Crop Production in the East of Scotland - SASA

CropProductionin the East ofScotland1

AcknowledgementsThe compilers are grateful to Simon Oxley and Andy Evans of SAC, for information on cropprotection (Chapter 5); to Ian Anderson of RAD, John Hillman of SCRI, Donald MacKerronof SCRI, Keith Smith of the University of Edinburgh, and Kerr Walker of SAC for readingthe final draft text very thoroughly at short notice; and to the Rural Affairs Department ofthe Scottish Executive for financial assistance in the printing of this booklet. The BritishGeological Survey kindly provided the original for Figure 3.1. The photographs are fromthe SASA collection maintained by Sylvia Breslin.4

PrefacePrefaceIn April 2000, I launched a discussiondocument, inviting all interested parties toconsider “A Forward Strategy for ScottishAgriculture”, and to deliver their views tome at the Rural Affairs Department notlater than 22 September. It is clear to methat, at a time when the Scottish ruraleconomy faces such a range of threats andopportunities, it is important to evaluate allof the relevant strengths and weaknesses,and to be adventurous in exploring possiblestrategies.I, therefore, welcome this more detailedanalysis of the cropping side of ScottishAgriculture, and I will be interested toreceive a full report of the proceedings ofthe scientific workshop “Crop Productionunder Cool Long Days” as part of theconsultation.In the contexts of strategy and change, it issignificant that the workshop is to be heldat Newbattle Abbey: eight hundred yearsago, the monks of the Cistercian order, whowere probably the world leaders inagricultural technology of their time, firstintroduced intensive arable agriculture andlivestock production to Southern Scotland.Successive abbots of Newbattle, whocontrolled much of the best land of theLothians, brought about dramatic changesin land use whose traces survive to today.I wish you a successful and profitableworkshop.Ross FinnieMinister for Rural Affairs5

6Crop Production in the East of Scotland

Introduction1. INTRODUCTIONThe ICSC Satellite Workshop on “CropProduction under Cool Long Days” atNewbattle in August 2000, was planned tostimulate discussion and study of strategiesfor the future use of such areas, taking theEast of Scotland as a case-study, and toexplore the roles crop scientists might playin these strategies. Although this handbookwas initially compiled to provide a contextfor the workshop, and to ensure thatdelegates could make good use of the dayvisit, it was intended from the outset that itshould be used more widely as anintroduction to the cropping systems of thearea.Winter Wheat on alluvial soil (former saltmarshes),Duffus Castle, near Forres, Laich of MorayIn Northern Europe, there are substantialagricultural areas north of 55ºN which,owing to the warming influence of theNorth Atlantic Drift, experience cool (notcold) long days during the growing season,and the absence of severe stress. Forexample, in Scotland, temperatures duringthe growing season are generally below20ºC, and photoperiod exceeds 15h for atleast 5 months. These factors, and agenerally high plant health status, cancombine to give very high yields of adaptedspecies. Although not very extensive on aglobal scale, these productive areas could,and should, make an important contributionto the increased levels of crop productionwhich will be needed to support a greatlyincreasedworld population in the 21stcentury. On the other hand, theprogressive effects of global climaticchange may have a serious impact onproductivity; and there will, undoubtedly, bemajor changes in the conditions of regionaland world trade.The East of Scotland: The Scopeof the HandbookWe have chosen to concentrate on thenear-continuous coastal strip from theEnglish Border to Inverness, with alandward boundary where the mean annualrainfall exceeds 1200 mm (Francis, 1981;Figure 1.1). In 1997, this geographic areasupported 94.4% of the total arablecropping area of Scotland, 90.2% of theset-aside, and 46.2% of the improvedgrassland (Table 4.2). The total area of landstudied here exceeds 1 million ha. The othereconomically-important areas of arablecropping in Scotland are mainly in Orkney,Caithness, Easter Ross and Ayrshire, butthese represent a small fraction of overallproduction.Starting from the English Border, the valleyof the Tweed (the Merse) is separated fromthe lowlands of East Lothian by theLammermuir Hills which reach the coastnear Dunbar. The strip of arable agriculturecontinues through Mid- and West Lothian,with a limited extension westwards alongthe Midland Valley. Northwards lie the7

Crop Production in the East of ScotlandFigure 1.1 The distribution of predominant farm types in Scotland by parish; the bestarable areas are mapped as “general cropping” or horticulturefrom: A Forward Strategy for Scottish Agriculture, Scottish Executive, Edinburgh, 20008

Introduction“heartlands” of Fife, Perth and Stirling, withwide river valleys; here the carselands(recent estuarine deposits, in some areasstripped of lowland peat) are a majorfeature. The coastal strip develops into awedge through the red soils of Angus andthe Mearns (Kincardine), reaching itsnarrowest point around Stonehaven wherethe Grampian Mountains meet the NorthSea. North of Aberdeen, arable cropping isdistributed through the essentiallylivestock-producing areas of Banff andBuchan, where the Aberdeen Angus breedof cattle originated; but there is one lastextensive area of arable land between Elginand Nairn (the Laich, or sheltered land, ofMoray) in the rainshadow of the mountainsof the West and Northern Highlands.As we shall see in Chapter 4, the principalproducts of Scottish arable farms are barley(for livestock feed and malting), wheat(principally used for the production of grainspirits) and grass (in the form of silage orgrazing), with significant areas of oilseedrape and potatoes (seed and ware). Thereare also small areas of specialist crops suchas soft fruit, vegetables and oats for humanconsumption.Similar Areas Elsewhere in theWorldTo place Scotland in a global context, Table1.1 presents data from a range of othercountries experiencing cool long days(boundary set at 55ºN). There are nocomparable areas in the southernhemisphere. It should be noted that cerealyields in Scotland and Fenno-Scandinaviaare well above the world mean. The figuresfor Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania are forcountries in economic transition, and areconsiderably below their potential.Brief History of the Agricultureof Lowland ScotlandThe recent history of agriculture in the UK,including Scotland, has been dominated bythe Common Agricultural Policy of theEuropean Union, which is evolving atpresent under “Agenda 2000”.Nevertheless, some aspects of Scottishagriculture, notably its farm structure, landtenure, rural population density and theextent of forest cover, cannot beunderstood without understanding itsTable 1.1Mean yields of all cereals in areas experiencing “Cool Long Days”(t/ha at 15% dm)Country 1994-96 1984-86 1974-76Scotland 6.91 6.08 3.95Norway 3.81 3.91 3.08Sweden 4.40 4.06 3.69Denmark 5.93 5.18 3.71Finland 3.48 2.97 2.58Estonia 1.76Latvia 1.85Lithuania 2.02Mean 3.77 4.44 3.40World Mean 2.82 2.55 1.87Source : United Nations, Food and Agricultural Organisation Production Yearbooks9

Crop Production in the East of Scotlandhistory. As this history is distinctlydifferent from that of other Europeancountries, a brief guide follows.OriginsScotland was entirely encased in ice up to20,000 years ago, and the land surface wasnot finally exposed for a further 10,000years. Some important arable areas, forexample the Laich of Moray and thecarselands of Perth and Stirling, did notfully emerge from the sea until around1,000 years ago, as a result of the slowrebound of surfaces depressed by hugeweights of ice. As no soils from previousinterglacial periods survive, virtually all ofthe soils of Scotland date from around10,000 years ago (Chapter 3).As the climate improved, the advance ofvegetation culminated in dense forest andscrub (varying proportions of birch, pine,hazel and oak, depending on habitat, withalder and willows in wet areas). The earlyhunters would have had little impact on theenvironment but, by the start of theSecond Millennium BC, a surprisinglysophisticated neolithic society (fine goldjewellery, elaborate pottery and complexfunerary arrangements) had emerged in thelowlands of Scotland; these people were atleast partly sedentary and partly dependentupon small-scale cropping of cereals andfibres, and livestock rearing. They wereattracted by light, well-drained soils,particularly in treeless areas such asOrkney but, on the mainland, they beganthe onerous work of felling the forest andclearing stones and boulders. Laterneolithic/Bronze Age achievements, notablymegalithic building (e.g. Maes Howe) andcomplex stone circles (e.g. at Callanish),show that there was a continuing surplus offood beyond subsistence needs.Up to the medieval period, the rate ofprogress in clearing the forest andcultivating the soil of the lowlandsdepended upon a variety of factors (e.g.slowed by cooler, wetter conditions around1,000BC; accelerated by the advent of irontools around 500BC; interrupted by periodsof warfare). By 1200AD, it is likely thatmost of the potentially-productive lowlandsof the East of Scotland had been cleared offorest. The uplands also began to lose theirforest cover at that time owing to theintensive sheep rearing introduced by themonasteries; grazing pressure and timberexploitation over the following 500 yearsensured that virtually all of the nativewoodland in the study area disappeared.The areas of arable agriculture (moreintensively-cultivated infield, and outfield,with complex subdivisions to ensure fairdistribution of land among tenants),devoted to the production of barley andoats for direct human consumption, wereislands of cultivation in a wider sea ofcommon land, which was exploited forgrazing, fuel (wood and peat) and buildingmaterials (stone and turf). The fraction ofthe land area that was cultivated fluctuatedaccording to population and climaticchanges, but, at least from the seventeenthcentury onwards, an increasing proportionof the uncultivated land came intocultivation.The Basis of Land TenureFrom around 1150, the rulers of Scotlandintroduced a feudal system of land tenureto the lowlands of Scotland, although moredistinctly Celtic or Nordic arrangements didsurvive much longer in the West and North.In the East of Scotland, as defined here, thechanges were complete by 1250, after themilitary subjugation of the last Celtic rulersof Moray. Although formally styled King orQueen of Scots, the medieval rulers ofScotland considered themselves to beoutright owners of all of its land. Theconcept of feudal tenure was imposed onEngland by the invading Normans (i.e. from10

IntroductionDenmark via Normandy and Brittany); itdiffused into Scotland with the migration ofNormans, invited north by Scottish kingswho were intent on the Europeanisation oftheir predominantly Celtic country(introduction of the Roman CatholicChurch; fostering of trade and urbandevelopment; centralisation of authority).Under the evolving feudal system, parcelsof land were granted indefinitely tofavoured individuals and their descendants,and to various institutions of the church.These grants were in return for acommitment to provide military support(men, arms and supplies) as required, butalso hospitality when the court or itsofficers were travelling. Those who heldland directly from the crown in this way(the barons) were responsible for local lawand order, holding the power of life anddeath over the inhabitants of their barony.The land could be repossessed by the kingif the baron failed to perform;nevertheless, with the passage of time,barons came to consider themselves asland owners, and a legal system developedto keep track of the buying and selling ofland.Baronies varied enormously in size from afew hundred to many thousand hectares,and groups of baronies could be organisedinto regalities held by major magnates.Normally, the baron was not activelyinvolved in agricultural production; hedistributed the land of the barony totenants (tackholders or tacksmen), in arange of legal arrangements, which, by theend of the seventeenth century, normallyinvolved a written legal contract, coveringless than 20 years, which laid out thedetails of the rent to be paid (in the form ofagricultural produce, principally grain) andthe services to be rendered (harvest labour,peat cutting, haulage, acting asmessengers, maintaining the barony mill).Later, tacks included options for payment incash. The tacksman could manage theland himself or sublet to others, but theconsiderable amount of manual labourrequired for the existing agricultural systemwas supplied by numerous landless cottars.This form of land distribution led toseparate nuclei of settlement occupied bysmall groups of families (fermtouns), ratherthan larger villages, except in the Merseand East Lothian. Under the feudal system,land was a source of subsistence andlabour for the baron and, ultimately, theking; it was not, primarily, a source of cashincome. There was no tradition of smallscalelandownership; even the smallerlandholdings which were created out of thegreat religious baronies at the Reformationwere largely re-absorbed by larger estatesin subsequent centuries.The ImprovementsMuch has been made of the very primitivestate of agriculture in Scotland before theImprovements, and the role of the Union ofScotland and England (1707) in promotingagricultural progress. Recent historicalresearch has shown that this is asimplification; the records of grain exportsto continental Europe through east coastports in the seventeenth century show thatparts of the country were already wellabove the subsistence level, andimplementing new knowledge from theDutch as well as from England. A run ofvery poor harvests immediately before 1707has served to distort the record.Nevertheless, starting around 1700 in theSouth of Scotland, and moving in anirregular wave through the lowlands, an“agricultural revolution” did reach mostparts of the North-East lowlands by around1820. The rate of change accelerated after1750. This revolution was facilitated bymajor changes in the legal system, in socialorganisation, and in national politics, whichtended to alter the world view oflandowners; they changed from being the11

