes it very clear that addressing values in the curriculum with confidence and 

with clarity is a very difficult challenge. However, our review also establishes that being 

clear about values is very important in facing up to the challenges of a diverse, complex 

and rapidly changing 21 st century world. It has become clear as we have conducted this 

review, that there are a number of major challenges facing those who seek to develop a 

well thought out yet practical approach to values in the curriculum. The first challenge is to 

develop an approach to values in the curriculum that is able to transcend the deep 

ideological divisions that divide various camps in the values education community. A 

second is to develop an approach to values in the curriculum that is able to do justice to 

the contrasting values of the range of cultural communities in our society. A third is to 

address values in the curriculum in a way that is perceived as practical for all schools’ 

teachers and for all learning areas. 

All of these issues are complex and difficult. Producing a relatively brief and usable 

statement about values in the curriculum, that is able to address all of these issues with 

integrity is a big ask but it must be attempted. Our review of the literature so far suggests 

there are good ideas about the kind of approach to values in the curriculum that can meet 

these challenges. In this section we examine some further literature that addresses the 

three major challenges identified. 


ADDRESSING THE IDEOLOGICAL DIVISION ISSUE 

Nash and the morality of conversation approach 

Nash (1997) notes that today many people believe we are living in an era of moral decline. 

Unsafe streets, increasing violence, drug issues, and even a decline in courtesy and good 

manners are commonly cited as evidence of this. It is often argued that a pervasive 

relativism and an ultraliberal view of morals have eroded the qualities traditional values 

once provided. One answer has been to call for values education programmes in schools. 

Nash notes that a range of approaches are suggested in the literature to address this 

issue. In particular he identifies and examines character education, communitarian, and 

liberationist approaches. Nash finds much to commend in each of these approaches but 

he also finds each approach on its own to be insufficient. 

The most popular programs established in schools have been those based on a character 

or virtues education approach. Nash suggests that character education is based on 

neoclassical virtues. He suggests that habit, training and modeling as advocated in 

character education are important. Their challenge to the domination of self-esteem, 

values clarification and cognitive-development approaches is also correct, in his view. 

However, he considers that character educators go too far in separating moral reasoning 

from moral conduct and, in so doing, foster an ethos of compliance. This in turn tends 

towards indoctrination and rote learning and underplays critical reflection and autonomous 

decision-making. Nash finds this approach problematic in that it amounts to, in his 

opinion, a morality of compliance. 

The second approach that Nash examines is the communitarian initiative. Nash agrees 

with the communitarian assertion that it is mainly in our primary groups that we shape our 

moral identities. However, he considers that communitarian perspectives encourage 

conformity to provincial and ideologically restrictive groups. He finds the communitarian 

approach focuses too strongly on the local community and tends to underplay the need for 

a multi-community pluralist society and the concept of emerging global communities. The 

sectarian, post-liberal and civic-liberal virtues approaches advocated by communitarians 

are, he thinks, problematic in that it they amount to a morality of conformity to the local and 

the sectarian. 


The third approach is what he calls the liberationist initiative and is associated with critical 

pedagogy. Nash suggests that this approach has been very effective in showing how the 

traditional idea of values-neutral knowledge in schools is often an “ideologically loaded 

cover for class privilege, capitalist values, and imperialistic dispositions toward the rest of 

the world,” (p. 124). However, this approach is also problematic in Nash’s view because it 

is often ideologically rigid, pretentious and ends up privileging a morality of habitual 

contestation. 

Having found all of the three approaches above to have strong points, but serious 

deficiencies, Nash suggests what he calls a post-modern alternative characterised by a 

morality of conversation. This approach, he suggests, is based on cultivating democratic 

dispositions and using a dialogue and conversation approach. Nash identifies what he 

considers to be the virtues important in the democratic dispositions. “These include the 

virtues of self-discipline, obligation, tolerance, fairness and generosity, and they enable us 

to work with others who are different from us, to compromise when necessary, and to 

realise that no single person or group can get everything they want all the time,” (p. 163). 

Nash also considers that we need to add to these, what he calls the post-modern virtues. 

These include sensitivity to the realities of incommensurability, indeterminacy, and nonfoundationalism 

and a willingness to discuss values issues in a conversational way 

through dialogue. Post-modernity, he suggests, need not be nihilistic or anti-religious. 

Nash cites Tivnan (1995) in suggesting that a morality of conversation involves “imagining 

the world from the other side of the barricade” and “listening a little harder to the other side 

of the story”. He also draws on Welch (1994) in suggesting less emphasis on the 

elements of confrontation and intellectual point-scoring and more on the possibility of 

achieving genuine relationships between people rooted in mutual understanding of 

opposing viewpoints. Another characteristic of the approach is that identified by McGrath 

(1994) where each participant appreciates the need for dignity, support and 

encouragement and in inching along the path of self-discovery. It is only when we learn to 

communicate with one another without the need to impose our moral views on others that 

we can carry on a genuinely fruitful democratic conversation across our own cultural, 

ideological and doctrinal enthusiasms. 


SCAPP AND “TEACHING IN AN EXTRA-MORAL SENSE” 

Scapp, (2003) in a similar fashion to a number of authors, paints a picture of a clash 

between a moral majority right and a misunderstood post-modern left. He suggests in his 

chapter When the Truth is Gone, that many of the challenges facing us in this time of 

uncertainty are not the result of the evils of post-modernists undermining the moral fabric 

of our knowledge system, but are instead part of the very essence of the Western tradition 

so many are fighting to preserve. He notes it is not the first time our society has faced 

great uncertainty and there is no need to lose hope. He illustrates in four following 

chapters some of the values issues and tensions involved in: using culturally relevant 

classroom materials; the acceptance of non-standard English; and issues of social justice 

and multicultural education. 

Scapp concludes his book with an epilogue entitled Teaching in an Extra-Moral Sense, in 

which he offers some reflections on teaching in the context of understanding, promoting, 

and challenging values. This is a complicated chapter, but basically he argues, that 

working with values in a complex, diverse and post-modern world requires that we move 

beyond the entrenched positions of the far right and the far left. He sees teaching in an 

extra-moral sense as "an expression of open inquiry and commitment to ideas, not mere 

habit and blind loyalty to conventions" (p. 168). He sees such teaching as the process of 

excepting and rejecting values and establishing one's own identity in a climate where 

various values ideas are promoted rather than demanded, and where persuading rather 

than coercing is employed. He suggests that the paradigm of such teaching is dialogue. 

Teaching in an extra-moral sense is, in essence, a dialogue between and among those 

thinking, teaching, learning and living in the world. This dialogue is a means to achieving 

critical consciousness, as those engaged move intellectually, politically and ethically. He 

considers it as teaching against the boundaries and the borders of racism, sexism, 

homophobia, and elitism, and teaching beyond the boundaries and borders of the 

customary metaphors and fixed conventions. It is also, he suggests, teaching in the 

context of multiculturalism and postmodernism. It is a process of facilitating learning, of 

supporting movement from one place to another. In particular, it is moving from ignorance 

to knowledge, from knowledge to understanding, from indifference to caring (p. 177). To 

Scapp, values in the curriculum is a process. 


Towards a Critical Affiliation Approach 

The ideas outlined by Nash and Scapp above resonate with the writings of Splitter (1996) 

and Hill (2004; 1994). Splitter suggests that including values within a curriculum requires a 

process of values inquiry. Splitter defines inquiry as: 

… a form of self-correcting and self-conscious practice which is driven by the desire 

to transform that which is intriguing, contestable, confused, ambiguous or 

fragmentary into a unifying whole which is satisfying to those involved (Splitter, 

1996, p. 2). 

Values inquiry is, therefore, an attempt by those involved to make things clearer. It is a 

process of “clarifying, exploring, analysing and (as appropriate) modifying the concepts, 

attitudes, problems and values” associated with life and living. It focuses on content 

issues such as investigating where we stand on significant content-laden issues such as 

“freedom, democratic participation, justice, tolerance, fairness, equality, cultural diversity, 

death and dying, peace, ecological balance” (p. 1). It also involves reflecting on lifeaffirming 

questions such as “‘What kind of world do we want to live in?’ ‘How can we 

determine what is really worthwhile?’ ‘How can we reconcile economic and ethical 

considerations?’ … [and] … “‘What is it for a human being to live well?’” (Splitter, 1996, p. 

1). 

However, Splitter points out, at the same time, values inquiry is also a process involving 

“cognitive, affective and normative processes.” He lists some of these as “reflective 

thinking, questioning, empathy, reasoning, dialogue, imagination, decision-making and 

judgement.” The successful development of these requires the nurture of dispositions 

such as “curiosity, fair-mindedness, respect for others, care, intellectual courage, 

persistence” (Splitter, 1996, pp. 1-2.). 

Splitter notes that the outcomes of a values inquiry, and therefore values in the enacted 

curriculum are, “judgements … which may be characterised as the settlement or 

determination of that which was previously unsettled, indeterminate or problematic” (p. 2). 

He suggests that these judgements represent significant moments, or plateaus, in thinking, 

rather than final conclusions. Values are then, in Splitter’s view, constructions, and thus 

open to debate and change. They remain open to modification and improvement in the 

light of new evidence and new thinking after further values inquiry in the future. However, 


not all values educators would agree. Some would argue that some values are core 

precepts which do not change through time and space. 

