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18 Criminal JustiCe in aCtion Chapter 2 Causes of Crime 19 

Criminologists, or researchers who study the causes of crime, warn against using 

models to predict violent behavior. After all, not every middle-aged white man who 

has a grudge against his employers and owns a gun is a potential criminal, and it 

would be wrong to treat them as such. Studies may show a correlation between these 

factors and workplace violence, but very few criminologists would go as far as to 

claim that these factors cause such violent behavior. Correlation between two vari- 

ables means that they tend to vary together. Causation, in contrast, means that one 

variable is responsible for the change in the other. Research shows, for example, that 

ice cream sales and crime rates both rise in the summer. Thus, there is a correlation 

between ice cream sales and crime. Nobody would seriously suggest, though, that 

increased sales of ice cream cause the boost in crime rates. 

This is the quandary in which criminologists find themselves. One can say that 

there is a correlation between violent workplace crime and certain characteristics 

of the lives of violent workplace criminals. But we cannot say what actually caused 

Myles Meyers to kill Roy Thacker without knowing much more about his back- 

ground and environment, and possibly not even then. Consequently, the question. 

In one respect, though, workplace violence is atypical: it seems to follow a pat- 

tern. According to data collected by James Alan Fox of Northeastern University in 

Boston, 73 percent of those persons convicted for workplace homicide are white, 

more than half are over age thirty-five, and almost all are male. 4 These criminals 

tend to be hypersensitive to criticism and often respond violently when disciplined. 5 

Researchers also note that usually several “trigger” events lead up to a workplace 

murder, which, in most instances, is carried out with a firearm. 6 Do these factors 

Despite its vaunted position in modern criminology, 

rational choice theory is viewed with suspicion by many 

criminologists. If the decision to commit a crime is based 

on a rational consideration of the costs and benefits of the 

crime, what happens if the person making the decision 

is not capable of rationality? The question is particularly 

relevant given that as many as 75 percent of violent of- 

fenders may be under the influence of alcohol or drugs 

when they commit their crimes. 

the myth M. Lyn Exum, a professor of criminal justice at 

the University of North Carolina in Charlotte, decided to test the 

“robustness” of rational choice theory in light of high intoxicant use 

among criminals. Exum recruited eighty-four male college stu- 

dents for what they believed would be an experiment concerning 

the effects of alcohol on brain functions. In fact, Exum planned to 

measure the impact of alcohol and anger on the decision to engage 

in physical assault. The participants were randomly divided into “al- 

cohol” and “no alcohol” groups, with the members of the “alcohol” 

group given 1.5 ounces of vodka (diluted with orange juice) per 40 

pounds of body weight. Then, without the participants’ knowledge, 

the test group was split into “anger” and “no anger” categories. 

Exum induced the desired emotions from those in the “anger” set 

by falsely accusing them of arriving thirty minutes late to the labora- 

tory and threatening to withhold their $25 payment as a result. 

Because these theories are based on often untestable hy- 

potheses rather than empirical data, psychological explanations for 

criminal behavior are quite controversial. During the middle of the 

twentieth century, the concept of the criminal as psychopath (used 

interchangeably with the term sociopath) gained a great deal of cre- 

dence. The psychopath was seen as a person who had somehow 

lost her or his “humanity” and was unable to experience human 

emotions such as love or regret, to control criminal impulses, or to 

understand the consequences of her or his decisions.26 Over the 

past few decades, the concept of psychopathy has lost standing, 

as criminologists have criticized the notion that emotions can be 

“measured.” 

the reality Once the desired physical and mental states 

had been reached, each participant was presented with the fol- 

lowing hypothetical situation: 

You return from the restroom in a bar to find “Joe” flirting 

with your girlfriend. After a brief argument, “Joe” pushes you. 

How likely are you to physically assault “Joe” in retaliation? 