Crop Production in the East of Scotlandleader of the baronial community (includingthe role of dispenser of justice) to thecontroller of natural and human resourceswhich could be exploited for cash. TheImprovements involved numerous changes,including:• direct involvement of the owner or hisfactor in farming and farm management• reduction in the number of tenants• consolidation and rationalisation ofholdings, and the creation of walls,fences and hedges to control livestock• division and enclosure of common land• technical advances in crop production(e.g. liming; introduction of newrotations, featuring new species such asturnips, pasture legumes and sowngrasses; improved varieties and seedquality; the change from grass-fed ox tograin-fed horse power; improvedimplements; some drainage)• technical advances in livestockproduction, including better integrationof crop and livestock production (e.g.improved breeding; higher productivity;introduction of forage crops, andconservation of grass as hay, permittingoverwintering of greater numbers oflivestock; more, and higher-qualitymanure)Subsequent major improvements in thenineteenth century involved underdrainage,the use of imported mineralfertilisers such as guano, and progressivemechanisation. Another importantdevelopment in the seventeenth andeighteenth centuries was the reclamation offertile coastal areas and carselands byextensive drainage systems and theremoval of vast quantities of lowland peat.Modern TimesThe Improvements laid the foundation forthe major inter-related features of Scottishagriculture in modern times: large units (byNorthern European standards), low ruralpopulation, intensive production systems(but with functional connections betweencrop and livestock production), and anindustry tuned to national and world trendsrather than local or subsistence priorities.The consolidation and rationalisation of theland within large estates led to the rise of aclass of major tenants, farming areas of thescale of 40 hectares (100 acres),occasionally more, with a substantial stonebuilthouse and steading. These tenantspaid cash rents and marketed theirproducts independently. They had securityof tenure and could normally pass thetenancy to the next generation. During thetwentieth century, consolidation continued,and a high proportion of individual farmsbecame owner-occupied: at the 1998agricultural census, the mean area of cropsand grass per holding in the study area was68 ha (170 acres) (see Tables 1.3 and 1.4).In the course of the eighteenth centuryImprovements, the remaining tacksmen andcottars were relegated to the status of farmservants (engaged for periods of months,and housed on the farm) or day labourers.The fermtouns were largely destroyed inthe process of consolidation, anddisappeared entirely from the landscape; insome areas, even their names have beenforgotten. They were replaced by sufficientcottages to house the labourers required bythe farm. This pattern was not uniformthroughout the area. For example, in theNorth-East, it was common for improvinglandlords to create small holdings at theboundary of the intensively-managed land;tenants were offered generous initial termsto induce them to bring the land intocultivation. In the nineteenth century, there12

Introductionwere no government policies for landredistribution, as in Denmark and Ireland,except in the crofting areas of the westernseaboard, which are outside the scope ofthis handbook. However, the governmentdid purchase and distribute a substantialarea of land in the form of smallholdings(around 10 ha each) to returningservicemen after 1918 and 1945. UnlikeNorway, the clearing and reclamation ofland did not confer “squatter’s rights” onthe occupant.As a result of the Improvements andrelated changes, large numbers of displacedtacksmen and landless cottars began toleave the land early in the eighteenthcentury, and this flow increased sharplytowards the end of the century. Thus“clearances” did occur in the lowlands,before the more spectacular events in somehighland areas, but gradually and lessviolently; they also occurred at a timewhen non-agricultural employment inlowland areas was expanding at thebeginning of the “industrial revolution”(notably handloom weaving, succeeded bymechanised textile industries, mining andiron production). The early agriculturalimprovements gave higher yields andreturns to the tenant and owner, althoughthey still relied heavily on human labour,particularly at harvest. However, asmechanisation developed, the need forlabour declined. The net result was thatScotland, one of the least urbanisedcountries in 1700, had the second lowestrural population in Europe (behind England)by 1850, and nearly the fastest recordedrise in urban population in the nineteenthcentury (Table 1.2). No other country inEurope experienced such sharpdemographic changes in the eighteenthcentury. For reference, the proportion ofTable 1.2Proportion (%) of the population of European countries living in townswith more than 10,000 inhabitants.1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850Scotland 3.0 3.5 5.3 9.2 17.3 32.0Scandinavia 1.4 2.4 4.0 4.6 4.6 5.8England & Wales 5.8 8.8 13.3 16.7 20.3 40.8Ireland 0 0.9 3.4 5.0 7.0 10.2Netherlands 24.3 31.7 33.6 30.5 28.8 29.5Belgium 18.8 20.8 23.9 19.6 18.9 20.5Germany 4.1 4.4 4.8 5.6 5.5 10.8France 5.9 7.2 9.2 9.1 8.8 14.5Switzerland 2.5 2.2 3.3 4.6 3.7 7.7N Italy 16.6 14.3 13.6 14.2 14.3C Italy 12.5 14.2 14.3 14.5 13.6 20.3S Italy 14.9 13.5 12.2 13.8 15.3Spain 11.4 9.5 9.0 8.6 11.1 17.3Portugal 14.1 16.6 11.5 9.1 8.7 13.2Austria-Bohemia 2.1 2.4 3.9 5.2 5.2 6.7Poland 0.4 0.7 0.5 1.0 2.5 9.3Source: de Vries, J. (1984). European Urbanisation, 1500-1850. Harvard University Press.13

Crop Production in the East of Scotlandpeople in Scotland living in towns largerthan 10,000 inhabitants was 65.5% at the1991 census.Once these changes had started, there wasno going back, and the future of Scottishagriculture could lie only in intensification.However, the topography of the East ofScotland, with the arable areas constitutinga coastal strip, bounded inland by relativelyhigh hills, did not lend itself to “prairie”cropping. There are also considerableareas of “difficult soils”, owing to texture orwater relations, where the inclusion of agrass crop in the rotation is necessary tomaintain the soil structure; and there areproblems of slope and stoniness. This hasensured that, in contrast to England andcontinental Europe, mixed farming,integrated with the livestock enterprises ofadjacent upland areas, has persisted up totoday in most parts of the study area.Finally, the abrupt and fairly completechange from subsistence to commercialcropping in the eighteenth century, hasmeant that Scottish farmers have been incompetition with those in other countriesever since. They benefitted from theincrease in demand for food from theexpanding cities and from the generalboom conditions during the NapoleonicWars, and suffered from the subsequentcollapse. Over the last two centuries, withthe repeal of the Corn Laws (1846) andincreasing supplies of cheap food from theBritish Empire, there has been moredepression than boom, except in the waryears of the twentieth century. Although, ingeneral, the years under the CommonAgricultural Policy of the EC/EU have beenones of prosperity and development, thelate ‘nineties have seen a sharp fall in farmincomes, initiated by the collapse inlivestock sectors and problems associatedwith currency exchange rates (see Table1.5).One important feature of modern times hasbeen the scientific leadership generated inScotland. The first chair in agriculture inthe English-speaking world was establishedin Edinburgh over 200 years ago and,particularly in the twentieth century, theorganisations listed in Appendix 1 havecontributed strongly to advances inagriculture, food, the environment andbiotechnology, not only for Scotland andthe UK, but also on the international stage.Suggested reading for further historicbackground:Devine T.M. (1999). The Transformation ofRural Scotland. Edinburgh: John DonaldPublishers;Devine T.M. (1999). The Scottish Nation1700-2000. London: Allen Lane;Fenton A. (1976). Scottish Country Life.Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers;Sanderson M.H.B (1982). Scottish RuralSociety in the 16th Century. Edinburgh:John Donald Publishers;Whittington G.W. & Whyte I. (1983). AnHistorical Geography of Scotland. London:Academic Press;Whyte I. (1979). Agriculture and Society inSeventeenth Century Scotland. Edinburgh:John Donald Publishers;Wightman A. (1996). Who Owns Scotland.Edinburgh: Canongate.Many issues in relation to land tenure andrural populations can be explored bycomparing the experiences of thecharacters in Growth of the Soil (KnutHamsun) with those in Sunset Song (LewisGrassic Gibbon) and Butcher’s Broom (NeilGunn).14

IntroductionThe Pattern of Farming TodayTables 1.3 and 1.4 give a snapshot offarming in the East of Scotland, using datafrom the 1998 Agricultural Census (AEFD,1999a) for: Scottish Borders, Lothian, EastCentral, Fife, Tayside and North-EastScotland. Detailed analyses of croppingand crop yields are presented in Chapter 4.Unlike the areas used for the calculations inchapters 2 and 4, these census data alsoincorporate a substantial proportion ofupland farming, with a greaterconcentration on livestock production andforestry.The census data confirm:• the relatively large mean arable area perholding;• the low (less than 4% of the agriculturalarea) but expanding area of woodland;Table 1.3Characteristics of farms in the East of Scotland, 1998 (AEFD, 1999a).All data, except glasshouses, are expressed per holding.Area Arable area a , Total area b , Woodland c Glass-houses d , Totalha ha ha m 2 workforce bScottish Borders 94.7 110.6 15.6 7,386 3.1Lothians 81.7 81.9 10.9 56,502 3.4East Central 41.3 57.1 13.7 21,127 2.6Fife 83.0 82.3 8.8 27,270 3.2Tayside 72.0 78.0 18.6 92,766 2.8North-East 58.2 60.6 11.9 41,466 2.3a: mean over farms with arable; c: mean over farms with woodland;b: mean over all farms, excluding rough grazing; d: total for area.Table 1.4 Characteristics of livestock production in the East of Scotland, 1998(AEFD, 1999a). All data, except total cattle and sheep, are expressedper holdingArea Dairy Beef Total Sheep d Total Pigs e Poultry fcows a cows b cattle c sheep cScottish Borders 94.5 76.7 153,744 1476 1.482m 456 2,908Lothians 73.2 63.9 54,385 891 0.273m 1,548 16,508East Central 74.2 43.6 66,379 963 0.428m 136 10,040Fife 81.3 57.9 60,765 532 0.116m 873 23,081Tayside 82.5 54.1 129,824 937 0.816m 1,087 12,514North East 91.3 54.1 387,422 410 0.751m 1,131 3,353a: mean over dairy farms; d: mean over sheep-rearing farms;b: mean over beef-rearing farms; e: mean over pig-rearing farms;c: total number for area; f: mean over poultry enterprises15

Crop Production in the East of Scotland• the fairly limited area of intensivehorticulture, concentrated near the citiesof Edinburgh, Dundee and Aberdeen – asare intensive dairy, pig and poultryproduction;• the small workforce (60,148 for thewhole of Scotland, equivalent to 29.3 haof crops and grass per worker),indicating a high degree ofintensification and mechanisation (andefficiency in terms of output per unit oflabour);• the integration of crop and livestockagriculture (much of the cereal producedgoes to support intensive dairy, beef, pigand poultry production; and lowlandgrassland supports the dairy industry,and the fattening and overwintering ofcattle and sheep);• the large size of the units of livestockproduction (on a European scale).In spite of the high yield potential of arablecropping in the East of Scotland, the tradedagricultural products of the area arepredominantly livestock and industrialproducts. This reality is reflected, forexample, in the concentration of resourcesfor education and research in Scotland onanimal and veterinary science (seeAppendix 1).The contribution of agriculture to theScottish economy is summarised in Table1.5. The main features of the analysis are:• the declining income from agriculture(Income in 1998 = 31% of that in 1995),owing to a range of factors including thedepression of prices caused by thestrength of the pound and the sharpdecline in the livestock sector (BSE andoverproduction in the sheep/pig sectors)• the predominance of livestock products(63.4% of output in 1994; 60.1% in 1998)• the very small direct contribution thatagriculture (employing 60,000) makes tothe Scottish economy (GDP = ca £60bn,employing 1.3m)Table 1.5The Financial Status of Scottish Agriculture by Sector (£m)16Output 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998Cereals 320 423 432 340 296Other Crops 184 284 179 133 178Horticulture 75 84 92 87 95Finished Livestock 942 1036 1033 968 858Store Livestock 54 53 48 47 36Livestock Products 327 331 341 307 274Gross Output 2,087 2,409 2,318 2,111 1,943Gross Input a 1,054 1,091 1,177 1,124 1,095Gross Value Added b 1,033 1,318 1,142 987 848Total Income from Farming c 493 743 555 365 231Source: Economic Report on Scottish Agriculture. (AEFD, 1999b)a: seeds, fertilisers, feed, machinery etc.; c: Gross value added – fixed capital costs,b: Gross output – gross input; subsidies, hired labour, interest and rent.