Hill (1994) sees values in the curriculum in a similar light and considers that quality values 

in the curriculum work is best understood as what he terms, a process of critical affiliation. 

Brian Hill makes a strong case for transmission of core democratic values in schools. He 

also suggests schools do need to be teaching students that it is important to be concerned 

about discovering, and committing to, values that are in the common good. However, to 

do this well in a curriculum and education context requires a well thought out rationale and 

procedure. Hill’s critical affiliation model provides one set of ideas on this. 

Table 14. The Critical Affiliation Model 

Key Dimension Description 

Goal The empowerment of the social and ethical self, resulting in 

a person critically loyal to the democratic society and 

committed to the common good, as the goal of education. 

Method A commitment to both the study of what is (via knowledgebased 

study and inquiry) and discussion and dialogue 

about what ought to be (via ethical analysis and considered 

social decision-making). 

Minimising risk of 

Indoctrination 

Reflecting , 

Concluding and 

Valuing 

There is an acknowledgement that as this not a valuesneutral 

process (it seeks to transmit core democratic 

values) and the potential for indoctrination must be 

minimised by developing in the learner the skills of social 

inquiry, ethical analysis and trans-cultural critique. (Transcultural 

critique involves the ability to recognise and critique 

one’s own cultural conditioning and the ability to listen to, 

consider and critique, the ideas and values of other 

traditions and perspectives). 

Providing opportunity for students to make conscious 

choices about the beliefs and values they consider 

important in a society committed to the common good 

based on thorough examination and carefully judgement 

about what is reasonable (via both study and dialogue). 

Source: (Adapted by the authors from Hill, 1994, pp. 109 –10). 

Another way to to think of this is to see the job of values in the curriculum as balancing 

what Engle and Ochoa (1998) have called socialization and counter-socialization. 

Students in schools do need to learn about and be encouraged to adopt agreed social 


values. On the other hand, they also need to be taught that community and social values 

are open to review and thought in the way Splitter and Hill outline. Things that we have 

thought valued and believed up to this point may be strongly reaffirmed or they may now 

need to be rethought, revalued, and belief and attitude systems may as result be changed. 

Both things need to be held in balance. 

Egan (2001) argues that much of the disagreement we experience in education is due to 

goal confusion. Egan points out that educational thinking draws on three fundamental 

ideas or desires: to socialise the young; to shape the mind through a disciplined academic 

curriculum; and, to facilitate the development of a student’s potential. Egan suggests that 

each of these aims is worthy, but unfortunately each of these ideas is fundamentally 

incompatible with the other two and that this causes considerable conflict and confusion to 

all in education, curriculum and schools. 

Adequate socialisation requires successfully inculcating a set of beliefs, values, and 

norms of behaviour in the growing child. The academic program is specifically 

designed to enable the growing child to question the basis for any beliefs, values 

and norms of behaviour. The two aims pull against each other; the more 

successfully one socializes, the less one achieves the academic ideal; the more 

successfully one incorporates disciplined academic thinking; the less easy it is to 

socialize successful. Socialization requires the acceptance of beliefs, values and 

norms that the disciplined academic mind sees as stereotypes, prejudices, and 

homogenization (p. 37). 

Again, it is easy to see in this the classic socialisation versus counter socialisation 

dichotomy (Engle & Ochoa, 1988; Keown, 2002). Egan suggests that there is little point in 

returning to the continuing battles between the progressives and the traditionalists, 

between child-centred and subject-centred points of view, and between the education and 

training views of learning. Egan suggests Dewey's advice that the intelligent thing to do is 

“ascertain the cause of the conflicts and then, instead of taking one side or the other, to 

indicate a plan of operation preceding from a deeper level and more inclusive than is 

represented by the practices and ideas of the contending parties” (Dewey, 1963, p. 5). 

THE CULTURAL DIFFERENCE ISSUE 


The discussion in this section suggests that the values statement on the New Zealand 

Curriculum should not adopt a narrow approach to values based on any one approach. 

There is considerable argument to suggest that values dialogue and values thinking are 

very important. However, other literature we have reviewed in this report, particularly in 

Section 3, point out that these kinds of approaches to values in the curriculum can seem 

very liberal and very Western by some. How to create space within a curriculum for the 

values of traditions beyond the Western mainstream is a significant issue. 

Aotearoa - Culture Counts Approaches 

In a New Zealand context, Bishop and Glynn (1999) and MacFarlane (2004) point out that 

culture must be acknowledged in curriculum and in pedagogy. Bishop and Glynn note that 

when people experience having something done to them rather than with them - they will 

feel left out of the learning interactions and conversations with other students. This is 

particularly true for those of cultures different from that of the majority in any given school 

or education system. 

If the curriculum leaves people out, it perpetuates a system that is hierarchical and repeats 

the pattern of dominance and subordination by the majority and denies non-majority 

students legitimate representation and participation. The curriculum and pedagogies that 

advantage the dominant culture when teachers engage in conversations centred around 

rhetorical questions that already have answers, or pedagogical questions that imply the 

required direction of the answer. In these approaches, questioning becomes a means of 

directing children to predetermined answers. For children from different cultural groups, 

these predetermined answers lie outside their experience and often outside their 

understanding and ways of knowing. They suggest that teachers, through control over 

curriculum and pedagogy, have traditionally denied the authenticity of Māori experiences 

and voice. This precludes the development of power-sharing and legitimation of diverse 

cultural epistemologies and cosmologies. 

Bishop and Glynn suggest that teachers need to continually adjust their understanding to 

that of the student's narrative, including those of the many young people of diverse 

backgrounds who attend modern schools. Teaching and learning strategies need to be 

flexible and allow the diverse voices of young people primacy. They develop ideas around 

concepts raised in Section 3 such as whānau, ako, tino rangatiratanga, taonga tuku iho, 


whakawhānaungatanga (creating family-type relationships), and hui (a metaphor for 

collaborative storytelling). They suggest a curriculum and a pedagogy where the 

participants in the learning interaction become involved in the process of collaboration, in 

the process of mutual storytelling and restorying, so that a relationship can emerge in 

which both (or all) stories are heard, or indeed a process wherein a new story is created. 

This is a pedagogy that recognises that all people who are involved in the learning and 

teaching process are participants who have meaningful experiences, valid concerns and 

legitimate questions. In this process, the teacher becomes repositioned, allowing 

children's stories to be legitimated with in the classroom and their knowledge to be 

considered official. 

The Jacobs and Jacobs-Spencer Approach – Considering Indigenous and Non- 

Western Values 

In considering the inclusion of indigenous Indian perspectives in looking at values in 

schools and in the curriculum Jacobs and Jacobs-Spencer (2001) consider universal 

virtues based in both indigenous and Western cultural values as important. They consider 

that “from all the noble creatures that display courage, patience, humility, generosity, or 

fortitude we learn about the respect and responsibility necessary to keep these intimate 

relationships in natural harmony” (Jacobs & Jacobs-Spencer, 2001, p. vii). 

They consider that schools throughout the United States do not draw on important 

indigenous values. They do not have policies that see human relationships with nature are 

dependent and morally reciprocal and are instead more inclined toward individualism and 

in mechanistic structures than to community or holistic processes. The dominant 

worldview of society and schools, emphasizes economic utility and consumption rather 

than diversity and conservation. They consider school education is, therefore, not about 

the commitment to life and its interconnections but as merely another of vehicle for 

enforcing conformity on behalf of economic outcomes. 

They are of the opinion that curriculum programmes segregate spiritual, ethical, ecological, 

and moral issues from standard academic subjects and, therefore, violate authentic 

principles of holistic values and character education. The authors point out that they do 

not, however, put indigenous cultures on a pedestal. They acknowledge that “all humans 

of any race, culture or group have the same potential for greed, selfishness, wrongdoing or 


stupidity, and that all people can be generous, patient, courageous, honest, persevereing 

and humble” (Jacobs & Jacobs-Spencer, 2001, p. viii). However, they point out that there 

is ample research indicating that indigenous societies are more likely to revere 

interdependence, cooperation, and reciprocity than western cultures. They cite the Dalai 

Lama as having said “the Western education system, while impressive in its emphasis on 

the development of the intellect, neglects the enhancement and development of the 

human heart: love, compassion and those other values that are embraced by all cultures 

of the world” (Jacobs & Jacobs-Spencer, 2001, p. xiv). 

The authors present a conceptual model for character education derived from indigenous 

American cultures. Spirituality appears at the top of the model and is defined as "a sacred 

realisation of interconnectedness with all in the seen and the unseen realms" (Jacobs & 

Jacobs-Spencer, 2001, p. 19). A number of other key values and attributes appear on the 

model. For example, good character is defined as "high and increasing degrees of: 

integrity (firm adherence to an identity with a code of ethic's/virtues)” and “Wolakota (being 

genuinely the peace with self and others)” (p. 19). Respect, wisdom, and experience also 

appear on the diagram. Five inner skills - reason, intuition, reflection, humour, and 

emotional control; three external skills - mastery of survival, occupational and recreational 

skills; and six virtues - fortitude, courage, patience, honesty, humility, and generosity are 

also included as important aspects of the model. The final dimension mentioned on the 

model is pedagogy, where a wide range of cooperative, dialogue and narrative strategies 

are outlined. 

