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terms of the returns that most individuals in Europe and the USA can
expect from their skills 43 .
An associated problem is the increase in young people disengaged
both from education, employment and training (NEET), who in 2010
amounted to over 12% of the population of 15-24 year-olds in the
EU-27 - or around 7.5 million people. The European Foundation for
the Improvement of Living and Working conditions estimated the
costs of NEETs’ lack of participation in the labour market in 21
countries at €100 billion per year, including foregone earnings and
excess transfers. In addition to this, there are significant costs
associated with the social and health costs of youth unemployment 44 .
Employment, it must be kept in mind, is not only related to economic
growth, competitiveness and individual returns. It is also a key
mechanism for social inclusion. It can be an important element in
shaping relational issues, social participation 45 and social
integration 46 . This is more so when employment is of quality. As
Atkinson notes, ‘marginal’ jobs (that lack continuity, training or
possibilities of promotion) may be no solution in terms of social
inclusion 47 . This is a crucial aspect to consider regarding the situation
of young people, as this group is increasingly being caught in a cycle
of temporary contracts and unpaid internships 48 .
Higher skills development that leads to labour market integration can,
then, aid social inclusion as well as economic competitiveness. Thus,
education needs to go beyond purely instrumental considerations to
provide people with the skills they need for active participation in
society 49 and personal development. In both respects non-formal
education has an important role to play 50 . The next subsection looks
at different international perspectives and actions in this area.
2.4 The Recognition of non-formal education and non-formal learning:
international perspectives
The above trends underline the importance of making all of young
people’s learning visible, regardless of whether it has been acquired
in formal, non-formal or informal settings, for economic and social
43 Brown, P., Lauder, H. and Ashton, D. (2011) The global auction. New York, Oxford University Press.
44 WHO-Europe, (2009) A Snapshot of the Health of Young People in Europe, Copenhagen; European Princes’ Trust
(2009) YouGov Youth Index 2010. London.
45 European Youth Forum (2005) Policy paper on ‘recognition of non-formal education: confirming the real
competencies of young people in the knowledge society. Brussels, 11-12 November 2005.
46 Room, G. (1995) Beyond the threshold: the measurement and analysis of social exclusion. Bristol, Policy Press.
47 Atkinson, A. B. and Hills, J. (1998) Exclusion, employment and opportunity. CASE Paper 4, London School of
Economics.
48 European Youth Forum (2010) Position paper on Youth Guarantee. Antwerp, 2-3 September 2010.
49 Council of Europe (2003) Study on the links between formal and non-formal education. Directorate of Youth and
Sport, Strasbourg, March 2003.
50 European Youth Forum (2006) Policy Paper on Equality and Diversity. Rotterdam, 13-15 November 2008.
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