Book of Proceedings I PetFeeding

Proceedings Book
Associação Portuguesa de Engenharia Zootécnica

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Proceedings Book
Associação Portuguesa de Engenharia Zootécnica

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Ficha Técnica
Organização:
APEZ - Associação Portuguesa de Engenharia Zootécnica
Colaboração:
UTAD - Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro
Comissão Organizadora
Ana Luísa Lourenço
Ana Sofia Santos
Divanildo Monteiro
Elisabete Mena
Luís Ribeiro
Pedro Vaz
Telma Pinto
Comissão Científica
Ana Luísa Lourenço
Esther Hagen-Plantinga
Guido Bosch
Ronald Corbee
Título
Proceedings Book
I Congresso Internacional de Nutrição e Alimentação de Animais de Companhia
(edição electrónica)
Edição
Associação Portuguesa de Engenharia Zootécnica
Editores
Ana Luísa Lourenço
Ana Sofia Santos
Divanildo Outor Monteiro
Elisabete Gomes Mena
Telma Pinto
ISBN
978-989-20-8056-7
[Título: I Congresso Internacional de Nutrição e Alimentação de Animais de Companhia]; [Autor: Vários]; [Co-autor(es): ];
[Suporte: Eletrónico]; [Formato: PDF / PDF/A]
A s s o c i a ç ã o P o r t u g u e s a d e E n g e n h a r i a Z o o t é c n i c a

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Organização/Organisation
A Nutrição e Alimentação de Animais de Companhia é uma área cada vez mais desafiante em resultado
do aumento da importância social e económica destes animais. Cabe aos diversos profissionais,
independentemente da sua área de ação, procurar a informação que lhes permita dar resposta aos
seus desafios profissionais, da forma mais atual e científica possível.
No sentido de dar um primeiro contributo a APEZ, em colaboração com a UTAD, propôs-se reunir um
conjunto de especialistas de reconhecido mérito internacional, para que, de forma independente e
baseada em evidência científica, pudessem partilhar connosco os seus conhecimentos e os seus
pontos de vista. Deste esforço nasce o I Congresso Internacional de Nutrição e Alimentação de Animais
de Companhia, para o qual temos a honra e o prazer de o poder convidar.
The Feeding and Nutrition of Pet Animals is an increasingly challenging area as a result of the socioeconomic
growing importance of these animals. It is up to the professionals in the field, regardless of
their area of action, to seek to perform based on the most up to date scientific information.
In order to make a first contribution in this direction, APEZ in collaboration with UTAD decided to bring
together a group of experts of recognized international merit, so that, independently and based on
scientific evidence, they could share their knowledge and their points of view. This effort gives birth to
the I International Congress of Feeding and Nutrition of Pet Animals, for which we have the honor and
the pleasure to invite you.

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I Congresso Internacional
de Nutrição e Alimentação de Animais de Companhia
APEZ - Associação Portuguesa De Engenharia Zootécnica
Vila Real, Portugal
27 e 28 de Outubro de 2017
PROGRAMA
25 de Outubro: Seminário
26 de Outubro: Workshop
27 de Outubro: Nutrição e Alimentação ao Longo da Vida
9:00 – Receção dos Participantes
Sessão I - Moderação: Divanildo Monteiro
10:00 – Abertura
Reitor da UTAD: António Fontainhas Fernandes
Presidente da ECAV da UTAD: Ana Nazaré Pereira
Presidente da APEZ: Divanildo Outor Monteiro
Presidente da Comissão Científica: Ana Lourenço
10:30 – Onde encontrar informação sobre necessidades
nutricionais
Drª Ana Lourenço, PhD, Dip. ECVCN – UTAD
Pausa para Café
Sessão II - Moderação: Aulus Carciofi
11:30 – Nutrição e alimentação do cão: do nascimento a adulto
Drª Esther Hagen-Plantinga, PhD, Dip. ECVCN – Univ. de
Utrecht
12:15 – Nutrição e alimentação do gato: do nascimento a adulto
Drª Ana Lourenço, PhD, Dip. ECVCN – UTAD
13:00 – Almoço
Sessão III - Moderação: Luís Barros
14:30 – Nutrição e alimentação do cão e gato órfão
Drª Galena Quist – Rybachuk, PhD, Res. ECVCN
15:00 – Nutrição e alimentação do cão: de adulto jovem a
sénior
Drª Cecilia Villaverde, PhD, Dip. ECVCN e ACVN
15:45 – Nutrição e alimentação do gato: de adulto jovem a sénior
Drª Ana Lourenço, PhD, Dip. ECVCN – UTAD
Pausa Café
Sessão IV - Moderação: Miguel Rodrigues
17:00 – Nutrição e alimentação do cão e gato reprodutor
Dr. Ronald Corbee, PhD, Dip. ECVCN – Univ. de Utrecht
17:45 – A alimentação de cães de caça que facilita a sua
manutenção e recuperação
Drª Geraldine Blanchard, PhD, Dip. ECVCN
18:30 – Estratégias para enriquecimento alimentar no cão e no gato
Drª Galena Quist – Rybachuk, PhD, Res. ECVCN
28 de Outubro: Da Natureza à Cidade
Sessão V - Moderação: Ana Sofia Santos
9:30 – Alimentação natural do gato e idiossincrasias de um
carnívoro estrito
Drª Esther Hagen-Plantinga, PhD, Dip. ECVCN – Univ. de
Utrecht
10:15 – Alimentação natural do cão e idiossincrasias de um
carnívoro adaptável
Eng. Guido Bosch, PhD – Univ. de Wageningen
Pausa Café
Sessão VI - Moderação: Maria João Fradinho
11:30 – Alimentos comerciais secos e húmidos: características e
fabrico.
Dr. Aulus Carciofi, PhD – Univ. de S. Paulo
12:30 – Rótulos: Como fazê-los, como entendê-los
Dr. Víctor Romano - FEDIAF
13:00 – Almoço
Sessão VII - Moderação: Guido Bosh
14:30 – Opções e novas tendências na alimentação de cães e
gatos
Drª Wendy Wambacq, Dip. ECVCN – Univ. de Gante
15:00 – Ameaças e oportunidades no futuro da alimentação de
cães e gatos
Drª Wendy Wambacq, Dip. ECVCN – Univ. de Gante
15:30 – Como decidir o que oferecer? A perspetiva do tutor!
Drª Stefanie Handl, Dip. ECVCN
Pausa Café
Sessão VIII - Moderação: Ana Luísa Lourenço
16:30 – DGAV; ECVCN; FEDIAF; IACA
16:45 – Mesa redonda: debate e discussão
18:00 – Encerramento dos trabalhos
20:00 – Jantar de Confraternização

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I International Congress of
Feeding and Nutrition of Pet Animals
APEZ - Associação Portuguesa De Engenharia Zootécnica
Vila Real, Portugal
October 27 - 28, 2017
October 25: Seminar
October 26: Workshop
October 27: Feeding and Nutrition Throughout Life Stages
PROGRAMME
9:00 – Registration
Session I
10:00 – Conference Opening
Rector of UTAD: António Fontainhas Fernandes
Presidente da ECAV da UTAD: Ana Nazaré Pereira
President of APEZ: Divanildo Outor Monteiro
President of the Scientific Commission: Ana Lourenço
10:30 – Where to find information about nutritional requirements
Drª Ana Lourenço, phD, Dip. ECVCN – UTAD
Coffee Break
Session II
11:30 – Feeding and nutrition of the dog: from birth to adulthood
Drª Esther Hagen-Plantinga, phD, Dip. ECVCN – Utrecht
University
12:15 – Feeding and nutrition of the cat: from birth to adulthood
Drª Ana Lourenço, phD, Dip. ECVCN – UTAD
13:00 – Lunch
Session III
14:30 – Feeding and nutrition of the orphan kitten and puppy
Drª Galena Quist – Rybachuk, phD, Res. ECVCN
15:00 – Feeding and nutrition of the dog: from young adult to
geriatric
Drª Cecilia Villaverde, phD, Dip. ECVCN and ACVN
15:45 – Feeding and nutrition of the cat: from young adult to
geriatric
Drª Ana Lourenço, phD, Dip. ECVCN – UTAD
Coffee Break
Session IV
17:00 – Feeding and nutrition of the reproductive cat and dog
Dr. Ronald Corbee, phD, Dip. ECVCN – Utrecht University
17:45 – Feeding hunting dogs to facilitate maintenance and
recovery
Drª Geraldine Blanchard, phD, Dip. ECVCN
October 28: From Nature to the City
Session V
9:30 – Natural feeding of the cat and the idiosyncrasies of
a strict carnivore
Drª Esther Hagen-Plantinga, phD, Dip. ECVCN – Utrecht
University
10:15 – Natural feeding of the dog and the idiosyncrasies of
an adaptive carnivore
Dr. Ir. Guido Bosch, phD – Wageningen University
Coffee Break
Session VI
11:30 – Dry and wet commercial food: characteristics
and manufacture
Dr. Aulus Carciofi, phD - S. Paulo University
12:30 – Pet food labels: how to make and read them
Dr. Víctor Romano - FEDIAF
13:00 – Lunch
Session VII
14:30 – Options and new trends in pet food
Drª Wendy Wambacq, Dip. ECVCN – Ghent University
15:00 – Threats and opportunities in the future of pet
foods
Drª Wendy Wambacq, Dip. ECVCN – Ghent University
15:30 – How to decide what to offer? The owner's
perspective!
Drª Stefanie Handl, Dip. ECVCN
Coffee Break
Session VIII
16:30 – IACA; FEDIAF; ECVCN; DGAV
16:45 – Roundtable: clarification and discussion session
18:00 – Closing
18:30 – Tips and tricks for feeding enrichment in dogs and cats
Drª Galena Quist – Rybachuk, phD, Res. ECVCN
20:00 – Congress Dinner

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Índice/Index
Where to find information about nutritional requirements of Cats and Dogs
Ana Luísa Lourenço --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13
Feeding and nutrition of the dog; from birth till adulthood
Esther A. Hagen-Plantinga ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
Feeding and nutrition of the cat: from birth to adulthood
Ana Luísa Lourenço ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27
Orphan feeding and nutrition of the orphan kitten and puppy, birth to weaning
Galena Quist ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 33
Feeding and nutrition of the dog: from young adult to geriatric
Cecilia Villaverde ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43
Feeding and nutrition of the cat: from young adult to geriatric
Ana Luísa Lourenço ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 49
Nutrition and dietetics of reproducing dogs and cats
Ronald Jan Corbee ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 57
Feeding hunting dogs to facilitate maintenance and recovery
Géraldine Blanchard -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 61
Tips and tricks for feeding enrichment in dogs and cats
Galena Quist ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67
Natural feeding of the cat and dog and the idiosyncrasies of these carnivores
Guido Bosch, Esther Hagen-Plantinga, Wouter Hendriks ---------------------------------------------------------- 69
Dry and wet commercial food: characteristics and manufacture
Aulus Carciofi ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 77
Petfood Labels: How to make them and how to read them
Víctor Romano --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 101
Alternatives and New Trends in Pet Food
Wendy Wambacq ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 105
Threats and Opportunities in the Future of Pet Foods
Wendy Wambacq ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 111
How to decide what to offer – the owners perspective
Stefanie Handl -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 115
A Direcção Geral de Alimentação e Veterinária
José Manuel Costa ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 121
Mesa Redonda ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 123
Nota Final ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 125

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Name: Ana Luísa Lourenço
Short CV
Obtained her Master in Animal production in 1999, her Veterinary degree in 2003 and a PhD
in Animal nutrition in 2008 by the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD).
Completed an alternative residency program in small animal clinical nutrition in UTAD/Ghent
and Utrecht Universities in 2015 and is board certified in veterinary nutrition by the European
College of Veterinary and Comparative Nutrition (ECVCN) since 2016.
Is Assistant Professor at the Animal Science Department of UTAD since 2008 and provides
clinical nutrition service at UTAD Veterinary Hospital since 2014.
Founded this year a spin-off company of UTAD that provides expert nutrition services for pets
(Nut4Pet, Lda).

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Where to find information about nutritional requirements of Cats and Dogs
Ana Luísa Lourenço
Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD), Vila Real, Portugal
E-mail: analou@utad.pt
Introduction
Information on nutritional requirements and on how to feed a cat or a dog can literally be found
everywhere, from the neighbour next door, till the self-proclaimed expert on theinternet, there
is a never ending spring of “information”. At the end the difficult part is where and how to find
scientifically sound information and how to make sure the information you are presented with
is indeed trustworthy.
Nutritional goals of feeding healthy companion animals are to maintain optimal physiological
functions, enhance quality of life, prevent disease and, if possible, increase life expectancy
while maintaining high performance standards, if applicable. Although the “ideal” diet cannot
be identified and probably differs from animal to animal, much was already researched and
known for each species and life stage. It is thus, essential to base nutritional decisions on the
most solid scientific knowledge to be able to achieve your nutritional goals.
This document is constructed to give a compact overview on where to find scientifically
substantiated and sound information on nutritional requirements for cats and dogs, for practical
reference.
Resources available on Nutritional Requirements of Cats and Dogs
National Research Council (NRC)
In 2006, the Ad Hoc Committee on Dog and Cat Nutrition of the National Research Council
published, after extensive review of all the scientific literature on dog and cats nutrition, the
document:
National Research Council (NRC). 2006. Nutrient Requirements of Dogs. Washington, D.C.:
National Academy Press.
This document is an extensive compilation of relevant information on nutrient physiology and
requirements of cats and dogs and related issues, critically reviewed by the council throughout
the publication. The summary on the daily provision of energy and nutrients to dogs and cats,
based on their energy and nutrient requirements are summarized and presented in tabular form
in the last chapter of the book (chapter 15).
The energy and nutrient requirements are presented in separate tables, per species and life
stage. First, formula’s on the daily metabolizable energy requirements are presented followed
by data on the:

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a) Minimal Requirement - defined as the minimal concentration or amount of a
bioavailable nutrient that will support a defined physiological state.
b) Adequate Intake - defined as the concentration in the diet or amount required by the
animal of a nutrient that is presumed to sustain a given life stage when no Minimal
Requirement has been demonstrated.
c) Recommended Allowance - defined as the concentration or amount of a nutrient in a
diet formulated to support a given physiological state. The Recommended Allowance is
based on the Minimal Requirement and, where applicable, includes a bioavailability
factor (~+20%) to account for individual variation in nutrient absorption and
metabolism
If no Minimal Requirement is available, the Recommended Allowance is based on the Adequate
Intake. Last, data for Safe Upper Limit, or the maximal concentration or amount of a nutrient
that has not been associated with adverse effects, are presented.
European Pet Food Industry Federation (FEDIAF)
Many of the NRC minimum nutrient requirements are based on research with purified diets
and/or highly bioavailable nutrient sources that are not practical to use in commercial dog and
cat foods. That is why the European pet food industry, in close cooperation with a Scientific
Advisory Board (SAB) of independent nutritional scientists from European countries, have
adapted the scientific recommendations for nutrient levels into guidelines for manufacturing of
pet food, herewith ensuring that the latest research results are transferred into the practical
guidelines.
The FEDIAF nutritional guidelines include minimum and maximum recommended nutrient
levels for dogs and cats in separate tables. The guidelines for all the life stages (maintenance,
growth and reproduction) are presented in clear tables. The nutritional tables provide nutrient
allowances in “units/100g dry matter (DM)”, “units/1000kcal ME” and “units/MJ ME” and also,
in annex, in “units/kg of metabolic weight”. The recommended nutrient levels reflect the
minimum requirement plus a safety margin for differences in availability between individual
animals and for nutrient interactions. In practice this would be translated as the levels of
essential nutrients that healthy individuals should consume over time to ensure adequate and
safe nutrition.
The legal maxima that are stated in the tables are based on EU legislation, and are expressed on
12% moisture content and do not account for energy density. Therefore, in these guidelines the
legal maxima are only provided on a dry matter basis.
The guidelines assume a protein digestibility of ≥ 80% and if that cannot be guaranteed, it is
recommended to increase the essential amino acid levels by a minimum of 10%. The guidelines
also assume an energy density of 16.7kJ (4.0kcal) ME/g DM. For foods with energy densities
different from this value, the recommendations should be corrected for energy density. The
document gives guidance on how to correct for differences in energy density as well.
Besides nutrient recommendations, the document also presents practical calculations for daily

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metabolizable energy requirements for cats and dogs in different life stages. The FEDIAF
nutritional guidelines also include other related useful information relating to nutrition of dogs
and cats.
These guidelines, and some other documents (e.g. nutritional guidelines for rabbits), are
published online and freely available in http://www.fediaf.org/self-regulation/nutrition.html
Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO)
The AAFCO is a voluntary membership association of local, state and federal agencies in the
United States of America, which are charged by law to regulate the sale and distribution of
animal feeds and animal drug remedies. One of its goals is to safeguard the health of animals
and humans, and as such AAFCO developed, among others, a document of nutritional
guidelines for dogs and cats.
The AAFCO dog and cats nutrient profiles are published in an official report that can be
purchased as a book or an online version. These guidelines can be considered the American
equivalent of the FEDIAF guidelines, and were designed to establish practical minimum and
some maximum nutrient concentrations for dog and cat foods. The AAFCO official report,
containing the nutrient profiles for cats and dogs, can be purchased through the AAFCO website
htttp://www.aafco.org.
Other Books
Apart from the above mentioned documents, there are several books available that relate to
dog and cat nutrition in general and to nutritional requirements in particular. Below a short
overview of books is given that can be considered a trustworthy source of nutritional
information.
Case, L. P., Daristotle, L., Hayek, M. G., & Raasch, M. F. (eds.) 2010. Canine and Feline
Nutrition: A Resource for Companion Animal Professionals. Elsevier Health Sciences, UK.
Fascetti, A. J., and Delaney, S. J. (eds.). 2012. Applied veterinary clinical nutrition. John
Wiley & Sons, New Yersey, USA.
Hand, M.S., Thatcher, C.D., Remillard, R.L., Roudebush, P., and Novotny, B.J. (eds.) 2010.
Small Animal Clinical Nutrition (5th ed). Mark Morris Institute, Topeka, KS, USA.
McDonald, P., Greenhalgh, J.F.D. , Morgan, C.A. et al. (eds.). 2011. Animal Nutrition (7th
ed.). Pearson Education Limited, London, UK.
Encyclopedia of Feline Clinical Nutrition. Pascale P, Biourge V, Elliott D, (eds.) 2008.
Aimargues: Aniwa SAS Ltd.
Encyclopedia of Canine Clinical Nutrition. Pascale P, Biourge V, Elliott D, (eds.) 2006.
Aimargues: Aniwa SAS Ltd.

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Scientific Journals (Articles):
The scientific journals mentioned below are peer reviewed journals that often contain
manuscript related to dog and cat nutrition, and may be considered sound sources of
information (this is not an exhaustive list):
Advances in Nutrition http://advances.nutrition.org/
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition http://ajcn.nutrition.org/
British Journal of Nutrition https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-of-nutrition
European Journal of Nutrition https://link.springer.com/journal/394
Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics http://jandonline.org/
Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1439-0396
Journal of Nutrition http://jn.nutrition.org/
Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry https://www.journals.elsevier.com/the-journal-of-nutritionalbiochemistry
Nutrition Reviews http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1753-4887
Veterinary Clinics of North American Small Animal Practice
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01955616?sdc=1
Websites
The following websites contain scientifically substantiated information on dog and cat
nutrition, and can be considered trustworthy sources of information (this is not an exhaustive
list):
European Pet Food Industry Federation http://www.fediaf.org/
Mark Morris Institute (MMI): http://www.markmorrisinstitute.org/index.html
Pet Food Manufacturers Association https://www.pfma.org.uk/
Waltham Centre for Pet Nutrition: https://www.waltham.com/waltham-research/
World Small Animal Veterinary Association: www.wsava.org/nutrition-toolkit

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Name: Esther Hagen-Plantinga
Short CV
Dr. Esther Hagen-Plantinga received her veterinary degree from Utrecht University in the
Netherlands, where she also obtained her doctorate degree in animal nutrition in 2003. Since
2007 she is an assistant professor in animal nutrition at Utrecht University. She is a board
certified specialist in comparative veterinary clinical nutrition at the European College of
Comparative Veterinary Nutrition. Her research interests include influence of nutrition on
(disease of) the urinary system in companion animals and palaeolithic nutrition of dogs and
cats. She is involved in development of education and teaching of multiple courses in the
field of animal nutrition, in various courses in both the Bachelor and Master phase of the study
Veterinary Medicine, and in guest lectures at Wageningen University and Continuing-
Education in Veterinary Medicine.