Interestingly, they make it clear that values or virtues education must take place across the 

curriculum to be effective. In their introduction they state “we believe that the effect of 

character education will help prevent our children's future health and happiness from being 

compromised by a curriculum overtly concerned with consumerism, individualism and 

competition. We also know that too much inspiration and not enough implementation is 

the current reality that describes (much) character education in schools” (Jacobs & 

Jacobs-Spencer, 2001, p. xiv). They also note that ineffective character education comes 

from trying to inculcate values and virtues directly, as opposed to embedding them into a 

daily curriculum within pedagogy that involves the range of objectives and strategies they 

outlined in their model. 


Neito - the Vision for an Affirmation, Solidarity and Critique Approach. 

Neito (1998) outlines five stages on the journey from a mono-cultural to a fully culturally 

inclusive approach in education. Neito describes the first four of the five points on this 

continuum in moving from mono-cultural to culturally inclusive as: mono-culture; tolerance; 

acceptance; respect. The final destination Nieto calls “affirmation, solidarity and critique”. 

There are strong messages about values in a curriculum and the ways in which these can 

acknowledge, and indeed celebrate, cultural difference within Neito’s ideas. 

In a monocultural approach to education, school and classroom structures, policies, 

curricula, teaching materials and pedagogy are almost exclusively that of the dominant 

culture. This is an assimilation approach that makes no attempt to be cultural inclusive. 

At the tolerance stage, difference is endured but it is not embraced. At this point on the 

continuum, school and classroom structures, policies, curricula, teaching materials and 

pedagogy include some features and activities that show sensitivity to a range of cultures. 

For example, schools at this point often include ESL classes to assist non-English 

speakers to learn English quickly. However, there are no significant changes to curriculum 

or teaching and learning approaches. Neito considers education at this point is often using 

a melting pot metaphor. 

The next stage Nieto entitles as acceptance. At this point, differences are more fully 

acknowledged. In schools at this stage, what children of different cultures bring to school 

is accepted as special and not denied, belittled or changed. There will also some 

curriculum change to reflect diversity. She suggests that schools at this point will also hold 

multicultural fairs that celebrate and show case cultural diversity. ESL and Bilingual 

programmes are often a feature of schools at this stage. Neito suggests that salad bowl is 

the metaphor that best describes this stage. 

The fourth stage, respect, is characterized by admiration and high esteem for diversity. 

There will be major curriculum changes to reflect a range of cultural perspectives and 

generous resourcing of the school and programmes to provide quality teaching and 

learning materials reflecting the cultural diversity of the school population. Nieto suggests 

that an anti-racist, and honest curriculum will be a feature at this stage and there is no 


avoidance of sensitive issues. ESL, bilingual and full immersion language programmes 

will be a feature of schools at this stage. 

At the fifth and final stage, school and classroom structures, policies, curricula, teaching 

materials and pedagogy will reflect a spirit of affirmation, solidarity and critiquing. 

Education and schooling at this point will embrace differences and will see them as 

opportunities for learning. It will be accepted that because values of various groups are 

often very different conflict is bound to occur. This conflict is not feared but seen as an 

opportunity to learn. Culture, it is accepted, is not a fixed or unchangeable artefact and is, 

therefore, subject to critique. There is no passive acceptance of status quo of any culture. 

No group is considered as inherently superior or more heroic than any other and there is 

acceptance that “we are all in this together”. Students are expected to transcend their own 

cultural experience in order to understand the differences of others and to reflect on and 

critique their own culture and those of others. 

The school system, and schools within it, would be fully multilingual. All students would be 

expected to learn two of the languages commonly used in the school and the community. 

The curriculum would be open, flexible, complex and critical. Students would be taught 

there are many sides to every story and that they need to be critical. That is, be able to 

ask question such as: Who developed/wrote this? Who is represented? Who is missing? 

Whose interests are served by this? Whose are not? 

Strike - the ‘Big Tented’ Values Approach 

Strike (1999) places the source of much tension about the nature of values in the 

curriculum and in schools in the context of a tension between the need for shared values 

and the premises of the liberal inclusiveness. He examines sets of school community 

values such as the values of democracy and Nodding’s caring curriculum. He concludes 

that some constituted values are what he calls big tented that is they are “thick but vague.” 

That is they are reasonably substantive and robust, but they can accommodate significant 

diversity within them. This creates some measure of freedom within. He argues that in 

the public sector such as that of values and the curriculum we need to be looking for 

middle ground with ‘thick but vague’ values. 


His argument is based on the premises that the stability and moral coherence of the State 

should be secured by a shared view of justice, but not by a shared view of the good life. 

Institutions of government such as the public curriculum, he argues, must include all 

people equally, regardless of attributes such as race or ethnicity or their views on human 

flourishing. This liberal inclusiveness principle prohibits discrimination on such bases as 

religion, ethnicity, gender, sexual preference, age, political conviction, or view of the good. 

Any curriculum that fails to be neutral concerning the various conceptions of the good life 

will, he suggests, fail the test of liberal inclusiveness. 

Using democracy as an example, Strike is able to show that there are contrasting views on 

what constitutes good democracy. Thin democracy sees society as composed of 

individuals and groups who have their own conception of a good life with each person 

having a right to pursue it without undue interference from others. In this view, democratic 

decision-making is seen as the fairest way to make collective decisions, but thin 

democrats do not expect all citizens to participate in in-depth decision-making all the time. 

On the other hand, those who favour thick democracy, place a very high value on 

participation, civic friendship, inclusiveness, and solidarity. Thin democrats wish to leave a 

considerable amount of decision-making in the private realm, whereas thick democrats 

encourage more decision-making in the full community realm. Thus, Strike points out, 

some views of democracy can conflict with the liberal inclusiveness principle. When a 

school is based on commitments to participation in democratic community in a way that 

treats this as an obligatory vision of a good life, they have, he argues, gone beyond their 

brief. Although such a view may be praiseworthy, it is far from widely shared. 

Many citizens of liberal democratic societies may not wish to live their lives as democratic 

communities. They may be willing to treat their fellow citizens fairly and may value the 

democratic decision-making process for this reason. But they may also wish to pursue 

private ends and live in communities that are, in many ways, apart from their fellow 

citizens. They may wish to associate principally with members of their family, religion, or 

in their group and attach little value to civic participation. It could be argued that many 

cultural and sub-cultural communities are in this category. They may be happy to ascribe 

to broad-tented and rather general public values, but wish to keep many of their deeper 

and richer culturally specific values within their own family and community contexts. 


Strike argues that a public school rooted in thick democracy may burden such individuals 

by emphasising values they do not share or that violate their conscience. It may make 

them into second-class citizens and marginalise their values. Strike suggests that we 

consider this and recognize that ideas about what kind of democracy and what kind of 

public values we adopt in schools should be seen in the context of a continuum along 

which various institutions and schools may be arranged. He suggests that the kinds of 

democratic values that occupy the middle part of such a continuum are likely to be ‘thick 

but vague’ and seek to accommodate a wide range of diverse views. This is the point, he 

believes, we should be looking to in establishing the values of public schools (or a national 

curriculum). 

Strike suggests that in the public realm tensions between constituted values and liberal 

inclusiveness do not inevitably lead to privatised schooling, nor to a position where it has 

to be accepted that public schools are unlikely to be communities. Instead, he suggests 

we should explore the potential of the middle ground using thick, but vague values. If we 

do this, he suggests, we can confirm public values such as tolerance and avoid some of 

the of more aggressive forms of privatisation. 

He concludes by suggesting that public schools might be organised according to a house 

system. The different houses of the school might adopt different programmes organised 

around different constituted values. For example, one house may emphasise the life of 

the mind, another thick democracy, and another could be committed to care as the 

organising theme. 

The Baker-Ingleheart - Two Continuum Model of Values Difference 

Baker (2005) and Ingleheart and Baker (2000) use World Values Study data to explore the 

difference between those societies and communities with more traditional and more liberal 

values. They use two continuums in their analysis. The first continuum has traditional 

values at one end and secular-rational values at the other. They then use the responses 

from questions in the world values study to identify where countries fall on this continuum. 

Questions used to decide where a society falls on the traditional versus secular/rational 

values continuum probe issues like; the importance God and religion; justification for 

abortion, divorce, euthanasia; respect for authority; the importance of children learning 


obedience and faith, or, independence and determination; the frequency of discussing 

politics. 

The second continuum has survival values at one end and self-expression/self 

actualisation values at the other end. The thought behind this continuum is that values will 

differ between societies where there is considerable struggle involved in securing the basic 

necessities of life and those where material needs are easily met and people have more 

time to follow other interests and forms of expression. Questions used to identify where 

societies are on this continuum include; satisfaction with financial, health, happiness 

status; desirability of wider roles for women in society; willingness to be involved in political 

action; the extent to which people can be trusted; and priority given to economic and 

physical security over self-expression and quality of life. 

Inglehart and Baker found that there was considerable variation between societies. They 

found that countries were generally clustered according to cultural origins. Britain, 

Canada, New Zealand and Australia are clustered closely together. Inglehart and Baker 

have also used changes in the world values survey data over time to show values shifts, 

on the two continuum used. This data shows that countries like New Zealand have 

become markedly more secular rationalist and more self-expression/self actualisation 

orientated over time. 