Climate2. CLIMATEshadow effect). A “blocking” anticycloneover Scandinavia or the Bay of Biscay canpush the depressions further west or north,resulting in generally drier, morecontinental weather. In winter, climaticdifferences tend to run east-west whereasin summer they run north-south. East-westdifferences also arise from the proximity tothe coast, on the one hand, and mountainson the other.August cereal harvest under optimal conditions,near North Berwick, East LothianThe climate of the East of Scotland istemperate without extremes of temperatureor rainfall but, although meteorologicalcatastrophes are rare, the success ofagriculture is dominated by weather. Effectscan be direct, such as the destructiveinfluence of freezing temperatures, orindirect, through the vulnerability of wetland to compaction by heavy machinery. Itis common for crop yield to be influencedby interactions between soil type and waterrelations, or temperature.The weather in Scotland is dominated bythe particular air mass passing over, since itlies close to the track of depressions fromthe North Atlantic. The prevailing winds arepredominantly from the south west,bringing humid air, which depositsprecipitation when forced to rise over theWestern and Central Highlands, and theSouthern Uplands. By the time that suchairflows reach the East of Scotland, muchof the moisture content has been lost (rainFrancis (1981) classified the agriculturalareas of Scotland using mean annualrainfall, as soil water rather than growingseason length (based on temperature) isthe dominant limiting factor for cropping inScotland. He compiled tables of manymeteorological and agriculturally-relevantattributes for each area (Table 2.1).Although his calculations were based ondata from the period 1941-1970, currentfigures are broadly similar. However,variation from season to season is usuallymore important than long term averages:when decisions are being made aboutcapital investment in plant and machinery, abalance must be struck between the needsof the “average” season and the risksassociated with more extreme events; inthe shorter term, decisions on the rate andtiming of inputs must be made in ignoranceof the actual conditions to be encounteredby the crops.For land capability purposes (see Chapter3), Scotland has been mapped using themedian value of the highest potential soilwater deficit and the lower quartile value ofaccumulated day-degrees above 0°C for thefirst six months of the year (Bibby et al.,1991; note that physiologists prefer to usedegree days). The former is really an indexof how wet rather than how dry the site iswhereas the latter determines which cropscan be fitted into the growing season17

Crop Production in the East of ScotlandTable 2.1Selected climatic data for regions in the East of ScotlandBorders Lothian Fife Angus & NE InvernessPerthshire Scotland & E RossGrowing season (d) 215 225 225 220 210 215Mean winter temperature (°C) 5.1 4.3 5.0 4.5 3.7 4.7Mean summer temperature (°C) 12.0 11.2 12.0 11.7 10.7 11.4Last spring frost a Apr III Apr II Apr II Apr II May I Apr IIIAnnual rainfall (mm) 813 675 825 912 888 803Mean PET b (mm) 465 500 473 440 415 443Access period c (d) 203 240 205 182 170 198First soil moisture deficit Mar I Mar I Mar I Mar I Mar II Mar IReturn to field capacity Oct II Nov II Oct II Oct II Oct II Oct IIIHighest summer SMD d (mm) 83 100 83 72 68 78Excess winter rainfall (mm) e 310 195 320 395 368 303Source: Francis (1981);a I = first 10 days of the month etc.;b PET=potential evapotranspiration;c access for farm machinery;d SMD=soil moisture deficit;e rainfall which must be removed by drainage (i.e.allowing for soil water recharge and evaporation)(based on temperature). Winter wheat,barley, oilseed rape and potatoes aregenerally well-adapted to the climate of theEast of Scotland, with pasture grassesthriving in the wetter parts. Adaptedspecies of coniferous and broadleaf treesgrow well, with high yield classes infavourable locations.TemperatureAnalysis of long term records shows thatair temperatures below -15ºC or above 30ºCare extremely rare. The mean annual airtemperature, as measured in standardmeteorological screens, is about 8.5ºC forthe whole area, with lower temperaturesinland and towards the altitudinal limit ofcultivation. The range from the coldest(January) to the warmest (July) month istypically also 8.5ºC, which is slightlygreater than the mean diurnal temperaturerange of 7ºC. As the air temperatureincreases on average by only 0.33ºC perday during February, March and April, latefrosts and reversions to winter weather arecommon in early spring. In Table 2.1 themean date of the last spring frost is givenin months and dekads (ten day periods).The inter-quartile range is about fourweeks, showing the considerable variationamong growing seasons.Temperatures are too low to allowsuccessful commercial growing of maize,sunflower or soya, although in recent yearsforage maize has been grown in the slightlywarmer South-West of Scotland. For welladaptedspecies (wheat, barley, potatoes,grassland), temperatures are generally suboptimalfor growth rate (i.e.

Climateware potatoes to winter wheat can poseproblems if the potato harvest is late, as isoften the case; and there is a limited choiceof crops to precede winter oilseed rape,which is normally drilled in August. (Theimplications of winter cereals for diseaseepidemiology are discussed in Chapter 5).The minimum temperature for growth ofmany temperate crop species is around 0°Cbut growth rates are low below 6°C. Thegrowing season for grassland species is,therefore, commonly defined as the numberof days when the mean daily soiltemperature at a depth of 0.30 m is above6°C, giving typical values around 210 days,rising to 225 days in coastal parts of theLothians (Table 2.1). Even at 6ºC,mineralisation of nitrogen in the soil isinhibited, such that the onset of rapidgrowth is delayed in crops not supplied withfertiliser nitrogen. Mean air temperaturedeclines by 0.6 to 1.0°C for each 100 mincrease in altitude, and, because of the lowrate of increase in temperature with time inspring, the potential growing season fallsoff rapidly with altitudeAgriculturally, the temperature of the top5 cm of soil is more important than the airtemperature, because, for example, theapical meristems of cereal and grass plantsremain below the soil surface duringvegetative growth; nevertheless, air andsoil-surface temperatures are normally wellcorrelated(Hay, 1976, 1977; Hay et al., 1978).The temperature of soils which areintrinsically wet (owing to texture, structureor drainage), tends to lag behind airtemperature and the onset of rapid growthcan differ by more than a week betweenneighbouring but contrasting soils. In thecase of grassland, this can be important forthe turning out of livestock in the spring.Raised beach soils in the Lothians weretraditionally used to grow early vegetablesbecause their sandy texture allowed themto warm up quickly in spring, but they werealso vulnerable to frost. Although cerealand grassland crops are resistant to thelevels of freezing stress experienced in theEast of Scotland, frosts as late as 20 May(Figure 2.1) can delay the canopydevelopment of potato and sensitivevegetable crops, with consequent yieldlosses.WaterLong term average precipitation is fairlyevenly distributed throughout the year,Figure 2.1 Date of last spring frost (grass minimum temperature) at threemeteorological stations in the East of Scotland, 1961 – 1999.19

Crop Production in the East of ScotlandFigure 2.2 Mean August and September rainfall at three meteorological stations inthe East of Scotland, 1961 – 1999. The curve is fitted to five-year runningmeans.although there is considerable variabilityfrom year to year (Table 2.1). There is atendency towards drier weather in Februaryto April, and the harvest months of Augustand September can be very wet (Figure2.2). The driest areas are those on theSouth-East and Moray Firth coasts wherethe average annual rainfall is less than600 mm. Annual precipitation increases tothe west because of an increase in altitudeand proximity to the wetter west coast. As arule of thumb, arable agriculture is notviable when annual rainfall exceeds1000 mm.In Scotland, rainfall per se is not usually thelimitation to agriculture but rather soilwater status, which depends on the balancebetween precipitation on the one hand andlosses from evapotranspiration anddrainage on the other. Temperature sets thepotential length of the growing season forall crops, as outlined above; however, withmechanised agriculture, the actual growingseason is effectively restricted to the periodwhen there is a soil water deficit (Table 2.1),so that the soil is sufficiently strong tosupport the weight of cultivating, plantingand harvesting machinery without sufferingdamage. There is very considerable interannualvariation in soil water content,superimposed on the annual cycle. Forexample, Francis (1981) estimated that, overthe years 1957-75, the first soil moisturedeficit in spring occurred outside the period21 February to 20 March in half of thegrowing seasons; the corresponding rangefor autumn return to field capacity was 20October to 30 November (Hay, 1993). Thedifference between the actual and potentialgrowing season can, of course, be reducedby the use of winter-sown or perennialcrops, thus reducing the need for traffic inspring.Over the twenty year period up to 1999, thecumulative rainfall from April to July (themain period of crop growth) ranged from50 to 150% of the mean, such that cropestablishment could be hindered as muchby too little as by too much soil water.August and September rainfall (Figure 2.2),which is important for the harvest ofcereals, bulking of main crop potatoes and(October) drilling of winter cereals, is alsorather variable. Winter rain, whichinfluences the leaching of nutrients overthe winter period and the degree of20

Crop Production in the East of Scotlandat lower latitudes. Since the rate of cropdevelopment and the duration of the cropare determined by temperature, but yield isdetermined by the total amount ofintercepted radiation (Monteith, 1981; Hay &Walker, 1989), these conditions areconducive to high yields of adapted species(see the comparison of cereal yields inEngland and Scotland in Chapter 3).WindScotland is generally exposed to high winds,and the East of Scotland, although partlyprotected from the prevailing southwesterlies, is very open to the North andEast, except where there is significantshelter from the topography. The strongestwinds are, however, in winter when cropsare least vulnerable. Shelterbelts are acommon feature but were planted originallyfor reasons varying from protection ofstock to enhancement of the landscape,rather than to increase crop growth.Indeed, the benefits and disadvantages ofshelter for arable agriculture are stilldebated. For cereals, prevention of grainloss through ear loss or grain shedding; andfor both cereals and oilseed rape,resistance to lodging; are very importantaspects of varietal selection for exposedareas.Local ClimatesTowards the margins of arable agriculture,relatively small differences in local climatemake a significant difference to the viabilityof agricultural enterprises. The importanceof aspect is not as great as it would be ifthe diffuse component of solar radiationwere less. However, raspberries are grownon sheltered south-facing slopes such asthose of Strathmore near Blairgowrie.There are local effects of rain shadowsparticularly in the lee of the GrampianMountains and a narrow coastal zone istypified by significantly higher solarradiation and lower rainfall than locationseven only 10 km further from the sea.Nevertheless, easterly winds can bringwarm air that is chilled below its dew pointby passage over the North Sea, resulting ina coastal blanket of mist (haar) up to 15 kminland. Although it frequently disappears bymid-day, it can persist for days at a time,with a consequent delay in the warming upof soils in spring, and reduction in receiptsof solar radiation. Predominantly a springphenomenon, haar can also slow the dryingof grain at harvest.22

3. GEOLOGY, SOILS AND LANDCAPABILITYGeology, Soils and Land CapabilityUndulating Class 3 arable land, formed on till andfluvioglacial material of ORS (Devonian) lavas andsediments, Lomond Hills near KinrossGeologyFor the purpose of this handbook, thegeology of the East of Scotland can besimplified into three blocks: the MidlandValley, clearly demarcated from theEastern Highlands by the HighlandBoundary Fault and, from the SouthernUplands, by the Southern Upland Fault(Figure 3.1).• The Southern Uplands, rolling hills risingto altitudes around 600m, are relativelysimple geologically: predominantlyshales and greywackes (metamorphosedabyssal fine sandy sediments) of theOrdovician/Silurian (O/S) period, withsome sedimentary rocks of the Devonianand Carboniferous periods. The O/Srocks contribute little to the arable soilsin Table 3.1.• The Midland Valley, is dominated bysandstones, calciferous sandstones,shales and limestones of theCarboniferous period (but without thethick Mountain Limestone strata of theNorth of England). Between these rocksand the Highland Boundary Fault aresandstones of the Devonian period (the“Old Red Sandstones” - ORS). There arealso very extensive intrusive andextrusive areas of igneous rocks,predominantly basalt, notably in NorthFife, and the Lothians. Under glaciationand weathering, these rocks, and theCarboniferous rocks in particular, yieldedsoil-forming materials of high basestatus and fine texture. The ORS tendedto give coarser, typically dark red,materials of lower base status.• The Eastern Highlands, more ruggedterrain rising to 1000m, are composedpredominantly of ancient Dalradian(south) and Moinian (north)metamorphic rocks (various schists withgneisses, slates etc.: part of the landmass which included much of N. Canada,Greenland, Norway & Sweden), withsubstantial areas of intrusive andextrusive igneous rocks (granite andgabbro). There is an important northernfringe of ORS, which is internationallyfamousas a source of fossils ofDevonian fish. Under glaciation andweathering, the Dalradian and Moinianrocks yielded a great variety ofpredominantly coarse and base-poor soilmaterials, but, in mixture with igneousrocks, could give base-rich materials.The last glaciation of Scotland wascomplete and extensive, leaving deep layers23

Crop Production in the East of ScotlandFigure. 3.1 Simplified geological map of ScotlandReproduced by permission of the British Geological Survey. ©2000 NERC. All rights reserved24