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FEEDING AND NUTRITION OF THE DOG; FROM BIRTH TILL
ADULTHOOD
Esther A. Hagen-Plantinga
Utrecht University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chair of Nutrition, Utrecht, The
Netherlands.
Email: e.a.plantinga@uu.nl
Introduction
Healthy growth is the basis of a healthy life. We know this to be true for humans, but this is
also very true for our pets. To obtain a healthy growth, balanced nutrition is especially
important. The nutrition is considered balanced when it contains all the nutrients the animal
needs on a daily basis in adequate amounts. The nutrients also need to be easily digested and
absorbed by the gut. During puppy growth different phases can be distinguished; the milkphase,
the weaning phase, and the post-weaning phase. Below, the different phases will be
briefly discussed, and nutritional key factors for puppy growth will be considered.
Milk-phase
The first 2 weeks after birth puppies are considered to be neonatal. Puppies are born in a
relatively immature state and are completely dependent upon their mother’s care. The first 24 to
36 hours of a puppy’s life are critical because the sudden environmental changes that newborn
puppies experience are very stressful. Controlling the environment as to assure a quiet and warm
whelping area is thus of importance. A rapid uptake of milk within the first hours after birth is
critical to assure good immunity. The bitch’s milk that is produced directly after birth (called
colostrum) contains antibodies and bioactive factors that can be absorbed by the gut of the puppy
during the first 24h of life. After this period, the gut “closes”, which prevents further transfer of
these antibodies and bioactive compounds. The immune system of puppies is not fully developed
until 16 weeks of age, which makes the transfer of antibodies via colostrum important for their
survival and protection against infectious diseases.
Puppies show a tremendous growth rate during the first weeks of life. They almost quadruple
their birth weight in the first 3 weeks of life. As the bitch’s milk is the only source of nutrition
during the early rapid growth phase, it needs to be rich in energy and nutrients. When considering
the nutrient composition of bitch milk compared to other mammal species, it is noticeably rich in
fat and protein, with a mean protein content of 8-10%, a mean fat content of 11 to 13%, and a
mean energy content of 1500-1800 kcal/L (6.3 to 7.5 MJ/L) (Adkins et al., 2001).
After 4 weeks, milk alone will no longer provide adequate nutrients and energy to support
normal development, coinciding with the time that puppies will become increasingly interested
in trying new foods. During this time the introduction of semi-solid food can be advised,
marking the start of the weaning process.

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Weaning phase
The introduction of semi-solid food to puppies should begin at 3 to 4 weeks of age. It is highly
recommended to use a commercial food to wean the puppies, instead of a homemade “weaning
mixture”, as the latter mostly does not contain sufficient minerals and vitamins to support health
and balanced growth. Specific commercially available puppy foods are advised, which can be
mixed with warm water to make a thick gruel for easy uptake. By 5 to 6 weeks of age the teeth
of the puppies are fully erupted and they will be able to chew dry food. Cow’s milk should not
be used to make the semisolid mixture, because this is higher in lactose than bitch’s milk and
may cause diarrhea in the puppies. The semisolid mixture should be provided several times per
day, and should be freshly prepared every time. At 6 weeks of age the puppies mostly consume
the large part of their calories as solid food, and at 8 weeks of age most puppies can actively be
weaned from their mother. Complete weaning before 7 weeks of age, which is nutritionally
possible, is not advised because there is also an emotional and behavioral need for the puppy to
suckle with their mother until 8 weeks of age.
Post-weaning phase
Most puppies will be fully weaned at 8 weeks of age and will then be primarily dependent on
food provision by the owner. Depending on breed and size, the growth phase from weaning to
adult weight will last 10 months (small dog breeds) to over 2 years (large and giant dog
breeds).The nutritional need during the growth phase consists of maintenance needs +
additional energy and nutrients for the growth of body tissue. As the growth rate decreases, the
need for additional energy and nutrients for growth decreases relatively and the overall energy
demand will decrease.
It has been scientifically shown that when a puppy grows too fast, or has a suboptimal nutrient
intake during its growth phase, this may lead to health problems later in life. Important health
consequences that are scientifically linked to a speedy growth phase are hip dysplasia and
obesity (Hedhammer et al., 1974; Kealy et al, 1992, 1997, 2002; Riser et al.,1964). It is thus of
the utmost importance to make sure the puppy is being fed with a suitable diet that supports
growth, while the growth speed of the puppy is being controlled. The best way to control the
growth speed is to regularly weigh the puppy and adjust the feeding amount when too fast or
too slow growth (compared to the “ideal” growth curve) is observed.
To support veterinarians and animal owners in monitoring the growth rate of puppy's and
adjusting the food and feeding amount, a new web-based application has been developed: My
Puppy Plan (www.mypuppyplan.eu). This program helps puppy owners to monitor the growth
of their puppy and gives the owners a nutritional advice (read: feeding amount) based on the
puppy's actual growth rate and the type/brand of food that is given. The program is completely
independent, so any type/brand of food can be used. The program checks the selected food on
composition, and gives advice when the composition is not properly suitable for the growth
phase of the puppy. By weighing the puppy on a regular basis and entering this weight into My

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Puppy Plan (at least 1x per 2 weeks), the food amount is constantly matched to the current
weight, growth rate and growth phase of the puppy. In this way, too fast growth in puppy's is
detected quickly, and the food amount will automatically be adjusted by the program to inhibit
excessive growth. This will help to prevent many growth related problems at a later age. This
web-based application will be available as of December 2017.
Key nutritional factors during growth
Nutritional factors that play an important role during the growth phase are energy, protein, fat,
calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D. The recommended levels for the growth phase of puppy
and kittens are shown in Table 1:
Table 1: Recommended levels of some key nutritional factors in in puppy food (adjusted from
DeBraekeleer et al., 2010)
Nutritional factor
Puppy’s with an adult BW
25 kg
Energy (kJ/100g DM*) 1550-1800 1400-1750
Protein (g/100g DM) 22-32 22-28
Fat (g/100g DM) 15-25 12-20
Calcium (g/100g DM) 0,7-1,7 0,7-1,2
Phosphorus(g/100 g DM) 0,6-1,3 0,6-1,1
Ca : P ratio 1 : 1 – 1,8 : 1 1 :1 – 1,6 : 1
Vitamin D (IU/100g DM) 35 35
* DM, dry matter
Energy
Adequate energy intake during the growth phase is important for puppies to support growth.
During the fast growth phase, the daily growth of puppies is variable and ranges from 10-30
grams for toy breeds to more than 200 grams per day for giant breeds. It should be noted that
small breeds need relatively more energy to facilitate growth than larger breeds. This is due to
the fact that small breed dogs need relatively more energy for maintenance because of a larger
surface-area-to-volume ratio. On top of that, the daily growth as a percentage of the final weight
is higher in small breed dogs compared to larger breeds. In order to facilitate this relatively
higher energy requirement for smaller breeds, a diet with a slightly higher energy, and thus fat
content, is indicated. On the other hand, it is advisable to feed a larger breed dog with a diet
slightly lower energy content to help prevent too rapid growth.
Protein
Protein delivers the major building blocks for the body, and therefore during growth it is of
primary importance. A good quality protein (read: a balanced amino acid composition with
sufficient essential amino acids) is needed to support growth. A shortage of high-quality protein

24
can suppress growth. In puppies, a protein content ranging from 25-30% on a dry matter basis
is often recommended, as this is the amount of protein present in the bitch’s milk. However,
many of the commercially offered puppy diets contain much more protein. This is mainly due
to the fact that puppy owners prefer to feed a high amount of protein, as they consider the dog
to be a carnivorous animal. The surpluses of protein that are fed in this way pose no health
problems to the puppy, but also do not contribute to better / healthier / more balanced growth.
Fat
Fat is important as an energy-bearing substance, as a supplier of essential fatty acids and fatsoluble
vitamins, but also for delivering building blocks to the body. Adequate fat in the diet,
with sufficient essential fatty acids, is of importance. On the other hand, a too high fat content
in the diet may lead to overconsumption of energy, which predisposes to development of
obesity later in life. With regard to the need for essential fatty acids, the need for linoleic acid
of growing puppies is estimated to be 250 mg/kg body weight per day, corresponding to a
nutritional content of 1.3 g linoleic acid/100g dry matter (NRC, 2006). With a level of 5 to 10%
fat in the diet, this need is already met, provided that the fat source is of good quality. When
commercial diets are fed to puppies, linoleic acid deficiencies are rarely observed.
Calcium and phosphorus
Special reference should be made with regard to the need for calcium and phosphorus,
especially in fast growing dog breeds. The calcium and phosphorus content of the diet should
be well balanced (minimum ratio of Ca: P of 1: 1, maximum 1.6: 1 to 1.8: 1 for the larger and
smaller breeds, resp.) and the levels of calcium and phosphorus in the diet should not exceed.
1.2% and 1.1% DM for calcium and phosphorus (or 0.96 g Ca / MJ ME), especially when
feeding large- and giant breed puppies. Research has shown that an excessive calcium intake
and an unbalanced calcium-to-phosphorous ratio during the growth phase can lead to orthopedic
problems (Schoenmakers et al., 2000). The additional supplementation of calcium and
phosphorus to a complete and balanced diet should be discouraged at all times. Foods with extra
attention to be paid with regard to calcium and phosphorus levels are commercially offered
fresh meat foods, home-made foods (BARF or self-cooking / elimination diets), high protein
dry foods (> 35% DM) for puppy's, and adult dog foods fed to puppies.
Feeding management
With regard to feeding management, portion-controlled feeding is recommended for growing
puppy's. In this way, the growth rate can best be controlled. It is recommended to divide the
daily ration over at least 3 (preferably 4) servings per day, especially in younger puppies (

25
Further reading
Adkins, Y., Lepine, A.J., and Lönnerdal, B., 2001. Changes in protein and nutrient composition of milk
throughout lactation in dogs. Am J Vet Res. 62(8): 1266-1272.
DeBraekeleer, J., Gross, K.L., and Zicker, S.C. 2010. Feeding growing puppies: Postweaning to
adulthood. In: Small Animal Clinical Nutrition, 5 th edition. Eds. Hand, M.S., et al. Mark Morris
Institute, Topeka, Kansas, USA, 311-319.
Hedhammar, A., Wu, F.M., Krook, L., et al., 1974. Overnutrition and skeletal disease. An experimental
study in growing Great Dane dogs. Cornell Vet. 64 (Suppl):1-160.
Kealy, R.D., Olsson, S.E., Monti, K.L., et al., 1992. Effects of limited food consumption on the
incidence of hip dysplasia in growing dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 201: 857–863.
Kealy, R.D., Lawler, D.F., Ballam, J.M., et al. 1999. Five-year longitudinal study on limited food
consumption and development of osteoarthritis in coxofemoral joints of dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc.
210: 222–225.
Kealy, R.D., Lawler, D.F., Ballam, J.M., et al. 2002. Evaluation of the effect of limited food
consumption on radiographic evidence of osteoarthritis in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 217: 1678–
1680.
NRC. 2006. Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., U.S.
Riser, W.H., Cohen, D., Lindqvist, S., et al. 1964. Influence of early rapid growth and weight gain on
hip dysplasia in the German Shepherd dog. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 145: 661–668.
Schoenmakers, I., Hazewinkel, H. A., Voorhout, G., et al., 2000. Effects of diets with different calcium
and phosphorus contents on the skeletal development and blood chemistry of growing great danes.
Vet Rec 147(23): 652-660.

26

27
Feeding and nutrition of the cat: from birth to adulthood
Ana Luísa Lourenço
Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD), Vila Real, Portugal
Email: analou@utad.pt
Introduction
The ultimate goal of the nutritional management of a kitten is to ensure it will develop into a
healthy adult. The growth period of a cat’s life is highly demanding in particular in the early
phases and, thus, small nutritional (or other) imbalances have major impact on the cat’s health,
not only as a kitten, but often, throughout the entire cat’s life. Due to the demanding nature of
growing, this is the period where most frequently nutritional deficiencies and imbalances are
clinically detected.
The growth period can be divided in, at least, two phases:
a) the pre-weaning phase from birth till effective weaning, that occurs around 6-9 weeks
of age, and
b) the post-weaning phase from effective weaning till the cat reaches adult body weight
(BW) and body maturation, which is reached around 12 months of age.
The pre-weaning phase of the healthy nursing kitten
The milk produced during the first 24-72h after parturition by the queen is called colostrum and
will provide nutrition (water, nutrients and digestive enzymes), immunity (immunoglobulins)
and growth factors to the kitten. During the first 16 hours of life, the immaturity of the kitten’s
intestine will allow the acquisition of passive systemic and local immunity. After this initial
period, only local immunity will continue to be acquired, first from colostrum and after from
mature milk, since both seem to have high immunoglobulin concentrations (Casal et al., 1996).
First colostrum, and after, the mature milk are considered to be complete foods for the preweaning
period of the kitten. This means that colostrum and milk are capable of providing
water, protein, fat, lactose, minerals and vitamins in amounts adequate for normal growth and
development of the kitten, as long as they are ingested in the proper amounts (for queen’s
colostrum and milk composition see Gross et al., 2010b)
Body weight, body temperature, stool characteristics, behavior, activity level, are variables that
should be regularly checked. The best way to assess the proper nutrition of the kittens is through
their behavior and regular check of their growth rate. Thus, frequent observation of the kittens
and queen behavior, and regular weight of the kittens are essential to quickly correct imbalances.
Kittens are expected to show a strong suckling reflex immediately after birth and, after nursing,
well-fed kittens exhibit an extended abdomen, are quiet and frequently fall asleep. Normal
activity and interactions with the queen and littermates are also good indications of the
nutritional and health status of the kitten.

28
Kittens are born with an average BW of 100g (85-120g) and during the first 6 months they are
expected to grow an average of 100g per week and a minimum of 7g per day (Lawler and
Bebiak, 1986). Special attention should be given to kitten’s with low birth weights. Growth
rates of male kittens tend to be slightly higher than the females (for normal growth pattern in
male and female kittens see Gross et al., 2010b). Inadequate growth of an individual kitten in
the litter might be due to disease or inability of the kitten to suckle, while inadequate growth of
the entire litter suggests an unhealthy mother and/or an inadequate milk production.
The food that is being fed to the queen, with a complete and balanced composition for lactation
(according to according to NRC, 2006 and FEDIAF, 2017) is also adequate to feed to the kittens
and should be left freely accessible to them. From 3 rd week post-partum, the kittens will start
eating increasing amounts of their mother’s food and, progressively, less milk. Intestinal lactase
activity declines when milk is no longer ingested (Kienzle, 1993). Food intake and stool
characteristics should be regularly checked. Ideally, if not before, as soon the kitten starts eating
other food than milk, clean and fresh water should always be available.
The period before weaning, while the kitten is still with the mother, until 6 months of age is the
period where it is advised to introduce foods with different textures and tastes. This lowers the
risk of food fixation and food neophobia (Bradshaw, 2006).
At least 1-2 weeks before the kittens are separated from the queen, the food that will be fed
after effective weaning should also be available to the kittens. This assures full adaptation to
the post-weaning diet before the stressful events of weaning. Alternatively, the diet that they
are eating before weaning should be extended after weaning, until the kitten shows normal
eating behavior and normal growth rate.
The post-weaning phase
Energy
The energy requirement of a growing kitten changes along with their growth curve and can be
estimated using different equations (NRC 2006; FEDIAF 2017 and Gross et al., 2010a). All of
them take into account that the growth rate changes along the growth curve. Before the body
weight (BW) of the kitten reaches 50% of its adult BW (i.e. before ≈ 4 months old) the energy
requirement is very high, when BW is between 50 and 80% of the adult BW (between ≈ 4 to 9
months old) the energy requirement is lower and, after 80% of the adult BW is reached (≈ 9 to
12 months old) the energy needs diminish again till they reach the energy level of an adult cat.
The energy should be delivered in small and frequent meals (> 4 meals). When dry food is fed,
it can be left in the bowl for the kitten to decide when to eat (ad libitum). This is possible
because usually the kitten can regulate the amount of food ingested to fit its energy needs.
Nevertheless, some kittens might not be able to regulate their food intake. Indoor lifestyle, highfat
foods, ad libitum feeding and neutering are risk factors for obesity (Scarlett et al, 1994).
Neutering can reduce the energy requirements in kittens by 24 to 33% independently from the
age of neutering (Root, 1995; Flynn et al, 1996).

29
The regular measurement of the BW allows to detect deviations from the expected growth rate.
This can be evaluated using growth charts for kittens. As a reference, kittens grow at
approximately 100 g/week until about 20 weeks of age but may grow at rates from 14 to 30
g/day (Gross et al., 2010c). At 20 weeks, males typically gain 20 g/day whereas females gain
11 g/day (NRC, 2006).
The body condition of the kitten can also be evaluated by the 9 point body condition system
developed by Laflamme (1997) for adult cats. It needs to be noted that this system is not
validated for kittens, however it can be used to check if an intervention to adjust the amount of
food might be indicated.
Nutrient Requirements
The nutrient recommendations for growing kittens can be found summarized in the nutrient
requirements tables of the NRC (2006). The FEDIAF guidelines (2017) also summarize nutrient
recommendations for commercial diets formulated to feed growing kittens.
The nutritional idiosyncrasies of cats are naturally present in kittens, and should be considered
when formulating commercial as well as homemade diets for kittens (see for details of
idiosyncrasies in cats in Morrison, 2002).
Protein
Protein has a major impact on growth and development of the kitten due to its structural role in
the maintenance and accretion of the lean body mass and also due to its functional role in a
highly active metabolism. The ingredients selected for the kitten’s diet must be included in such
a combination that is able to provide protein with high digestible and high biologic value.
Arginine the protein requirements of kittens are relatively high, and diets formulated
specifically for kittens have considerable concentrations of protein. Arginine, is an essential
nutrient in the urea cycle, thus needs to be increased compared to adult maintenance diets. Diets
with a higher protein content than recommended require more arginine.
Taurine is an essential amino acid that cats cannot synthesize within their metabolism. It needs
to be present in sufficient amounts in the diet for normal body function. It is needed for normal
eye vision and heart function. A shortage in taurine can cause retinal degradation and a heart
condition, called dilative cardiomyopathy. Taurine from dietary sources is more available to
kittens than to adult cats, probably due to lower intestinal microbial degradation (Earle and
Smith, 1994).
Fat and Fatty acids
Fat is concentrated in energy, enhances food palatability includes essential fatty acids and is
needed for the intestinal abortion of fat soluble vitamins. Kittens tolerate high concentrations
of fat in their diet. Energy requirements are high during the growth phase. The higher the fat

30
concentration in the diet, the lower amount of food needed to be ingested to provide the same
amount of energy. Overweight or neutered kittens might require lower levels of fat than their
lean counterparts.
The alpha-linoleic and arachidonic omega 6 fatty acids and the long chain omega 3 fatty acids are
also essential for kittens. In particular docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 20:6 3), a fatty acid from
the omega 3 series, is essential for normal neuronal, retinal and auditory development in kittens
(Pawlosky et al., 1997). The inclusion of DHA in puppies diet’s improved trainability and
learning ability (Kelley et al., 2004), and although not researched in kittens, the same might apply.
Calcium and phosphorus
In kittens, calcium:phosphorus imbalances are not so dramatically associated with orthopedic
diseases as is seen in puppies (Gross et al., 2010c). Nevertheless, dietary calcium interferes with
other minerals absorption, thus, it is recommended that the calcium content of the diet is sufficient
to fulfill the needs of the growing kitten, but in balance with other mineral like phosphorus and
magnesium. Calcium deficiencies, when found, are usually seen in kittens fed all meat diets.
Feeding management
Free-choice or ad libitum feeding allows for small and frequent meals and is a more suitable
feeding strategy to feed kittens. Not only because the ingestion of small frequent meals reflects
their natural feeding pattern, but also because their stomach is relatively small and their energy
requirements are relatively high. Also the digestibility of some nutrients, namely fat, is lower
around the weaning period, although it gradually increases till 24 weeks of age (Harper &
Turner, 2000).
Meal feeding is also possible and sometimes preferred due to owner convenience, or due to
energy restriction need. In this case, minimums of 4 meals before 6 months of age and 2 meals
after, is recommended.
Water
Fresh and clean water should be provided at different locations and be available at all times.
Other
Treats are unnecessary but when fed by the owner it should be in small quantities (

31
References
Bradshaw JW, 2006. The evolutionary basis for the feeding behavior of domestic dogs (Canis familiaris)
and cats (Felis catus). Journal of Nutrition, 136:1927S – 1931S.
Casal ML, Jezyk PF, Giger U, 1996. Transfer of colostral antibodies from queens to their kittens.
American Journal of Veterinary Research 57:1653 – 1658.
Earle KE, Smith PM, 1994. The taurine requirement of the kitten fed canned foods. The Journal of
nutrition. Journal of Nutrition, 124:2552S – 2554S
FEDIAF (Fédération européenne de l’industrie des aliments pour animaux familiers), 2017. Nutritional
Guidelines for Complete and Complementary Pet Food for Cats and Dogs. www.fediaf.org/selfregulation/nutrition)
Flynn MF, Hardie EM Armstrong PJ, 1996. Effect of ovariohysterectomy on maintenance energy
requirement in cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc 209: 1572 – 1581.
Gross KL, Yamka RM, Khoo C, Freisen KG, Jewell DE, Schoener WD, Debraekeleer J, Zicker SC.
2010a. Macronutrients, micronutrients: minerals and vitamins. In: Hand MS, ed. Small Animal
Clinical Nutrition, 5th Ed. Topeka, Kan: Mark Morris Institute, pp 49 – 148.
Gross KL, Becvarova I and Debraekeleer J. 2010b. Feeding Nursing and Orphaned Kittens from Birth
to Weaning. In: Hand MS, Thatcher CD, Remillard RL, et al (eds). Small animal clinical
nutrition. Topeka, KS: Mark Morris Institute, pp 415 – 427.
Gross KL, Becvarova I and Debraekeleer J. 2010c. Feeding growing kittens: postweaning to adulthood
. In: Hand MS, Thatcher CD, Remillard RL, et al (eds). Small animal clinical nutrition. Topeka,
KS: Mark Morris Institute, pp 429 – 436.
Harper EJ, Turner CL, 2000. Age-related changes in apparent digestibility in growing kittens
Reproduction Nutrition Development 40: 249 – 226.
Kienzle E, 1993. Carbohydrate metabolism of the cat. 4. Activity of maltase, isomaltase, sucrase and
lactase in the gastrointestinal tract in relation to age and diet. Journal of Animal Physiology and
Animal Nutrition 70: 89 – 96.
Laflamme D, 1997. Development and validation of a body condition score system for cats: A clinical
tool. Feline Practice 25: 13-18.
Lawler DF, Bebiak DM, 1986. Nutrition and management of reproduction in the cat. Veterinary Clinics
of North America. Small Animal Practice 16: 495 – 519.
Morris JG, 2002. Idiosyncratic nutrient requirements of cats appear to be diet-induced evolutionary
adaptations. Nutrition Research Reviews 15: 153 – 168.
Morris JG, Trudell J, Pencovic T, 1993. Carbohydrate digestion by domestic cat (Felis Catus). British
Journal of Nutrition 37: 365–73.
NRC, 2006. Chapter 15: Nutrient requirements and dietary nutrient concentrations. In: Nutrient
requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies Press, Washington, DC, USA, pp 354 – 370.
Root MV, 1995. Early spay – neuter in the cat: effect on development of obesity and metabolic rate.
Veterinary Clinical Nutrition 2: 132 – 134.
Scarlett JM, Donoghue S, Saidla J, Wills J, 1994. Overweight cats: prevalence and risk factors.
International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 18:S22 – 8.