We conclude from this that it is likely that different communities in New Zealand will be at 

very different points on these two continuums according to the experience of people in 

those communities of the ends of the continuums. In other words, groups in society that 

have recently experienced, or still experience, survivalist and traditional values conditions 

will inevitably be resistant to secular-rational and self actualisation values. This, we 

suggest, at least in part, can help explain some of the strong contrasts between the values 

and values positions of different occupational and cultural groups in Aotearoa New 

Zealand. It also underlines the need to have a curriculum values statement that enables 

students from each of the different groups to explore their contrasting values ideas and 

gain some understanding of the reasons for them. 


THE COMPLEXITIES OF ADDRESSING VALUES THROUGHOUT THE CURRICULUM 

How to address values with the taught and learned curriculum is a major issue. Work cited 

in Sections 4 and 6 highlighted the fact that values can be addressed at a whole school 

level relatively easily, that carrying values through into learning areas and classroom 

curricula is often difficult. There have been various responses to this difficulty. 

For many, the only viable approach that fully acknowledges the importance of values in all 

aspects of life and the curriculum, is to ensure that values are a key part of every learning 

area. There are good reasons to be optimistic about the ability of individual learning areas 

to address values. Most curriculum learning areas have their own inherent values and 

when these integrate and harmonise with the overall curriculum values, progress can be 

made. Unfortunately, there is evidence to suggest, that the extent to which individual 

learning areas are able to do this is highly variable, (Stevenson, Ling, Burma, & Cooper, 

1998; White, 2004). Individual learning areas in New Zealand have to this point, a patchy 

record. As noted in Section 4, some subjects are relatively good at this, others are not. A 

number of points can be made here. 

Firstly, the work of Ernest, (1991) reported by Malvern, (2000) in relation to Mathematics 

education, makes it clear that learning areas have their own competing philosophies and 

each of these is underpinned by a world view, a particular view of education and specific 

moral and educational values. These values will, whether those involved are aware of it or 

not, influence that way that learning area is constructed at a particular time. 

Secondly, learning areas often adopt particular values clusters as being at the heart of 

their learning area. The clearest example of this in our review is the social science 

learning area which explicitly identifies democratic process, social justice and ecological 

sustainability as core values, although the exact framing of these values varies slightly in 

different curricula (National Council for the Social Studies, 1994; Gilbert & Hoepper, 1996; 

Ministry of Education, 1997). Most New Zealand learning area documents, as Keown’s 

(2003a) analysis has shown, do declare, at least at some points, the values that the 

learning area stands for. The international literature reviewed also identifies, for each 

learning area represented in the New Zealand curriculum, some fairly clear learning area 

specific values emphases. 


There is some evidence in the work reported here that individual learning areas can play a 

role in helping develop overarching curriculum values when these are clearly stated. To 

some extent this did happen in some of the New Zealand curricula of the 1990s, although 

the analysis of Keown (2003a) shows this is very uneven. The Curriculum Stocktake 

(Ministry of Education, 2002) also saw a need to improve this in the current development. 

The most interesting literature reviewed on this is that reported in White (2004). White 

notices, in relation to the UK National Curriculum, that most subjects and essential 

learning area oriented curricula are very inward looking. Their main preoccupation is with 

helping pupils to acquire knowledge, understanding and skills in their specialised area. 

This is done by inducting novices into the modus operandi of the subject or discipline area 

using a kind of apprenticeship model. White traces this back to the fact that most of the 

subjects date back to the late 19 and early 20th century and were not being taught in 

universities at that time. The promoters of the subjects, therefore, sought to enhance the 

status of their curriculum area by emphasising academic rigour. He argues that the new 

overall claims of Curriculum 2000 in the UK have provided a new touchstone, previously 

lacking, for assessing the suitability, as presently constituted, for delivering the pupil- and 

civic-centred education required in the 21 st century. McFarlane (2004) agrees, suggesting 

that essential learning area curricula seem to descend into “a pedagogy for stupidification”, 

concerned with their own tiny portion of the world, disconnected from other bodies of 

knowledge and finding it difficult to undertake a critical reading of the world even if they 

wanted to. She speaks highly of the Alan Luke inspired Queensland New Basics 

curriculum and its emphasis on the four areas of: life pathways and social futures, multiple 

literacies and communication media; active citizenship; and environments and 

technologies. 

White and McFarlane may be overly harsh in their criticism of the learning areas in terms 

of their ability to pick up on the overall purposes and values of a national or state 

curriculum. However, the New Zealand Curriculum Stocktake Report (Ministry of 

Education, 2002), seemingly came to similar conclusions. There would seem to be some 

real challenges in getting some kind of harmonisation between the overall values and 

purposes of a curriculum and the values and directions adopted within learning areas. 

One approach that man assist, is to produce a guidelines or framework document that 

explains and supports the development of curriculum values across all learning areas. 


The Australian values framework reviewed in Section 5 and included in this report is one 

example of this approach. The Environmental Education Guidelines in New Zealand are a 

second example of what might be possible in this regard. 

Many writers have also noted that values are frequently problematic rather than simple 

and straightforward, and many have devised approaches to attempt to work through the 

difficulties. Gilbert and Hoepper discused in Section 6 and QPEC discussed in Section 4 

consider these issues. They, and others, note for example, that the core values frequently 

conflict with each other in real world situations. This creates complex ethical dilemmas 

that are difficult to resolve with a simple core values lists and inculcation approaches. 

There are however, a number of suggested models for working through these difficulties. 

Kidder (1995), for example, has developed a nine-step model for resolving what he calls 

right versus right dilemmas . Seedhouse’s Ethical Grid and The Rings of Uncertainty 

models are also designed to help in this area (Seedhouse, 1998; 2005). Calls for ethics to 

be taught in the curriculum either in its own right, or as part of the learning areas is an 

acknowledgement of the need to do something to address the more difficult aspects of real 

world values problem-solving. (See also Jorgensen & Ryan, 2004 in Section 4). 

Batelaan and Gundara (1991) have suggested a relatively easy to use approach that can 

help address this in any curriculum area. They identified three common basic values: 

respect for human dignity and universal human rights; respect for culture and cultural 

diversity; reverence for the earth and respect for the natural environment. However, they 

noted that, while most acknowledge these values as important, frequently individuals, 

groups, institutions and nations fail to live up to these values in real world situations. 

Batelaan and Gundara therefore also identified “counter forces that frequently cause these 

instances when we seem to act in ways inconsistent with the core values. They suggest 

that values in the curriculum need to recognize the both the core values, and the powerful 

counter forces to them and then help students confront the tension between the two and 

seek to find ways in which the counter forces might be de-powered and the values 

empowered. They suggest a study of human rights, cultures, interdependency and the 

teaching of communication, cooperation and cross-cultural skills could help students work 

through the mismatch between values and counter forces. 


Getting a whole range of people and interest groups to agree on values for a curriculum is 

also a difficult issue. As reported by Brian Hill in Commonwealth of Australia, (2004), Hill 

and his colleagues in the Western Australia Values Study adopted the following procedural 

rule to avoid stalemates when discussing which values to include in a public curriculum. 

They expressed the aim of their work as, “… not to develop a totalistic account to which all 

participants would be expected to conform, but a minimalist set of agreements on which to 

base common action in the wider educational arena …” (p. 9). 

During their exploration of values that could underpin the curriculum the West Australian 

team agreed that: 

Where specific beliefs and values … failed to secure general agreement, they (were 

not to be) treated as unimportant, but (were) put on hold for further attention at a 

later stage, while the main process of achieving an agreed minimum proceeded. 

Though held over, they still earn(ed) a place as content in that part of the curriculum 

devoted to developing an appreciation of value-stances and honing the skills of 

values analysis (p. 9). 


S ECTION 8: C ONCLUSIONS AND R ECOMMENDATIONS 

KEY CONCLUSIONS AND FINDINGS 

After looking across all of the material reviewed the in this document a number of key 

conclusions and considerations important in deciding on the role of values in the New 

Zealand National Curriculum appear clear. We briefly review these key conclusions 

below. 

1. Values are a very important part of any curriculum. All of the recent state and 

national curricula reviewed placed a strong emphasis on the role of values, and 

many state key curriculum values very early in their curriculum statements (Section 

5). There is also strong support for the importance of values in the curriculum within 

New Zealand curriculum review documents over the past 25 years (Section 4). 

2. Values are important at all levels of the curriculum. Values are often an important 

part of or influence on the key purposes, principles and aims aspects of curricula. In 

many national curricula, these high level values are linked back to a national 

constitution or some form of national values statement (Section 5). 

3. National statements and literature reviewed often discuss and address values in the 

curriculum in three distinct ways. They encompass learning: about values concepts 

and ideas; learning skills that enable students to study, discuss, negotiate and 

implement values; that encourage students to commit and practice the values of the 

curriculum/society (Sections 4, 5, and 7). 

4. State and national curricula often state an expectation that these high level values 

will be developed in all aspects of the curriculum. Some do this in an explicit way 

throughout, others imply this and leave it to other statements (e.g. Essential 

Learning Areas (ELA) statements) to develop specific detail (Section 5). 

5. Each essential learning area has body of literature outlining ways in which the ELA 

can support and help develop high level curriculum values. There is also literature in 

each ELA that explores the values important to the ELA itself (Section 6). 