Geology, Soils and Land Capabilityof till/drift over the lowlands of the East ofScotland. The origin of the till dependsupon the direction of movement of the icesheets and glaciers. In the South ofScotland, the direction of movement waspredominantly west to east, with the resultthat much of the till covering the Lothians,the Merse and the southern half of Fife isof Carboniferous origin. Further north, thedirection was more north to south, suchthat the till covering Tayside (Perth andAngus) is mainly of ORS origin, as shown bythe distinct red soils of the area. There arealso significant areas where the till iscomposed of igneous material of ORS age(e.g. N. Fife). The lowlands of Banff andAberdeenshire are covered with till fromDalradian and igneous rocks carriedeastwards. There are pronounced localdifferences; for example, the fourextensive soil associations of arableAberdeenshire are formed on tills ofcontrasting chemistry (Foudland: Dalradianschist; Insch: mixed till of gabbro andschist; Tarves: mixed till of acid and basicigneous rocks; Countesswells: granite till;Table 3.1), each relating to the “upstream”geology. Finally, the direction of flow in theMoray Firth area was south west to northeast, such that the till is made up ofMoinian schist and granite.Two other aspects of the glaciation of theEast of Scotland are important for soilformation. First, the mass of ice wasparticularly great on the Northern andEastern Highlands, with the result thatfluvioglacial processes, which washed outthe finer components of the till, were veryactive and prolonged during the period ofdeglaciation. Thus there are moreextensive areas of fluvioglacial sands andsandy loams in the northern half of thestudy area, and particularly in the Laich ofMoray (Corby/Boyndie Soil Association;Table 3.1), than in the southern half.Secondly, the weight of ice pressing onlodgement till, has tended to compress thematerial, with the result that most soils,even those with relatively coarse textures,have subsoils with lower hydraulicconductivities than would be predictedfrom their texture.SoilsThe soil types which have formed from thisvariety of parent materials over 10,000years depend upon the interactions ofseveral factors:• the texture of the parent material• its base status• its hydraulic conductivity• topography• annual precipitation• vegetation (mull or mor humus)which determine the degree and type ofleaching and/or waterlogging of the soilprofile. These processes have producedfour major arable soil types, to which mustbe added the more recent alluvial soils(Table 3.1; Figure 3.2):Brown Forest SoilKey factors lowering the rate of leaching,and preventing podzolisation orwaterlogging: high initial base status,particularly with igneous components;sandy loam to loam texture; free but notexcessive drainage; natural vegetationbroadleaf woodland with mull humus. Moreprevalent in the southern half of the studyarea. (Carpow/Panbridge; Darleith; Darvel;Hobkirk; Insch; Sourhope; Tarves)Brown Forest Soil with GleyingKey factors: high initial base status(particularly Carboniferous till); medium to25

Crop Production in the East of Scotland26fine tex tu re, possibly with co m p resse d( i n d u ra ted) subsoil, leading to imperfe c td rainage; low ra i nfall preve nting gleying ofupper horizions; natu ral ve g etation broa d l ea fwoodland with mull humus. Major soils ofthe Lothians and Fife: pote ntially the mostfe rtile so i l s, under low annual ra i nfall, ow i n gto high ba se sta tus and high wa te r- h o l d i n gca pa c i ty). (Ba l rownie; Kilmarnock; Mount b oy ;Wi nton; Wh i teso m e)Humus Iron PodzolKey factors: low initial base status(fluvioglacial deposits or coarseFigure 3.2 Schematic map of themajor soil types in the East of ScotlandKey:1. Humus Iron Podzols2. Brown Forest Soils,with Non-Calcareous Gleys3. Brown Forest Soils with Gleying4. Brown Forest Soils, and BrownForest Soils with Gleying(adapted from Coppock,1976)granite/schist till); sandy loam texturegiving very free drainage; high rainfall notnecessary; natural vegetation heath orconiferous woodland. Major soils of theNorth East but now effectivelyindistinguishable from Brown Forest Soilsowing to the mixing of horizons byploughing. (Corby/Boyndie; Countesswells;Forfar; Foudland).Non-Calcareous GleysSoils which we re wa terlogged until aro u n d1 ,000 yea rs ago or late r, now fre e l y- d ra i n i n g ,but natu ral so i l - forming pro cesses have beena r rested by cu l t i vation. (St i r l i n g ) .A set of representative soil profiles ispresented in Appendix 2.Land CapabilityIn the UK, information on climate, soil,topography and other physical propertiesare combined to give the Land Capability(formerly the land-use capability) of anArea (Bibby et al., 1991). Only the first fourof the seven classes are suited to arableagriculture:• Class 1: Land capable of producing avery wide range of crops. Cropping ishighly flexible and includes the moreexacting crops such as winter harvestedvegetables (cauliflowers, brusselssprouts, leeks). The level of yield isconsistently high. Soils are usually welldraineddeep loams, sandy loams, siltyloams, or their related humic variants,with good reserves of moisture. Sitesare level or gently sloping and theclimate is favourable. There are no orvery minor physical limitations affectingagricultural use.• Class 2: Land capable of producing awide range of crops. Cropping is veryflexible and a wide range of crops can begrown though some root and winter

Geology, Soils and Land CapabilityTable 3.1 Major Arable Soils of the East of Scotland. Map units > 200km 2 ;from Brown & Shipley, 1982; Walker et al, 1982Soil Map Extent, Principal Soil Parent Texture PrelominantAssociation Unit km 2 Areas Material Soil TypeAlluvium 1 674 (E) River valleys, flood plains Freshwater alluvial Loam/sandy loam Alluvial soil437 (SE) in North East deposits over gravel*Balrownie 41 948 (E) Perth & Angus ORS Sandstone till Loam over sandy Brown forest soil271 (SE) loam/ sandy clay loam with gleying*Carpow/Panbridge 89 129 (E) Fife & Angus Raised beaches of Sandy loam Brown forest soil86 (SE) ORS materialCorby/Boyndie 97 943 (E) Moray & North East Fluvioglacial deposits of Sandy loam/loamy Humus iron podzol3 (SE) river valleys acid schists and granite sand98 471 (E) North East river valleys Fluvioglacial terraces Coarse Humus iron podzolCountesswells 115 820 (E) Aberdeen Granite till Sandy loam Humus iron podzol*Darleith 147 138 (E) Fife & Angus Basalt till Loam Brown forest soil178 (SE)Darvel 163 36 (E) Distributed throughout, Fluvioglacial deposits of Sandy loam Brown forest soil196 (SE) south of the Tay Carboniferous materialForfar (closely 239 302 (E) Angus Fluvioglacial and colluvial Sandy loam/ loam Humus iron podzolrelated to Balrownie) 4 (SE) deposits of ORS materialFoudland 243 878 (E) Banff & Buchan Dalradian schist till Sandy loam/ loamy Humus iron podzol32 (SE) sandHobkirk 296 317 (SE) Merse ORS sandstone till Sandy loam Brown forest soilInsch 316 257 (E) Aberdeen Mixed till of gabbro and schist Sandy loam/clay loam Brown forest soilKilmarnock 331 210 (SE) East Lothian Carboniferous till Loam over clay loam or clay Brown forest soil with gleying*Mountboy 414 214 (E) Angus Carboniferous sandstone Sandy loam/loam Brown forest soil with gleying70 (SE) and lava till*Winton 444 92 (E) Lothians and Fife Carboniferous till Sandy loam/loam Brown forest soil with gleying412 (SE)445 444 (E) Lothians and Fife Carboniferous till Loam/silty clay loam Brown forest soil with gleying1061 (SE) over sandy clay loam*Sourhope 472 405 (E) Fife ORS lava till Loam Brown forest soil324 (SE)*Stirling 488 216 (E) Carses of Stirling and Estuarine and lacustrine Silt loam/silty clay Non-calcareous gley261 (SE) Gowrie depositsTarves 517 629 (E) Aberdeen Mixed till of acid and basic Sandy loam/sandy Brown forest soiligneous rocksclay loamWhitesome 575 310 (SE) Merse Carboniferous and Silurian till Clay Brown forest soil with gleying27

Crop Production in the East of Scotlandharvested crops may not be idealchoices because of difficulties inharvesting. The level of yield is high butless consistently obtained than on Class 1land due to the effects of minorlimitations affecting cultivation, cropgrowth or harvesting. [Indeed, cerealyields from Class 2 land can exceedthose from Class 1, owing to superiorwater supply] The limitations include,either singly or in combination, slightworkability or wetness problems, slightlyunfavourable soil structure or texture,moderate slopes or slightly unfavourableclimate. The limitations are alwaysminor in their effect however and land inthe class is highly productive.• Class 3: Land capable of producing amoderate range of crops. Land in thisclass is capable of producing good yieldsof a narrow range of crops, principallycereals and grass, and/or moderateyields of a wider range includingpotatoes, some vegetable crops (e.g.field beans and summer harvestedbrassicae) and oil-seed rape. The degreeof variability between years will begreater than is the case for Classes 1 and2, mainly due to interactions betweenclimate, soil and management factorsaffecting the timing and type ofcultivations, sowing and harvesting. Themoderate limitations require carefulmanagement and include wetness,restrictions to rooting depth,unfavourable structure or texture,strongly sloping ground, slight erosion ora variable climate. The range of soiltypes within the class is greater than forprevious classes.• Class 4: Land capable of producing anarrow range of crops. The land issuitable for enterprises based primarilyon grassland with short arable breaks(e.g. barley, oats, forage crops). Yields ofarable crops are variable due to soil,wetness or climatic factors. Yields ofgrass are often high but difficulties ofproduction or utilisation may beencountered. The moderately-severelevels of limitation restrict the choice ofcrops and demand careful management.The limitations may include moderatelyseverewetness, occasional damagingfloods, shallow or very stony soils,moderately-steep gradients, erosion,moderately-severe climate orinteractions of these which will increasethe level of farming risk.(Descriptions from Bibby et al., 1991, withadditional material in square brackets).It is useful to subdivide Classes 3 and 4 into3 1 , 3 2 , 4 1 and 4 2 , to provide more preciseinformation on the likely proportion ofshort-term grass (leys) in the rotation,which varies from: “short grass leyscommon” (3 1 ) to “primarily grassland withsome potential for other crops” (4 2 ).Only 0.2% (4,100 ha) of the arable land ofScotland is of Class 1, located along thenorth west coast of East Lothian, and inone continuous block of 1700 ha to thenorth of Carnoustie in Tayside (Angus),known locally as “the golden mile”. In theTweed Valley, the Lothians and Tayside,continuous areas of Class 2 land make uparound half of the arable area, and they areassociated with substantial components ofClass 3 1 . At the upper altitudinal limit ofthese areas, there are large fringes of Class3 2 and 4 (see the maps in Brown & Shipley,1982; Walker et al., 1982). Fife and lowlandMoray are mosaics of Classes 2 to 4,reflecting their more complex geologies andtopographies, whereas the potential arableland in Aberdeenshire and the Stirling areais predominantly of Class 3. Over Scotlandas a whole, there are 172,000 ha of Class 228

Geology, Soils and Land Capabilityland (7.9% of the arable area); 459,000 haof Class 3 1 (21.1%); 714,000 ha of Class 3 2(32.9%); 369,000 ha of Class 4 1 (17.0%);and 453,000 ha of Class 4 2 (20.1%). All theClass 1, and most of the Class 2 land, is inthe East of Scotland.Seed potato production on Class 2 arable landformed on till of ORS sediments, and carselandsediments. Strathearn near Perth.29

30Crop Production in the East of Scotland

The Crops4. THE CROPSOilseed rape and cereals, The MerseCrop RotationsBy the nineteenth century, a wide range oflocal arable crop rotations had evolved;these were designed to maintain soilfertility, to control weeds and diseases, toimprove soil structure, and to generatemarketable as well as subsistence products.The classic Norfolk “four course” rotation,imported from England by the Improvers,developed into, for example, a “six course”rotation (wheat, roots, barley, hay, oats,potatoes) on the best land of the Lothians.Simpler arable rotations were usedelsewhere and short-term grassland playeda major role on Class 3 and 4 land. With theincreasing use of inorganic fertilisers andchemical methods of controlling plant pestsand diseases, the trend in the twentiethcentury has been towards rotations ofcereals only, although some othersequences have tended to persist (e.g.wheat after potatoes in the South East tomake use of high levels of availablepotassium and phosphorus). By the 1940s,the area of oats had begun to declinesharply with the replacement of the horseby the tractor, and in some areas, the roleof short-term grass has diminished to theextent that soil structure has deteriorated.However, where seed potatoes are acomponent of the cropping system, a breakof up to eight years is still required forphytosanitary reasons. In recent years,apart from the introduction of oilseed rape,the most marked change has been fromspring-sown to autumn-sown cereals, givinghigher yields (greater interception of solarradiation; Hay & Walker, 1989) and bettersoil conditions at earlier harvest (seeChapter 2). This appears to have had amajor effect on farm wildlife, owing to theremoval of the food sources associated withoverwintering stubble (see sustainabilityissues in Chapter 5).The Crops of the East ofScotlandThe distributions of crops grown in the Eastof Scotland, including short-term grass, forthe harvest years 1988 and 1997 are shownin Table 4.1 and Figures 4.1, 4.2. These showthe clear predominance of barley, grass leysand wheat, with no other crop occupying10% of the arable area.Comparisons between the two seasonsreveal the following trends:• a small increase in the total arable area,although this is reversed by theproportion of “set aside” (Table 4.1);• a relatively small increase in the wheatarea (Figure 4.2) (masked in Figure 4.1 bythe increase in arable area);31

Crop Production in the East of ScotlandFigure 4.1a Percentage areas of majorcrops in the East of Scotland, harvest1988Figure 4.1b Percentage areas of majorcrops in the East of Scotland, harvest1997Figure 4.2a Percentage areas of majorcrops in the East of Scotland (excludinggrass) harvest 1988Figure 4.2b Percentage areas of majorcrops in the East of Scotland (excludinggrass) harvest 199732• substantial decreases in the areas ofbarley (Figures 4.1,2), offset by increasesin areas of grass under 5 years (now themost extensive crop), and the inclusionof “set aside” areas;• modest increases for oilseed rape, aftera spectacular rise from zero in 1980;• the collapse of other alternative arablecrops (linseed, grain legumes) (Table 4.1)which, unlike oilseed rape, have proveddifficult to match with the Scottishclimate (Taylor & Morrice, 1991; Hay,1993) and the agribusiness sector (seealso Appendix 4);• stability in the potato sector; and• a fall in the proportion of permanentgrass on arable farms (Table 4.1).