Exum found that those in the “anger/alcohol” group were 

significantly more likely to choose a violent outcome to the 

scenario than those in the “sober/calm” group. To Exum, this 

outcome suggests “there is no single rational choice model that 

underlies the decision to engage in physical assault.” 

For CritiCal analysis What is your opinion of Profes- 

sor Exum’s methods and conclusion? How do you think the par- 

ticipants’ demographics (all male, all college students, 76 percent 

Caucasian) affect the results, if at all? 

Myth Reality 

vs 

Does Placing Criminals in Prison reduce Crime? including acts of violence and drug abuse, are committed as if individuals had this 

ratio in mind. The earliest popular expression of classical theory came in 1764 when 

the Italian Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794) published his Essays on Crime. 

The Seduction of Crime In expanding on rational choice theory, sociologist 

Jack Katz has stated that the “rewards” of crime may be sensual as well as financial. 

The inherent danger of criminal activity, according to Katz, increases the “rush” a 

criminal experiences on successfully committing a crime. Katz labels the rewards 

of this “rush” the seduction of crime.11 For example, serial killer John Wayne Gacy 

claims to have “realized that death was the ultimate thrill” after murdering the first 

of his more than thirty victims.12 Katz believes that seemingly “senseless” crimes 

can be explained by rational choice theory only if the intrinsic reward of the crime 

itself is considered. For example, serial killer John Wayne Gacy claims to have “real- 

ized that death was the ultimate thrill” after murdering the first of his more than 

thirty victims.12 Katz believes that seemingly “senseless” crimes can be explained by 

rational choice theory only if the intrinsic reward of the crime itself is considered. 

Choice Theory and Public Policy The theory that wrongdoers 

choose to commit crimes is a cornerstone of the American criminal 

justice system. Because crime is seen as the end result of a series of 

rational choices, policymakers have reasoned that severe punishment can deter 

criminal activity by adding another variable to the decision- making process. 

Supporters of the death penalty—now used by thirty-eight states and the fed- 

eral government—emphasize its deterrent effects, and legislators have used 

harsh mandatory sentences to control illegal drug use and trafficking. (To 

see why one expert questions choice theory as a basis for criminal policy, see 

the feature You Be The Judge.) 

“Born Criminal”: BiologiCal and 

PsyChologiCal Theories of Crime 

As we have seen, Cesare Lombroso believed in the “criminal born” man and woman 

and was confident that he could distinguish criminals by their apelike 

physical features. Such far-fetched notions have long been relegated 

to scientific oblivion. But many criminologists do believe that trait 

theories have validity. These theories suggest that certain biologi- 

cal or psychological traits in individuals could incline them toward 

criminal behavior given a certain set of circumstances. “All behavior 

is biological,” points out geneticist David C. Rowe of the University 

of Arizona. “All behavior is represented in the brain, in its biochem- 

istry, electrical activity, structure, and growth and decline.” 13 

For example, serial killer John Wayne Gacy claims to have 

“realized that death was the ultimate thrill” after murdering the 

first of his more than thirty victims.12 Katz believes that seemingly 

“senseless” crimes can be explained by rational choice theory only if 

the intrinsic reward of the crime itself is considered. For example, 

serial killer John Wayne Gacy claims to have “realized that death 

was the ultimate thrill” after murdering the first of his more than 

thirty victims.12 Katz believes that seemingly “senseless” crimes can 

Victimology A 

school of criminology 

that studies why 

certain people are 

the victims of crimes 

and the optimal 

role for victims in 

the criminal justice 

system. 

lo 6 


Criminologists, or researchers who study the causes of crime, warn 

against using models to predict violent behavior. After all, not every mid- 

dle-aged white man who has a grudge against his employers and owns 

a gun is a potential criminal, and it would be wrong to treat them as such. Studies 

may show a correlation between these factors and workplace violence, but very 

few criminologists would go as far as to claim that these factors cause such violent 

behavior. Correlation between two variables means that they tend to vary together. 