6. There is some evidence in the literature to suggest that ELAs often ignore whole 

curriculum values and focus instead on their own discipline-based knowledge, 


values, skills and processes. Some literature suggests that newer and/or more 

integrated and cross/inter-disciplinary based subjects are better at developing whole 

curriculum values than single discipline subjects (Section 6). 

7. The literature and practice review suggests that primary schools are often more pro- 

active in including a values dimension in their curriculum and practices than 

secondary schools (Section 4). 

8. There is currently, considerable values in the curriculum activity taking place in a 

significant number of New Zealand schools, particularly at primary school level 

(Section 4). 

9. There are a sizable number of organisations providing ideas, resources and training 

to support schools in making values explicit in school policy and practice and in the 

curriculum (Section 4). 

10. People and organisations involved in the values work of schools have been arguing 

for greater acknowledgement of the key role of values in the curriculum (Section 4). 

11. There are, however, sharply contrasting ideas about how values should be 

addressed in the curriculum. In particular, the difference between what is variously 

reported as a traditional, socialisation, character, prescriptive and virtues approach 

on the one hand, and a progressive, counter-socialisation, descriptive, value inquiry, 

critical thinking approach on the other, are marked (Sections 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7). 

12. Some literature suggests that both approaches are important and that both have a 

part to play in a well-rounded approach to values in the curriculum (Sections 4, 5 

and 7). 

13. The literature includes examples of statements, and approaches to the development 

of statements, that appear to have been successful in negotiating broadly 

acceptable statements able to be supported by most people and groups across the 

traditional/progressive divide (Sections 4, 5 and 7). 

14. There is evidence to suggest that it easier to develop values at the whole curriculum 

and whole school level but much more difficult to address values directly in individual 

curricula across the curriculum and in the curriculum at school 

department/syndicate, classroom, and lesson level (Section 4). 


15. It is relatively easy to identify a number of broadly agreed high-level values in a 

curriculum. There are suggested guidelines about ways of negotiating common and 

shared values at an abstract level (Sections 4, 5 and 7). 

16. There are a large number of statements of common and shared values in the 

literature at international, national and state level (Section 5). 

17. New Zealand schools and New Zealand organisations supporting schools have also 

produced numerous lists of this type (Section 4). 

18. There are, in general terms, quite strong similarities between the lists of common 

and shared values across a wide range of contexts (Sections 4, 5 and 7). 

19. Lists of agreed values can, some literature suggests, ignore or disguise the wide 

range of interpretations of values concepts across ideological and cultural 

boundaries. This can lead to simplistic practice in the teaching and learning of 

values where the wide range of meanings and concepts across ideologies and 

cultures are not fully explored (Sections 3, 4, and 7). 

20. Some literature points out that conflict between these high-level abstract values 

frequently occurs in everyday practice and agreed lists can lead to approaches that 

do not fully recognise this and prepare students for difficult values clashes (Sections 

5, 6 and 7). 

21. Most national and state statements of values tend to be Western values oriented. 

(Section 5). 

22. Some international values statements, and some literature, have developed values 

statements that include some non-Western values perspectives. Some schools 

have developed statements that incorporate some non-Western values 

perspectives. (Sections 4 and 5). 

23. Māori values words and concepts have been included in a number New Zealand 

reports addressing values, were included in NZCF, 1993, and are addressed in 

some school values statements (Section 4). 


24. Māori values words and concepts have been widely discussed in New Zealand in 

general and educational literature, but many Māori writers caution against discussion 

of Māori values outside Māori contexts (Sections 3 and 4). 

25. The literature on Pasifika, Asian and other cultural values is less well developed and 

more disparate. (Section 3). 

26. There appear to be few instances were Pasifika, Asian and other cultural values 

(apart from Māori) have been included in New Zealand national or school values 

statements (Section 4). 

27. Some literature supports the idea that broad, abstract overarching values that are 

big tented can identify broadly agreed values that include space that allows for a 

wide range of cultural value interpretations within them (Section 7). 

28. Some literature suggests that the curriculum needs to create space for meaningful 

values conversations and dialogue across ideological and cultural boundaries rather 

than privileging one of the varying approaches to values in the curriculum (Section 

7). 

29. The literature contains a number of models for this kind of values dialogue (Section 

7). 

30. There is literature evidence to suggest that values in the curriculum is most effective 

when a wide variety of strategies, approaches and methodologies are encouraged 

and used in the curriculum, in schools, and in classrooms (Sections 5 and 7). 

31. A view that the most effective demonstration of values in education is when values 

are evident through the total organisation of the curriculum, the school and the 

philosophy and relationships within schools and classrooms is a common theme in 

the literature suggesting values need to be not just examined and discussed but also 

lived and practiced in consistent ways through community and school experiences 

(Sections 4, 5 and 7). 

32. An important theme in much of the literature about values in the curriculum, stresses 

that it is important to discuss, consult and negotiate values agreements and 

statements widely and inclusively at the school community level as well as state 

curriculum values goals and intentions at the national level (Sections 4 and 7). 


33. Much of the literature about values in the curriculum stresses that, as values in the 

curriculum is complex issue, it is important to provide strong support for schools and 

teachers in addressing the values of the curriculum. This support needs to include 

quality: pre-service and in-service professional development for teachers; school 

wide and ELA based curriculum guidelines and resources; information for parents 

and communities (Sections 4 and 7). 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

Our reading of the literature reviewed in this document leads us to recommend that a 

statement for values in the New Zealand National Curriculum should: 

1. Include a clear and strong statement on the role of values in the curriculum at all 

levels of the curriculum; 

2. Affirm broadly agreed values supported by most people in Aotearoa New Zealand; 

3. Set out goals to develop values thinking and learning in terms of values knowledge, 

values skills/abilities and in encouraging commitment to and practice of agreed 

substantive values; 

4. Recognise and include the values of major cultural traditions beyond the Western 

core; 

5. Require values in the curriculum to be addressed in all parts of the curriculum and 

particularly in the ELA’s, Key Competencies (KC’s) as well as the purposes and 

principles; 

6. Clarify that values in the curriculum are most effective when a range of approaches 

to values understanding and practice are adopted and used; 

7. Suggest that values in the curriculum are most effective when they are not only 

examined and discussed but also lived and practiced in consistent ways; and 

8. Suggest that schools and communities need to discuss, consult and negotiate 

values in the curriculum at the local school and community level as they seek to 

implement the values of the curriculum. 


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S ECTION 10: A PPENDICES 

APPENDIX 1 - CURRENT NEW ZEALAND CURRICULUM STATEMENT 

Source: New Zealand Curriculum Framework 1993, p21 

Attitudes and values, along with knowledge and skills, are an integral part of the New 

Zealand Curriculum. 

Attitudes consist of the feelings or dispositions towards things, ideas, or people that incline 

a person to certain types of action. 

Attitudes to learning strongly influence the process, quality, and outcomes of both learning 

and assessment. Teachers' expectations, the support of parents and the community, and 

students' motivation are all significant factors. 

The school curriculum will encourage positive attitudes towards all areas of learning. It will 

provide challenging learning activities, which are relevant to students' experiences and 

appropriate to their levels of achievement. Schools will give students ongoing constructive 

feedback about their learning and progress. 

Values are internalised sets of beliefs or principles of behaviour held by individuals or 

groups. They are expressed in the ways in which people think and act. No schooling is 

value-free. Values are mostly learned through students' experience of the total 

environment, rather than through direct instruction. 

The content of a school's curriculum reflects what is valued by a society and a school 

community. Although the values held both by individuals and by various groups in society 

may vary greatly, those which are reflected in the New Zealand Curriculum are supported 

by most people in most communities. 

The school curriculum, through its practices and procedures, will reinforce the commonly 

held values of individual and collective responsibility that underpin New Zealand's 

democratic society. These values include honesty, reliability, respect for others, respect for 

the law, tolerance (rangimarie), fairness, caring or compassion (aroha), non-sexism, and 

non-racism. 

The school curriculum will help students to develop and clarify their own values and 

beliefs, and to respect and be sensitive to the rights of individuals, families, and groups to 

hold values and attitudes that are different from their own. 

Students will examine the context and implications of their own values and those of others, 

and the values on which our current social structures are based. 


APPENDIX 2 - THE UNITED KINGDOM NATIONAL CURRICULUM VALUES 

STATEMENT 

Source: http://www.nc.uk.net/about_the_sch.html 

Common Values and Purposes Statement 

Education influences and reflects the values of society, and the kind of society we want to 

be. It is important, therefore, to recognise a broad set of common values and purposes that 

underpin the school curriculum and the work of schools. 

Foremost is a belief in education, at home and at school, as a route to the spiritual, moral, 

social, cultural, physical and mental development, and thus the well-being, of the 

individual. Education is also a route to equality of opportunity for all, a healthy and just 

democracy, a productive economy, and sustainable development. Education should reflect 

the enduring values that contribute to these ends. These include valuing ourselves, our 

families and other relationships, the wider groups to which we belong, the diversity in our 

society and the environment in which we live. Education should also reaffirm our 

commitment to the virtues of truth, justice, honesty, trust and a sense of duty. 

At the same time, education must enable us to respond positively to the opportunities and 

challenges of the rapidly changing world in which we live and work. In particular, we need 

to be prepared to engage as individuals, parents, workers and citizens with economic, 

social and cultural change, including the continued globalisation of the economy and 

society, with new work and leisure patterns and with the rapid expansion of communication 

technologies. 