The CropsTable 4.1Total areas of crops and short-term grass in the East of Scotland,1988-97Crop Mean 1988-97 (ha) % change 1988-97Wheat 103,504 + 8.6Barley (spring and winter) 294,125 - 10.1Oats (spring and winter) 21,684 - 41.8Oilseed rape (spring and winter) 50,074 + 43.1Linseed 1,461 - 79.4Other cereals 1,486 + 25.0Potatoes 25,572 + 0.2Combinable peas and beans 4,637 - 73.3Leafy forage 7,441 - 13.3Fodder roots 18,449 - 49.5Vegetables for human consumption 10,442 + 28.3Fruit 2,588 - 28.8Other 7,065 + 34Total crops and fallow 566,038 + 0.1Set aside 20,351 + 46.0Grass under 5 yrs 280,747 + 24.4Grass over 5 yrs 232,174 - 20.9Total crops and grass 1,078,953 + 0.7Source: AEFD (1999a) and the DAFS census data for 1988.Table 4.2 prese nts the areas of cro ps in theEa st of Scotland in 1997 as a pro p o rtion of theScottish total, emphasising the co n ce nt ra t i o nof arable agricu l tu re in the Ea st.Table 4.2Proportions of Scottish arable crops grown in the East of Scotland,harvest 1997.Crop Scottish total East of Scotland Percentage in(ha) Total (ha) East of ScotlandWheat 108,655 101,360 93.3Barley 344,105 294,293 85.5Oats 21,185 16,182 76.4Other cereals 2,489 1,766 70.9Oilseeds and linseed 59,855 56,950 95.1Potatoes 27,613 25,627 92.8Fodder crops 29,386 21,738 74.0Vegetables 11,701 11,422 97.6Fruit 2,408 2,241 93.1Total crops 607,397 573,495 94.4Set aside 40,175 36,237 90.2Short-term grass 1,101,926 509,578 46.2Total crops and grass 1,709,323 1,083,053 63.4Source: AEFD (1999a,b)33

Crop Production in the East of ScotlandYields and Yield PotentialCerealsThe yield of a particular crop depends upongenotype, management, season and landcapability class, and their interactions. Forexample, in a survey of nearly 500 farmcrops of spring barley in the East ofScotland over five seasons, 1978-82 (Hay,Galashan & Russell, 1986), there was a verywide range of farm yield from 1.2 to 7.8 tha -1 (at 15% m.c.). However, national andinternational statistics have tended toindicate that cereal yields on farms inScotland tend, on average, to be higher notonly than those in other northern countries(e.g. Table 1.1) but also than in England andWales.This phenomenon was first investigatedexperimentally in 1976 and 1977 bycomparing the growth and physiology oftwo spring barley varieties under the samemanagement at Cambridge (52º11’N) andPathhead near Edinburgh (55º53’N) (Kirby& Ellis, 1980; Ellis & Kirby, 1980). Over thetwo contrasting seasons (severe drought in1976), the grain yields of the Pathheadcrops were 79% higher than at Cambridge;the differences could be explained in termsof up to 64% higher ear populationdensities, up to 17% more grains per ear,and up to 20% higher individual grainweights. It was concluded that the longerphotoperiods (more than 15 hours frommid-April to late August) and lowertemperatures at Pathhead (i.e. similarsupplies of solar radiation distributed overlonger days; Chapter 2) permitted longerdurations of each developmental phase, andlonger growing seasons overall. Inconsequence, more organs (tillers, ears,spikelets, florets) were initiated and/orfewer organs aborted; and there wasgreater interception of solar radiation tosupport these organs.This provided the first unequivocal supportfor the hypothesis that the yield potentialof adapted crops, such as spring barley, canbe higher under cool long days, although itshould be noted that not all comparisonsgive such clear results (e.g. Ellis & Brown,1986). Since then, there has been a seriesof experiments at different latitudes inScotland, England and France, designed toinvestigate the environmental control ofdevelopment and yield in wheat (e.g. Kirbyet al., 1987; Porter et al., 1987; Delécolle etal., 1989; Hay & Delécolle, 1989). Theconcept of slow and prolongeddevelopment, with extended grain filling,delayed senescence and enhancedinterception of radiation, explains whyMidlothan holds the world record for theyield of a field crop of wheat (as opposed tosmall plot yields) at 14 t ha -1 (Hay, 1993).A study was conducted in the early 1980s(Hay et al., 1986; Hay & Galashan, 1988) toTable 4.3The yields of cereal crops (t ha -1 at 15% m.c.) in the South Eastof Scotland, 1978-82.Spring BarleyWinter WheatAll farms 4.7 (474) n/aSpecialist arable farms 5.0± 0.06 (265) 5.9 (149)Variety trials 5.6 ± 0.21 (110) 6.4 (48)Calculated maximum potential 9.2 13.234Values are means over five seasons ± s.e. with number of farms in brackets (adapted from Hay etal., 1986).

The Cropsexamine the extent to which farmers inScotland were exploiting the relatively highyield potential of existing approvedvarieties of the major arable crops. Thedata for comparison were:• Actual farm yields from unpublisheddata in the annual Farm AccountsSurvey (a representative sampling of 3%of Scottish farms carried out by theDepartment of the Scottish Executivewhich is now called the Rural AffairsDepartment, RAD – formerly DAFS andAEFD – see Appendix 3);• Yields, under optimum conditions and avery high level of management, from theannual variety (value for cultivation anduse) trials carried out by the ScottishAgricultural College (SAC); and• Maximum potential yields for the East ofScotland, calculated using a standardradiation interception model, andrepresentative dates for sowing andharvest.The main findings of these comparisonswere:• There was very little difference betweenfarm types in the actual barley yieldsobtained, with specialist farmsperforming no better than mixedenterprises (Hay et al., 1986); thedifference between all farms andspecialists was mainly due to low yieldson Class 4 land;• On average, arable farmers achieved90% of the barley variety trial yields,even though the trial data were fromplot experiments under very intensivemanagement (i.e. the yield levels wereeffectively indistinguishable from thevariety trial levels);• On average, farmers were achieving54% of the potential yield of springbarley, and 45% of the potential ofwinter wheat, indicating that there isconsiderable scope for yieldimprovement on farms. Nevertheless,Table 4.4The yields of combinable crops (t ha -1 at 15% m.c.) in the East ofScotland, 1993-97 (with separation of results into the SAC East andNorth areas)SAC Mean Highest Mean Highest Max.area farm farm variety variety Potentialtrial trialSpring barley E 5.5 Not det. 7.6 9.3 9.2N 4.7 ~8 7.5 8.7 8.8Winter barley E 6.3 9.5 10.5 11.1 13.2N 5.4 8.2 8.9 10.4 12.5Winter wheat E 8.2 10.8 11.2 12.3 13.2N 6.9 9.8 9.8 11.1 12.5Spring oats E 5.2 7.9 7.3 8.5 9.2N 4.4 7.1 6.9 7.2 8.8Winter oilseed rape E 3.0 4.7 5.5 5.7 n/dN 2.1 4.1 4.8 5.635Values are means over five seasons35

Crop Production in the East of Scotlandthe highest recorded farm yields were8.6 t ha –1 (93% of potential) for springbarley and 10.7 t ha -1 (81%) for winterwheat.This exercise was repeated for the harvestyears 1993-97 for this booklet, and theresults are presented in Table 4.4.From these data, the following conclusionscan be drawn:• For spring barley, farm yields have risenslightly over 15 years (around 10%) butthere has been a very substantialincrease in variety trial yields (36%);the highest variety trial yields are nowapproaching the yield potential;• These findings for barley can beinterpreted in terms of two factors: i)replacement of spring barley by winterbarley on land of higher capability; ii)reduction in inputs on land of lowercapability (Chapter 3), so that less use ismade of the potential yield of new springbarley varieties; it should also be notedthat farm yields might have beenexpected to rise more steeply with thereplacement of the “aged” maltingvariety Golden Promise by newervarieties (many also of malting potential)of much higher yield potential;• Farm yield of winter barley was 0.7-0.8 tha -1 higher than that of spring barley,whereas the variety trials indicated anadvantage of 1.4-2.9 t ha -1 .With the limited amount of available data, itis not yet possible to evaluate oilseed rapein the same way, although farm yields doappear to be relatively low compared withvariety trial data.The inputs required to achieve the yields inTables 4.3 and 4.4 are considered in detailin Chapter 5.PotatoesParallel studies of the actual and potentialyield of potato crops in Scotland (Hay &Galashan, 1989) were less conclusivebecause of the many technical obstacles,including: estimation of field leavings andlosses in store and handling; less precisefarm records; variation in the dry mattercontent of tubers; the aggregation ofstatistics for early, seed, ware, andcombined enterprises; variation in theminimum size of harvested tubers etc.Provisional conclusions for the period 1978-• For winter wheat, which is grown on landof high capability, the developments of15 years have resulted in increases ofaround 30% in farm yield and over 60%in variety trial yield, suggesting a degreeof de-intensification of the crop onScottish farms;36• The exploitation of the yield potential onfarms was: 53-60% (spring barley); 43-48% (winter barley); 55-62% (winterwheat); 50-56% (spring oats);Potatoes, near Kinross

The Crops82 were different from those for cereals:specialist arable farmers were better thanaverage at exploiting the potential of thecrop (e.g. a mean over five years of 36 t ha -1fresh weight > 30 mm, compared with 31 tha -1 for other arable farms in the SouthEast) but these yields were well belowthose achieved in corresponding varietytrials (53 t ha -1 ). At 36 t ha -1 , specialist farmyields represented only 44% of themaximum potential yield of 81 t ha -1 (herecalculated by the methods of MacKerron &Waister (1985); MacKerron, (1985, 1987);which have subsequently been improved toinclude the effects of water relations(Jefferies & Heilbron, 1991; Jefferies et al.,1991)). Nevertheless, unpublished resultsof MacKerron suggest that some specialistfarmers did achieve yields close to thepotential in 1983-85.A repeat of the analysis for the years 1993-97 shows that there has been no increasein mean farm yield over 15 years; this isconsistent with the lack of improvement inyield potential of potato varieties, asopposed to improvement in tuber qualityand disease resistance. Unlike determinatecrops such as cereals, there is noconsistent evidence that the potential yieldof the potato crop increases with latitude(Hay & Galashan, 1989). The benefits thatthe cool climate of Eastern Scotland bringare more those of crop health: lowerpopulations of virus-transmitting aphids arethe foundation of the Scottish seed potatoindustry (as well as specialist enterprisessuch as growing virus-free Narcissus bulbs).Grass CropsPotential growing seasons are normallyexpressed in terms of the annual duration(time or thermal time/degree days) oftemperature above a threshold (commonly5 or 6ºC; Chapter 2). In humid climatessuch as Scotland’s, such calculations mustbe modified to take account of soil waterrelations (Hay, 1993). Thus the actualgrowing season for an arable crop which isplanted and harvested (first soil moisturedeficit to return to field capacity) tends tobe shorter than the potential growingseason, although this can be overcome tosome extent by choosing autumn-plantedrather than spring-planted crops. Thisanalysis leads to the question of whetherperennial crops would exploit the potentialgrowing season better than annuals inthose areas in which the water relations arelimiting. In Scotland, there is, at present,only one candidate for this role: grassland,normally based on perennial ryegrass, withor without white clover; the increase inarea of grass on arable soils over the lastfifteen years confirms its importance.The ceiling for potential yield of grasslandin the United Kingdom, established frominvestigations in Northern Ireland, isaround 25 t DM ha -1 (Adams et al., 1983);but the yield of no other major crop is sodependent upon the environment andmanagement (principally nitrogen nutrition,water relations, harvesting method andtiming, as well as temperature andirradiance; Hay & Walker, 1989). Indeed, itis difficult to make meaningful comparisonsamong systems and areas because of thelack of standard methods of measurement(Hodgson et al., 1981; Hay & Walker, 1989).Another issue which has yet to bethoroughly explored is the extent to whichthe combination of long photoperiods andcool temperatures stimulates the growthand yield of pasture swards as opposed tospaced plants (see, for example: Hay, 1989,1990; Hay & Heide, 1984; Hay & Pederson,1986; Junttila et al., 1990; Solhaug, 1991).Where grass is grown on Scottish arableland it is normally for one of two reasons.First, on Class 3, and especially Class 4land, short-term grass permits the intensiveexploitation of areas with difficult waterrelations (short actual growing season for37