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33
Name: Galena Quist
Short CV
Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (2007, Louisiana State University, USA) with over 15 years of
experience in wildlife and companion animal medicine and surgery, including primary and
emergency care, shelter medicine, and hurricane rescue. Obtained a PhD in Molecular
Medicine (2009, LSU, USA) with postdoctoral training at human and veterinary hospitals in
Belgium and USA, on topics in endocrinology, biochemistry and microbiology. Completed a
standard residency program of the European College of Veterinary and Comparative
Nutrition (ECVCN) at Ghent University, specializing in companion animal clinical and
comparative nutrition. Until recently, she owned a veterinary practice in Belgium,
copyedited scientific manuscripts, and consulted industry in animal nutrition and
biomedicine. Currently holds a position of Scientific Communication Manager at the Nestle
Purina EMENA Headquarters in Barcelona, Spain.

34

35
Orphan feeding and nutrition of the orphan kitten and puppy,
birth to weaning
Galena Quist
Rybachuk, PhD, Res. ECVCN
Orphaned puppies and kittens, first and foremost, should be stabilized, and thus, treated for
hypothermia, dehydration and hypoglycemia, as well as receive a complete physical
examination (e.g. parasites, ocular and respiratory infections, wounds or any congenital
malformations) before being fed. While warming up, warm water with electrolytes and sugar
are the first in nutritional support neonate should receive.
In severely hypovolemic patients, initial shock doses (30-45 ml/kg dogs or 20-30 ml/kg
cats) of balanced crystalloid (lactated Ringer’s or 0.9% NaCl), ideally administered IV
(peripheral or central), can be used. Rehydration is achieved slower via subcutaneous route, but
it’s often the only option. Oral rehydration is contraindicated in hypothermic patients.
Orogastric feeding tube, 5 or 8 French red rubber, or voluntary oral intake can be used only if
neonate is normothermic and minimally dehydrated. Normal stomach volume is approximately
4 to 5 ml per 100 g body weight (Macintire, 1999; Little, 2013). Maintenance fluid requirement
of neonates (120-180 ml/kg/day) is much higher than in older pediatric patients or adults due
to higher surface to weight ratio, lack of body fat, higher metabolic rate, increased respiratory
rate and thus, loses, and higher extracellular fluid content (Macintire, 2008; Hoskins, Fluid
therapy in the puppy and kitten, 1995).
Hypoglycemia complicated by inefficient hepatic gluconeogenesis, immature glucose
feedback and decreased glycogen stores can result in neurodegeneration and cardiovascular
collapse since brain and myocardium depend on carbohydrate metabolism in a neonate (Boluyt,
2006). Dextrose is administered buccally (0.5–1.5 mL/kg of 50% dextrose) or as 2.5%–5% in
IV fluids (Lee, 2015; Davidson, 2014). The subsequent steps will require finding a caretaker,
setting up enclosure, selecting the milk replacer and gradual initiation of nutritional support
avoiding complications such as commensal infections, diarrhea, aspiration pneumonia, and
refeeding syndrome. The first 2 days are critical.
Foster queen or bitch are ideal caretakers, but not often available. Successful foster mother,
will accept the neonate immediately allowing them to nurse, but the interaction and weight gain
should be monitored closely in the first days. Human foster parents raise most orphan kittens
and puppies. Conversely, majority of puppy and kitten neonatal deaths are not due to infectious
diseases, but rather to caregiver error due to inadequate knowledge. Incorrect feeding and
husbandry techniques, delay in identifying a problem or providing treatment result in reduced
survival. Motherless kittens and puppies have vital requirements, they need to be kept warm,
clean, and on safe bedding, be fed properly and stimulated to urinate and defecate, as well as
be well socialized.

36
In home environment, a plastic container with sides deep enough for the neonate not to
reach the edge with front paws is ideal, as it is easily cleaned and draft free. The box should be
dry and warm, that easily accomplished by placing an electric heating pad set on low under half
of the box. This way the neonate can crawl away from the heat if needed. Neonates, rely on
brown fat, each other, and environment for thermogenesis, and do not have shiver reflex in the
first week of life. If using the incubator, 29ºC for the first week of life, 26.5ºC for the next 2
weeks and room temperature of 24ºC until weaning can be used. Humidity of over 55% is
needed as less humidity is dehydrating. Notably, the glomerular filtration rates are 20% of those
of adult increasing to 50% by 2 months.
The bedding should be soft, absorbent, and safe, that the sharp baby nails do not get caught
in it and baby can’t get entangled in the folds of the material. So, towels are not a good idea,
but fleece or flannel work well. A small plush toy is a good buddy for neonates that do not have
a sibling. Bedding should be changed and cleaned frequently. Puppy enclosures are more
challenging to keep clean. Once puppies are older, a large wire crate or a plastic kid pool with
baby exercise pens around it can keep puppies contained and can be easily cleaned. When
disease transmission across litters is not a concern, such as in home fostering of a single litter,
soap and warm water are the best cleaning agents to avoid transdermal absorption of toxins or
respiratory irritants from disinfectants.
Feeding – how frequently
To determine how often a neonate should be fed, the age should be roughly determined.
Puppy eyes start opening and ears unfolding at 1 week and are fully open at about 2 weeks of
age, while kittens’ are a bit earlier. Kitten baby incisors will come in at about 2 weeks of age.
Wobbly walking only starts at 3 weeks at the same time as canine teeth start to appear. In kittens,
incisor and canine needle sharp primary teeth are out by 4 weeks and premolars by 6 weeks. In
puppies, the incisors erupt around 4 weeks and premolars at 5 weeks, but all are out by 6 weeks
of age. Kittens that are not malnourished can also be aged by weight, counting 50 to 150 grams
for week one, adding 100 grams for each additional week of life.
In the first week of life, frequent small meals should be offered every 2 hours including
through the night. At one week of age, the feedings can be reduced to every 3 hours, and 1 more
hour added for each additional week of life. Depending on the brand of milk replacer used, the
amounts to feed and feeding frequency recommendations can vary. Generally, if the neonates
belly is excessively distended after the feeding, the feeding frequency should be increased and
the amount fed at each feeding decreased. Overfeeding at each meal can result in diarrhea and
deadly dehydration or enteritis. Lengthy periods between feeding result in hypoglycemia, poor
weight gain, and suckling on neonates own or littermates genitals for drops of urine, the latter
leading to euthanasia in severe cases.
Neonates that did not receive colostrum are at higher risk for illnesses. Kittens may receive
as much as 25% of maternally derived antibodies via placental transfer, while puppies about 5
to 10% (Day, 2007). Gastrointestinal tract is no longer permeable to passive transfer after 1 day

37
of life. Antibodies can be provided by cross-matched serum from vaccinated adult orally within
24 hours, or subcutaneously thereafter, at 15 ml per kitten or 22 ml/kg for puppies, split in
boluses every 12 hours (Levy, 2001). Some manufacturers add bovine or avian colostrum to
the milk replacer to bridge the period until immune system maturation.
Feeding –what and how much
For suckling neonates, the optimum nutrition is provided by the mother of the same species
who herself is consuming adequate amounts of a balanced diet fulfilling her needs. The milk
replacers have to match closely the milk composition of the respective species. Complete milk
analysis have been investigated for domestic cat and dog (Adkins, 1997; Jacobsen, 2004;
Debraekeleer, 1998).
The minimum requirements and the recommended allowances for protein and amino acids
are available for puppies from 4 weeks of age (NRC). For fats, vitamins, and minerals, the NRC
makes recommendations only for growing puppies > 14 weeks of age.
Although, cow and goat milk are too high in lactose compared to bitch’s milk, the
homemade formulas can be used in emergency until a commercial diet is acquired. Commercial
diets offer more balanced nutrition, but are still being improved by the manufacturers. A 2014
study comparing 15 commercial milk replacers to nutrient concentration in 5 samples of dog
milk, found that none of the milk replacers were close match to dog milk (Heinze, 2014). Out
of 21 essential nutrients analyzed, 11 to 18 were outside the range for dog milk, while over half
of all nutrients did not match the dog milk ranges. Out of 3 milk replacers with the closest
match, excess linoleic acid, low energy density, inappropriate Ca to P ratio and no measurable
DHA were of concern. The feeding instructions did not match the necessary energy intake. So,
adherence to feeding directions could easily lead to substantial over- or underfeeding. The study
of the milk replacers use in large breed dogs, also showed that the protein and fat content was
lower than dog milk and vitamin D was threefold higher (Corbee, 2012). Nutrient deficiency
can result in significant abnormalities. For example, shortages in tryptophan, niacin, or taurine
lead to cataract development (Frankel, 2001; Ranz D, 2002; Lange, 2017).
In other words, while commercial diets strive to match the dog milk composition and
provide the feeding recommendations, the progress of each animal should be monitored closely
individually and the intake adjusted accordingly. Nutritional assessment of the orphan pup and
kitten is based on weight gain, physical examination, and age appropriate activity levels as there
are no standardized growth charts or body condition scoring available for nursing neonates.
Nutrients requirements guidelines are guidelines are limited due to limitations in available
research, but various formulas available for determining neonate’s energy requirements (e.g.
20-26 kcal/100g BW/day for pups and 15-25 kcal/100g BW/day for kittens).
The period from birth to weaning is the time of anatomical, microbial and functional
development of the feline and canine gastrointestinal tract. Sterile gastrointestinal tract is
colonized right after birth and approximately 15% of foster kittens die before 8 weeks of age due
to enteritis. Out of numerous infectious agents that can be the cause, the role of commensals and

38
opportunistic bacterial pathogens of the diverse enteric microbiome is strongly suspected (Ghosh,
2013). Supplementing probiotics can boost immune system, improving response to vaccinations.
Feeding – how
Refeeding syndrome’s key prerequisite is prolonged nutritional deprivation. It has been
shown in human preterm babies and other failing to thrive pediatric patients (Ross, 2013). The
key features are the glucose metabolism abnormalities, disturbances in body-fluid distribution,
hypophosphatemia, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia, and thiamine deficiency upon reinstitution
of nutrition in malnourished patients. In neonatal patients, the serum biochemical profiles and
vitamin B status evaluation may not be always feasible, due to difficult venous access in toy
puppies and kittens as well as costs. Empirically, the solution is to mix the first few feedings
with balanced electrolyte solution instead of water and administer vitamin B complex.
Neonates’ first meals should be less-rich formula mixture to allow gentle adjustment and to
prevent diarrhea, by using an increased water-to-formula ratio of 1:10 at the first feeding. Then,
the amount of formula-to water ratio can be gradually reduced for each subsequent feeding until
reaching the amount specified on the product label over a course of a day or two. Thereafter,
the formula should be made consistently in the same way and care taken to follow
manufacturer’s instructions and not make it too concentrated or too dilute, to avoid diarrhea or
malnutrition, respectively. Enough formula should be mixed to last for 1 day refrigerated.
Immediately prior to feeding, best to warm the formula in hot water bath to avoid denaturing
the nutrients in the microwave or by overheating. The milk should be offered at the animal’s
body temperature, 38C. Switching formulas should be avoided to prevent onset of diarrhea.
Some pet nipples do not have premade opening. A hot needle can be used to melt a hole in
the nipple. The opening should allow milk to slowly drip out of the bottle when held upside
down. Too large opening will risk aspiration, too small will require too much effort to suckle.
Note: formula should never be squeezed from the bottle into the baby’s mouth!
The milk should be fed slowly and never forced. To reduce the chance of aspiration
pneumonia and to stimulate the development of suckling reflex to this unfamiliar for a kitten
object, it is easier to use a 1cc syringe with a catac nipple attached to it for initial feedings. In
author’s experience, rarely kittens can be safely started on a bottle in the first days of life. As
both the kitten and the foster parent climb a steep learning curve of the feeding process over
several feedings, the neonate can be transitioning to 3 cc, 5 cc and even 12 cc syringes and
ultimately a bottle. Syringes allow the neonate to use his suction of the suckling to pull the
syringe plunger as milk is delivered without aerophagia or the need to break suction to let the
air back in the bottle. The caretaker can, in a highly controlled fashion, gently push on the
plunger to put a few drops of milk in baby’s mouth to entice swallowing and suckling,
encouraging and stimulating feeding. Resist the temptation to squeeze the bottle in baby’s
mouth, it will inevitably lead to aspiration. Similarly, when feeding an orphan puppy, starting
with a syringe and a nipple attached for smaller breeds is safest. Larger breed puppies, can
eagerly pull the unsecured nipple of the syringe, so the pet or baby human feeding bottles may
be more appropriate. Using a glass bottles prevents the caretaker from forcing the milk into
pup’s mouth. The learning curve with a bottle may take longer and the intake at each feeding

39
should be clearly recorded to avoid malnourishment. Determining the exact amounts consumed
when fed with bottles is difficult as gradation on bottles is not in small increments and printed
milliliter lines easily fade after a couple of washes. Getting the weight of the bottle or the baby
before and after on a kitchen scale (1 g is about 0.97 ml of milk) or using a large syringe to
measure consumption is best.
Some babies do not have adequate suckling reflex soon enough or are too malnourished to
ingest adequate quantities of formula. The tube feeding via orogastric tube can be safely and
easily done to replace a few feedings until the neonate is strong enough to sustain suckling. The
tube should be measured from the last rib to the tip of the nose with the head extended and
marked at this point. Inserting the tube at this length, with the head now flexed, ensures it is in
the stomach and not the lungs or the esophagus, but instilling a few milliliters of water first,
before administering formula is a good habit. Kink the tubing to avoid introducing air if using
several syringes to administer formula and when removing the tube to avoid aspiration.
It is easier for the first feedings to keep the neonate in sternal recumbency at caretaker’s
chest level on the table, for example, onto and covered with a soft blanket, for ease of
observation so proper technique can be learned. The head can be cradled in the palm of the hand
and slightly elevated, but neck should be flexed, not overextended. The nipple placed straight
into baby’s mouth, so the air is not sucked in with the milk. Caution should be exercised to
prevent neonate from getting too cold during the feeding, especially if milk is spilled over his
chest and front paws. Until 3 weeks of age, the neonates should be stimulated to defecate and
urinate after each feeding by gently touching a piece of damp (warm water) cotton wool to their
perineum. The general steps of the feeding process are preparing the formula and supplies,
elimination, weighing, feeding, burping, weighing and perhaps another feeding and elimination.
Check genital area for diarrhea or evidence of suckling by siblings. Daily record of neonates
weight should be kept. As a rough estimate, they should gain their birth weight every week until
weaning or 2.5 -5 gm per kg of anticipated adult weight each day.
If baby has aspirated, the milk will come through his nostrils. Immediately, all milk has to
be aspirated out of the nostrils with a human baby nose aspirator. Ideally, the neonates head
should be below his body to help gravity keep the milk out of his lungs. Aspirated baby needs
close monitoring over the next 24 hours. If clicking noise is heard upon respiration (well in
advance of labored breathing), the intensive medical therapy for aspiration pneumonia should
be initiated immediately.
Puppy or kitten food can be introduced at 3 to 4 weeks of age, by offering a gruel of food
mixed with milk replacer in a flat dish (for easy access and to prevent drowning). Water should
also be offered. Smearing a bit of food onto neonates’s lips can entice them to lick the food.
Neonates chin or front paw can be gently nudged into the gruel for the first taste, taking care
not to get any food around the nostrils. By the age of 6 weeks orphan kitten and puppies can be
completely weaned. Change in texture, bulk of the ingesta, exposure to new protein,
carbohydrate and fat sources are stressful for the GI. Rapid introduction of solid food can
negatively affect the microbial population or lead to dehydration.
The first litter box for kittens should contain litter safe to ingest, so no clumping litter! The

40
paper-based litter is ideal. If few other toys are available, the kittens will play in the litter, so
adequate space to play, toys to play with and socialization with other pets or humans should be
provided. Puppies are harder to keep clean. When they are large enough and stable on their legs,
frequent trips out are best. A pee pad is easiest, but they may play with and ingest the plastic
lining, so newspaper, a safer solution.
In case of onset of diarrhea, rule out, overfeeding, too rich formula or weaning diet, and
intestinal microbial imbalance or parasites (toxocara, ascarids, helicobacter, spirochetes,
trichomonas, coccidia and toxoplasma). Other feeding complications may include lack of
suckling reflex, aspiration pneumonia, lack of adequate weight gain, constipation (no bowel
movement for 2 days), failure to thrive, and infections, such as herpesvirus and panleukopenia.
This constituted a brief summary of most important consideration in rearing orphan puppies
and kittens from birth to weaning. Additional information on feeding orphan kittens and puppies
is readily available (Iben, 1994; Abrams-Ogg, 2006; Hoskins, 2001; Johnston, 2001; NKC,
2017).