Aims for the school curriculum 

If schools are to respond effectively to these values and purposes, they need to work in 

collaboration with families and the local community, including church and voluntary groups, 

local agencies and business, in seeking to achieve two broad aims through the curriculum. 

These aims provide an essential context within which schools develop their own 


Aim 1: The school curriculum should aim to provide opportunities for all pupils to learn and 

to achieve. 

The school curriculum should develop enjoyment of, and commitment to, learning as a 

means of encouraging and stimulating the best possible progress and the highest 

attainment for all pupils. It should build on pupils' strengths, interests and experiences and 

develop their confidence in their capacity to learn and work independently and 

collaboratively. It should equip them with the essential learning skills of literacy, numeracy, 

and information and communication technology, and promote an enquiring mind and 

capacity to think rationally. 

The school curriculum should contribute to the development of pupils' sense of identity 

through knowledge and understanding of the spiritual, moral, social and cultural heritages 

of Britain's diverse society and of the local, national, European, Commonwealth and global 

dimensions of their lives. It should encourage pupils to appreciate human aspirations and 

achievements in aesthetic, scientific, technological and social fields, and prompt a 

personal response to a range of experiences and ideas. 


By providing rich and varied contexts for pupils to acquire, develop and apply a broad 

range of knowledge, understanding and skills, the curriculum should enable pupils to think 

creatively and critically, to solve problems and to make a difference for the better. It should 

give them the opportunity to become creative, innovative, enterprising and capable of 

leadership to equip them for their future lives as workers and citizens. It should also 

develop their physical skills and encourage them to recognise the importance of pursuing 

a healthy lifestyle and keeping themselves and others safe. 

Aim 2: The school curriculum should aim to promote pupils' spiritual, moral, social and 

cultural development and prepare all pupils for the opportunities, responsibilities and 

experiences of life. 

The school curriculum should promote pupils' spiritual, moral, social and cultural 

development and, in particular, develop principles for distinguishing between right and 

wrong. It should develop their knowledge, understanding and appreciation of their own and 

different beliefs and cultures, and how these influence individuals and societies. The 

school curriculum should pass on enduring values, develop pupils' integrity and autonomy 

and help them to be responsible and caring citizens capable of contributing to the 

development of a just society. It should promote equal opportunities and enable pupils to 

challenge discrimination and stereotyping. It should develop their awareness and 

understanding of, and respect for, the environments in which they live, and secure their 

commitment to sustainable development at a personal, local, national and global level. It 

should also equip pupils as consumers to make informed judgements and independent 

decisions and to understand their responsibilities and rights. 

The school curriculum should promote pupils' self-esteem and emotional well-being and 

help them to form and maintain worthwhile and satisfying relationships, based on respect 

for themselves and for others, at home, school, work and in the community. It should 

develop their ability to relate to others and work for the common good. It should enable 

pupils to respond positively to opportunities, challenges and responsibilities, to manage 

risk and to cope with change and adversity. It should prepare pupils for the next steps in 

their education, training and employment and equip them to make informed choices at 

school and throughout their lives, enabling them to appreciate the relevance of their 

achievements to life and society outside school, including leisure, community engagement 

and employment. 

The interdependence of the two aims 

These two aims reinforce each other. The personal development of pupils, spiritually, 

morally, socially and culturally, plays a significant part in their ability to learn and to 

achieve. Development in both areas is essential to raising standards of attainment for all 

pupils. 


A Values Statement for the National Curriculum 

PREAMBLE TO THE STATEMENT: 

The remit of the Forum was to decide whether there are any values that are commonly agreed upon 

across society, not whether there are any values that should be agreed upon across society. The only 

authority claimed for these values is the authority of consensus. 

These values are not exhaustive. They do not, for example, include religious beliefs, principles or 

teachings, though these are often the source of commonly held values. The statement neither 

implies nor entails that these are the only values that should be taught in schools. There is no 

suggestion that schools should confine themselves to these values. 

Agreement on the values outlined below is compatible with disagreement on their source. Many 

believe that God is the ultimate source of value, and that we are accountable to God for our actions; 

others that values have their source only in human nature, and that we are accountable only to our 

consciences. The statement of values is consistent with these and other views on the source of 

value. 

Agreement on these values is compatible with different interpretations and applications of them. It 

is for schools to decide, reflecting the range of views in the wider community, how these values 

should be interpreted and applied. For example, the principle 'we support the institution of marriage' 

may legitimately be interpreted as giving rise to positive promotion of marriage as an ideal, of the 

responsibilities of parenthood, and of the duty of children to respect their parents. 

The ordering of the values does not imply any priority or necessary preference. The ordering 

reflects the belief of many that values in the context of the self must precede the development of the 

other values. 

These values are so fundamental that they may appear unexceptional. Their demanding nature is 

demonstrated both by our collective failure consistently to live up to them, and the moral challenge 

which acting on them in practice entails. 

Schools and teachers can have confidence that there is general agreement in society upon these 

values. They can therefore expect the support and encouragement of society if they base their 

teaching and the school ethos on these values. 

THE STATEMENT OF VALUES 

The self 

We value ourselves as unique human beings capable of spiritual, moral, intellectual and physical 

growth and development. 

On the basis of these values, we should: 

• develop an understanding of our own characters, strengths and weaknesses 

• develop self-respect and self-discipline 

• clarify the meaning and purpose in our lives and decide, on the basis of this, how we believe 

that our lives should be lived 


• make responsible use of our talents, rights and opportunities 

• strive, throughout life, for knowledge, wisdom and understanding 

• take responsibility, within our capabilities, for our own lives. 

Relationships 

We value others for themselves, not only for what they have or what they can do for us. We value 

relationships as fundamental to the development and fulfilment of ourselves and others, and to the 

good of the community. 


• respect others, including children 

• care for others and exercise goodwill in our dealings with them 

• show others they are valued 

• earn loyalty, trust and confidence 

• work cooperatively with others 

• respect the privacy and property of others 

• resolve disputes peacefully. 

Society 

We value truth, freedom, justice, human rights, the rule of law and collective effort for the common 

good. In particular, we value families as sources of love and support for all their members, and as 

the basis of a society in which people care for others. 


• understand and carry out our responsibilities as citizens 

• refuse to support values or actions that may be harmful to individuals or communities 

• support families in raising children and caring for dependants 

• support the institution of marriage 

• recognise that the love and commitment required for a secure and happy childhood can also 

be found in families of different kinds 

• help people to know about the law and legal processes 

• respect the rule of law and encourage others to do so 

• respect religious and cultural diversity 

• promote opportunities for all 

• support those who cannot, by themselves, sustain a dignified life-style 

• promote participation in the democratic process by all sectors of the community 

• contribute to, as well as benefit fairly from, economic and cultural resources 

• make truth, integrity, honesty and goodwill priorities in public and private life. 

The environment 

We value the environment, both natural and shaped by humanity, as the basis of life and a source of 

wonder and inspiration. 



• accept our responsibility to maintain a sustainable environment for future generations 

• understand the place of human beings within nature 

• understand our responsibilities for other species 

• ensure that development can be justified 

• preserve balance and diversity in nature wherever possible 

• preserve areas of beauty and interest for future generations 

• repair, wherever possible, habitats damaged by human development and other means. 


APPENDIX 4 - AUSTRALIAN VALUES EDUCATION FRAMEWORK 

Source: http://valueseducation.edu.au/verve/_resource/Framework_PDF_version_for_the_web.pdf 

1. Introduction 

The following National Framework for Values Education in Australian Schools has been 

developed from the outcomes of the Values Education Study (2003) and widespread 

consultation on a Draft Framework 

The Framework recognises the values education policies and programmes already in 

place in education authorities and Australian schools It also recognises that there is a 

significant history of values education in government and non-government schools, 

drawing on a range of philosophies, beliefs and traditions. It acknowledges that schools in 

all sectors are developing effective approaches to values education In the twenty-first 

century 

The framework includes: 

• a context; 

• an underpinning vision improved values education in Australian schools; 

• a set of values for Australian schooling, based on the Notional Goals for Schooling 

in the Twenty-First Century (1999); 

• guiding principles to support schools in implementing values education, and 

• key elements and approaches providing practical guidance to schools in 

implementing values education. 

2. Context 

The Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs 

(MCEETYA), at its meeting on 19 July 2002; unanimously supported the national Values 

Education Study commissioned by the Australian Government to inform the development 

of a framework and set of principles for values education in Australian schools. MCEETYA 

also: 

• acknowledged that education is as much about building character as it is about 

equipping students with specific skills; 

• noted that values based education can strengthen students' self-esteem, optimism 

and commitment to personal fulfilment; and help students exercise ethical 

judgement and social responsibility; and 

• recognised that parents expect schools to help students understand and develop 

personal and social responsibilities 

All key stakeholders in the Australian education context have a strong commitment to 

values education. This is reflected in the National Goals for Schooling in the Twenty-First 

Century', the Adelaide Declaration by all education ministers in 1999. The National Goals 

recognise that: 


“Australia's future depends upon each citizen having the necessary knowledge, 

understanding, skills and values for a productive and rewording life in on educated, 

just and open society High quality schooling is central to achieving this vision. ... 

Schooling provides foundation for young Australians' intellectual, physical, social, 

moral, spiritual and aesthetic development” 

The National Goals include the goals that students, when they leave school, should. 