Crop Production in the East of Scotlandplanted crops) or problems, for example, ofslope or stoniness. Secondly, on Class 2land of coarse texture or vulnerablestructure, inclusion of grass in the rotationmay be necessary to maintain the organicmatter content, and the associated fertility.The products are silage, increasingly in theform of “big bales”, and grazing. In neitherof these situations can the crop approachthe yield potential for cut perennialryegrass swards. Higher yields can beexpected, by contrast, on farms managedintensively for dairy production.Representative yields (generally less than10 t DM ha -1 ) for a range of grasslandenterprises, at different levels ofmanagement, can be found in the tablesfrom the SAC Farm Management Handbook(Chadwick, 1999).• a significant proportion of the arablearea is unused (set-aside)Nevertheless, the mix of enterprises doesvary considerably within the East ofScotland. For example, there is a greateremphasis on livestock in the North Eastwhereas, in Fife and Angus, there is a morecomplex cropping pattern, which includesvegetables and soft fruit for direct humanconsumption.OverviewThis brief review, and the economic detailspresented in Appendix 4, show that• the East of Scotland has the potential togive very high yields of adapted crops• the range of crops grown is largelydetermined by EU support schemes (forgrain, dairy products and meat) – exceptpotatoes, which benefit from the highplant health status of the area (seeAppendix 4)• the range of species grown has tendedto decrease over the last decade• very little of the crop production is fordirect human consumption, as opposedto consumption via livestock or viaindustrial processes (notably alcoholicspirits)Machine harvesting of raspberries, Blairgowrie38

Inputs and Sustainability5. INPUTS AND SUSTAINABILITY(e.g. genetic modification to incorporatenitrogen-fixing genes), in plant/microbialrelations (e.g. more effective mycorrhizalassociations) or in potential yield on lowergrade land under “organic” systems, themaintenance of existing yields willnecessitate similar applications of N and Kfor the foreseeable future. The exception isthe potato crop which could be managedwith much lower inputs of nitrogen (Hay &Walker, 1989), if the aim were dry matter,rather than fresh weight, yield.Timothy (Phleum pratense) grown for hay and seed,carselands west of StirlingIn evaluating the sustainability of croppingsystems in the East of Scotland, it isimportant to start with the inputs requiredto sustain existing systems and yields (e.g.Tables 1.1, 4.3 & 4.4).Inputs: Mineral NutritionThe 1997 survey of fertiliser use in Scotland(MAFF, 1998) showed that the (mean)application of industrially-synthesisednitrogen fertiliser to arable crops andmanaged grassland has remained above100 kg N ha -1 for the last twenty years, withno sign of significant reduction. Levels ofphosphorus and potassium application havealso remained steady (around 70 kg ha -1phosphate and potash on arable crops; 30 –40 kg of each on grassland), even thoughthe reserves of available phosphate in manyScottish soils would justify reducedapplications. Unless there are marked andrapid changes in the physiology of varietiesThe continued availability of these mineralresources depends upon world supplies andprices of fossil energy, global security, andthe size of global potash and phosphatedeposits, although there could be somesubstitution by increased reclamation ofagricultural waste. There are seriousdoubts about the capacity of knownphosphate deposits to meet world demand,although, in the UK, the “mining” ofexisting soil reserves could delay any crisis;and there is at least the potential forutilising domestic sewage, if problems ofcontamination by heavy metals andmicrobial pathogens are overcome. Soilsin humid areas such as Scotland will requireregular and heavy liming at least once perdecade for the foreseeable future tomaintain yield capacity; there are veryextensive deposits of useable limestone inthe UK and elsewhere, but their exploitationcontributes to climate change anddegradation of the environment. Thefrequency of liming will depend upon thetypes of nitrogen fertiliser used(ammonium-based products accelerateacidification) and levels of atmosphericpollution (acid rain).One important consequence of these heavyinputs, and the additional inputs to39

Crop Production in the East of Scotlandlivestock production in the form ofimported feed, is that there is a serious riskof pollution of non-agricultural areas, byvarious forms of nitrogen (most seriouslygaseous ammonia, and nitrate), phosphatein solution, and effluents with a highbiological oxygen demand. Theconsequences of such pollution, both acuteand chronic, can be the sterilisation oreutrophication of water bodies, thepollution of drinking water, and theartificial fertilisation of terrestrial plantcommunities. These effects are in additionto those resulting from the relevantmanufacturing activities.Inputs: Crop ProtectionThe protection of crops growing in Scotlandis much more complex than mineralfertilisation, as the incidence andimportance of pests and diseases varieswith crop species, variety, location and withtime. Crop protection is an unremittingstruggle against a wide range of rapidlyevolvingpathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi,nematodes, molluscs, insects and otherarthropods), affecting all stages from theseed, through vegetative and reproductivephases, to harvest and storage. Thefollowing case histories for the majorScottish crop, barley, are necessarilyillustrative rather than comprehensive.The struggle is typified by seed-bornefungal diseases of barley. As resistance toroutinely-applied organo-mercuryfungicides built up in the 1980s, there wasan epidemic of barley leaf stripe(Pyrenophora graminea), a disease whichformerly caused serious yield losses, butwhich most Scottish farmers of the presentgeneration could not recognise from itssymptoms in the field. By 1990, the funguswas found in more than 80% of seed stocksof spring barley, and was a major threat toScottish agriculture. Yet, within two years,the epidemic had been brought undercontrol by ensuring that all seed with morethan 4% infection was treated with aneffective fungicide before planting(Cockerell et al., 1995).Crop protection must change with theevolution of systems of crop management.For example, before the introduction ofwinter barley, the spring crop was sown inMarch or April and harvested in latesummer; for six months there was nogreen crop. The move to winter cropping inthe early 1980s created a “green bridge” ofcrop plants or volunteers throughout thecalendar year, which could act as reservoirsof barley diseases. This has led to anincrease in the incidence of traditionalfungal diseases of green tissues, (powderymildew Erisiphe graminis; net blotchPyrenophora teres; and rhynchosporiumRhynchosporium secalis) but also lessfamiliar diseases such as snow rot (Typhulaincarnata) which can develop on winterbarley during the winter months. Thus, inthe pursuit of higher yield potential(greater interception of solar radiation),farmers have encountered increaseddisease pressure.There can be important interactionsbetween varietal characters and disease. Inthe 1990s, spring barley varieties (e.g.Chariot and Derkado) were introducedwhich were resistant to powdery mildew.As this was the most common foliar diseaseat that time, it was hoped that fungicideusage would fall sharply, but these mildewresistantvarieties turned out to besusceptible to rhynchosporium: the solutionof one disease problem permitted anotherto take the dominant position. Control ofrhynchosporium is now causing concern, asno current fungicide is effective alone, andresistance to some groups of fungicide isdeveloping.Fungal diseases predominate in cereals (see40

Inputs and SustainabilityTable 5.1), but there are major arthropodpests. Wheat bulb fly (Delia coarctata) is acommon pest in the South East of Scotland,causing “deadheart” symptoms when larvaefeed on the main shoot. Since the eggswhich will result in damage in spring aredeposited during the preceding summer,preferentially on bare soil, the greatest riskis run by winter wheat crops after potatoes,peas, oilseed rape or set-aside. There is along history of wheat bulb fly damage inEast Lothian, Fife and Angus, but since theearly 1990s there has been an increase inthe number of eggs recorded, and in therange of the pest (e.g. to the Merse) (Evans,2000). This suggests that its incidence andseverity may be changing in response tochanges in climate and/or farming practice(e.g. set-aside and increased areas ofoilseed rape). Without an effectiveforecasting system, many farmers willcontinue with prophylactic, and in manycases unnecessary, insecticide applications(see Table 5.1).Of the main crops in the East of Scotland,the potato is most susceptible to the fullrange of pathogenic taxa, including anarray of viruses transmitted by leaf-feedingaphids (e.g. the peach-potato aphid Myzuspersicae); bacterial diseases such asblackleg (Erwinia carotovora); foliar fungaldiseases, notably late blight (Phytophthorainfestans); soil-borne nematodes (potatocyst nematodes (PCN) Globodera spp.) aswell as a wide array of fungal and bacterialdiseases of tubers in storage. By exploitingthe cool climate of the North of Scotland(slow build up of aphid populations) and acomprehensive set of strict regulations(restriction of cropping to PCN-free land;regular field inspections; pre- and postharvestdiagnosis of virus diseases etc.),Scotland maintains a highly-profitable seedtuber industry, supplying many overseascountries, particularly in the Mediterraneanzone. Nevertheless, this phytosanitaryapproach does not rule out the need forextensive chemical crop protection (e.g.Table 5.1Estimates of the total usage of pesticides on cereal crops in Scotland,1994, 1996 and 19981994 1996 1998InsecticidesPyrethroids 15,210 46,456 56,648Organophosphates 31,608 15,656 20,993Organochlorines - - 1,157Carbamates 4,192 1,962 2,650Unspecified or mixed formulation - 427 -All insecticides 51,010 64,501 81,448Molluscicides 17,025 8,841 30,586Fungicides 1,092,222 1,712,768 1,967,309Herbicides 1,011,474 1,315,092 1,354,105Growth regulators 295,233 388,787 422,748Seed treatments 779,010 830,133 799,005All pesticides 3,245,974 4,320,122 4,655,201Area planted (ha) 395,286 ha 449,298 ha 468,153 haThe data are expressed in terms of “spray hectares of active ingredients”.Source: Pesticide Usage in Scotland Reports. Arable Crops 1994, 1996, 1998. Edinburgh:Scottish Agricultural Science Agency.41

Crop Production in the East of Scotland42aphicides, protection against blight).Each crop species and cropping system hasits own characteristic weeds, some of whichcan be extremely difficult to control (e.g.wild oats, which are taxonomically, andtherefore biochemically, close to the majorcereal crops). Weeds are controlled byroutine spraying with the appropriateselective herbicide (Table 5.1), although allweeds can be controlled by a combinationof rotation and cultivation. Recent work onlow doses of herbicide, repeated only ifnecessary, has demonstrated how herbicideusage can be reduced withoutcompromising crop yield and quality.The extent of pesticide applications tocontrol the pests, diseases and weeds ofcereal crops in Scotland is shown in Table5.1 (Note that several of the values for“spray areas” are greater than the actualarea cropped because many crops receivetwo or three applications per season). Thepreponderance of herbicide and fungicideapplications reflects the practical problemsof cereal growing in a cool climate, but thedata also show a distinct rise in the use ofinsecticides, which may be related toclimate change (increased winter survivaland higher spring populations of insects).Work on integrated farming systems hasdemonstrated some of the ways in whichpesticide applications can be reduced.Nevertheless, there is no immediateprospect of a substantial reduction in thelevel of application of pesticides, if existingyields are to be maintained.Risks to humans from pesticides appliedaccording to codes of best practice, arejudged to be low, and the accumulation ofpesticide residues in the human diet ismonitored by government scientists toensure food safety. On the other hand,pesticides inevitably have a deleteriouseffect on biodiversity in crops and theirmargins.Inputs: EnergyFossil fuel is required for the chemicalsynthesis of fertilisers and pesticides; forthe transport and distribution ofagrochemicals and other supplies; fortraction (direct fuel use); and for themanufacture of machinery; before anyaccount is taken of the large energy costsof transforming, transporting andmarketing the farm yield into food or otherproducts. For example, Slesser (1975)calculated that the fossil energy required tomeet the direct fuel use, fertiliser andpesticide needs of a Scottish spring barleycrop was equivalent to around 20% of thesolar energy captured in the harvestedgrain; with the intensification of cerealproduction, these energy costs will be atleast as high now. Intensive agriculture, aspresently practised worldwide, needs to beprimed with oil to secure the acquisition ofsolar energy (see the pioneering studies ofPimental & Pimental, 1979).Implementation of the Kyoto Protocol ongreenhouse gas emissions may have asignificant effect on the volume ofagricultural produce which is transportedover long distances, particularlycommodities with a high moisture content.The competitiveness of agriculture in theEast of Scotland might benefit from anysuch change.Predictable ChangeThe next step in evaluating thesustainability of arable agriculture inScotland is to review predictable changes inthe physical and biological environment,and their potential impacts.Current forecasts of long-term climatechange in Scotland are for highertemperatures (typically 1 - 3ºC) particularlyin winter, higher winter rainfall, and drier