41
References
Abrams-Ogg, A. (2006). Hand-rearing newborn puppies and kittens. In K. Mathews, Veterinary
emergency and critical care manual. Guelph, Ontario: Lifelearn.
Adkins, Y. Z. (1997). Changes in nutrient and protein composition of cat milk during lactation. Am. J.
Vet. Res, 58:370–375.
Boluyt, N. v. (2006). Neurodevelopment after neonatal hypoglycemia: a systematic review and design
of an optimal future study. Pediatrics , 117:2231-2243.
Corbee, R. J. (2012). Composition and use of puppy milk replacers in German Shepherd puppies in the
Netherlands. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 96: 395–402.
doi:10.1111/j.14
Davidson, A. (2014). Neonatal resuscitation: Improving the outcome. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim
Pract , 44:191-204.
Day, M. (2007). Immune system development in the dog and cat. J Comp Pathol , 137(Suppl 1):S10-
15.
Debraekeleer, J. ( 1998). Comparative analysis of milk replacers for puppies and kittens. . Journal of
Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 80: 185–193. doi:10.1111/j.1439-
0396.1998.tb00525.x
Frankel, D. J. (2001). Malnutrition-induced cataracts in an orphaned kitten. The Canadian Veterinary
Journal, 42(8), 653–654.
Ghosh, A. B. (2013). Mortality in Kittens Is Associated with a Shift in Ileum Mucosa-Associated
Enterococci from Enterococcus hirae to Biofilm-Forming Enterococcus faecalis and Adherent
Escherichia coli. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 51(11), 3567–3578. Retrieved from
http://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00481-13
Heinze, C. R. (2014). Comparison of the nutrient composition of commercial dog milk replacers with
that of dog milk. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 244(12): 1413–
1422.
Hoskins, J. (1995). Fluid therapy in the puppy and kitten. In R. Kirk, Current Veterinary Therapy XII
(pp. 34-37). Philadelphia: Saunders.
Hoskins, J. (2001). Nutrition and nutritional problems. In J. Hoskins, Veterinary pediatrics: dogs and
cats from birth to six months. St. Louis: Saunders/Elsevier.
Iben, C. e. (1994). Handrearing of orphaned puppies and kittens. J Nutr.
Jacobsen, K. D. (2004). Influences of stage of lactation, teat position and sequential milk sampling on
the composition of domestic cat milk (Felis catus) . J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr., 88:46–58.
Johnston, S. R. (2001). The neonate: from birth to weaning. In S. R. Johnston, Canine and feline
theriogenology. St Louis: Saunders/Elsevier.
Lange, R. R.-F. (2017). Cataracts and strabismus associated with hand rearing using artificial milk
formulas in Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris spp tigris) cubs. Open Veter.
Lee, J. C. (2015, February ). Pediatric Critical Care, Part 2—Monitoring & Treatment. Retrieved
from cliniciansbrief.com:

42
http://www.cliniciansbrief.com/sites/default/files/attachments/CE_Pediatric%20Critical%20C
are%20Part%202.pdf
Levy, J. C. (2001). Use of adult cat serum to correct failure of passive transfer in kittens. JAVMA ,
219:1401-1405.
Little, S. (2013). Playing mum: Successful management of orphaned kittens. J Feline Med Surg,
15:201-210.
Macintire, D. (1999). Pediatric intensive care. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract, 29:971-988.
Macintire, D. (2008). Pediatric fluid therapy. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract, 38: 621-627.
NKC, N. K. (2017, February). Launching and operating a successful kitten nursery: a review of
approaches and practices for animal shelters and rescue organizations. Retrieved October 10,
2017, from kittencoalition.org: http://kittencoalition.org/wpcontent/uploads/2017/03/KittenNurseryManual02.pdf
Ranz D, G. F. (2002). Nutritional lens opacities in two litters of newfoundland dogs. J. Nutr,
132:1688–1689.
Ross, J. F. (2013). Refeeding syndrome in very-low-birth-weight intrauterine growth-restricted
neonates. Journal of Perinatology , 33:717–720. doi:10.1038/jp.2013.28

43
Name: Cecilia Villaverde
Short CV:
Obtained her veterinary degree in 2000 and a PhD in animal nutrition in 2005 by the
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB). She worked as a post doctoral researcher at the
University of California Davis (UCD), where she also completed a residency in small animal
clinical nutrition. She is board certified in veterinary nutrition by the American College of
Veterinary Nutrition (ACVN®) and by the European College of Veterinary and Comparative
Nutrion (ECVCN) since 2010, and is president of ECVCN since 2016.She was an adjunct
professor at the Departament de Ciència Animal i dels Aliments (UAB) and the chief of
service of the teaching hospital nutrition service (UAB) form 2010 to 2016. After working as
faculty at the Nutrition Support Service at UCD for one year she is now a consultant in clinical
nutrition for Expert Pet Nutrition (www.expertpetnutrition.com) and Veterinary Information
Network (VIN).

44

45
Feeding and nutrition of the dog: from young adult to geriatric
Cecilia Villaverde
Expert Pet Nutrition, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland
Introduction
Feeding healthy dogs requires the provision of a diet that is specific (for dogs), adequate
(complete and balanced), safe (free of contaminants, toxins, and pathogens), and palatable.
This diet must be fed in sufficient amounts to maintain a stable body weight (BW) and an
ideal body condition score (BCS).
Energy requirements
There are a variety of formulas that provide the energy requirements of adult dogs, see NRC
(2006). FEDIAF (2017) and Gross et al. (2010), depending on the lifestyle, age, and breed of
the dogs. These formulas are all empirical and based on metabolic BW (kg 0.75 ) and they have
an associated error that can be very high. These equations are for daily energy requirements,
thus including basal metabolic rate, thermogenesis, thermic effect of food, and physical
activity.
Effect of breed
Some breeds are prone to obesity, which suggests that there might be differences in either
their drive to eat (which has been shown in Labrador Retrievers by Raffan et al., 2016) or
their energy requirements.
Effect of neutering
Neutering is clearly a risk factor for obesity (Larsen and Villaverde, 2016. It has been
suggested that sterilization results in an increased food and energy intake (Jeusette et al.,
2004), but there is no clear described effect on basal metabolic rate. Neutering seems to have
an effect on voluntary physical activity (Schauf et al., 2016), which could be the drive for the
lower energy needs described in castrated dogs (Bermingham et al., 2014; Thes et al., 2016).
Effect of activity
In the above mentioned meta-analysis, Bermingham et al. (2014) found that racing dogs had
higher energy requirements than pet and kennel dogs, with working and hunting dogs falling
in the middle.
Effect of age
Even though some studies have found that older dogs have lower energy requirements than
young adults (Thes et al., 2016), the Bermingham et al. (2014) did not identify this finding,
but likely due to the small sample size. Obesity is more common in middle aged dogs vs
young adults, which supports the theory that older dogs have lower energy needs, likely

46
related to lower physical activity. Moreover, osteoarthritis, a disease that decreases physical
activity, is common in older dogs. |FEDIAF (2017) gives different recommendations for 3 age
groups: 1-2, 3-7, and older than 7, where the kcal/kg 0.75 are 130, 110, and 95 respectively.
Nutrient requirements
The diet must provide all required essential nutrients by adult dogs; 41 according to the NRC
(2006) and 38 according to FEDIAF (2017); above the minimum requirement and below any
safe upper limit (or a legally determined maximum). Nutrients should be in balance with each
other when required and they should be balanced with the energy density of the diet. Thus,
when the dog eats the energy required to maintain a stable BW, all nutrient requirements will
be met in those amounts. Non-essential nutrients commonly included in dog food include
starch (source of energy), fiber (effects on satiety and intestinal tract function), and some
functional ingredients.
Regarding macronutrients, there is no ideal macronutrient profile (protein/fat, carbohydrates)
described, as long as minimum needs for protein and fat are met (carbohydrates are not considered
an essential nutrient in non-reproducing dogs) and the maximums are not exceeded. There is
no maximum described for protein, but there is for fat, associated to the risk of pancreatitis.
The effect of aging on nutrient requirements (separated from energy) is controversial, and
there are at this point no general recommendations for senior pets vs young adults. Larsen and
Farcas (2014) have a good review on this topic
Feeding protocols for adult dogs
A complete nutritional evaluation (Freeman et al., 2011) has to be performed in each patient
at each visit in order to identify factors that might affect energy and nutrient needs.
Information from the signalment (breed, age, sexual status), history (activity, temperament,
vomiting/diarrhea, presence of diseases, medications), and physical exam (BCS, muscle
condition score, skin and coat condition, diagnostic of new diseases) will all give pertinent
information to decide on the best feeding plan. The WSAVA has a nutrition toolkit
(www.wsava.org/nutrition-toolkitnutrition) with BCS charts, muscle condition score charts,
diet history forms, etc. to help us perform this.
Amount to feed
This will be determined by energy needs. Pet food companies give their gram recommendations
based on these or other equations. In any case, this is a starting point and the amount fed will
require adjustment (initially every 2 weeks, monthly after) to ensure a stable BW and an ideal
BCS. One study found that Labradors that were maintained at a BCS of 4/9 lived longer and
health issues appeared later compared to a control group with a BCS of around 6/9 (Kealy et
al., 2002). Neutering is considered to decrease energy needs by 20-30%. This should be
instituted right after the surgery. If the owners wish it, a percentage (maximum 10%) of the
daily calories can be used to feed treats or unbalanced food items. A high amount of

47
treats/table scraps/extras can result in excess energy intake and nutrient dilution.
Diet choice
There are thousands of diets in the marked, made by hundreds of companies. The WSAVA
has a document aimed for pet owners to help them navigate this complex market in their
toolkit
(http://www.wsava.org/sites/default/files/Recommendations%20on%20Selecting%20Pet%20
Foods.pdf). Price alone does not determine the quality of a diet, and some diets are very
expensive based on ingredient-based marketing and little investment in science and research.
There are several maintenance diets with further specialization, such as sensitive
skin/stomach, breed specific, size specific, etc. There are no official recommendations on
many of these items, but that does not mean that these diets only exist for marketing reasons
and are without merit. These diets will differ in ingredients, fiber amount and type,
macronutrient composition, digestibility, presence of omega 3 fatty acids, etc. It is important
to consider all the groups of diets that make up the adult maintenance market and familiarize
ourselves with their characteristics. This will allow customization when recommending a pet
food for an adult dog.
In short, choose a diet that is complete for adult dogs, that is from a reputable company, and
that has nutritional and energy characteristics that adjust to the lifestyle and other
characteristics of the dog and its owners. As circumstances change, diet changes might be
necessary, which will be noted with subsequent nutritional evaluations.
Feeding method
The main feeding methods are ad libitum (food always available) or portion control (by time
or by amount). Ad libitum feeding is easy and convenient, but is only recommended in cases
where the adult dog is able to self-control their energy intake to maintain an ideal BCS.
Portion control by amount is the best method to maintain a proper oversight on food intake
and prevent undesired weight gain, but it is more cumbersome.
Follow up
Healthy adult dogs should be seen by their veterinarian at least once a year, and a nutritional
evaluation performed at each visit to identify any items that can be caused by an inadequate
feeding plan (such as obesity) or that can be managed by diet.

48
References
Bermingham, E.N., Thomas, D.G., Cave, N.J., Morris, P.J., Butterwick, R.F., and German, A.J., 2014.
Energy requirements of adult dogs: a meta-analysis. PLoS One 14 9:e109681.
FEDIAF (Fédération européenne de l’industrie des aliments pour animaux familiers), 2017.
Nutritional Guidelines for Complete and Complementary Pet Food for Cats and Dogs.
www.fediaf.org/self-regulation/nutrition)
Freeman, L., Becvarova, I., Cave, N., MacKay, C., Nguyen, P., Rama, B., Takashima, G., Tiffin, R.,
van Beukelen, P., Yathiraj, S., 2011. WSAVA Nutritional Assessment Guidelines Task Force.
WSAVA Nutritional Assessment Guidelines. Compend Contin Educ Vet 33:E1-9.
Gross, K.L., Yamka, R.M., Khoo, C., Friesen, K.G., Jewell, D.E., Schoenherr, W.D., Debraekeleer, J.,
and Zicker, S.C., 2010. Macronutrients. In: Hand, M.S., Thatcher, C.D., Remillard, R.L.,
Roudebush, P., and Novotny, B.J. (eds.) Small Animal Clinical Nutrition (5 th ed). Mark Morris
Institute, Topeka, KS, USA, pp.49-105.
Jeusette, I., Detilleux, J., Cuvelier, C., Istasse, L., Diez, M., 2004. Ad libitum feeding following
ovariectomy in female Beagle dogs: effect on maintenance energy requirement and on blood
metabolites. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr 88:117-21.
Kealy, R.D., Lawler, D.F., Ballam, J.M., Mantz, S.L., Biery, D.N., Greeley, E.H., Lust, G., Segre, M.,
Smith, G.K., Stowe, H.D., 2002. Effects of diet restriction on life span and age-related
changes in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 220:1315-20.
Larsen, J.A., Farcas, A., 2014. Nutrition of aging dogs. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 44:741-
59.
Larsen, J.A., Villaverde, C., 2016. Scope of the Problem and Perception by Owners and Veterinarians.
Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract.46:761-72.
NRC (National Research Council), 2006. Nutrient Requirements of Dogs and Cats. National Academy
of Sciences, Washington, DC, USA.
Raffan, E., Dennis, R.J., O'Donovan, C.J., Becker, J.M., Scott, R.A., Smith, S.P., Withers, D.J., Wood,
C.J., Conci, E., Clements, D.N., Summers, K.M., German, A.J., Mellersh, C.S., Arendt, M.L.,
Iyemere, V.P., Withers, E., Söder, J., Wernersson, S., Andersson, G., Lindblad-Toh, K., Yeo,
G.S., O'Rahilly, S., 2016. A Deletion in the Canine POMC Gene Is Associated with Weight
and Appetite in Obesity-Prone Labrador Retriever Dogs. Cell Metab. 23:893-900.
Schauf, S., Salas-Mani, A., Torre, C., Bosch, G., Swarts, H., Castrillo, C., 2016. Effect of sterilization
and of dietary fat and carbohydrate content on food intake, activity level, and blood satietyrelated
hormones in female dogs. J Anim Sci. 94:4239-4250.
Thes, M., Koeber, N., Fritz, J., Wendel, F., Dillitzer, N., Dobenecker, B., Kienzle, E., 2016.
Metabolizable energy intake of client-owned adult dogs. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr 100:813-
9.

49
Feeding and nutrition of the cat: from young adult to geriatric
Ana Luísa Lourenço
Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD), Vila Real, Portugal
Email: analou@utad.pt
Introduction
In feeding adult cats, nutritional goals are to maintain optimal physiological functions, thus,
slow or prevent the progression of metabolic changes associated with aging, to enhance quality
of life, to prevent disease and, if possible, to increase life expectancy. Although the “ideal” diet
cannot be identified and probably differs from cat to cat, much is already researched and known
as to what an adult cat’s diet concerns. It is thus essential to base nutritional decisions on the
most solid scientific knowledge to be able to achieve these nutritional goals.
In general, it is consensual to state that a suitable diet for a cat should be complete and balanced
for this species, free from any chemical, biological or physical threat and palatable. Because if
the cat does not eat the diet in adequate amounts, it does not matter how well formulated or safe
it is, because then it is, by definition, not suitable.
Energy requirements
The cats ME requirements are often expressed per kg 0.67 body weight (BW) because this seems
to be the unit that better scales the metabolic rate in intraspecies comparison (NRC, 2006).
Sometimes kg 0.75 BW is used because it better scales the metabolic rate in interspecies
comparison (Brody et al., 1934), and finally, for simplification purposes, and since there is not
much variation in body size among cats, the energy requirements are often expressed by kg 1
BW. In practice, any of these methods are valid, as long as the proper equation is used.
The daily energy requirements expressed in metabolizable energy (ME) of an adult cat can be
estimated based on different equations. Reliable estimation equations can be found in NRC
(2006a) or in FEDIAF (2017a). More practical and easy to use equations can also be found in
Gross et al. (2010). Reliable does not mean that they are exact when applied to a specific cat,
since a quite different energy requirement can be observed in individual cats with similar
characteristics and in similar conditions Gross et al. (2010), hence the individual variation can
be quite high.
Fitting the energy intake to the cat requirements might be a challenge, especially following
neutering. Neutering is suggested to affect the energy balance of cats through 3 possible main
effects (see German et al., 2006 and NRC, 2006 for references): lower the metabolic rate
between neutered and entire individuals, disturbance of feeding behaviour leading to increased
food intake, and decreased activity without a corresponding decrease in energy intake.
Mitsuhashi et al. (2011) showed that neutering or spaying can reduce the energy requirement
estimated by NRC (2006) by 25%. Wei et al. (2014) showed lower energy requirements and

50
changes in the concentration of hormones related to the energy metabolism (e.g, Ghrelin and
leptin) as soon as 9 days after the neutering of male cats. Activity level and thermal adjustment
also have an impact on energy expenditure and, as a result, seasonal variability can be high in
cats, in particular in cats with outdoor access (Serisier et al. 2004).
In older cats, overweight and obesity tend to be less prevalent and underweight more prevalent
in comparison to younger cats (Scarlett and Donoghue, 1994). This observation seems to be in
disagreement with the evidence that older cats have lower energy requirements due to lower
activity and/or lower proportion of lean body mass i.e. less metabolic active tissue. The lower
digestive capacity found in older cats might be one explanation for the observed body
composition pattern in the cat population (Laflamme, 2005).
The most practical way to assess the suitability of the energy intake of the cat is to evaluate its
body condition with a validated scoring system. The body condition can be assessed using the
scientifically validated 9-point scale body condition system (BCS) by Laflamme (1997), which
is described in an accurate and easy way in FEDIAF (2017) and illustrated in the WSAVA chart.
In cats, there is no well-determined specific breed effect on energy requirement, although
domestic short hair cats frequently pop-up in literature as being obese prone (e.g. German et al.
2006). In accordance, the results of a study by Bjornvad et al. (2011) suggest that a BCS of 4/9
(instead of 5/9) should be used as ideal body posture for domestic short hair cats.
In conclusion, after an educated energy requirement is assessed, the daily allowance should
then be adapted to maintain a steady and ideal body weight and body condition for each cat.
This means that frequent follow up on body condition and body weight is needed to adjust the
daily allowance to the specific needs of the individual cat.
Nutrient requirements
A diet for adult cats is considered to be complete when it includes all the nutrients known to be
essential for an adult cats and balanced when those nutrients concentration per ME unit (usually
expressed 100 or 1000 kcal) are equal or above the minimum required and lower that toxic
levels for this species and this life stage. Guidelines for requirements in cats can be found in
NRC (2006) or FEDIAF (2017).
Although not essential, carbohydrates (as source of energy and specifically glucose) and
functional ingredients, e.g. fiber, are usually included in the cat’s diets. The first to provide
energy the later for gut health purposes.
Aging is defined as the progressive changes that occur after maturity in various organs, leading
to a decrease in their functional ability (Armstrong & Lund, 1996). Although the aging process
is considered to influence the nutritional requirement of the animal, specific nutritional
guidelines for senior animals are not (yet) available. There are, at least, two main reasons why
there are no specific nutritional guidelines for older cats: 1) genetic and environmental
background of each animal has a major impact in aging, thus, chronological and physiological

51
ages do not always match; 2) there is quite some controversy on where and if nutritional
guidelines should differ between older and younger adult healthy cats (see review Laflamme &.
Gunn-Moore, 2014).
Probably due to their strict carnivore evolutionary nature cats developed an idiosyncratic
metabolism and, with it, a peculiar dietary requirements when compared to many other species.
This include specific amino acids (carnitine, arginine, taurine) and some vitamins (niacin, A,
and D) (read for details Morris, 2002).
Protein
Protein provides energy and is a source of nitrogen and essential amino acids. Signs of protein
and amino acid deficiencies include lack of growth (in animals that are still growing), decrease
in food intake, muscle wasting, hypoalbuminemia, skin and fur alterations, a decrease in
essential plasma amino acid concentrations, among other signs.
There are no known excess amount of protein that would cause an adverse effect when fed to
adult healthy cats. Thus, there is no upper limit recommendation in the guidelines of NRC
(2006) or FEDIAF (2017) for protein.
Minimum protein and amino acid requirements in adult cats were established using mainly
nitrogen balance studies and these were used by NRC (2006) and FEDIAF (2017) to establish
protein and amino acids recommendations. Laflamme & Hanna (2013) fed adult cats 3 different
dietary protein concentrations for 2 months. Their results showed that minimum protein intake
to maintain a zero nitrogen balance was 2.1 g/kg 0.75, whereas the amount of protein to
maintain lean body mass (LBM) was estimated to be 7.8 g/kg0.75. These researchers suggested
that to maintain adequate muscle mass higher amount of protein than the recommended by NRC
would be needed.
Arginine is needed in sufficient amounts for the urea cycle. Cats are unable to synthesize
significant quantities of ornithine or citrulline within the intestine and both are precursors to
arginine synthesis (Armstrong et al., 2010). Although only reported with experimental diets,
arginine deficiency can have dramatic effects in cats. High protein diets without arginine were
reported to cause hyperammonemia in less than one hour, with severe signs of toxicity (i.e.,
vocalization, emesis, ptyalism, hyper activity, hyperesthesia, ataxia, tetanic spasms, extended
limbs with exposed claws, apnea and cyanosis) and to cause death within two to five hours of
intake (MacDonald et al., 1984).
Taurine is a β-amino sulfonic acid, abundant as a free amino acid in the natural food of cats,
such as small rodents, birds and fish. .Many species can use either glycine or taurine to
conjugate bile acids into bile salts before they are secreted into bile. Cats can only conjugate
bile acids with taurine. Three syndromes of taurine deficiency in cats have been well
established: 1) feline central retinal degeneration, 2) reproductive failure and impaired fetal
development and 3) feline dilated cardiomyopathy (Armstrong et al., 2010). Hearing loss,
platelet hyperaggregation and impaired immune function have also been demonstrated.