Causation, in contrast, means that one variable is responsible for the change in the 

other. Research shows, for example, that ice cream sales and crime rates both rise in 

the summer. Thus, there is a correlation between ice cream sales and crime. Nobody 

would seriously suggest, though, that increased sales of ice cream cause the boost 

including acts of violence and drug abuse, are committed as if individuals had 

this ratio in mind. The earliest popular expression of classical theory came 

in 1764 when the Italian Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794) published his Essays on 

Crime. 

The SeducTion of crime In expanding on rational choice theory, 

sociologist Jack Katz has stated that the “rewards” of crime may be sensual 

as well as financial. The inherent danger of criminal activity, according to 

Katz, increases the “rush” a criminal experiences on successfully committing 

a crime. Katz labels the rewards of this “rush” the seduction of crime.11 For 

example, serial killer John Wayne Gacy claims to have “realized that death was 

the ultimate thrill” after murdering the first of his more than thirty victims.12 

Katz believes that seemingly “senseless” crimes can be explained by rational 

choice theory only if the intrinsic reward of the crime itself is considered. For 

example, serial killer John Wayne Gacy claims to have “realized that death was 

the ultimate thrill” after murdering the first of his more than thirty victims.12 

Katz believes that seemingly “senseless” crimes can be explained by rational choice 

theory only if the intrinsic reward of the crime itself is considered. 

Choice Theory and Public Policy The theory that wrongdoers choose to commit 

crimes is a cornerstone of the American criminal justice system. Because crime is 

seen as the end result of a series of rational choices, policymakers have reasoned 

that severe punishment can deter criminal activity by adding another variable to the 

decision- making process. Supporters of the death penalty—now used by thirty-eight 

states and the federal government—emphasize its deterrent effects, and legislators 

have used harsh mandatory sentences to control illegal drug use and trafficking. 

(To see why one expert questions choice theory as a basis for criminal policy, see the 

feature You Be The Judge.) 




and was confident that he could distinguish criminals by their apelike physical 

features. Such far-fetched notions have long been relegated to scientific oblivion. 

But many criminologists do believe that trait theories have validity. These theories 

suggest that certain biological or psychological traits in individuals could incline 

them toward criminal behavior given a certain set of circumstances. “All behavior 

is biological,” points out geneticist David C. Rowe of the University of Arizona. “All 

behavior is represented in the brain, in its biochemistry, electrical activity, structure, 

and growth and decline.” 13 

For example, serial killer John Wayne Gacy claims to have “realized that death was 

the ultimate thrill” after murdering the first of his more than thirty victims.12 Katz 

believes that seemingly “senseless” crimes can be explained by rational choice theory 

only if the intrinsic reward of the crime itself is considered. For example, serial killer 

John Wayne Gacy claims to have “realized that death was the ultimate thrill” after 

murdering the first of his more than thirty victims.12 Katz believes that seemingly 

“senseless” crimes can be explained by rational choice theory only if the intrinsic 

reward of the crime itself is considered. For example, serial killer John Wayne Gacy 

Larceny / Theft 

58.6% 

Burglary 

18.6% 

Motor Vehicle 

Theft 10.7% 

Murder 0.2% 

Forcible 

Rape 0.8% 

Robbery 3.6% 

Aggravated 

Assault 7.5% 

• Figure 03.04 

Composition of Part I Offenses 

The Uniform Crime Report's violent 

crime statistics cover murders, forc- 

ible rapes, robberies, and aggra- 

vated assaults. As you can see, after 

a steady decline, these rates have 

begun to head upward. 

Source: Federal Bureau of Investigation, 

Crime in the United States, 2008, 

(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department 

of Justice, 2007), at www.fbi.gov 

Despite its vaunted position in modern criminology, rational choice 

theory is viewed with suspicion by many criminologists. If the decision 

to commit a crime is based on a rational consideration of the costs and 

benefits of the crime, what happens if the person making the decision 

is not capable of rationality? The question is particularly relevant given 

that as many as 75 percent of violent offenders may be under the influ- 

ence of alcohol or drugs when they commit their crimes. 