Inputs and Sustainabilitysummers (Kerr et al., 1999). As the lengthof the growing season for arable crops islargely determined by the duration of soilmoisture deficits (Chapters 2,4), the actualeffect on cropping systems will dependupon the amount and distribution of winterprecipitation. In this context, drainage mayplay a central role. Many of the productivearable soils of Scotland are inherentlypoorly-drained (brown forest soils withgleying; and non-calcareous gleys; Table 3.1;Figure 3.2; Appendix 2), and mechanisedagriculture is possible only with underdrainage,much of which was installed inthe nineteenth century using cheap manuallabour. This drainage infrastructure is nowdeteriorating, and it remains to be seenwhether its renewal can be justified as costeffectiveunder the increased loadingbrought on by higher winter precipitation.Poor drainage could have major impacts,not only on growing season length, but onthe grazing of rotational grassland bylivestock.Summer drought may also pose increasingproblems, particularly for spring cropsgrown on soils of low available-watercapacity in the drier parts of the East ofScotland. The scope for increasedirrigation is limited, since additionalsupplies would have to come from riverswhich are already heavily exploited in dryyears.Large areas of the South East have beenunder intensive cultivation continuouslysince the thirteenth century, when thegreat Cistercian abbeys of Newbattle andMelrose were established, and they havecontinued to provide high yield under eachsucceeding system of management(Meiklejohn, 1951). There is little sign ofdeterioration in “performance”, in spite ofa general decrease in soil organic matter,which tends to increase susceptibility toerosion and loss of structure, as well aslowering the ion-exchange capacity.Organic matter levels can be restored byincreasing the return of crop residues andmanure, and keeping soil disturbance bycultivation to the minimum necessary forestablishment and weed control. There isevidence of soil erosion on steeper slopesin Southern Scotland from as early as theBronze Age (Mercer & Tipping, 1994), butthis is unlikely to be a factor in thelowlands even under increased winterrainfall. If summers do becomesignificantly drier, erosion of poorlystructuredarable soils on the North-Eastcoast (Figure 3.1; Appendix 2), by wind-blow,could intensify. In summary, the soils ofthe East of Scotland are generally robust,as long as soil structure is maintained.Considering biological effects, as outlinedabove, the rate of evolution of pathogensof existing agricultural systems is so rapidthat predictions of developments underclimate change are of little value. Althoughwarmer winters should increase pathogenpressures on all crops, the first effects willprobably be to endanger the health statusof Scottish seed potatoes, owing to earlierand higher populations of virustransmittingaphids. The industry cannotmigrate much further north.Nevertheless, taking a historicalperspective over the last two hundredyears, farming systems in the area havedemonstrated a capacity to survive climaticvariation of the scale predicted for the next50 years. For example, Figure 2.2 shows afive-fold variation in late summer rainfallover the last forty years. This may justifythe judgement of Kerr et al. (1999) thatclimate change is unlikely to be a majorfactor modifying agricultural production;and, of course, Scottish agriculture couldplay a part in the alleviation/reversal ofclimate change (e.g. generating biofuels;short rotation coppice etc.). It has beenestimated that around one quarter of thearable area of Scotland would be needed to43

Crop Production in the East of Scotlandproduce the equivalent of the amount ofdiesel used in its farming systems – similarto the proportion needed to produce oatsfor horse power before 1950.Compared with the threats posed byclimate change, those posed by worldprices and supplies of oil and minerals areprobably of much greater magnitude.Other major factors, whose futures aredifficult to predict include:• Major advances in biologicalunderstanding, and in the tailoring ofspecies and varieties for yield andquality• Fundamental advances in applied biology(e.g. managed mycorrhizal associations)• Unexpected substantial climatic changes(e.g. major alterations in the circulationof the atmosphere or of the AtlanticOcean) and damaging instability inweather• Major changes in the patterns of worldtrade, including EU (e.g. the candidatureof Eastern European countries) and WTOarrangementsSustainability: Prospects forArable Land in Scotland overthe Next 50 YearsSustainability is used here as defined byBrundtland: “meeting the needs of thepresent without compromising the ability offuture generations to meet their needs”(World Commission on Environment andDevelopment, 1987).Arguing from a historical perspective;taking the current predictions of climatechange into account; assuming a continuedhigh level of national prosperity; andnarrowing the focus to the East ofScotland; the signs are that the currentapproach to land use could be sustainedover the next 50 years. Its continuationwould be favoured by actions to reducepollution, recycle resources, and activelyalleviate environmental change.Nevertheless, there would be a need torespond quickly, in the short term, tochanges in the global economy; to theevolution of crop pathogens; and topressure from consumers. Although thesepredictions indicate the survival of Scottish• Serious deterioration in global security• Major changes in diet, consumer demandand in the marketing of agriculturalproducts• Depression of yield by pollution (e.g.regional effects of ozone)• Major reverses in the struggle againstcrop pathogens44• Policy decisions for the countrysidefavouring management for theproduction of environmental goods (lowpollution; energy; aesthetics; access;recreation) or the products of forestryExport of Scottish seed potatoes from Montrose

Inputs and Sustainabilityagriculture, they do not necessarily indicatethe survival of rural (human) communitiesand institutions, and landscape quality.However, no country is an “island”, andpolicies for Scotland must be set in a worldcontext. Taking a fully-global perspective(rather than simply considering worldprices), and taking account of thepopulation/food equation, increases in theextent and intensity of food production areboth essential and intrinsicallyunsustainable: necessary on ethicalgrounds, but ultimately causing irreversibleplanetary changes. This is the basis of theconcerns over genetically-modified (GM)crops and food expressed by Sir RobertMay, the UK government chief scientist(May, 1999): at present not all of thepotentially-cultivable land in the world isused, and over 30% of the food produced islost to pathogens and spoilage (Evans,1996). Cultivation of new land, increasedyield, and reduced losses (e.g. by the use ofGM technology) are all about reducing theshare of solar radiation captured byphotosynthesis which is consumed first byspecies other than man – be they rats,rabbits, locusts, fungi or bacteria, - orpandas, chimpanzees, songbirds ortermites. Thus, progressive increases in theextent and intensity of agriculturalproduction will inevitably cause reductionsin biodiversity. Taking an example close tohome, the recent sharp decline in farmlandbirds in the UK has been attributed to theploughing-in of cereal stubble in theautumn, thereby placing an important foodresource out of reach of a range of wildspecies.The consequences of changes toagriculture on the environment are rarelysimple and concern has been expressedthat moves towards extensification andorganic farming may not always provide theenvironmental benefits that are commonlypredicted (Kirchmann and Thorvaldsson,2000). It is also increasingly recognisedthat actions taken to achieve oneenvironmental goal may make anothermore difficult to achieve. For example,manure and slurry spreading contribute tothe Europe-wide problem of ammoniaemissions and the consequent increase innitrogen deposition on the land surface.Research is needed to identify theconsequences of changes in farmingoperations in different agro-ecologicalzones.Arguments over intensification of foodsupply and biodiversity, of course, ignorethe question of whether there are sufficientresources of oil, phosphorus, traceelements and water to go round; orwhether the planet can absorb the load ofpollution generated by intensifiedagriculture. There are other issues, such asthe extent to which food should beprocessed through livestock. Nevertheless,if a population of 9 billion is to be fed (USCensus Bureau projection for 2050) theworld will be a very different place.Recent Sources:Agriculture and Technology Review, TheEconomist, 25 March, 2000;Briefing Ecology and Economics, Nature395, 426-434, 1998;Food Production, Population Growth, andthe Environment, Science 281, 1291-1292;The Greening of the Green Revolution,Nature 396, 211-212, 1998;Crop Scientists Seek a New RevolutionScience 283, 311-316;Feeding the World in the 21st CenturyNature 412, C55-C58, 1999;45

46Crop Production in the East of Scotland

The Future6. THE FUTURE: POLICIES FOR THE USEOF ARABLE LAND IN SCOTLANDOVER THE NEXT 50 YEARS• For the best land, the financial marginsfor specialist crops such as carrots aregood• Nevertheless, unlike many othercountries in Europe, the citizen cannotsee her next meal in the fields near herhome, and tends to have little interest inwhere her food supplies originate; alarge proportion of the diet is imported• (Not mentioned above, but crucial)Scotland has one of the poorest diets,and nearly the worst health record,amongst developed countriesVirus-free Narcissus near Brechin, AngusThe information in this booklet can besummarised as follows:• Scotland has a relatively small butrobust area of arable land of very highpotential yield for adapted crops• This area is currently devotedpredominantly to crops subsidised underthe Common Agricultural Policy, nowAgenda 2000, of the European Union;the products are mainly destined forlivestock and alcoholic beverageproduction• Scotland has a reputation for very highquality products for direct humanconsumption, principally soft fruit andpotatoes (via the seed potato industry)Drivers for Change include:• Climate change• Agenda 2000• Low farm incomes; world prices;exchange rates• Need for environmental goods• Customer perceptions: health, foodsafety, positive interest in eating• Unrelenting scientific progress, includingGM technology• The Organic movement• Vegetarianism• Direct marketing by farmers• DevolutionPolicies for Agriculture in Scotland might,with benefit, be integrated with Policies forthe Environment, including rural47

Crop Production in the East of Scotlandcommunities, for Food, and for Health.There are precedents for this, including therecent integrated drive for improved healthin Finland.What is undoubtedly true is that scientists,including crop scientists, will play a majorrole in the future.48

ReferencesReferencesAdams S.N., Easson D.L., Gracey H.I., Haycock R.E. & O’Neil D.G. (1983). An attempt tomaximise yields of cut grass in the field in Northern Ireland. Record of AgriculturalResearch 31, 11-16.AEFD (1999a). Agricultural census summary sheets by geographic area: June 1998.Edinburgh: The Scottish Office Agriculture, Environment and Fisheries Department.AEFD (1999b). Economic Report on Scottish Agriculture: 1999 Edition. Edinburgh: TheScottish Office Agriculture, Environment and Fisheries Department.Bibby J.S., Douglas H.A., Thomasson A.J. & Robertson J.S. (1991). Land CapabilityClassification for Agriculture. Aberdeen: The Macaulay Land Use Research Institute.Brown C.J. & Shipley B.M. (1982). South East Scotland: Soil and Land Capability.Aberdeen: The Macaulay Institute for Soil Research.Chadwick L. (Ed.) (1999). The Farm Management Handbook 1999/2000. Edinburgh: SAC.Cockerell V., Rennie W.J. & Jacks M. (1995). Incidence and control of barley leaf stripe(Pyrenophora graminea) in Scottish barley during the period 1987-1992. Plant Pathology44, 655-661.Coppock J.T. (1976). An Agricultural Atlas of Scotland. Edinburgh: John Donald.Delécolle R., Hay R.K.M., Guérif M., Pluchard P. & Varlet-Grancher C. (1989). A method ofdescribing the progress of apical development in wheat, based on the time-course oforganogenesis. Field Crops Research 21, 147-160.Ellis R.P. & Brown J. (1986). Yield in spring barley at contrasting sites in England andScotland. Annals of Applied Biology 109, 613-617.Ellis R.P. & Kirby E.J.M. (1980). A comparison of spring barley grown in England and inScotland. 2. Yield and its components. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 95, 111-115.Evans K.A. (2000). Wheat bulb fly survey of East of Scotland. Unpublished reportcommissioned by the Rural Affairs Department of the Scottish Executive.Evans L.T. (1996). Crop Evolution, Adaptation and Yield. Cambridge University Press.Francis P.E. (1981). The climate of the agricultural areas of Scotland. ClimatologicalMemorandum of the Meteorological Office 108.Hay R.K.M. (1976). The temperature of the soil under a barley crop. Journal of SoilScence 27, 121-128.Hay R.K.M. (1977). The effects of tillage and direct drilling on soil temperature in winter.Journal of Soil Science 28, 403-409.Hay R.K.M., Holmes, J.C. & Hunter, E.A. (1978). The effects of tillage, direct drilling andnitrogen fertiliser on soil temperature under a barley crop. Journal of Soil Science 29,174-183.49