52
Fat
Fat, in addition to providing energy and fat soluble vitamins, also provides essential fatty acids.
Typical signs of essential fatty acids deficiency in adult cats are dry coat and dandruff, mainly
due to the linoleic acid role in the skin functional structure.
Essential are polyunsaturated fatty acids, namely alpha-linolenic (C18:3 3), linoleic acid
(C18:2 6), arachidonic (C20:4 6), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5 3), and
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6 3), that cannot be synthesized by the cat’s metabolism in
enough quantities. Arachidonic acid. Arachidonic acid is considered essential for adult cats, but
not for adult dogs, this is due to the fact that delta6 desaturase (Sinclair et al, 1979), the enzyme
that converts alpha-linolenic into arachidonic acid, has low activity in cats (Morris, 2002).
Both NRC and FEDIAF define minimum recommendations for adult cats but only NRC defines
safe upper limits for total fat, linoleic acid, and arachidonic acid. The NRC upper limits were
established as a precaution because no adverse effects of their excess have been described in cats.
Carbohydrates
Although carbohydrates are not considered essential nutrients for adult cat’s (NRC, 2006), Like
in other species, cat cells also metabolize glucose, which is metabolically essential, and when
not obtained from the diet is synthesized from glucogenic amino acids (ketoacids), lactic acid
or glycerol (Verbrugghe et al., 2012). If no carbohydrates are included in the diet, the energy
requirements of the cat has to be provided solely by the protein and fat. The effect of such a
diet in the long run is actually unknown, and although it would mimic the natural diet of the
cat, one should keep in mind that nature’s goal is not a long and healthy life for the individual,
but procreation and survival of the species.
Thus, carbohydrates are frequently included in the diet of this species. This fact together with
the low carbohydrates content found in the natural diet of the cat (Plantinga et al. 2011)
generates a lot of controversy and gives a fertile ground for growth of misconceptions side by
side with true facts.
Cats have lower ability then other species to digest dietary starch. They lack salivary amylase
(Morris et al. 1977; McGeachin & Akin 1979,), pancreatic amylase production is 5% of that in
dogs and its production is relatively nonadaptive (Kienzle 1993a). Intestinal transport of sugar
to the enterocyte seems to poorly adapt to the dietary carbohydrate content (Buddington et al.
1991). Nevertheless, cats can digest and absorb considerable amounts of well-cooked
carbohydrates in their diet (Kienzle 1993b), this means cats can digest, absorb, and use
carbohydrates obtained from the diet, in the amounts commonly used in commercial feline
foods (20%–40% ME).
Vitamins
Vitamin A or retinol occurs naturally only in animal tissue. Plants synthesize carotenoid
substances that may hold some retinol activity (e.g., β-carotene). Omnivorous and herbivorous

53
animals can convert β-carotene to vitamin A; cats lack intestinal dioxygenase that cleaves β-
carotene (vitamin A precursor to retinol, Armstrong et al. 2010). Two recent reports suggest
that NRC (2006) safe upper limit for vitamin A might be too high due to skeletal, liver (Corbee
et al., 2014) and renal (Corbee et al., 2017) pathogical changes that were observed in adult cats
fed Vitamin A levels close to the safe upper limit.
Vitamin D is not produced efficiently, under the influence of UV light, in the skin of cats, as in
many other carnivores, due to an alternate pathway that rapidly metabolizes 7-dehydrocholesterol
(Morris, 2002). Vitamin D is fairly ubiquitous in animal fats and primary vitamin D deficiency
has been identified only in cats fed experimental diets (Armstrong et al. 2010).
Niacin is not efficiently produced from tryptophan in cats (DaSilva et al. 1952) due to the
activity of picolinic carboxylase, an enzyme in the catabolic pathway, that far exceeds the rate
of niacin synthesis (Morris, 2002).
Pyridoxine (vitamin B6) is part of all transaminases (Stryer, 1975) in the body, which are
enzymes that are important in the catabolism of protein. Since cats obtain considerable amounts
of energy from dietary protein, pyridoxine requirement of cats are relatively high.
Palatability and Digestibility
The most precisely formulated diet will only provide the required energy and nutrients if the
cat is willing to eat it in the proper amounts and if the digestibility allows adequate absorption
of those nutrients. Cats are very sensible to the aroma, size and texture of the diet. The
preferences of a cat seem to be early shaped in life, thus a special attention should be given to
the shaping of preferences by kittens, thus providing different food characteristics early in life
(Bradshaw 2006). It is also known that aging in cats has a detrimental effect on digestibility
(Laflamme 2005), thus, it is highly important to offer highly digestible diets to older cats.
Careful observation is required to establish individual preferences.
Feeding management
The eating behavior of cats favors small frequent feedings (Kane et al. 1981). Food always
available (ad libitum) allows the mimic of this pattern. This it is not advisable when the cat
cannot adjust the amount of food (energy) intake to its needs, leading to increases in its body
condition. Also feeding wet food is not suitable for an ad libitum feeding strategy, due to
bacterial overgrowth in the food when left at room temperature for longer periods. Thus, wet
food will require quick and discrete meals.
Portion control by amount is the best method to prevent overconsumption. In cats, any method
or device that would allow several meals of a defined daily meal is welcome.
Whether ad libitum or portion controlled it is advisable to keep track of the daily amount
ingested to be able to relate the actual diet with the BCS or any health issue that the cat might
develop.

54
References
Bradshaw JW, 2006. The evolutionary basis for the feeding behavior of domestic dogs (Canis familiaris)
and cats (Felis catus). Journal of Nutrition, 136:1927S – 1931S.
Gross KL, Yamka RM, Khoo C, Freisen KG, Jewell DE, Schoener WD, Debraekeleer J, Zicker SC.
2010a. Macronutrients, micronutrients: minerals and vitamins. In: Hand MS, ed. Small Animal
Clinical Nutrition, 5th Ed. Topeka, Kan: Mark Morris Institute, pp 49 – 148.
FEDIAF (Fédération européenne de l’industrie des aliments pour animaux familiers), 2017. Nutritional
Guidelines for Complete and Complementary Pet Food for Cats and Dogs. www.fediaf.org/selfregulation/nutrition)
NRC 2006. Chapter 15: Nutrient requirements and dietary nutrient concentrations. In: Nutrient
Requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies Press, Washington, DC, USA, 2006c: 354
– 370.
German AJ, 2006. The growing problem of obesity in dogs and cats. J Nutr; 1940S–6S. Journal of
Nutrition 136:1940S – 1946S.
Mitsuhashi Y, Chamberlin AJ, Bigley KE, Bauer JE, 2011. Maintenance energy requirement
determination of cats after spaying. British Journal of Nutrition 106:S135–138.
Wei A, Fascetti AJ, Kim K, Lee A, Graham JL, Peter J. Havel PJ, Ramsey JJ, 2014. Early Effects of
Neutering on Energy Expenditure in Adult Male Cats. PLoS ONE 9: e89557.
Serisier S, Feugier A, Delmotte S, Biourge V, German AJ, 2014. Seasonal Variation in the Voluntary
Food Intake of Domesticated Cats (Felis Catus). PLoS ONE 9: e96071.
Scarlett JM, Donoghue S, Saidla J, Wills J, 1994. Overweight cats: prevalence and risk factors.
International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 18:S22–S28.
Laflamme DP, 2005. Nutrition for aging cats and dogs and the importance of body condition. Veterinary
Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 35:713–742.
Laflamme DP, 1997. Development and validation of a body condition score system for cats: a clinical
tool. Feline Practice 25:13–18.
Bjornvad CR, Nielsen DH, Armstrong PJ, McEvoy F, Hoelmkjaer KM, Jensen KS, Pedersen GF,
Kristensen AT, 2011. Evaluation of a nine-point body condition scoring system in physically
inactive pet cats. American Journal of Veterinary Research 72:433–437.
Laflamme D, Gunn-Moore D, 2014. Nutrition of aging cats. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small
Animal Practice 44:761–774.
Armstrong, PJ, Lund EM, 1996. Changes in body composition and energy balance with aging.
Veterinary Clinical Nutrition. 3: 83–87.
Armstrong PJ, Gross KL, Becvarova I, Debraekeleer J, 2010. Introduction to Feeding Normal Cats. In:
Hand MS, ed. Small Animal Clinical Nutrition, 5th Ed. Topeka, Kan: Mark Morris Institute, pp
361 – 372.
MacDonald ML, Rogers QR, Morris JG, 1994. Nutrition of the domestic cat, a mammalian carnivore.
Annual Review of Nutrition 4:521-562.
Morris JG, 2002. Idiosyncratic nutrient requirements of cats appear to be diet-induced evolutionary
adaptations. Nutrition Research Reviews 15: 153 – 168.
Sinclair AJ, McLean JG, Monger EA, 1979. Metabolism of linoleic acid in the cat. Lipids 14:932–936.

55
McGeachin RL, Akin J, 1979. Amylase levels in the tissues and body fluids of the domestic cat (Felis
catus). Comp Biochem Physiol B 63: 437–439.
Morris JG, Trudell J, Pencovic T, 1977. Carbohydrate digestion by domestic cat (Felis Catus). British
Journal of Nutrition 37:365–373.
Kienzle E, 1993. Carbohydrate metabolism of the cat 1. Activity af amylase in the gastrointestinal tract
of the cat. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 69: 92–101.
Kienzle E, 1993. Carbohydrate metabolism of the cat 2. Digestion of starch. Journal of Animal
Physiology and Animal Nutrition 69: 102–114.
Buddington RK, Chen JW, Diamond JM, 1991. Dietary regulation of intestinal brushborder sugar and
amino acid transport in carnivores. American Journal of Physiology 261: R793–801.
Da Silva AC, Fried S, De Angelis RC, 1952. The domestic cat as a laboratory animal for experimental
nutrition studies. III. Niacin requirements and tryptophan metabolism. Journal of Nutrition
46:399-409.
Corbee RJ, Tryfonidou MA, Grinwis GCM, Schotanus B, Molenaar MR, Voorhout G, Vaandrager AB,
Heuven HCM, Hazewinkel HAW, 2014. Skeletal and hepatic changes induced by chronic
vitamin A supplementation in cats. The Veterinary Journal 202:503–509.
Corbee RJ, 2017: Proceedings of the 20th International Conference of ESVCN. Conference held in
Cirencester, 21-23 September 2017.
Kane E, Rogers QR, Morris JG, Leung PMB, 1981. Feeding behavior of the cat fed laboratory and
commercial diets. Nutrition Research 1: 499–507.
Verbrugghe A, Hesta M, Daminet S, Janssens GP, 2012. Nutritional modulation of insulin resistance in
the true carnivorous cat: a review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 52:172–182.
Laflamme DP, Hannah SS, 2013. Discrepancy between use of lean body mass or nitrogen balance to
determine protein requirements for adult cats. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery 15: 691–
697.
Further reading
In addition, the World Small Animal Veterinary Association has developed several tools that
can aid in nutritional assessment of the cat and can be downloaded from the Web site:
http://www.wsava.org/nutrition-toolkit.

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57
Name: Ronald Jan Corbee
Short CV
Ronald Jan Corbee graduated from vet school in Utrecht in December 2003.
After several temporal positions in first line companion animal practice he was employed by
Dierenkliniek ‘t Ossehoofd in Heerhugowaard, where he worked for 2 years as a veterinarian
for companion animals.
In December 2006 he opened his private practice; Dierenartsenpraktijk Schonauwen in
Houten, which he sold in 2016.
He passed the board certifying exam ECVCN in Zaragoza in September 2011.
In March 2013 he was awarded the University Teaching Qualification.
He successfully defended his PhD (Nutrition and the skeletal health of dogs and cats) in
August 2014.
At the moment he is employed as assistant-professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
Utrecht University.

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Nutrition and dietetics of reproducing dogs and cats
Ronald Jan Corbee
Utrecht University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences of
Companion Animals, Yalelaan 108, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands.
Email:r.j.corbee@uu.nl
Prior to mating
It is important for reproducing dogs and cats to be in ideal body condition. Unfortunately,
almost 20% of show dogs and more than 45% of show cats are overweight (Corbee 2013,
Corbee 2014). Suboptimal body condition results in decreased fertility, increased risks for
complications during gestation, and reduces health and life expectancy of the offspring (Bilkei
1990, Lawler et al. 1999).
Gestation
During gestation there are differences between dogs and cats, as neonatal growth of dogs occurs
mostly during the 2 nd phase of gestation, whereas in cats this already occurs in the 1 st phase.
Dogs phase 1
During the first 4-5 weeks of gestation, bitches should maintain their body weight and ideal
body condition score. An energy dense (>4 kcal Metabolizable Energy (ME) per g) food should
be given that meets the nutrient requirements for early growth and reproduction (FEDIAF
2017), or is labelled as suitable for all life stages (EU legislation 767/2009/EC). Addition of
docosahexaenoic acid (>0.19 g per 100 g) to the diet might improve learning ability, memory,
and vision of the puppies (Heinemann et al. 2005, Heinemann and Bauer 2006). The energy
requirements will be similar to the maintenance energy requirements (MER).
Dogs phase 2
From the 5 th week of gestation, energy requirements of the bitch increase up to 150% of the
MER, because of the rapid growth of the embryos. At the end of gestation, the bitch will have
gained about 25% of body weight. Because of the increased abdominal fill, feeding multiple
small meals of the energy dense diet mentioned earlier is recommended (Greco 2009).
Cats
In cats, the growth of the embryos starts already in the first week of gestation. Energy
requirements during gestation vary greatly among individual cats and gradually increase up to
200% of the MER (Wichert et al. 2009). An energy dense (>4 g kcal ME per g) food should
be given that meets the nutrient requirements for early growth and reproduction (FEDIAF

60
2017), or is labelled as suitable for all life stages (EU legislation 767/2009/EC).
Lactation
Lactation is extremely demanding, and energy requirements go up to 4 times the MER (Greco
2014). Lactation peaks at 3-4 weeks in dogs and 3-7 weeks in cats, after which the milk
production declines as the puppies and kittens are gradually weaned. Most bitches and queens
will be in a negative energy balance despite ad libitum feeding of the energy dense diet as
described above.
Weaning
When puppies and kittens are weaned, the energy requirements of the bitch/queen gradually
decrease. To prevent overweight conditions and to stop milk production, it is suggested to
recommend the following schedule. On the day of total weaning make sure that the bitch/queen
is away from the puppies/kittens without getting any food. On the second day, give one quarter
of the MER, the next day half of the MER, the day thereafter three quarters of the MER and
finally back to MER.
Further reading
Bilkei, G., 1990. Effect of the nutrition status on parturition in the cat. Berliner und Munchener
tierarztliche Wochenschrift 103(2): 49-51.
Corbee, R.J., 2013. Obesity in show dogs. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 97(5):
904-910.
Corbee, R.J., 2014. Obesity in show cats. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 98(6):
1075-1080.
Greco, D.S., 2009. Nutritional Supplements for Pregnant and Lactating Bitches. Topics in Companion
Animal Medicine 24(2): 46-48.
Greco, D.S., 2014. Pediatric nutrition. Veterinary Clinics of North America - Small Animal Practice
44(2): 265-273.
Heinemann, K.M., Waldron, M.K., Bigley, K.E., Lees, G.E., Bauer, J.E., 2005. Long-chain (n-3)
polyunsaturated fatty acids are more efficient than alpha-linolenic acid in improving
electroretinogram responses of puppies exposed during gestation, lactation, and weaning. Journal
of Nutrition 135: 1960–1966.
Heinemann, K.M., Bauer, J.E., 2006. Docosahexaenoic acid and neurologic development in animals.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 228: 700–705.
Lawler, D.F., Johnston, S.D., Keltner, D.G., Ballam, J.M., Kealy, R.D., Bunte, T., et al., 199. Influence
of restricted food intake on estrous cyclesand pseudopregnancies in dogs. Am J Vet Res 60: 820–
825.
Wichert, B., Schade, L., Gebert, S., Bucher, B., Zottmaier, B., Wenk, C., Wanner, M., 2009. Energy
and protein needs of cats for maintenance, gestation and lactation. Journal of Feline Medicine and
Surgery 11(10): 808-815.

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Name: Géraldine Blanchard
Short CV
Géraldine BLANCHARD graduated from the Veterinary School of Alfort (ENVA, France) in
1994, interested in Equine Medicine, but even more in Nutrition.
First oriented to an Academic carrier, she passed the French board certification in nutrition in
1999, her PhD on Lipoprotein metabolism and Hepatic Lipidosis in Cats, and became
Diplomate of the European College of Veterinary and Comparative Nutrition (ECVCN) in
2002.
From 1996, she developed Clinical Nutrition at ENVA, as an Assistant Professor, until 2006. After
a semester as a Senior Lecturer in Australia (University of Queensland, Brisbane), she came
back to France and launched a private consulting company, Animal Nutrition Expertise, a
website to provide online nutrition service www.cuisine-a-crocs.com and a specialist
consultation.
She was president of ECVCN (2010-2013), and is the current president of the Nutrition group of
the French Association of Small Animal Vets (AFVAC). She also keeps running research in
clinical nutrition in carnivores, with a special interest in homemade diets.

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Feeding hunting dogs to facilitate maintenance and recovery
Géraldine Blanchard
Animal Nutrition Expertise sarl, Antony, France
Email: contact@cuisine-a-crocs.com
Introduction
Hunting a highly requesting for the dog’s body, as shown now by inflammation markers
(Casella, 2011 ; Lucas, 2015).
Hunting dogs, along with shepherd dogs, are probably the first dogs used and fed by humans,
either with leftovers or with game. Historically sports dogs, understand hunting dogs, were
probably the first dogs fed with petfood in Europe, in UK in the 19th century.
By then, science has improved efficiency and adequacy of the food and nutrition skills of
dogs, including hunting dogs, even if there is still a lot to be studied. But in practice,
veterinarians are facing in everyday practice situations where hunting dogs suffer from
unbalanced nutrition.
What specific nutrition requirements?
Hunting dogs may use the highest capacity of dogs’ senses: strength, stamina, responsiveness,
endurance, an amazing senses, especially hearing, vision and smell.
All are related to the functionality of neurologic and muscular systems, both highly dependent
of about 40 macro- and micro- nutrients: energy, protein and amino acids, fat and essential fatty
acids, minerals and vitamins.
* The maintenance of the body weight is linked to energy. Energy comes from lipids
(3.5kcal/g), protein (3.5kcal/g) and carbohydrates (3.5kcal/g). But when a dog needs much more
energy due to a physical effort, the best efficiently used source of energy if fat, and specifically
saturated fat. Dogs have a fat metabolism really different from humans’ one, and can easily use
a food where fat brings the major part of energy, the ultimate being high activity sled dogs, in
the regimen of which fat may represent up to 80 % of energy!
*Body condition and health, and muscle mass are influenced by energy intake, but also by the
coverage of the protein requirement to maintain muscle. But protein and amino acids are also
required for almost all biological functions: hair coat and skin, healing, immunity, digestion (thru
secretions, digestive muscles and epithelium), and all senses including smell. A high protein diet
(>25%energy from protein) have also been shown to be more effective in maintaining hematocrit
and plasma volume and lowering injuries (Kronfeld 1989, Reynolds 1999).
Micro-nutrients such as vitamins and trace elements are involved in most metabolisms, oxygen
consumption and oxidation (and anti-oxydation) processes, and including neurology, which is
specifically linked to reactivity but also to all senses, including vision, hearing and smell.

64
Minerals (calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, chloride, magnesium) are involved in
growth, but also homeostasis and recovery and kidney balance, all requiring a minimal amount,
but also with maximal limits for calcium and phosphorus (brought by bones), and balance
between Ca and P (1< Ca:P ratio < 2 in the overall diet at all time of life).
High risk practices
When fed only meat, or mainly carbs, the Ca:P ratio of the diet is between 0 and 1, and this
induces secondary hyperparathyroidism, and may induce kidney failure. Jointly with
dehydration encountered in dongs hunting a full day with no drinking water available, this
situation explains the severe and acute renal failure encountered in young adults dogs…
The coverage of all nutrient requirements should not be minimal in hunting dogs if one wants
to preserve their health and make them express the best their hunting potential.
Are carbohydrates interesting between phases of intense exercise? This is controversial
depending of the studies (Reynolds 1997 ; Huntingford 2014).
How to feed hunting dogs?
To prevent nutrition-related disease due to unbalanced diets, dogs should first have their basic
nutrition requirements covered, even during off season.
In hunting season, the diet must be adapted to provide at least the minimal requirements for
each and every nutrient, and the additional energy required by additional saturated fat rather
than only unsaturated but more information is still required about the best amount of
polyunsaturated fatty acids (Davenport 2001 ; Angle, 2014; Altom, 2003).
So far, to prolonged and maximize the hunting efficiency, a diet providing more than the
minimal amount of protein, essential fatty acids, vitamins and minerals should be
recommended.
Various options may be used, here are 2 examples:
- Change the diet for a high digestibility (digestibility of protein >85%) diet, with higher
concentration of fat (>50% energy from fat), protein (>25% of energy from protein, >30%
protein/dry matter), minerals, vitamins and trace elements, and lower % of carbohydrates,
and a minimal amount of fiber to maintain digestive health.
- An alternative is to add the regular maintenance diet a mix of (saturated fat + muscle
meat + a mineral vitamin supplement with calcium, but no phosphorus, vitamins and trace
elements +/- rapeseed oil depending of the basal diet).
Any change of diet must be progressive, and the amount of energy adapted to the activity to
maintain a body condition score thin (4/9) but not skinny in season, and normal (5/9) off
season.