Bell v. Wolfish 

United States Supremem Court 

441 US 520 (1979) 

http://laws.findlaw.com/US/441/520.html 

In the WOrds OF the COurt... 

Justice Renquist, majority opinion 

M. Lyn Exum, a professor of criminal justice at the University of 

North Carolina in Charlotte, decided to test the “robustness” of ra- 

tional choice theory in light of high intoxicant use among criminals. 

Exum recruited eighty-four male college students for what they 

believed would be an experiment concerning the effects of alcohol 

on brain functions. In fact, Exum planned to measure the impact of 

alcohol and anger on the decision to engage in physical assault. The 

participants were randomly divided into “alcohol” and “no alcohol” 

groups, with the members of the “alcohol” group given 1.5 ounces 

of vodka (diluted with orange juice) per 40 pounds of body weight. 

Then, without the participants’ knowledge, the test group was split 

into “anger” and “no anger” categories. Exum induced the desired 

emotions from those in the “anger” set by falsely accusing them 

of arriving thirty minutes late to the laboratory and threatening to 

withhold their $25 payment as a result. Exum induced the desired 

emotions from those in the “anger” set by falsely accusing them of 

arriving thirty minutes late to the laboratory and threatening to with- 

hold their $25 payment as a result. 

. . . . 

Because these theories are based on often untestable hypotheses 

rather than empirical data, psychological explanations for criminal 

behavior are quite controversial. During the middle of the twen- 

tieth century, the concept of the criminal as psychopath (used 

interchangeably with the term sociopath) gained a great deal of 

credence. The psychopath was seen as a person who had somehow 

lost her or his “humanity” and was unable to experience human 

emotions such as love or regret, to control criminal impulses, or to 

understand the consequences of her or his decisions.26 Over the 

past few decades, the concept of psychopathy has lost standing, 

as criminologists have criticized the notion that emotions can be 

“measured.” Once the desired physical and mental states had been 

reached, each participant was presented with the following hypo- 

thetical situation. You return from the restroom in a bar to find “Joe” 

flirting with your girlfriend. After a brief argument, “Joe” pushes 

you. How likely are you to physically assault “Joe” in retaliation? 

. . . . 

Because these theories are based on often untestable hypotheses 

rather than empirical data, psychological explanations for criminal 

behavior are quite controversial. During the middle of the twentieth 

century, the concept of the criminal as psychopath (used inter- 

changeably with the term sociopath) gained a great deal of credence. 

The psychopath was seen as a person who had somehow lost her or 

his “humanity” and was unable to experience human emotions such 

as love or regret, to control criminal impulses, or to understand the 

consequences of her or his decisions. 

Once the desired physical and mental states had been reached, each 

participant was presented with the following hypothetical situation: 

After a brief argument, “Joe” pushes you. How likely are you to physi- 

cally assault “Joe” in retaliation? Exum found that those in the “anger/ 

alcohol” group were significantly more likely to choose a violent 

outcome to the scenario than those in the “sober/calm” group. To 

Exum, this outcome suggests “there is no single rational choice model 

that underlies the decision to engage in physical assault.” 

FOr CrItICal analysIs 

What is your opinion of Professor Exum’s methods and conclusion? 

How do you think the participants’ demographics (all male, all col- 

lege students, 76 percent Caucasian) affect the results, if at all? 

For more information on brain scans and other CJ technolo- 

gies, click on Web Links under Chapter Resources at www. 

cjinaction.com. 

landmark Cases Bell v. wolfish 

lo 5 




has a grudge against his employers and owns a gun is a potential criminal, and it 

would be wrong to treat them as such. Studies may show a correlation between these 

factors and workplace violence, but very few criminologists would go as far as to 

claim that these factors cause such violent behavior. Correlation between two vari- 

ables means that they tend to vary together. Causation, in contrast, means that one 

variable is responsible for the change in the other. Research shows, for example, that 

ice cream sales and crime rates both rise in the summer. Thus, there is a correlation 

between ice cream sales and crime. Nobody would seriously suggest, though, that 

increased sales of ice cream cause the boost in crime rates. 