• have qualities of self-confidence, optimism, high self-esteem, and a commitment to 

personal excellence as a basis for their potential life roles as family, community and 

workforce members, (Goal 1.2) and 

• have the capacity to exercise judgement and responsibility in matters of morality, 

ethics and social justice, and the capacity to make sense of their world, to think 

about how things got to be the way they are, to make rational and informed 

decisions about their own lives, and to accept responsibility for their own actions 

(Goal 1.3) 

Within the community at large there is growing discussion about how our children acquire 

their values and how they make sense of values promoted by the media and their peers 

Parents, caregivers and families ore the primary source of values education for their 

children but they expect support from schools in this endeavour. Values education is an 

essential part of effective schooling. 

The 2003 Values Education Study revealed a broad range of varied and excellent 

practices and approaches to values education in Australian government and nongovernment 

schools In particular, the Study provided a range of examples of good practice 

in three different domains of values education: 

• articulating values in the school's mission/ethos; 

• developing student responsibility in local, national and global contexts and student 

social skills and resilience; and 

• incorporating values into all school policies and practices, including teaching 

programmes across the key learning areas. 

The Study clearly demonstrated the will and desire of all participating school communities 

to utilise values-based education to enrich students' intellectual, physical, social, moral, 

spiritual and aesthetic development and to respond cor1structively and positively to a 

range of contemporary challenges. 

Schools which took part in the study reported an increased willingness and capacity to 

address values and values education in a much mare explicit way or, at the very least, that 

their awareness of the need to do this had been raised These schools also stressed that 

partnerships with parents and caregivers and their local community was fundamental to 

successful values education. 

Some common values emerged school communities in and from the consultation that 

followed: care and compassion; doing your best; fair go; freedom; honesty and 


trustworthiness; integrity, respect, responsibility and understanding, tolerance and 

inclusion. These values also arise from the National Goals. 

From 2004, following the study, the Australian Government is providing funding od $29.7 

million over four years to help make values education a core part of Australian schooling 

through support for: 

• school values education forums in every school in Australia; 

• drug education forums In every school, 

• clusters of schools showcasing good practice approaches in line with the Nationol 

Framework for Values Education in Australian Schools. 

• curriculum and assessment resources for all schools to promote values education; 

and 

• national partnership projects with parents, teachers, principals and teacher 

educators. 

Some of the challenges addressed in the Values Education Study included improving 

whole-school cultures, developing school mission statements incorporating a set of values, 

including values in key learning area programmes, increasing student engagement, 

belonging and connectedness to schooling, fostering student empowerment and 

encouraging youth civic participation, improving student and staff health and wellbeing, 

promoting improved relationships, tackling violence, anti-social and behaviour 

management issues, and building student resilience as on antidote to youth suicide and 

substance abuse. The Study noted ways in which values education could support related 

initiatives such as the National Safe Schools Frarnework, the National School Drug 

Education Strategy and the MindMatters programme promoting mental health in schools 

3. Vision 

All Australian schools provide values education in a planned and systematic way by: 

• articulating, in consultation with their school community, the school's mission/ ethos; 

• developing student responsibility in local, national and global contexts and building 

student resilience and social skills; 

• ensuring values are incorporated into school policies and teaching programmes 

across the key learning areas; and 

• reviewing the outcomes of their values education practices. 

4. Values for Australian Schooling 

Nine Values for Australian Schooling have been identified for this National Framework. 

They have emerged From Australian school communities and from the National Goals for 

Schooling in the Twenty-First Century. They are presented below in alphabetical order and 

not in any rank order of importance. 

These shared values such as respect and ‘fair go’ are part of Australia's common 

democratic way of life, which includes equality, freedom and the rule law. They reflect our 

commitment to a multicultural and environmentally sustainable society where all are 


entitled to justice. 

Individual schools will develop their own approach to values education in partnership with 

their local school communities, including students, parents, caregivers, families and 

teachers. These approaches should be consistent with the National Framework for Values 

Education in Australian Schools and with their State/Territory policy. 

Nine Values for Australian Schooling 

1. Care and Compassion 

Care for self and others 

2. Doing Your Best 

Seek to accomplish worthy and admirable, try hard, pursue, excellence 

3. Fair Go 

Pursue and protect the common good where all people are treated fairly for a just 

society 

4. Freedom 

Enjoy all then rights and privileges of Australian citizenship free from unnecessary 

interference or control, and stand up for the rights others 

5. Honesty and Trustworthiness 

Be honest, sincere and seek the truth 

6. Integrity 

Act in accordance with principles of moral and ethical conduct, ensure consistencey 

between words and deeds 

7. Respect 

Treat others with consideration and regard, respect another person’s point of view 

8. Responsibility 

Be accountable for one’s own actions, resolve differences in constructive non-violent 

and peaceful ways, contribute to society and to civic life, take care of the 

environment 


9. Understanding, Tolerance and Inclusion 

Be aware of others and their cultures, accept diversity within a democratic society, 

being included and including others 

5. Guiding Principles 

The following principles have been developed from the Values Education Study (2003) 

and subsequent consultation. They recognise that in all contexts schools promote, foster 

and transmit values to students and that education is as much about building character as 

it is about equipping students with specific skills. They also recognise that schools are not 

value-free or value-neutral zones of social and educational engagement. 

Effective values education; 

1. helps students understand and be able to apply values such as care and 

compassion; doing your best; fair go; freedom; honesty and trustworthiness; 

integrity; respect; responsibility and understanding, tolerance and inclusion; 

2. is an experts at goal of schooling that promotes Australia's democratic way of life 

and their use the diversity in Australian schools; 

3. articulates that their use of the school community and applies the is consistently in 

the practices of the school; 

4. occurs in partnership with students, staff, families and the school community as part 

of a whole-school approach to educating students, enabling them to exercise 

responsibility and strengthening their resilience; 

5. is presented in a safe and supportive learning environment in which students are 

encouraged to explore their own, their school’s and their communities’ values; 

6. is delivered by trained and resourced teachers able to use a variety of different 

models, modes and strategies; 

7. includes the provision of curriculum that meets the individual needs of students; and 

8. regularly reviews the approaches used to check that they are meeting the intended 

outcomes. 

6. Key Elements and approaches that inform good practice 

Some key elements stemming from the Guiding Principles that help schools to implement 

effective values education are identified below. They are accompanied by a range of 

suggested approaches designed to support schools, to help them to reflect on their 

existing practices in consultation with their school communities and to plan for 

improvement 

These approaches are not intended to be exhaustive, but provide examples of good 

practice to guide schools in implementing values education. They should be considered in 

conjunction with the 50 Values Education Study case studies, the 12 more detailed case 


studies reported in Values Education in Action and the other support for schools available 

on the national resource and professional learning website to support values education in 

Australian schools (http//www.curriculum.edu.au/values). 


Table 15. Key Elements 

Guiding 

Principle 

2 to 8 

3,4, 8 

Key 

Elements 

School 

planning 

Partnerships 

within the 

school 

community 

3 Whole school 

approach 

5,6,7 

1,2,4 

Safe and 

supportive 

learning 

environment 

Support for 

students 

6,7 Quality 

teaching 

Suggested Approaches 

Values education is an explicit goal of school planning. 

School values are made explicit with the assistance of the school 

community. 

Values objectives are made clear in planning strategies and introduced to 

students at an appropriate learning stage with clearly defined outcomes 

identified. 

Regular reviewing of values education practices against the identified 

outcomes is built into school planning processes. 

Schools consult parents, caregivers and families within their communities 

on values to be fostered and approaches to be adopted (eg through 

school values forums) 

Values education involves the local school community in the development 

and teaching of values, drawing on the shared values that underpin 

Australia's democratic way of life in the context of the local community and 

its values. 

Schools involve the school community in the implementation and 

monitoring of values education programmes 

Schools apply their values education priorities to their overall curriculum 

provision, their structures and policies, their procedures and rules, their 

funding priorities, their decision-making arrangements, their disciplinary 

procedures, their community relations and their welfare / pastoral care 

approaches. 

Schools provide a positive climate within and beyond the classroom to 

help develop students' social and civic skills 

and build student resilience and responsibility and to ensure a safe and 

supportive environment for values education. 

Students, staff and parents are encouraged to explore their own values. 

Values education reflects good practice pedagogy and is introduced in the 

curriculum at appropriate times for learners. 

Schools develop programmes and strategies to empower students to 

participate in a positive school culture and to develop their local, national 

and global responsibility. 

Schools use values education to build student social skills and resilience. 

This includes addressing issues such as behaviour management and 

discipline, violence and bullying, substance abuse and other risk 

behaviour, disconnectedness and alienation, student health and well 

being, improved relationships and students' personal achievement. 

Teachers are skilled in good practice values education. 

Teachers are provided with appropriate resources to support their efficacy 

as teachers of values within all areas of the curriculum and total school life 

and to monitor this efficacy on an ongoing basis. 

Schools and educational leaders recognise that values interact with and 

ore integral to all key learning areas. 


7. Glossary 

Principles 

Resilience 

Term Meaning 

Safe and supportive 

learning 

environment 

A statement encapsulating a fundamental concept for action that guides 

effective practice. The principles in this document are recommended 

guidelines for providing improved values education in schools 

A range of what might be called student 'coping strategies', or selfmanagement 

qualities such as: personal responsibility and self-discipline; 

connection to the school and the community; a sense of school, 

community and civic engagement, participation and service; and overall 

confidence and self-esteem. 