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Do not forget water!
Activity increase water loss, but also metabolism turn over, which itself requires more water
to drain wastes produced by the increased metabolism.
Conclusion
Hunting dogs are fed variously, from the poorest possible diet to the best one. It may take a
hunting dog several years of training to be efficient; And as an adapted nutrition has a longterm
impact on health and capacities, nutrition shall be considered as a long term investment
rather than a daily burden.
Further reading
Ahlstrom O, Redman P, Speakman J. Energy expenditure and water turnover in hunting dogs in winter
conditions. Br. J. Nutr. 2011 Br J Nutr. 2011; 106 Suppl 1:S158-61.
Altom EK, Davenport GM, Myers LJ, Cummins KA. Effect of dietary fat source and exercise on
odorant-detecting ability of canine athletes. Res Vet Sci. 2003; 75 (2):149-55.
Casella S, Fazio F, Russo C, Giudice E, Piccione G. Acute phase proteins response in hunting dogs. J
Vet Diagn Invest. 2013; 25 (5):577-80.
Huntingford JL, Kirn BN, Cramer K, Mann S, Wakshlag JJ. Evaluation of a performance enhancing
supplement in American Foxhounds during eventing. J Nutr Sci. 2014; 25; 3: e 24
Angle CT, Wakshlag JJ, Gillette RL, Steury T, Haney P, Barrett J, Fisher T. The effects of exercise and
diet on olfactory capability in detection dogs. J Nutr Sci. 2014 13;3: e 44;
Hill R. et al., Effect of mild restriction of food intake on the speed of racing Greyhounds. Am J Vet Res.
2005; 66 (6):1065-70.
Kronfeld DS, Adkins TO & Downey RL (1989) Nutrition, anaerobic and aerobic exercise and stress. In
Nutrition of Dog and Cat: Waltham Symposium, 1989, pp. 133-145 [IH Burger and JPW Rivers,
editors]. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Reynolds AJ, Reinhart GA, Carey DP, Simmerman DA, Frank DA, Kallfelz FA. Effect of protein intake
during training on biochemical and performance variables in sled dogs. Am J Vet Res. 1999; 60
(7):789-95.
Lucas V, Barrera R, Duque FJ, Ruiz P, Zaragoza C. Effect of exercise on serum markers of muscle
inflammation in Spanish Greyhounds. Am J Vet Res. 2015; 76 (7):637-43.
Reynolds AJ, Carey DP, Reinhart GA, Swenson RA, Kallfelz FA. Effect of post-exercise carbohydrate
supplementation on muscle glycogen repletion in trained sled dogs. Am J Vet Res.
1997;58(11):1252-6.

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Tips and tricks for feeding enrichment in dogs and cats
Galena Quist
Rybachuk
The goal of feeding enrichment is to strive for richer feeding as activity, not excess energy or
unbalanced nutrition. Feeding is the moment of interaction with a human. If we are to modify
this activity in any way, we first must consider the nutritional and emotional needs fulfilled by
it. There has been a wealth of articles published on the topic of owner behaviour around feeding
of pet dogs and cats. The most common interpretation is that owner’s affection and love is often
pronounced through feeding. The relationship between the pet and the owner is complex,
especially so around the feeding behavior.
Food plays major role in the process of development of a close, interpersonal relationship,
bonding. One of the strongest bonds in the animal kingdom is a feeding bond. Oxytocin release
in the brain in response to sensory stimulation such as food intake and low intensity stimulation
of the skin, e.g., touch, stroking, warm temperature, etc. contributes to every day wellbeing and
our ability to handle stress (Uvnäs-Moberg, 2014). Vasopressin is another hormone involved
in the bonding process.
Owners’ feelings of “happiness” is based on the perception that the pet is enjoying the
experience. The owners have certain criteria to evaluate the feeding enjoyment, consequently,
their perception of a diet’s palatability, the amount of food consumed during a definitive period
(Tobie et al 2015). These are the time it takes before pet is approaching the food – immediate
attractiveness; the strength of animal’s motivation to eat – begging, bringing the food bowl;
which food is preferred when several are offered; how much and how fast the pet eats; and for
how long the food is left in the bowl. Treats are also used to show owners affection, to respond
to begging and as a positive reinforcement to influence pet behavior. In one study (White at al
2016) of 280 pet owners in UK, 96% fed treats and almost 70% fed them daily, and correctly
perceived treats as nutrition rather than a toy.
What and how the pet is fed is influenced by owner’s beliefs about specific pet needs, pet food
and pet health. Veterinarians and specialists in nutrition face challenges to promote sciencebased
knowledge about pet needs, pet food and pet health. In the study by Downes at al (2017)
owners reported that they have little control over feeding process as a result of multiple people
feeding the pet, pet begging or stealing, and the pets attitude towards food. Overall, combination
of owner’s belief about feeing and perceived control over the process influences the feeding
behavior and thus, health outcomes for pet dogs and cats.
The goal of food based enrichment is to prolong feeding times, challenge the mind and stimulate
the senses through opportunity to explore novel items, taste and textures, and environments,
reduce boredom, and give a level of control to both the owner and the pet. It can be used to
promote healthy weight, transitioning to a new diet, rehabilitation following illness (weaning
from tube feeding), forming better habits and behaviors (stop begging or finicky eating), etc.

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There are many ways to make the feeding activity more enriching. For example, changes in
feeding regime such as more frequent meals and varied feed offerings. Introducing the
challenges to obtain the food, varied food dispensing – feeding toys, mats will shift owners joy
of seeing the pet eating, to the joy of seeing him playing, learning and exploring. However,
most enrichment tricks require transition from “human animal bonding moment” to “challenge
of obtaining food”. So, as in the case of weight loss programs, owner must recognize the need
for the major lifestyle change and be willing to make a commitment to change.
References
Downes, M. J., Devitt, C., Downes, M. T., & More, S. J. (2017). Understanding the context for pet cat
and dog feeding and exercising behaviour among pet owners in Ireland: a qualitative
study. Irish Veterinary Journal, 70, 29. http://doi.org/10.1186/s13620-017-0107-8
O’Haire, M. E., McKenzie, S. J., Beck, A. M., & Slaughter, V. (2013). Social Behaviors Increase in
Children with Autism in the Presence of Animals Compared to Toys. PLoS ONE, 8(2),
e57010. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0057010
Uvnäs-Moberg, K., Handlin, L., & Petersson, M. (2014). Self-soothing behaviors with particular
reference to oxytocin release induced by non-noxious sensory stimulation. Frontiers in
Psychology, 5, 1529. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01529
Wichert, B., Trossen, J., Uebelhart, D., Wanner, M., & Hartnack, S. (2012). Energy Requirement and
Food Intake Behaviour in Young Adult Intact Male Cats with and without Predisposition to
Overweight. The Scientific World Journal, 2012, 509854. http://doi.org/10.1100/2012/509854
Tobie, C., Péron, F., & Larose, C. (2015). Assessing Food Preferences in Dogs and Cats: A Review of
the Current Methods. Animals : An Open Access Journal from MDPI, 5(1), 126–137.
http://doi.org/10.3390/ani5010126
White GA, Ward L, Pink C, Craigon J, Millar KM. (2016). "Who's been a good dog?" - Owner
perceptions and motivations for treat giving. Prev Vet Med. Sep 15;132:14-19. doi:
10.1016/j.prevetmed.2016.08.002

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Name: Guido Bosch
Short CV
Guido Bosch is a researcher in the Animal Nutrition Group of Wageningen University, the
Netherlands.
He obtained his PhD degree for his work on the influence of nutrition on behaviour in dogs.
Currently, his main area of expertise is food evaluation research in pet, zoo and production
animals.
His research is mainly focused on understanding the food properties that drive appetite and
food intake behaviour and on the evaluation of nutritional and (dys)functional characteristics
of (novel) foods and ingredients.
Furthermore, he has a strong interest in the evolutionary history and feeding ecology of
animals, which may help to further understand the origin of their digestive physiological and
metabolic idiosyncrasies and to improve their foods for health and longevity.

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Natural feeding of the cat and dog and the idiosyncrasies of these
carnivores
Guido Bosch 1 , Esther Hagen-Plantinga 2 , Wouter Hendriks 1,2
1 Wageningen University, Department of Animal Science,Wageningen, the Netherlands.
2 Utrecht University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chair of Nutrition, Utrecht, the
Netherlands.
Email: guido.bosch@wur.nl, e.a.plantinga@uu.nl
Introduction
The domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) and cat (Felis silvestris catus) share a long history
of co-existence with humans that intensified over time. Many households consider their pet
dogs and cats as family members and feed their pets commercially prepared foods that are, in
general, nutritionally balanced and safe. The fundamental basis of formulating nutritionally
complete foods lays in important studies that determined the minimal requirements of essential
nutrients and maximal levels to prevent nutrient toxicity. These studies have also contributed
to our current understanding of the digestive physiology and metabolism of both dogs and cats.
A range of similarities but also differences between these species were revealed. Cats show
various so-called “metabolic idiosyncrasies” that were suggested to reflect the carnivorous
nature of cats (Morris, 2002). Dogs, however, do not or to a lesser extent show the
idiosyncrasies and appear to be more similar with omnivores (e.g. man, pigs, rats) and have,
therefore, been labelled as omnivorous in nature (Hand et al., 2010; NRC, 2006). However, the
‘omnivorous’ physiological and metabolic traits do not match with the carnivorous foraging
ecology of the dog’s ancestor, i.e. the grey wolf (C. lupus). Here we consider the nutritional
conditions of dog and cat evolution and domestication to understand these differences between
dogs and cats. For further reading we refer to Bosch et al. (2015) and Plantinga et al. (2011).
Evolutionary and domestication history
Although most modern-day dogs no longer look like wolves, the dog is a direct descendent of
the grey wolf (Leonard et al., 2002; Vilà et al., 1997). Actually, dogs are a subspecies of wolves
as they can still interbreed and produce fertile offspring. The process of wolf domestication
started about 18,000 to 32,000 years ago (Thalmann et al., 2013). In this period, the first socalled
‘proto-dogs’ proved useful as guards and as hunters for the hunting-gatherers (Driscoll
et al., 2009). Their diet switched from a wolf-diet, to one that was related to the diet of the
hunting-gatherers. Between 13,000 and 17,000 it further changed to one related to the early
agriculturists in the Fertile Crescent. For example, it was estimated that 65 to 90% of the diets
of northern Chinese dogs living 9000 years ago were comprised of millet alone (Pechenkina et
al., 2005). In another study focusing on in Siberia 7000 to 6000 years ago, similarities were
found between the diets of dogs and humans, which were different from a wolf’s diet (Losey et
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The domestication of cats starter later than for dogs (~10,000 years ago) (Driscoll et al., 2007).
Furthermore, our modern cats originate from at least five distinctive subspecies of the wildcat
(F. silvestris). It is believed that vermin like rodents and birds in houses, farms, and settlements
attracted cats and humans valued them for their hunting capabilities. In contrast to dogs,
modern-day cats still show remarkable resemblance, both in physique and behaviour, with their
wild ancestors. Some researchers even state that cats are considered only a semi-domesticated
species, because many populations are not isolated from wildcats and humans often do not
control their food supply or breeding (Driscoll et al., 2009).
Natural feeding ecology
Wildcats (F. silvestris) and feral/stray domestic cats are predominantly solitary and hunt
individually catching a variety of mainly rodents (e.g. mice, voles) but also lagomorphs, birds
reptiles and insects can be part of their diet. The small vertebrate preys are about 1% of the cat’s
body mass. Larger prey and opportunistic feeding have been reported like for feral cats on
Macquarie Island (Australia) where cats preyed on rabbits over 1300 g and scavenged on dead
elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) and penguins particularly during Winter time (Jones, 1977).
When preying on mice or voles, an adult cat would require about 18 mice or 8 voles every day
(Bosch and Hendriks, 2014). These small prey species reach high population densities and
remain fairly common and can support small carnivores like cats. The cat’s average dietary
nutrient profile (protein-fat-carbohydrate) was estimated to be 52-46-2% by energy (Plantinga
et al., 2011).
In contrast to the sometimes assumed ‘omnivorous’ nature of dogs, modern-day wolves are
carnivores with a varied but essentially animal-based diet and vegetal matter (nutritionally)
being a minor to negligible component. Wolves predominantly live and hunt in packs on large
ungulates but also opportunistically feed on smaller mammals (e.g. beavers, lagomorphs,
rodents), birds, reptiles, fish, and insects. The amount of vegetal matter is low and composed
out of grasses and various species of berries and nuts with a contribution to the total biomass
consumed varying from 0.1% to 3% (Bosch et al., 2015). When large ungulates are killed,
wolves in general first consume internal organs such as the liver and heart. The first feeding
episodes can result in intakes of up to 22% of their body mass. Wolves do not consume the
rumen contents but consume the rumen and intestinal walls. Wolves have a far lower kill rate
than cats with estimates of 1 prey per 4 to 6 days depending on the type of prey (Bosch and
Hendriks, 2014). Due to seasonal fluctuations, the interval between consecutive ungulate kills
can be up to weeks. Given the large fluctuations in food availability, the lifestyle of wolves has
been typified as ‘feast-or-famine’. The wolf’s average dietary nutrient profile (protein-fatcarbohydrate)
was estimated to be 54-45-1% by energy (Bosch et al., 2015).
Carnivore idiosyncrasies
For both dogs and cats an array of behavioural, digestive, physiological and metabolic traits
has been shaped during their evolution as carnivores with their distinct feeding ecologies. Dogs

and cats possess centred eye vision to be able to accurately estimate the distance to prey items.
Their dentition is typically carnivorous in nature, with well-developed carnassials for shearing,
and canines and incisors for holding. Dogs also possess molars, which can be used to crush
large bones (Biknevicius and Van Valkenburg, 1996) and provide access to the lipid-rich
marrow. Their digestive tract is relatively short with a small or rudimentary caecum, showing
adaptation to a highly digestible diet. The large intestine harbours an active microbial
ecosystem, which is different in composition from omnivorous and herbivorous animals (Ley
et al., 2008). On a diet consisting of animal tissue, the microbiota in their large intestine is
typically adapted to fermentation of non-digestible (glyco)protein rich matter, such as cartilage,
tendons, skin, hairs and feathers, with a relative overrepresentation of protein degrading
bacteria like Clostridia, (e.g. Peptococci; Lachnospira) Fusobacteria and Proteobacteria
(Beloshapka et al., 2013; Kerr et al., 2014).
Especially in cats, consumption of a diet predominantly composed of animal tissue has led to
several unique digestive and metabolic adaptations. These adaptations mostly consist of
reduction of redundant enzymes and modification of enzyme activities. Cats have evolved
around eating multiple small meals per day. This regular meal pattern assures a regular intake
of nutrients typically present in animal material, leaving enzymes capable of producing these
nutrients out of plant material useless. It is believed that because of differences in meal pattern
and regular feed intake, cats were indeed capable of downregulating redundant enzymes. It is
believed that the adaptations to the carnivorous lifestyle might have had specific advantages for
the strict carnivorous cat in terms of energy expenditure (Morris, 2002).
Several of the metabolic and digestive adaptations in cats evolved around carbohydrate
metabolism. For instance, cats lack a functional Tas1R2 receptor, and are, as a result, unable to
taste sugar (Li et al., 2005). Cats also lack salivary amylase activity, and show relatively low
activities of pancreatic and intestinal amylases (Kienzle, 1993a, b). Other metabolic adaptations
that can be found in cats evolved around protein and amino acid metabolism. For example, cats
have limited ability to decrease the activity of amino-acid degrading enzymes. This limited
ability also becomes apparent when fed a diet without protein; adult cats produce twice as much
urinary urea as dogs (243 vs. 116 mg kg -0.75 d -1 ) (Hendriks et al., 1997). This underlies the
higher dietary requirement for protein in cats compared to dogs (Morris, 2002). Cats also show
inability to synthesize adequate amounts of the essential amino acid arginine and taurine
(Morris, 2002). Last but not least, cats are unable to synthesize retinol (Vitamin A) from betacarotene,
are unable to produce niacin (Vitamin B3) from the amino acid tryptophan (Morris,
2002), have fairly limited ability to synthesize arachidonic acid from linoleic acid (MacDonald
et al., 1984), and are unable to synthesize Vitamin D3 in their skin (Morris, 1999). The latter
metabolic trait is seen in dogs as well (How et al., 1994). Both species thus need a dietary source
of Vitamin D3 to meet their requirement.
As mentioned above, wolves require to withstand periods of food shortages and adaptations
have evolved that are still present in dogs. For instance, when wolves prepare for periods with
low food availability, they cache prey parts for later consumption, a behaviour that dogs may
also show in the backyard. Ability to efficient use energy stores, decrease metabolic losses and
to endogenously synthesize essential nutrients for on-going metabolic processes would be vital
for survival prolonged periods of food shortage. During prolonged fasting where glycogen
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stores may become exhausted, the available lipid stores need to be effectively used for energy
purposes and body proteins preserved. Dogs prevent the loss of body proteins by decreasing the
activity of amino-acid degrading enzymes, as indicated above. Furthermore, dogs efficiently
switch to peripheral use of ketone bodies during fasting making them less dependent on amino
acid catabolism for glucose. Resistance to prolonged periods of famine is also shown by dogs.
The longest fast of a dog on record is 117 days (Howe et al., 1912). The dog survived but
weighed only 37% of its initial body weight when the fast was stopped.
Next to times of famine, wolves also experience times of feasting with large meals. When a
large ungulate is killed, wolves in generally start with consuming the internal organs such as
the liver and heart (Stahler et al., 2006). The liver of an ungulate would provide stored vitamin
A and potentially glycogen. Like most carnivores, dogs transport vitamin A mainly as retinyl
esters bound to lipoproteins in the blood. Dogs are also able excrete vitamin A and retinyl esters
via the urine, which makes them more resistant to hypervitaminosis A and can be considered
as functional for wolves and other carnivores consuming large quantities of vitamin A.
Impact of domestication
Where cats largely maintained their carnivorous diet during the process of domestication, dogs
moved away from their carnivorous ancestors and started to thrive on a more omnivorous diet.
Although a more profound omnivorous feeding ecology started only 13,000 and 17,000 years
ago, changes are found in the genomes of dogs and relate increased amounts of starch in their
diets. Three genes (AMY2B, MGAM and SGLT1) involved in starch digestion and glucose
uptake were the target of selection (Axelsson et al., 2013). Furthermore, differences between
dog breeds were found that relate to the nutritional conditions of their site of origin. The Saluki,
an ancient breed originating from the Fertile Crescent, showed twenty-nine copies of pancreatic
amylase gene (AMY2B) whereas the Dingo and Siberian Husky show no or limited expansion
(three to four copies) (Freedman et al., 2014). Variation in AMY2B copy number in six dog
breeds (Pekingese, Shar Pei, Shiba Inu, Akita, Siberian Husky, and Alaskan Malamute) was
also found to relate to the amount of dietary starch in time periods after domestication for these
breeds (Reiter et al., 2016). These recent studies also show that other metabolic traits observed
in dogs, like capacity to synthesise sufficient amounts of essential nutrients such as niacin,
taurine and arginine, were unaffected by domestication.
Only decades ago, humans started to breed cats for their exterior, which quickly led to
distinguishable breeds with specific exterior traits, like for instance Persians with their flat
muzzle, Cornish rex with their unique coat structure, or the lop-eared Scottish folds. However,
the authors of a recent comparative analysis of the domestic cat genome concluded that,
compared to dogs, the number of genomic regions with strong signals of selection since cat
domestication appears modest (Montague et al., 2014). Their results suggest that selection for
docility, as a result of becoming accustomed to humans for food rewards, was most likely the
major force that altered the first domesticated cat genomes. Based on the above it may thus be
concluded that cat domestication has not yet led to major shifts in metabolic traits, and cats can
still considered to be strictly carnivorous in nature.

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Conclusions
For both dogs and cats, the array of behavioural, digestive physiological and metabolic traits
is shaped during their evolution as carnivores. The distinct feast-or-famine lifestyle of the dog’s
ancestor is hypothesised to underlie the, relative to cats, more adaptive and extensive metabolic
capacities of dogs. Interestingly, domestication of dogs has led to some significant changes in
the genome of dogs related to starch digestion and absorption, while in cats major changes in
the genomic structure have not yet been found.
Further reading
Axelsson, E., A. Ratnakumar, M. L. Arendt, K. Maqbool, M. T. Webster, M. Perloski, O. Liberg, J. M.
Arnemo, A. Hedhammar, and K. Lindblad-Toh. 2013. The genomic signature of dog
domestication reveals adaptation to a starch-rich diet. Nature 495: 360-364.
Beloshapka, A. N., S. E. Dowd, J. S. Suchodolski, J. M. Steiner, L. Duclos, and K. S. Swanson. 2013.
Fecal microbial communities of healthy adult dogs fed raw meat-based diets with or without
inulin or yeast cell wall extracts as assessed by 454 pyrosequencing. FEMS Microbiology
Ecology 84: 532-541.
Biknevicius, A. R., and B. Van Valkenburg. 1996. Design for killing: craniodental adaptations of
predators. In: J. L. Gittleman (ed.) Carnivore behavior, ecology, and evolution No. 2. p 393-
428. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, U.S.
Bosch, G., and W. H. Hendriks. 2014. Aspects of foraging ecology of carnivores that impact digestive
physiology and metabolism. In: Comparative Nutrition Society, Flatrock, NC, US. p 13-18.
Bosch, G., E. A. Hagen-Plantinga, and W. H. Hendriks. 2015. Dietary nutrient profiles of wild wolves:
insights for optimal dog nutrition? British Journal of Nutrition 113: S40-S54.
Driscoll, C. A., M. Menotti-Raymond, A. L. Roca, K. Hupe, W. E. Johnson, E. Geffen, E. H. Harley,
M. Delibes, D. Pontier, A. C. Kitchener, N. Yamaguchi, S. J. O'Brien, and D. W. Macdonald.
2007. The Near Eastern origin of cat domestication. Science 317: 519-523.
Driscoll, C. A., D. W. Macdonald, and S. J. O'Brien. 2009. From wild animals to domestic pets, an
evolutionary view of domestication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America 106: 9971-9978.
Hand, M. S., C. D. Thatcher, R. L. Remillard, P. Roudebush, and B. J. Novotny (Editors). 2010. Small
animal clinical nutrition. Mark Morris Institute, Topeka, KS, U.S., 1313 pp.
Hendriks, W. H., P. J. Moughan, and M. F. Tarttelin. 1997. Urinary excretion of endogenous nitrogen
metabolites in adult domestic cats using a protein-free diet and the regression technique. Journal
of Nutrition 127: 623-629.
How, K. L., H. A. W. Hazewinkel, and J. A. Mol. 1994. Dietary vitamin D dependence of cat and dog
due to inadequate cutaneous synthesis of vitamin D. General and Comparative Endocrinology
96: 12-18.
Howe, P. E., H. A. Mattill, and P. B. Hawk. 1912. Distribution of nitrogen during a fast of one hundred
and seventeen days. Journal of Biological Chemistry 11: 103-127.
Jones, E. 1977. Ecology of the feral cat, Felis catus (L.), (Carnivora: Felidae) on Macquarie Island.
Australian Wildlife Research 4: 249-262.
Kerr, K., S. Dowd, and K. Swanson. 2014. Faecal microbiota of domestic cats fed raw whole chicks v.
an extruded chicken-based diet. Journal of Nutritional Science 3: e22.
Kienzle, E. 1993a. Carbohydrate metabolism of the cat. 1. Activity of amylase in the gastrointestinal
tract of the cat. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 69: 92-101.
Kienzle, E. 1993b. Carbohydrate metabolism of the cat. 2. Digestion of starch. Journal of Animal
Physiology and Animal Nutrition 69: 102-114.