This is the quandary in which criminologists find themselves. One can say that 

there is a correlation between violent workplace crime and certain characteristics 

of the lives of violent workplace criminals. But we cannot say what actually caused 

Myles Meyers to kill Roy Thacker without knowing much more about his back- 

ground and environment, and possibly not even then. Consequently, the question. 



including acts of violence and drug abuse, are committed as if individuals had this 



The SeducTion of crime In expanding on rational choice theory, sociologist 




of this “rush” the seduction of crime.11 For example, serial killer John 

Wayne Gacy claims to have “realized that death was the ultimate thrill” 

after murdering the first of his more than thirty victims.12 Katz believes 

that seemingly “senseless” crimes can be explained by rational choice theory only if 

the intrinsic reward of the crime itself is considered. For example, serial killer John 

Wayne Gacy claims to have “realized that death was the ultimate thrill” after murder- 

ing the first of his more than thirty victims.12 

Choice Theory and Public Policy The theory that wrongdoers choose to commit 

crimes is a cornerstone of the American criminal justice system. Because crime is 

seen as the end result of a series of rational choices, policymakers have reasoned 

that severe punishment can deter criminal activity by adding another variable to the 

decision- making process. Supporters of the death penalty—now used by thirty-eight 

states and the federal government—emphasize its deterrent effects, and legislators 

have used harsh mandatory sentences to control illegal drug use and trafficking. 

(To see why one expert questions choice theory as a basis for criminal policy, see the 

feature You Be The Judge.) 




and was confident that he could distinguish criminals by their apelike physical 

features. Such far-fetched notions have long been relegated to scientific oblivion. 

issue 

area of concern 

Wrongful act 

Party who brings suit 

Party who responds 

standard of proof 

remedy 

Civil law 

rights and duties between individuals 

harm to aperson of business entity 

Person who suffered harm (plaintiff) 

Person who supposedly caused harm 

(defendant) 

Preponderance of the evidence 

damages to compensate for the harm 

Criminal law 

Crime is not something a person is 

“born to do.” instead, it is the result of 

the social conditions under which a 

person finds himself or herself. Those 

who are socially disadvantaged— 

because of poverty or other factors 

such as racial discrimination—are more 

likely to commit crimes because other 

avenues to “success” have been closed 

off. high-crime areas will develop 

their own cultures that are in constant 

conflict with the dominant culture and 

create a cycle of crime that claims the 

youth who grow up in the area and go 

on to be career criminals. 

mastering ConCepts Civil law versus Criminal law 

lo 8 

This will be The TiTle of The box 

Despite its vaunted position in modern 

criminology, rational choice theory is viewed 

with suspicion by many criminologists. If the 

decision to commit a crime is based on a ra- 

tional consideration of the costs and benefits 

of the crime, what happens if the person 

making the decision is not capable of ratio- 

nality? The question is particularly relevant 

given that as many as 75 percent of violent offenders may 

be under the influence of alcohol or drugs when they com- 

mit their crimes. 

M. Lyn Exum, a professor of criminal justice at the 

University of North Carolina in Charlotte, decided to test the 

“robustness” of rational choice theory in light of high intoxi- 

cant use among criminals. Exum recruited eighty-four male 

college students for what they believed would be an experi- 

ment concerning the effects of alcohol on brain functions. 