An environment that protects the emotional, psychological and physical 

well-being of students. 

School community The school community is generally considered to include students, 

families, school staff, other professionals, other support staff and 

volunteers. 

Values 

Values Education 

Two views: 

“... the principles and Fundamental convictions which act as general 

guides to behaviour, the standards by which particular actions are judged 

as good or desirable. " 

Halstead, J and M Taylor, 'Learning and teaching about values: A review 

of recent research', Cambridge Journal of Education, Vol. 30, No. 2, 2000, 

pp 169-202); 

" the ideals that give significance to our lives, that are reflected through 

the priorities that we choose, and that we act on consistently and 

repeatedly" (Emeritus Professor Brian Hill), keynote address, first National 

Forum on Values Education, Melbourne, April 2004 See 

http://wwwcurriculum.edu.au 

Any explicit and/or implicit school-based activity which promotes student 

understanding and knowledge of values, and which develops the skills and 

dispositions of students so they can enact particular values as individuals 

and as members of the wider community. 


APPENDIX 5 – THE WEST AUSTRALIAN STATE CURRICULUM - ARTICULATION OF 

VALUES IN THE CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK 

Source: http://www.curriculum.wa.edu.au/pages/framework/framework13.htm 

In recognising that values underpin and shape the curriculum, the Curriculum Council has 

determined that core-shared values should be explicitly articulated within the Curriculum 

Framework. 

Values are determined by the beliefs we hold. They are the ideas about what someone or a group 

thinks is important in life and they play a very important part in our decision making. We express 

our values in the way we think and act. 

Lemin, M., Potts, H., and Welsford, P. (Eds). (1994). Values strategies for classroom teachers. 

Hawthorn, Vic.: Australian Council for Educational Research 

Background 

The minimum set of core values identified comprises those that are considered generally to be held 

by members of Australia’s multicultural society, taking into account certain shared values which are 

distinctive to Aboriginal culture. The starting point in developing the values was the undertaking of 

an audit of existing values frameworks around Australia. The Western Australian National 

Professional Development Program (NPDP) Values Review Project provided valuable insight into 

the process, through school trialing and the subsequent development of curriculum packages. In 

addition, a Values Consultative Group was formed to provide expertise and direction in refining the 

final set of core shared values. 

The Process 

Throughout the development of the Curriculum Framework, committees and writers were asked to 

acknowledge, promote and integrate these identified values through the outcomes in the 

Overarching and Learning Area Statements. 

The extensive feedback received during the consultation phase was actioned by both the Values 

Consultative Group and each Learning Area Review Group. The set of core shared values was 

refined and integrated more explicitly within the Rationale for each Learning Area Statement. They 

are also promoted and endorsed throughout the other sections of the Framework. 

Summary 

As explicit acknowledgement of core shared values is one of the principles of the Curriculum 

Framework, the integration of these values will enhance the learning opportunities within school 

communities. Students are assisted in developing these values through discussion and modelling as 

part of the learning and teaching processes within the school environment. 

1. A pursuit of knowledge and a commitment to achievement of potential 

2. Self acceptance and respect of self 

3. Respect and concern for others and their rights 

4. Social and civic responsibility 


5. Environmental responsibility 

VALUES 

1 A PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE AND A COMMITMENT TO ACHIEVEMENT OF 

POTENTIAL 

The lifelong disposition toward the quest for knowledge, as each person strives to 

understand the social and natural worlds and how best to make a contribution to 

these worlds. Each person is encouraged to achieve his or her potential in all 

respects and, through critical and creative thinking, to develop a broad 

understanding of his or her own values and world views. 

1.1 The pursuit of personal excellence: Each person should be encouraged to 

achieve his or her personal best in all undertakings and to respect the 

achievements of others. 

1.2 Domains of human experience: Each person should be encouraged to develop 

an understanding of all the domains of human experience; physical, emotional, 

intellectual, aesthetic, social, moral and spiritual. 

1.3 Empowerment: Each person should be encouraged to develop critical thinking, 

the creative imagination, interpersonal and vocational skills, and basic 

competencies in the various forms of disciplined inquiry 

1.4 Knowledge: Each person should recognise the tentative and limited nature of 

knowledge 

1.5 Values systems: Each person should have the opportunity to explore different 

values and the right to develop a personal value system. 

1.6 Critical reflection: Each person should be encouraged to reflect critically on both 

the cultural heritage and the attitudes and values underlying current social trends 

and institutions. 

1.7 World views: Each person should be equipped with the tools to critically examine 

world-views (both religious and non-religious), especially those dominant in his or 

her background and school community. 

2 SELF ACCEPTANCE AND RESPECT OF SELF 

The acceptance and respect of self, resulting in attitudes and actions that develop 

each person’s unique potential — physical, emotional, aesthetic, spiritual, 

intellectual, moral and social. Encouragement is given to developing initiative, 

responsibility, ethical discernment, openness to learning and a sense of personal 

meaning and identity. 

2.1 Individual uniqueness: Each person should acknowledge his or her own 

uniqueness and be encouraged to develop self-respect and dignity. 

2.2 Individual uniqueness: Each person should acknowledge his or her own 

uniqueness and be encouraged to develop self-respect and dignity. 


2.3 Personal meaning: Each person should develop a sense of personal meaning 

and identity, and be encouraged to reflect critically on the ways in which that 

occurs. 

2.4 Openness to learning: Each person should welcome opportunities for learning 

from all sources, including the formal study of the learned disciplines; from 

investigations, contemplation and the cultural tradition; and from people of 

divergent views. 

2.5 Initiative and enterprise: Each person should have the confidence to show initiative 

and be enterprising in his or her approach to life’s challenges. 

3 RESPECT AND CONCERN FOR OTHERS AND THEIR RIGHTS 

Sensitivity to and concern for the well-being of other people; and respect for life 

and property. Encouragement is given to each person to be caring and 

compassionate, to be respectful of the rights of others, and to find constructive 

ways of managing conflict. This includes the right to learn in a friendly and noncoercive 

environment 

3.1 Compassion and care: Each person has a right to receive care and compassion 

and have a life of dignity, free from harassment and discrimination. 

3.2 Equality: Each person has equal worth and basic rights, regardless of differences 

in race, gender, age, ability, religious belief, political affiliation, national origin, 

citizenship, regional 

3.3 Respect: Each person should respect those of different opinion, temperament or 

background. 

3.4 Open learning environment: Each person has the right to a friendly learning 

environment free of coercive or indoctrinative elements, whether in the explicit or 

implicit curriculum. 

3.5 Individual differences: Each person differs in his or her readiness and ability to 

learn and has the right to be given access to available knowledge at a level 

appropriate to his or her developmental needs and interests. 

3.6 Cooperation/Conflict resolution: Each person should strive to work cooperatively 

and to resolve conflict peacefully while respecting differences and valuing the other 

person. 

3.7 Family/home environment: Each person should recognise the importance of a 

secure and caring family/home environment. 

4 SOCIAL AND CIVIC RESPONSIBILITY 

The commitment to exploring and promoting the common good and meeting 

individual needs without infringing the basic rights of others. This includes the 

encouragement of each person to participate in democratic processes, to value 

diversity of cultural expression, to respect legitimate authority, to promote social 

justice and to support the use of research for the improvement of the quality of life 

4.1 Participation and citizenship: As a democratic society, Australia should 

encourage its members to participate in the political process and to contribute to 


community services consistent with good citizenship. 

4.2 Community: Interpersonal cooperation and social responsibility are encouraged. 

4.3 Diversity: The richness of many cultural expressions is recognised, and diversity 

in the context of shared community life is welcome. 

4.4 Contribution: Society has something to gain from every individual life, and should 

maximise the opportunities for all persons to contribute to the common good. 

4.5 Authority: People should respect legitimate and just authority structures and the 

rule of the law, while recognising and observing human rights. 

4.6 Reconciliation: Strategies of cooperation and reconciliation are preferred to 

coercion and confrontation, especially where groups or individuals are in conflict. 

4.7 Social justice: The right of each person to a fair share of society’s economic and 

cultural resources is recognised. 

4.8 Responsibility and freedom: People have the right to choose their way of life, 

and are responsible for the impact of their choices on nature and other community 

members. 

4.9 Benefits of research: Society should support the advancement of knowledge in all 

its domains, promote scholarship and research that promise to improve the quality 

of life and share the benefits as widely as possible. 

5 ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBILITY 

The commitment to developing an appreciative awareness of the interdependence 

of all elements of the environment, including humans and human systems, and 

encouraging a respect and concern for Australia’s natural and cultural heritage and 

for forms of resource use that are regenerative and sustainable. 

5.1 Cultural heritage: The cultural heritage of Australia, including Aboriginal sacred 

and archaeological cultural heritage, should be respected and maintained. 

5.2 Conservation of the environment: The management of the environment should 

take into account the need to preserve its diversity and balance for the future. 

5.3 Sustainable development: There is a need to continue to develop natural 

resources to sustain human life. This should be done in a way consistent with longterm 

ecological sustainability and rehabilitation practices. 

5.4 Diversity of species: Each person should recognise a need to preserve native 

habitats and arrest the extinction of presently surviving native species.

values in the new zealand curriculum - Ministry of Education

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