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Leonard, J. A., R. K. Wayne, J. Wheeler, R. Valadez, S. Guillén, and C. Vilà. 2002. Ancient DNA
evidence for old world origin of New World dogs. Science 298: 1613-1616.
Ley, R. E., M. Hamady, C. Lozupone, P. J. Turnbaugh, R. R. Ramey, J. S. Bircher, M. L. Schlegel, T.
A. Tucker, M. D. Schrenzel, R. Knight, and J. I. Gordon. 2008. Evolution of mammals and their
gut microbes. Science 320: 1647-1651.
Li, X., W. Li, H. Wang, J. Cao, K. Maehashi, L. Huang, A. A. Bachmanov, D. R. Reed, V. Legrand-
Defretin, G. K. Beauchamp, and J. G. Brand. 2005. Pseudogenization of a sweet-receptor gene
accounts for cats' indifference toward sugar. PLoS Genetics 1: 0027-0035.
Losey, R. J., V. I. Bazaliiskii, S. Garvie-Lok, M. Germonpré, J. A. Leonard, A. L. Allen, M. Anne
Katzenberg, and M. V. Sablin. 2011. Canids as persons: Early Neolithic dog and wolf burials,
Cis-Baikal, Siberia. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 30: 174-189.
MacDonald, M. L., B. C. Anderson, Q. R. Rogers, C. A. Buffington, and J. G. Morris. 1984. Essential
fatty acid requirements of cats: pathology of essential fatty acid deficiency. American Journal
of Veterinary Research 45: 1310-1317.
Montague, M. J., G. Li, B. Golfi, R. Khan, B. L. Aken, S. M. J. Searle, P. Minx, L. W. Hillier, D. C.
Koboldt, B. W. Davis, C. A. Driscoll, C. S. Barr, K. Blackistone, J. Quilez, B. Lorente-Galdos,
T. Marques-Bonet, C. Alkan, G. W. C. Thomas, M. W. Hahn, M. Menotti-Raymond, S. J.
O'Brien, R. K. Wilson, L. A. Lyons, W. J. Murphy, and W. C. Warren. 2014. Comparative
analysis of the domestic cat genome reveals genetic signatures underlying feline biology and
domestication. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
America 111: 17230-17235.
Morris, J. G. 1999. Ineffective Vitamin D Synthesis in Cats Is Reversed by an Inhibitor of 7-
Dehydrocholestrol-Δ7-Reductase. The Journal of Nutrition 129: 903-908.
Morris, J. G. 2002. Idiosyncratic nutrient requirements of cats appear to be diet-induced evolutionary
adaptations. Nutrition Research Reviews 15: 153-168.
NRC. 2006. Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies Press, Washington, D.C., U.S.
Pechenkina, E. A., S. H. Ambrose, M. Xiaolin, and R. A. Benfer Jr. 2005. Reconstructing northern
Chinese Neolithic subsistence practices by isotopic analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science
32: 1176-1189.
Plantinga, E. A., G. Bosch, and W. H. Hendriks. 2011. Estimation of the dietary nutrient profile of freeroaming
feral cats: possible implications for nutrition of domestic cats. British Journal of
Nutrition 106: S35-S48.
Reiter, T., E. Jagoda, and T. D. Capellini. 2016. Dietary variation and evolution of gene copy number
among dog breeds. PLoS ONE 11.
Stahler, D. R., D. W. Smith, and D. S. Guernsey. 2006. Foraging and feeding ecology of the gray wolf
(Canis lupus): lessons from Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA. Journal of Nutrition
136: S1923-S1926.
Thalmann, O., B. Shapiro, P. Cui, V. J. Schuenemann, S. K. Sawyer, D. L. Greenfield, M. B. Germonpré,
M. V. Sablin, F. López-Giráldez, X. Domingo-Roura, H. Napierala, H. P. Uerpmann, D. M.
Loponte, A. A. Acosta, L. Giemsch, R. W. Schmitz, B. Worthington, J. E. Buikstra, A.
Druzhkova, A. S. Graphodatsky, N. D. Ovodov, N. Wahlberg, A. H. Freedman, R. M.
Schweizer, K. P. Koepfli, J. A. Leonard, M. Meyer, J. Krause, S. Pääbo, R. E. Green, and R. K.
Wayne. 2013. Complete mitochondrial genomes of ancient canids suggest a European origin of
domestic dogs. Science 342: 871-874.
Vilà, C., P. Savoleinen, J. E. Maldonado, I. R. Amorim, J. E. Rice, R. L. Honeycutt, K. A. Crandall, J.
Lundeberg, and R. K. Wayne. 1997. Multiple and ancient origins of the domestic dog. Science
276: 1687-1689.

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Name: Aulus Cavalieri Carciofi
Short CV
Veterinarian, Professor at the FCAV / UNESP, Jaboticabal - SP - Brazil, where he teaches the
following disciplines at graduation level: Clinic of nutritional deficiency diseases, Endocrine
and metabolic diseases and Nutrition and feeding of dogs and cats; and at post-graduation
level: Clinical nutrition of dogs and cats; Thermomechanical processing and formulation of
foods for dogs, cats and aquatic organisms.
Founded and is responsible for the Residency Program in Nutrition and Clinical Nutrition of
Dogs and Cats.
He founded and coordinates the Laboratory of Research on Nutrition and Nutritional Diseases
of Dogs and Cats where more than 50 master and doctoral studies have already been
concluded.
He is a permanent member of the coordination of the University and part of the board of
directors of the Brazilian College of Animal Nutrition.
He has published 96 scientific articles, and authored or co-authored 11 book chapters in the
area. Received 33 awards or honours in research and teaching activities.

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Dry and wet commercial food: characteristics and manufacture
Aulus Carciofi – University of S. Paulo, Brasil
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Name: Víctor Romano
Short CV
Obtained the Degree in Veterinary Medicine from Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB)
in 1992.
After a few years of small animal and horse medicine clinical experience, moved to the
petfood industry in 2000. Currently Regulatory Manager of the Affinity Petcare S.A.
Since then working in new product development and regulatory areas.
Since 2002 member of Fediaf (European Federation of Petfood Manufacturers), focussing on
the Product Communication and Additives working groups.

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Petfood Labels: How to make them and how to read them
Víctor Romano
Affinity Petcare S.A.; R&D
Pça Xavier Cugat 54-56; 08902 L’Hospitalet de Llobregat. Spain.
Email: vromano@affinity-petcare.com
Member of the FEDIAF Product Communication Group
Introduction
Pet food as any other animal feed needs to be labelled. The information which comes with the
product has different purposes: a) nutritional, technical and usage information for consumers
b) information for control and enforcement authorities and c) commercial information for the
consumers.
Labelling rules are based on Regulation 767/2009/EC and FEDIAF’s Code of Good Labelling
Practice for Pet Food, which helps interpret current regulations and adds some self-regulated
topics.
Compulsory Declaration
In order to help the consumer in quickly identifying the suitability of the product, the label has
to be written in at least one official language of the country where the product is being sold;
destination animal species and life stage has to be clearly labelled.
Daily recommended amount (grams per day), usage of the pet food (how many intakes per
day), special requirements (if water is needed, for example) and storage conditions (fridge
needed, for example) are also compulsory
In addition to this, labels must contain:
- Composition (ingredients used in the product, in descending order by weight). This
composition may appear as individual ingredients or under categories (grouping of ingredients
with similar origin, like cereals)
- Analytical constituents (nutritional information). This information includes protein, fat,
fibre, inorganic matter and sometimes moisture
- Additives: added quantity needs to be declare. In some cases, additives may be reduced
during process and storage of the product (vitamins, for example), so the finished product may
contain less than added; in other cases, some ingredients contain a native additive content (for
example selenium in fish), so the finished product may contain more than added.
All labels also contain traceability tools like best before date, manufacturing unit approval
number or batch number to help control authorities in their tasks.

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Voluntary information - Claims
Complementing the compulsory declaration and in order to help the consumer in buying a pet
food, products may contain voluntary information. This information has to be clear (not mislead
the consumer) and should not suggest that the product has special characteristics if all similar
products have also these characteristics.
Content claim give information to the consumer about the product variety and its content:
Major ingredient: Chicken varieties
Flavoured with chicken
With chicken
Rich in chicken
Chicken recipe
Chicken only
0 - 4% chicken
min 4% chicken
min 14% chicken
min 26% chicken
only chicken + additives
This rule is not valid for minor ingredients, where such levels might not be healthy.
Other possible claims include descriptors like “Fresh chicken” (chicken has not been frozen),
“Natural plant extracts” (nothing has been added to the plant), “Free from cereals” (no traces of
cereals present), “Reduced in fat” (15% less fat than standard product of same range) or “Low
sodium” (low levels of sodium).
Functional claims describe the effect of a pet food which goes beyond the basic nutrition needs.
For example a claim like “with calcium for strong and healthy bones”. These kind of claims need
to be scientifically substantiated.
Particular Nutritional Purposes (Veterinary Diets)
Products which by their composition can help in specific situations where the animal has a
deficit of assimilation, a metabolic problem, etc. are clearly separated from the so called
“physiologic products”. These products, commonly known as Veterinary Diets, need to be
always under veterinary control, as a misuse of such a product may be unhealthy for a health
animal or may exacerbate a disease.
Examples of these products are products for renal disease, for struvite stone dissolution or for
digestion problems.
Further reading
Directive 2008/38/EC: Feed for particular nutritional purposes
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32008L0038
Fediaf Code of Good Labelling Practice for Pet Food
http://www.fediaf.org/component/attachments/attachments.html?task=attachment&id=79
Regulation 767/2009/EU: regulates all labelling
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32009R0767

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Name: Wendy Wambacq
Short CV
Wendy Wambacq graduated at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University,
Belgium in 2011. Afterwards, she worked in private practice for almost 2 years. In 2013, she
started a residency in veterinary nutrition (European College of Veterinary and Comparative
Nutrition). She successfully passed the board certifying exam in Berlin in September 2016. At
this moment, she is making a doctoral thesis at the Animal Nutrition Laboratory at Ghent
University about the influence of nutrition on immune status.

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Alternatives and New Trends in Pet Food
Wendy Wambacq
Ghent University,
Department of Nutrition, Genetics and Ethology, Laboratory of Animal Nutrition
Heidestraat 19, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium. Email: wendy.wambacq@ugent.be
Introduction
In the last decennium, about 10% of pet owners have abandoned traditional commercial diets
with increasing interest for alternative choices (Diez et al., 2015, Vandendriessche et al., 2017).
Feeding of home-made diets, vegetarian/vegan diets and raw meat based diets have become an
increasingly popular trend (Michel et al., 2006). This change has been partially driven by an
increasing pet owner distrust of conventional pet food manufacturers (Schlesinger and Joffe,
2001). Whereas food additives such as antimicrobial preservatives and antioxidants are added
to increase shelf life, their addition nowadays provokes anxiety in some pet owners about their
impact on long-term pet wellbeing (Laflamme et al., 2014). Furthermore, animal byproducts often
incorporated in conventional pet foods, such as liver and meat trimmings, are often wrongly
perceived as poor-quality ingredients. For these reasons, natural, organic or human grade foods
free of artificial additives and/or animal byproducts are preferred by certain pet owners.
Some Particular Alternatives out there
Some of the most passionate and sometimes almost evangelical arguments surrounding pet
nutrition concern the feeding of raw meat-based diets, as these are often considered diets wild
ancestors ate during their evolution into pets. Many different forms exist: homemade/commercial
fresh, frozen or freeze-dried diets and treats, grain and supplement mixes
which can be combined with raw meat, BARF (Bones and Raw Food), the Ultimate and
Volhard diet and even whole carcass feeding. Whereas commercial nutritionally complete and
balanced diets are intended to provide sole-source nutrition for a pet, homemade raw-meat
based diets are often based on rotation of ingredients to expectantly meet essential nutrient
requirements (Freeman, 2013).
Apart from its obvious nutritive value, food also has a social aspect. Pet owners are inclined to
show affection for their pets through food, and have an increasing desire to cook and therefore
invest time in their pets health. Unfortunately, many owners are known to make wrong
substitutions and forget essential fatty acid and vitamin and mineral supplementation when
preparing homemade diets, thereby unwillingly impairing their pets health. Formulating
balanced homemade diets for pets is rather difficult and does require specialized knowledge
(Michel, 2006).

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Additionally, questions about sustainable agriculture and slaughter of animals in order to feed
pets are currently raised. A vegetarian ideology is on the rise, where people do not only question
their own dietary habits, but also those of their pets. Owners might prefer fish/egg-based diets
for their pets, or choose vegan diets supplemented with synthetic compounds in order to meet
dietary requirements.
Discussion-Conclusion
Health care professionals are often bombarded with pet owner opinions regarding
unconventional diets, and have a need to stay current with research on popular trends. The pet
food market has many opposing viewpoints and may cause confusion in well-intending pet
owners. Dialogue must begin with an effort to understand reasoning for choosing an
unconventional diet. Many claims of nutritional superiority and health benefits of
unconventional diets remain in fact unproven and are based on personal experiences and
plausible, but not scientifically proven, hypotheses. Admittedly, recalls of pet foods for
bacterial/mycotoxin contamination, thiamine deficiency, etc… indicate that feeding of
commercial traditional pet foods is not 100% risk-free either (Steel, 1997; FDA, 2017). Although
it is the pet owner that ultimately decides what their pet will eat, efforts must be made to inform
owners about potential risks and benefits of both commercial and alternative diets.
Further reading
Cappelli, S., Manica, E. and Hashimoto, J. H., 2016. Importance of additives in feeding dogs and cats.
Pubvet 10(3): 212-223.
Carter, R.A., Bauer, J.E., Kersey, J.H. and Buff, P. R., 2014. Awareness and evaluation of natural pet
food products in the United States. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association
245(11): 1241-1248.
Chandler, M.L. and Takashima, G., 2014. Nutritional concepts for the veterinary practitioner.
Veterinary Clinics: Small Animal Practice 44(4): 645-666.
Diez, M., Picavet, P., Ricci, R., Dequenne, M., Renard, M., Bongartz, A., Farnir, F., 2015. Health
screening to identify opportunities to improve preventive medicine in cats and dogs. Journal of
Small Animal Practice 56: 463–469.
Dobson, R.L., Motlagh, S., Quijano, M., Cambron, R.T., Baker, T.R., Pullen, A.M., ... and
Reimschuessel, R., 2008. Identification and characterization of toxicity of contaminants in pet
food leading to an outbreak of renal toxicity in cats and dogs. Toxicological Sciences 106(1):
251-262.
FDA website, 2017. Pet food recall products list. Available at: www.fda.
gov/AnimalVeterinary/SafetyHealth/RecallsWithdrawals/default. htm.
Freeman, L.M., Chandler, M.L., Hamper, B.A. and Weeth, L.P., 2013. Current knowledge about the
risks and benefits of raw meat–based diets for dogs and cats. Journal of the American
Veterinary Medical Association 243(11): 1549-1558.

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Hand, M.S., Thatcher, C.D., Remillard, R.L., Roudebush, P. and Novotny, B.J. (eds.), 2000. Small
Animal Clinical Nutrition. Mark Morris Institute, Topeka, Kansas, 1314 pp.
Knight, A. and Leitsberger, M., 2016. Vegetarian versus Meat-Based Diets for Companion Animals.
Animals 6(9): 57.
Laflamme, D., Izquierdo, O., Eirmann, L. and Binder, S., 2014. Myths and misperceptions about
ingredients used in commercial pet foods. Veterinary Clinics: Small Animal Practice 44(4):
689-698.
LeJeune, J.T. and Hancock, D.D., 2001. Public health concerns associated with feeding raw meat diets
to dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 219(9): 1222-1225.
Michel, K.E., 2006. Unconventional diets for dogs and cats. Veterinary Clinics of North America:
Small Animal Practice 36(6): 1269-1281.
Morgan, S.K., Willis, S. and Shepherd, M.L., 2017. Survey of owner motivations and veterinary input
of owners feeding diets containing raw animal products. PeerJ 5: e3031.
Morita, T., Awakura, T., Shimada, A., Umemura, T., Nagai, T. and Haruna, A., 1995. Vitamin D
toxicosis in cats: natural outbreak and experimental study. Journal of Veterinary Medical
Science 57(5): 831-837.
Munoz, S.S., 2007. Amid the recall of dozens of brands of pet foods, many dog and cat owners are
grappling with a tough question: “What can they safely feed their pets?” New York: Wall
Street Journal: D7.
Murray, S.M., Patil, A.R., Fahey, G.C., Merchen, N.R. and Hughes, D.M., 1997. Raw and rendered
animal by-products as ingredients in dog diets. Journal of Animal Science 75(9): 2497-2505.
National Research Council (NRC), 2006. Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies
Press, Washington, DC, 398pp.
Parr, J.M. and Remillard, R.L., 2014. Handling alternative dietary requests from pet owners.
Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 44(4): 667-688.
Schlesinger, D.P. and Joffe, D.J., 2011. Raw food diets in companion animals: a critical review. The
Canadian Veterinary Journal 52(1): 50.
Steel R.J.S, 1997. Thiamine deficiency in a cat associated with the preservation of “pet meat” with
sulphur dioxide. Australian Veterinary Journal 75: 719–721.
Vandendriessche, V.L., Picavet, P. and Hesta, M., 2017. First detailed nutritional survey in a referral
companion animal population. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition 101(S1):
4-14.