In fact, Exum planned to measure the impact of alcohol and 

anger on the decision to engage in physical assault. The 

participants were randomly divided into “alcohol” and “no 

alcohol” groups, with the members of the “alcohol” group 

given 1.5 ounces of vodka (diluted with orange juice) per 

40 pounds of body weight. Then, without the participants’ 

knowledge, the test group was split into “anger” and “no 

anger” categories. Exum induced the desired emotions from 

those in the “anger” set by falsely accusing them of arriving 

thirty minutes late to the laboratory and threatening to with- 

hold their $25 payment as a result. 

Because these theories are based on often untestable 

hypotheses rather than empirical data, psychological explana- 

tions for criminal behavior are quite controversial. During the 

middle of the twentieth century, the concept of the criminal 

as psychopath (used interchangeably with the term socio- 

path) gained a great deal of credence. The psychopath was 

seen as a person who had somehow lost her or his “humanity” 

and was unable to experience human emotions such as love 

or regret, to control criminal impulses, or to understand the 

consequences of her or his decisions.26 Over the past few 

decades, the concept of psychopathy has lost standing, as 

criminologists have criticized the notion that emotions can be 

“measured.” 

Once the desired physical and mental states had been 

reached, each participant was presented with the following 

hypothetical situation: 

You return from the restroom in a bar to find “Joe” 

flirting with your girlfriend. After a brief argument, “Joe” 

pushes you. How likely are you to physically assault “Joe” in 

retaliation? 

Exum found that those in the “anger/alcohol” group 

were significantly more likely to choose a violent outcome to 

the scenario than those in the “sober/calm” group. To Exum, 

this outcome suggests “there is no single rational choice 

model that underlies the decision to engage in physical as- 

sault.” 

For CritiCal analysis What is your opinion 

of Professor Exum’s methods and conclusion? How do you 

think the participants’ demographics (all male, all college 

students, 76 percent Caucasian) affect the results, if at all? 

anti-terrorism in aCtion 


including acts of violence and drug abuse, are committed as if individuals had this 



The SeducTion of crime In expanding on rational choice theory, sociologist 




of this “rush” the seduction of crime.11 For example, serial killer John Wayne Gacy 

claims to have “realized that death was the ultimate thrill” after murdering the first 

of his more than thirty victims.12 Katz believes that seemingly “senseless” crimes can 

be explained by rational choice theory only if the intrinsic reward of the crime itself 

is considered. For example, serial killer John Wayne Gacy claims to have “realized 

that death was the ultimate thrill” after murdering the first of his more than thirty 

victims.12 Katz believes that seemingly “senseless” crimes can be explained by ratio- 

nal choice theory only if the intrinsic reward of the crime itself is considered. 

choice Theory and Public Policy The theory that wrongdoers choose to 

commit crimes is a cornerstone of the American criminal justice system. Because 

crime is seen as the end result of a series of rational choices, policymakers have 

reasoned that severe punishment can deter criminal activity by adding another vari- 

able to the decision- making process. Supporters of the death penalty—now used by 

thirty-eight states and the federal government—emphasize its deterrent effects, and 

the situation During the annual “Wild West Days” 

celebration, a homeless man named Bert ignored signs labeled “No 

Disrupting of Parade Route” and crossed Main Street. In doing so, 

he unintentionally spooked a horse carrying ten-year-old “cowgirl” 

Katy. The horse bolted, and Katy was thrown to her death. Pa- 

rade rules stipulate that no person under the age of twelve years 

shall be allowed to ride a horse, but Katy’s mother, an important 

businesswoman and community leader, managed to circumvent 

these regulations on her daughter’s behalf. Now, Katy’s mother is 

insisting that District Attorney Patty Lopez, who is facing a tough 

reelection battle, bring murder charges against Bert. 

the ethical dilemma Following the letter of the 

law, District Attorney Lopez could charge Bert with involuntary 

manslaughter, which, as you will learn in Chapter 3, requires 

that the offender’s carelessness cause a death that he or she 

did not intend. However, Lopez realizes that hundreds of 

people cross Main Street during the parade every year, and Bert 

was more unlucky than careless. 