Crop Production in the East of ScotlandHay R.K.M. (1989). The performance of high-latitude grass varieties under Scottishconditions: seasonal distribution of dry-matter production. Grass and Forage Science 44,405-410.Hay R.K.M. (1990). The influence of photoperiod on the dry-matter production of grassesand cereals. New Phytologist 116, 233-254.Hay R.K.M. (1993). The contribution of crop physiology to strategies for new arable cropsfor cool wet regions: a case history from Scotland. European Journal of Agronomy 2, 161-171.Hay R.K.M. & Delécolle R. (1989). The setting of rates of development of wheat plants atcrop emergence: influence of the environment on rates of leaf appearance. Annals ofApplied Biology 115, 333-341.Hay R.K.M. & Galashan S. (1989). The yields of arable crops in Scotland 1978-82: Actualand potential yields of potatoes. Research and Development in Agriculture 6, 1-5.Hay R.K.M. & Heide O.M. (1984). The response of high-latitude grass cultivars to longphotoperiods and cool temperatures. Proceedings of the 10th General Meeting of theEuropean Grassland Federation, Ås, Norway, pp. 46-50.Hay R.K.M. & Pedersen K. (1986). Influence of long photoperiods on the growth of timothy(Phleum pratense L.) varieties from different latitudes in northern Europe. Grass andForage Science 41, 311-317.Hay R.K.M. & Walker A.J. (1989). An Introduction to the Physiology of Crop Yield. London:Longman.Hay R.K.M., Galashan S. & Russell G. (1986). The yields of arable crops in Scotland 1978-82: actual and potential yields of cereals. Research and Development in Agriculture 3,159-164.Hodgson J., Baker R.D., Davies A., Laidlaw A.S. & Leaver J.D. (1981). Sward MeasurementHandbook. Hurley: British Grassland Society.Jefferies R.A. & Heilbron T.D. (1991). Water stress as a constraint on growth in the potatocrop. 1. Model development. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 53, 185-196.Jefferies R.A., Heilbronn T.D. & MacKerron D.K.L. (1991). Water stress as a constraint ongrowth in the potato crop. 2. Validation of the model. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology53, 197-205.Junttila O., Svenning M. & Solheim B. (1990). Effects of temperature and photoperiod onvegetative growth of white clover (Trifolium repens) ecotypes. Physiologia Plantarum 79,427-434.Kerr A., Shackley S., Milne R. & Allen S. (1999). Climate Change: Scottish ImplicationsScoping Survey. Edinburgh: Scottish Executive, Central Research Unit.Kirby E.J.M. & Ellis R.P. (1980). A comparison of spring barley grown in England and inScotland. 1. Shoot apex development. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 95, 101-110.50

ReferencesKirby E.J.M and 17 others (1987). An analysis of primordium initiation in Avalon wheatcrops with different sowing dates and at nine sites in England and Scotland. Journal ofAgricultural Science, Cambridge 109, 123-134.Kirchmann, H. & Thorvaldsson, G. (2000). Challenging targets for future agriculture.European Journal of Agronomy 12, 145-161.MacKerron D.K.L. (1985). A simple model of potato growth and yield. II. Validation andexternal sensitivity. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 34, 285-300.MacKerron D.K.L. (1987). A weather-driven model of potential yield in potato and itscomparison with achieved yields. Acta Horticulturae 214, 85-94.MacKerron D.K.L. & Waister P.D. (1985). A simple model of potato growth and yield. I.Model development and sensitivity analysis. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 34, 241-252.MAFF (1998). The British Survey of Fertiliser Practice. Fertiliser Use on Farm Crops forCrop Year 1997. London: The Stationery Office.May R. (1999). Genetically modified foods: facts, worries, policies and public confidence.Policy Paper S4815, Office of Science & Technology, February 1999 (London: unpublished).Meiklejohn A.K.M. (1951). Agriculture. In Scientific Survey of South-EasternScotland (Eds.A.G. Ogilvie et al.). Edinburgh: British Association for the Advancement of Science, pp. 95-112.Mercer R. & Tipping R. (1994). The prehistory of soil erosion in the Northern and EasternCheviot Hills, Anglo-Scottish Borders. In The History of Soils and Field Systems (Eds. S.Foster & T.C. Smout). Aberdeen: Scottish Cultural Press, pp. 1-25.Monteith J.L. (1981). Does light limit crop production? In Physiological Processes LimitingPlant Productivity (Ed. C.B. Johnson). London: Butterworth, pp. 23-38.Pimental D. & Pimental M. (1979). Food Energy & Society. London: Edward Arnold.Porter J.R. and 19 others (1987). An analysis of morphological development stages inAvalon winter wheat crops with different sowing dates and at ten sites in England andScotland. Journal of Agricultural Science, Cambridge 109, 107-121.Slesser M. (1975). Energy requirements of agriculture. In Food, Agriculture and Society(Eds. J. Lenihan & W.W. Fletcher). Glasgow: Blackie, pp. 1-20.Solhaug K.A. (1991). Influence of photoperiod and temperature on dry matter productionand chlorophyll content in temperate grasses. Norwegian Journal of Agricultural Sciences5, 365-383.Taylor B.R. & Morrice L.A.F. (1991). Effects of husbandry practices on the seed yield and oilcontent of linseed in Northern Scotland. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture.57, 189-198.Walker A.D., Campbell C.G.B., Heslop R.E.F., Gauld J.H., Laing D., Shipley B.M. & Wright G.G.(1982). Eastern Scotland: Soil and Land Capability for Agriculture. Aberdeen: TheMacaulay Institute for Soil Research.WCED (1987). Our Common Future. World Commission on Environment and Development.Oxford: Oxford University Press.51

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Appendix 1Appendix 1: The “Scottish System” forScientific Support to Natural ResourceUse, Food and the EnvironmentThe term “Scottish System” has been usedin different ways for a number of purposesover the last century. At its simplest, itoriginally expressed the integration ofeducation, development and extension forland use within the Scottish AgriculturalColleges (now SAC) – a model widelyapplied in North America and the formerBritish Empire.The term is now more widely used toexpress the coordinated activities of theorganisations funded by the ScottishExecutive Rural Affairs Department to workon research, development, education,extension, policy support, and publicunderstanding of science, in relation to landand water use, food and the environment.Royal Botanic Garden, EdinburghScottish Agricultural College, Edinburgh,Aberdeen & AyrScottish Agricultural Science Agency,Edinburgh (Crops and Environment:Regulation)Scottish Crop Research Institute, DundeeThere are also close functionalrelationships with the relevant academicdepartments of the Higher EducationInstitutes, particularly the Universities ofEdinburgh, Aberdeen, Glasgow, and Dundee.These institutes come together under theaegis of CHABOS (Committee of the Headsof Agricultural and Biological Organisationsin Scotland) whose membership is:Fisheries Research Services, Aberdeenand PitlochryForestry Commission Research Agency,EdinburghHannah Research Institute, Ayr (Dairy)Macaulay Land Use Research Institute,Aberdeen (Environment)Moredun Research Institute, Edinburgh(Animal Health)Rowett Research Institute, Aberdeen(Animal & Human Nutrition)53

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Appendix 2Appendix 2: Selected Soil Profiles fromthe East of Scotland(representative profiles from Memoirs of the Soil Survey of Great Britain)Brown Forest Soil (Hobkirk Series formed on ORS, under arable cropping)S 0 – 25 cm Dark reddish brown sandy loam; weak blocky structure; friable;low organic content; occasional small stones; abundant roots; sharpchange toB 2 25 – 51 Reddish brown sandy loam; very weak blocky structure;friable; frequent small sub-angular and sub-rounded stones; frequentroots; gradual change intoB 3 51 – 76 Reddish brown fine sandy loam; massive structure; firm;frequent small stones; occasional roots; clear change intoC 76+ Weak red fine sandstoneBrown Forest Soil (Darvel Series formed on fluvioglacial deposits, under arablecropping)S 0 – 28 Dark brown sandy loam; weak medium crumb structure; veryfriable; low organic content; occasional small rounded stones;abundant roots; sharp change toB 2 28 – 43 Dark reddish brown loamy sand; weak fine blocky structure;very friable; low organic content, confined to worm burrows;mineral carbon present in coal-containing bands; occasional smallstones; frequent roots; gradual change intoB 3 43 – 76 Brown sand; single grain; loose; small rounded stones rare;occasional roots; gradual change intoC 76 - 117 Brown sand; single grain; no stones; roots rare; clear change toC g 117+ Brown sand; single grain; no stones; no roots; strong brown andlight brown-grey mottles.Brown Forest Soil (Winton Series formed on Carboniferous till, deciduouswith Gleying woodland)L/FLeaf litterA 0 – 20 cm Dark grey brown sandy clay loam; fine subangular blockystructure; friable; moderate organic content; abundant roots;occasional stones; earthworms active; clear boundary, but irregulardue to worm activityB 2(g) 20 – 38 Brown clay loam; coarse blocky structure; plastic; frequentroots; low organic content except in worm burrows; stones frequent;many reddish yellow mottles and grey-brown ped faces; gradualchange intoB 3(g) 38 – 56 Reddish brown clay loam; coarse prismatic structure; plastic;occasional roots; frequent stones; many yellowish red mottles andlight brown-grey ped faces; faint manganiferous staining; gradualchange to55

Crop Production in the East of ScotlandC (g) 56+ Weak red clay; coarse prismatic structure; plastic; roots rare;frequent stones; faint yellowish red mottles and greyish ped facesand streaks; strong manganiferous stainingBrown Forest Soil (Whitsome Series formed on mixed till of ORS, Silurian andwith Gleying Ordovician sedimentary rocks, under arable cropping)S 0 – 28 cm Dark reddish brown clay loam; medium blocky structure;friable; low organic content; abundant roots; occasional small stones;clear change toB 2(g) 28 – 53 Dark reddish grey clay loam; coarse prismatic structure; firm,plastic when wet; frequent stones; occasional fine roots; fineyellowish red mottles; gradual change intoB 3(g) 53 – 76 Dark reddish brown clay loam; massive structure; firm;frequent stones; roots rare; faint ochreous mottles; gradual changeintoC (g) 76+ As B 3(g) with abundant weathered fragments of mudstone andshale.Humus Iron (Boyndie Series formed on fluvioglacial sand, under arablePodzolcropping)S 0 – 30 cm Grey-brown loamy sand; incoherent structure; merging intoA 1 30 – 50 Yellow-brown sand, yellow colour increasing with depth; loosecloddy structure, bound by fine roots; transitional horizon, mergingintoB 2 50 – 75 Yellow-brown sand; single grain structure; some fine roots;Sharp change toB 3 75 – 117 Medium brown sand; compact structure; dark brown organicstaining, somewhat mottled with grey and yellow-orange colours;sharp change toC 117+ Yellowish coarse sand, stratified, single grain structure.Humus Iron (Countesswells Series formed on granite till, Calluna grass heath)PodzolA 0 F 0 – 10 cm Black to dark brown, partially decomposed mor; fibrous andresilient; matted by fine roots; sharp change toA 2 10 – 20 Grey, with small amount of dark brown humus staining, stony,loamy coarse sand; weakly coherent cloddy structure, held togetherby roots; sharp change toB 1 20 Thin iron pan sometimes presentB 2 20 – 40 Yellow, with patches of dark brown humus staining; sandyloam; moderate stone content; soft and friable; weakly cloddy; rootsfrequent; sharp change intoB 3 40 – 60 Pale yellow; stony, coarse loam; indurated; indurationdecreasing towards base; few roots penetrate; merging intoC 60+ Greyish yellow; stony, loamy, coarse sand till; moderatelycompact.56

Appendix 3Appendix 3: Explanation of Acronyms inthe TextAEFDBSEDAFSEC/EUGDPGMAgriculture, Environment and Fisheries Department of the Scottish Office(equivalent to RAD before the creation of the Scottish Parliament in1999)Bovine Spongiform EncephalopathyDepartment of Agriculture and Fisheries of the Scottish Office(predecessor of AEFD, before the inclusion of Environment)European Commission/UnionGross Domestic ProductGenetic Modification/Genetically-ModifiedICSC International Crop Science Congress (3rd at Hamburg, August 2000)m.c.ORSRADSACWTOmoisture contentOld Red Sandstone (freshwater deposits of the Devonian period)Rural Affairs Department of the Scottish ExecutiveScottish Agricultural CollegeWorld Trade Organisation57

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Appendix 4Appendix 4: The Economics of a Rangeof Cropping Enterprises: SAC FarmManagement Handbook (Chadwick,1999).Values are Gross Margins, £ per hectareCrop Low Low Medium Medium High High inputinput input input input with input withwith area area areapayment payment paymentW. wheat 305 545 485 725 667 907W. barley 371 611 511 751 653 893S. barley 217 457 357 597 499 739W. oilseed rape 53 449 108 504 163 559S. oilseed rape 86 482 141 537 196 592S. linseed -142 218 -70 290 -7 353Protein peas -14 282 98 394 211 507Ware potatoes 1410 - 2071 - 2733 -Seed potatoes - - 3064 - - -Raspberries fresh - - 3046- 7257 - - -Raspberries processed - - -286-1704 - - -Carrots - - 3001-4013 - - -Leeks - - 4345 - - -Calabrese - - 1515-3524 - - -Timothy hay - - 545- 637 - - -For full details of estimates, see Chadwick (199959

60Crop Production in the East of Scotland