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Threats and Opportunities in the Future of Pet Foods
Wendy Wambacq
Ghent University, Department of Nutrition, Genetics and Ethology,
Laboratory of Animal Nutrition
Heidestraat 19, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium. Email: wendy.wambacq@ugent.be
Introduction
To ensure sustainability of pet food and therefore pet ownership in the future, questions have
to be raised regarding current trends of providing pet foods that contain nutrients in excess of
minimum recommendations (Swanson et al., 2013). Currently, there is economic opportunity for
pet food manufacturers in the production of raw-meat based diets, but also commercial highprotein
dry or wet foods are on the rise in an attempt to mimic the ancestral diet considered
superior by certain pet owners (Freeman et al., 2013). Whereas research on the usage of insects
as an alternative protein source in human nutrition is on the rise (Rumpold and Schlüter, 2013), it
seems there is an attitude-behavior gap regarding the concurrent trend to increase protein intake
above current minimum requirements in our pets. Furthermore, risks associated with the usage
of alternative raw meat-based diets by well-intending pet owners are hot topic regarding pet
health.
Sustainability of Pet Foods
Sustainability can be described as ‘meeting present needs without compromising future
generation’s needs’ (WBCSD, 2017). Protein is requiring the most attention in the context of
food sustainability, as it is the most expensive macronutrient in economic and environmental
terms (Swanson et al., 2013). Many pet owners believe that cats and dogs require diets that
resemble those of wild carnivores in order to thrive (Michel, 2006). Nutritional minimum protein
requirements are currently known (NRC, 2006), however questions regarding an optimal
macronutrient profile have to be raised. Where typically meat-based and high protein diets eaten
by wild dog and cat ancestors can be considered optimal for short-term survival, this may not
be the case for domestic pets that typically are suspected to have a respectively longer life span
(Freeman et al., 2013). Furthermore, pet food sustainability can become increasingly
compromised by negative consumer perception on the usage of animal by products (Laflamme
et al., 2014); and diet overconsumption both resulting in food wastage and pet obesity (Swanson
et al, 2013).
Raw Meat-based Diets
Diets containing raw meats are already fed for many years by zoos, racing and sled dog
facilities (Michel et al., 2006; LeJeune and Hancock, 2001). Health benefits associated with the

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provision of these diets include better palatability, improved dental health and coat glossiness.
Scientific evidence to substantiate these claims is however currently lacking (Freeman, 2013).
Aside from these narrated health benefits, reservations regarding raw-meat based diets
including nutritional adequacy and public health concerns have to be taken into account (Michel,
2006). Nutrient excesses and deficiencies are known risk factors (Schlesinger and Joffe, 2001), as
well as contamination with pathogenic bacterial strains (Salmonella, Campylobacter,
Escherichia coli, etc…), viruses (Aujeszky and rabies) and parasites (Sarcocystis spp, Neospora
caninum, etc…) (LeJeune and Hancock, 2001).
Discussion - Conclusion
Future opportunities and challenges that provoke discussion among the companion animal
community include pet food sustainability and usage of alternative diets. Pet owner opinion has
an important effect on sustainability of commercial conventional or alternative pet foods,
including nutrient composition and selection of ingredients. Even though more large cohort
studies are needed to objectively evaluate risks (and benefits) of raw meat-based diets, there is
enough evidence to address pet owners regarding possible zoonotic health implications
(Schlesinger and Joffe, 2001).
Further reading
Bosch, G., 2016. Alternative protein supplies for petfood. Journal of Animal Science 94(5): 209-210.
Finley, R., Reid-Smith, R., Weese, J.S. and Angulo, F.J., 2006. Human health implications of
Salmonella-contaminated natural pet treats and raw pet food. Clinical Infectious Diseases 42(5):
686-691.
Fredriksson-Ahomaa, M., Heikkilä, T., Pernu, N., Kovanen, S., Hielm-Björkman, A. and Kivistö, R.,
2017. Raw Meat-Based Diets in Dogs and Cats. Veterinary Sciences 4(3): 33.
Freeman, L.M. and Michel, K.E., 2001. Evaluation of raw food diets for dogs. Journal of the American
Veterinary Medical Association 218(5): 705.
Freeman, L.M., Chandler, M.L., Hamper, B.A. and Weeth, L.P., 2013. Current knowledge about the
risks and benefits of raw meat–based diets for dogs and cats. Journal of the American Veterinary
Medical Association 243(11): 1549-1558.
Garnett, T., 2013. Food sustainability: problems, perspectives and solutions. Proceedings of the
Nutrition Society 72(1), 29-39.
Giacometti, F., Magarotto, J., Serraino, A. and Piva, S., 2017. Highly suspected cases of salmonellosis
in two cats fed with a commercial raw meat-based diet: health risks to animals and zoonotic
implications. BMC Veterinary Research 13(1): 224.
Hamper, B.A., Bartges, J.W. and Kirk, C.A., 2017. Evaluation of two raw diets vs a commercial cooked
diet on feline growth. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery 19(4): 424-434.
Hand, M.S., Thatcher, C.D., Remillard, R.L., Roudebush, P. and Novotny, B.J. (eds.), 2000. Small
Animal Clinical Nutrition. Mark Morris Institute, Topeka, Kansas, 1314 pp.
Laflamme, D., Izquierdo, O., Eirmann, L. and Binder, S., 2014. Myths and misperceptions about ingredients
used in commercial pet foods. Veterinary Clinics: Small Animal Practice 44(4): 689-698.

113
Lambertini, E., Buchanan, R.L., Narrod, C. and Pradhan, A.K., 2016. Transmission of bacterial zoonotic
pathogens between pets and humans: The role of pet food. Critical Reviews in Food Science and
Nutrition, 56(3), 364-418.
LeJeune, J.T. and Hancock, D.D., 2001. Public health concerns associated with feeding raw meat diets
to dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 219(9): 1222-1225.
Mack, J.K. and Kienzle, E., 2016. Inadequate nutrient supply in “BARF” feeding plans for a litter of
Bernese Mountain Dog-puppies. Tierärztliche Praxis Kleintiere 44(5): 341-347.
Meeker, D.L. and Meisinger, J.L., 2015. Companion animals symposium: Rendered ingredients
significantly influence sustainability, quality, and safety of pet food. Journal of Animal Science
93(3): 835-847.
Michel, K.E., 2006. Unconventional diets for dogs and cats. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small
Animal Practice 36(6): 1269-1281.
Morgan, S.K., Willis, S. and Shepherd, M.L., 2017. Survey of owner motivations and veterinary input
of owners feeding diets containing raw animal products. PeerJ 5: e3031.
National Research Council (NRC), 2006. Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies
Press, Washington, DC, 398pp.
Rumpold, B.A. and Schlüter, O.K., 2013. Potential and challenges of insects as an innovative source for
food and feed production. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 17: 1-11.
Schlesinger, D.P. and Joffe, D.J., 2011. Raw food diets in companion animals: a critical review. The
Canadian Veterinary Journal 52(1): 50.
Swanson, K.S., Carter, R.A., Yount, T.P., Aretz, J. and Buff, P.R., 2013. Nutritional sustainability of
pet foods. Advances in Nutrition: An International Review Journal 4(2): 141-150.
Weese, J.S., Rousseau, J. and Arroyo, L., 2005. Bacteriological evaluation of commercial canine and
feline raw diets. The Canadian Veterinary Journal 46(6): 513.
World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), 2017. The business case for
sustainable development. Available at http://www.wbcsd. org/web/publications/businesscase.pdf

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Name: Stefanie Handl
Short CV
Graduated from University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna;
Veterinary specialist in nutrition and dietetics of the Austrian Chamber of Veterinarians (2008);
Diplomate of the European College of Veterinary and Comparative Nutrition (2011).
Research assistant at the Institute of Animal Nutrition of the University of Veterinary Medicine,
Vienna, 2003-2012;
Research scholar at the Gastrointestinal Laboratory, Texas A&M University 2009/2010;
Research interest: intestinal microbiota.
Since 2012 editor in chief of “Veterinary Medicine Austria”
Since 2013 “Futterambulanz” nutritionist practice in Vienna

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How to decide what to offer – the owners perspective
Stefanie Handl
Futterambulanz nutritionist practice, Reisnerstraße 7, 1030 Vienna, Austria.
Email: office@futterambulanz.at
Introduction
“Healthy eating”, “dieting”, “superfoods” are recent topics in human nutrition in the daily
media and social networks. Since pets, especially cats and dogs, are regarded as family
members, they are included in their owners’ ideology and nutritional habits, and “the right food”
is one of the most emotionally discussed topics among pet owners. These trends confront
veterinarians with a broad range of claims, rumours and feeding concepts.
“Alternative” commercial diets
Some pet food manufacturers deliberately promote popular trends and myths and market
themselves mainly by what they are not including (grains, soy, sugar, by-products, GMOs,
additives) – assertions of which some are self-evident, others can be considered as deception.
What is worse, some declare their products to be “complete diets” without any additives (which
is very often not plausible regarding the list of ingredients), give wrong feeding instructions, or
the nutrient contents do not comply with the recommendations (NRC, 2006; FEDIAF, 2017).
Some do not even fulfil the principles for labelling according to regulation EC 767/2009 on the
placing on the market and use of feed. The review by Laflamme et al. (2014) gives a good
overview on common misperceptions about commercial pet food and how owners can be
educated.
The idea that gluten or grains in general are “unnatural” or even unhealthy is one of the most
popular rumours with no scientific basis. Current research suggests that dogs have genetically
adapted to carbohydrate foods throughout their evolution (Axelsson et al., 2013). Also cats can
digest and metabolize carbohydrates, albeit in lower amounts than dogs. Diseases like “grain
allergy” or “gluten intolerance” do not exits, and a “grain free” diet has no health benefits
whatsoever.
“Hypoallergenic” diets
While the true prevalence of diagnosed adverse food reactions (AFR) might be increasing, the
problem of “intolerance” and “sensitivities” has greatly increased in the perception of pet owners
– and so has the demand for “hypoallergenic” or “sensitive” foods. It must be emphasized that
these are no protected terms and give no indication to certain ingredients or properties. Allergies
cannot be prevented, and feeding exotic ingredients to healthy animals has no benefit, but will

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limit diet choices when an allergy is truly suspected. For the diagnosis of AFR there is still no
reliable “test”; the gold standard to diagnose AFR is still the elimination dietary trial followed
by provocation. Recommended commercial food options for allergic patients are hydrolyzed
diets.
“Natural remedies”
In fear of side effects and intoxication, owners prefer “natural remedies” like herbal
preparations, coconut oil, and other feed supplements, for parasite control or to “improve the
pet’s condition”. In most cases, little or no research has been done on these remedies, so neither
positive nor negative effects are known. Even substances proven to be toxic, like garlic, are
available.
“I want to know what my pet eats” – homemade diets
Driven partly by an increasing mistrust of conventional pet food, partly by lifestyle trends in
human nutrition, interest in homemade diets is increasing. Especially raw diets (“BARF”) have
been very popular in the last years. Owners usually have detailed feeding plans and try to
educate themselves – however, most information they find is misleading or wrong. Besides
malnutrition, risks of BARF are infection with bacteria and other pathogens, injuries from bones
(from tooth fractures to ileus) and diet-induced hyperthyroidism (Freeman et al. 2013; Handl
2014). Therefore, international scientific boards of veterinarians and nutritionists (e.g.
WSAVA) clearly recommend raw diets not to be fed to cats and dogs.
Homemade diets in general do have advantages, for the owners mainly the possibly to be
involved and to assemble their pet’s food themselves. Further, the are usually highly digestible
and allow individual adaption of diets in animals with multiple morbidities. To avoid the most
common risks of BARF, owners should be advised to feed no raw meat and by-products, no
bones, not head meat or gullet, and to have the ration calculated by a nutritionist.
Conclusion
“Feeding right” is one of the most emotional topics in pet keeping. Owners are overwhelmed
by misleading and contradicting information from veterinarians, pet stores, trainers, and of
course the internet and social media. Many claims of health benefits of unconventional diets
are unproven, and quite a few products currently on the market do not adhere to EU legislation.
Homemade diets, especially BARF, are nearly always unbalanced leading to nutritional
deficiencies which can cause severe harm.
To improve customer bonding and compliance, owner concerns and perspectives should be
taken seriously. Diet anamnesis and feeding recommendations should be part of every
consultation. Background knowledge on nutrient requirements, pet food production and legal
regulations will help to clear most rumours and misunderstandings and to assist the owner in
deciding on a food which meets his expectations and the pet’s requirements.

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Further reading
Axelsson, E., Ratnakumar, Arendt, M.L., Maqbool, K., T. Webster, M.T., Perloski, M., Liberg, O.,
Arnemo J.M., Hedhammar, A., and Kerstin Lindblad-Toh, K., 2013. The genomic signature of
dog domestication reveals adaptation to a starch-rich diet. Nature, 11837.
FEDIAF Nutritional Guidelines, 2017. http://www.fediaf.org/self-regulation/nutrition/
Fredriksson-Ahomaa, M., Heikkilä, T., Pernu, N., Kovanen, S., Hielm-Björkman, A. and Kivistö, R.,
2017. Raw Meat-Based Diets in Dogs and Cats. Veterinary Sciences 4(3): 33.
Freeman, L.M., Chandler, M.L., Hamper, B.A. and Weeth, L.P., 2013. Current knowledge about the
risks and benefits of raw meat–based diets for dogs and cats. Journal of the American
Veterinary Medical Association 243(11): 1549-1558.
Giacometti, F., Magarotto, J., Serraino, A., and Piva, S. 2017. Highly suspected cases of salmonellosis
in two cats fed with a commercial raw meatbased diet: health risks to animals and zoonotic
implications. BMC Veterinary Research (2017) 13:224.
Handl, S., Zimmermann S., and Iben, C. 2012: Reasons for dog owners to choose raw diets (`barf´) and
nutritional adequacy of raw diet recipes fed to dogs in Austria and Germany. In: Proceeding
16 th ESVCN-congress, September 13-15, 2012, Bydgoszcz, Poland; p. 124.
Handl, S., Reichert, L., and Iben, C. 2013: Survey on raw diets (‘barf’) and nutritional adequacy of raw
diet recipes fed to cats in Austria and Germany. In: Proceedings 17 th ESVCN congress
September 19-21, 2013, Ghent, Belgium, p. 118.
Handl S., 2014. The "BARF" Trend - Advantages, Drawbacks and Risks. Veterinary Focus 24(3):16-
23.
Horvath-Ungerboeck C, Widmann K, and Handl S., 2017. Detection of DNA of food antigens in
commercial elimination diets for dogs using PCR. Vet Dermatol DOI: 10.1111/vde.12431.
Laflamme, D., Izquierdo, O., Eirmann, L. and Binder, S., 2014. Myths and misperceptions about
ingredients used in commercial pet foods. Veterinary Clinics: Small Animal Practice 44(4):
689-698.
LeJeune, J.T. and Hancock, D.D., 2001. Public health concerns associated with feeding raw meat diets
to dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 219(9): 1222-1225.
Michel, K.E., 2006. Unconventional diets for dogs and cats. Veterinary Clinics of North America:
Small Animal Practice 36(6): 1269-1281.
National Research Council (NRC), 2006. Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats. National Academies
Press, Washington,DC.
Parr, J.M. and Remillard, R.L., 2014. Handling alternative dietary requests from pet owners. Veterinary
Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 44(4): 667-688.
REGULATION EC 767/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of July 19 2009 on the
placing on the market and use of feed.
REGULATION EC 1069/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 October 2009
laying down health rules as regards animal by-products and derived products not intended for
human consumption.
WSAVA Global Nutrition Committee Statement on Risks of Raw Meat-Based Diets.
http://www.wsava.org/sites/default/files/WSAVA%20GNC%20raw%20diet%20statement%2
012%203%2014_0.pdf.
Zeugswetter, F.K, Vogelsinger, K., and Handl, S. 2013. Hyperthyroidism in dogs caused by
consumption of thyroid-containing head meat. Schweizer Archiv für Tierheilkunde
155(2):149-152.

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DGAV
José Manuel Gaspar Nunes da Costa
Direção Geral de Alimentação e Veterinária (DGAV)
A Direção Geral de Alimentação e Veterinária (DGAV) é a autoridade sanitária
veterinária e fitossanitária nacional e a autoridade responsável pela gestão do sistema de
segurança alimentar.
A nível nacional é igualmente a autoridade competente para a área da Alimentação
Animal.
Para o efeito participa na definição e aplicação das políticas de segurança dos alimentos
para animais, sejam os destinados a animais produtores de géneros alimentícios ou a animais
de companhia, na perspetiva do garante de elevados níveis da proteção da saúde e bem-estar
animal, da saúde humana e do próprio meio ambiente.
Assegurando a representação junto das instâncias nacionais, comunitárias e internacionais
no domínio dos alimentos para animais, com participação ativa na adoção dos processos
legislativos, garante a tomada de posição adequada à realidade nacional, seja para efeitos da
sua atividade enquanto organismo de controlo, bem como na proteção dos interesses nacionais
e salvaguarda da própria posição interna e vantagem da indústria portuguesa do setor no
mercado europeu e internacional.
Responsável igualmente pela implementação nacional das políticas da União Europeia
relativas ao setor dos alimentos para animais, garante a verificação do cumprimento das mesmas
por parte dos operadores. Para o efeito elabora, coordena, avalia e executa o Plano Nacional de
Controlo Oficial da Alimentação Animal (PNCAA), o qual visa todas as fases da cadeia, desde
a produção primária, produção, transformação, colocação no mercado (incluindo a importação
e exportação de e para países terceiros, bem como as trocas intracomunitárias) e a utilização de
alimentos para animais. Permite-se desta forma reduzir ou eliminar os riscos decorrentes para
os animais, consumidores e meio ambiente provenientes de alimentos não seguros ou de
qualidade não adequada para os animais, para além de assegurar o normal funcionamento do
mercado e proteger os interesses do consumidor.
Pese embora o principal objetivo do PNCAA vise a alimentação de animais de criação
produtores de géneros alimentícios, com registo ou aprovação dos estabelecimentos de
enquadramento e posteriores ações de inspeção e de colheita de amostras de matérias -primas,
aditivos e alimentos compostos para animais para análise na perspetiva da avaliação laboratorial
dos seus requisitos, características e especificações na perspetiva da defesa da segurança da
cadeia alimentar, a produção e colocação no mercado de alimentos para animais de companhia
são igualmente monitorizados para reconhecimento das adequadas tecnologias de

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processamento e salvaguarda da saúde e bem – estar animal.
É ainda atribuição da DGAV definir e coordenar as estratégias de promoção da segurança
dos alimentos para animais em articulação com outras entidades e associações do setor, bem
como a eventual interação e ligação à área científica e de investigação sempre que aplicável.
Todas as competências e atribuições em matéria de alimentação animal são asseguradas
pela Divisão de Alimentação Animal da Direção de Serviços de Nutrição e Alimentação da
DGAV.

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Mesa Redonda
Moderação
Ana Lourenço, PhD, Dip. ECVCN - UTAD, Portugal
Participantes:
António Isidoro – Assoc. Industriais de Alimentos Compostos - IACA, Portugal
Aulus Carciofi, PhD – Univ. de S. Paulo, Brasil
Cecilia Villaverde, PhD, Dip. ECVCN e ACVN, Irlanda
Esther Hagen-Plantinga, PhD, Dip. ECVCN – Univ. de Utrecht, Holanda
Galena Quist – Rybachuk, PhD, Res. ECVCN, Holanda
Geraldine Blanchard, PhD, Dip. ECVCN, França
Guido Bosch, PhD – Univ. de Wageningen, Holanda
José Carlos Costa - Direção Geral de Alimentação e Veterinária (DGAV), Portugal
Ronald Corbee, PhD, Dip. ECVCN – Univ. de Utrecht, Holanda
Víctor Romano – FEDIAF, Espanha
Stefanie Handl, Dip. ECVCN, Áustria
Wendy Wambacq, Dip. ECVCN – Univ. de Gante, Bélgica

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125
Nota Final
Ana Luísa Lourenço
Associação Portuguesa de Engenharia Zootécnica
Nos passados dias 27 e 28 de Outubro realizou-se na Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e
Alto Douro (UTAD) o PetFeeding - I Congresso Internacional de Nutrição e Alimentação de
Animais de Companhia. Este Congresso, iniciativa nossa, Associação Portuguesa de Engenharia
Zootécnica (APEZ), em colaboração com a UTAD, constituindo uma aposta forte na qualidade
da comunição sobre o tema em Portugal. Tiveram oportunidade de assistir a este evento,
aproximadamente, 150 participantes, dos quais 50 eram estudantes e, os restantes, profissionais
de todas as vertentes desta área.
A importância económica e social que os animais de companhia assumem
actualmente associada à carga emocional associada a tudo o que lhes diz respeito e, em
particular à sua nutrição e alimentação, impõem a necessidade e a urgência na comunicação
baseada em conhecimento científico. É convicção da APEZ de que Portugal se encontra, neste
momento, num ponto de viragem no que à alimentação dos animais de companhia diz
respeito e, porque a ignorância é um caminho fértil para a criação de mitos, resolvemos tomar
um papel activo na ligação entre a academia e os diversos interlocutores, para que as tomadas
de decisão práticas sejam suportadas por informação baseada na evidência científica.
Iniciamos o nosso Congresso com a presença do Reitor da UTAD, António Fontainhas
Fernandes, o representante da Presidente da ECAV Jorge Azevedo, o Presidente da APEZ,
Divanildo Outor Monteiro, e a Presidente da Comissão Científica, Ana Luísa Lourenço. O
programa do congresso contou com oito sessões que contaram com o apoio de empresas com
enorme relevância para o sector: Arion, Dechra - Veterinary Pharmaceutical Products, Hill’s Pet
Nutrition, Novavet, Pet's Best Nutrition, Purina Pro Plan, Royal Canin e Virbac.
A expectativa que antecedeu o Congresso era elevada, mas o espírito e as opiniões
emitidas pelos congressistas e palestrantes no final deste evento permitem-nos, sem falsas
modéstias, afirmar que as expectativas foram largamente ultrapassadas e que se tratou, de
facto, de um passo que se augura marcante no futuro do setor em Portugal.
Resta à organização congratular-se pelo enorme sucesso deste I Congresso e reunir
esforços no sentido de preparar eventos futuros que servirão para fomentar a discussão em
torno de uma área de enorme relevância económica e social em Portugal. Agradece ainda a
todos os apoiantes, patrocinadores, congressistas e palestrantes pelo interesse, participação e
espírito de partilha.
Contamos com a sua presença na 2ª Edição do Petfeeding – II Congresso Internacional
de Nutrição e Alimentação de Animais de Companhia em 2019 e no 24 ESVCN.
2019, APEZ/UTAD, Vila Real, Portugal
Obrigado!
APEZ
2020, APEZ/UTAD, Vila Real, Portugal

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