Furthermore, Lopez is well aware 

that the support of Katy’s mother 

is crucial to her reelection cam- 

paign, and, if she fails to bring charges 

against Lopez, she might well lose the election. 

what is the solution? What do you believe District 

Attorney Lopez should do? She knows that, legally, she can 

charge Bert with involuntary manslaughter. But murder tri- 

als take up considerable resources that might be better spent 

prosecuting more serious crimes with more dangerous offenders. 

Lopez also knows that, under most circumstances, she would 

have very little chance of convincing a jury that such an obvious 

accident requires punishment. But, Katy is a very sympathetic 

victim and Bert is a very unsympathetic suspect. How will District 

Attorney Lopez’s personal values, and her political considerations, 

affect her discretion in this matter? 

a Question of ethics Death of a Cowgirl 

The Seduction of Crime Criminologists, or researchers who study the causes of 

crime, warn against using models to predict violent behavior. After all, not every 

middle-aged white man who has a grudge against his employers and owns a gun is a 

potential criminal, and it would be wrong to treat them as such. Studies may show a 

correlation between these factors and workplace violence, but very few 

criminologists would go as far as to claim that these factors cause such 

violent behavior. Correlation between two variables means that they 

tend to vary together. Causation, in contrast, means that one variable is responsible 

for the change in the other. Research shows, for example, that ice cream sales and 

crime rates both rise in the summer. Thus, there is a correlation between ice cream 

sales and crime. Nobody would seriously suggest, though, that increased sales of ice 

cream cause the boost in crime rates. 

This is the quandary in which criminologists find themselves. One can say that there 

is a correlation between violent workplace crime and certain characteristics of the 

lives of violent workplace criminals. But we cannot say what actually caused Myles 

Meyers to kill Roy Thacker without knowing much more about his background and 

environment, and possibly not even then. Consequently, the question. 



Boston, 73 percent of those persons convicted for workplace homicide are white, 

more than half are over age thirty-five, and almost all are male. 4 These criminals 

tend to be hypersensitive to criticism and often respond violently when disciplined. 5 

Researchers also note that usually several “trigger” events lead up to a workplace 

murder, which, in most instances, is carried out with a firearm. 6 Do these factors 

provide us with any clues as to the underlying causes of Myles Meyers’s behavior? 

The study of crime, or criminology, is rich with different theories as to why people 

commit crimes. In this chapter, we will discuss the most influential of these theo- 

ries, some of which complement each other and some of which do not. We will also 

look at the various factors most commonly, if not always correctly, associated with 

criminal behavior. Finally, this chapter will address the question of relevance: What 

effect do theories of why wrongdoing occurs have on efforts to control and prevent 

crime? 



has a grudge against his employers and owns a gun is a potential criminal, and it would 

be wrong to treat them as such. Studies may show a correlation between these factors 

and workplace violence, but very few criminologists would go as far as to claim that 

05 06 

Figure 3.3 

Year 

Index Crme Rate 

3000 

4000 

5000 

6000 

03 04 

197879 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 

• figure 3.8 

Violent crime Rates, 1990-2008 

The Uniform Crime Report's violent crime 

statistics cover murders, forcible rapes, 

robberies, and aggravated assaults. As 

you can see, after a steady decline, these 

rates have begun to head upward. 

Criminology The 

scientific study of 

crime and the causes 

of criminal behavior. 

Social 

Disorganization 

Theory The theory 

that deviant behavior 

is more likely in 

communities where 

social institutions 

such as the family, 

schools, and the 

criminal justice 

system fail to exert 

control over the 

population. 

Self ASSeSSment fill in the blanks and check your answers on page xxx. 

Offenders sentened to probation serve their sentence in the under the supervision 

of a . If a probationer commmits a by failing to follow the of 

his or her probation, it will be revoked and he or she will likely be sent to . 

lo 7 

Source: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Crime in the United States, 2008, 

(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 2007), at www.fbi.gov

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