IJSRP JUNE 2012 Online Print Version - IJSRP.ORG

International Journal of Scientific
and Research Publications
Print Version, Volume 2, Issue 6
JUNE 2012 Edition
ISSN 2250-3153
IJSRP
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JUNE 2012
Online Print Version

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 1, January 2012 1
ISSN 2250-3153
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 2
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Table of Contents
Effect of Vedic Chanting (Homas, Yagyas, Meditation) on crime rate (Oct 2011) ............................................... 9
Dr. Rohit Sabharwal, Ms. Kinjal Dalal................................................................................................... 9
APPROXIMATION OF FUNCTION BELONGING TO W (Lp, () t
) CLASS BY (E, q) (N, pn) MEANS OF
ITS FOURIER SERIES ........................................................................................................................................ 13
H. L. RATHORE*, U. K. SHRIVASTAVA** ..................................................................................... 13
Design and Implementation of Cipher Algorithm using Randomized Alphanumeric Characters ....................... 20
Sudhakar Kumar Singh ......................................................................................................................... 20
Nutritional Status of Children (0-24 Months) In Jammu Kashmir and Ladakh Regions .............................. 23
Yasmeen Khan and Nelofar Khan ........................................................................................................ 23
The Correlational Study of the Vertical Jump Test and Wingate Cycle Test as a Method to Assess Anaerobic
Power in High School Basketball Players ............................................................................................................ 30
Purvi K. Changela, Sarla Bhatt ............................................................................................................. 30
SQL Server Query Optimization Techniques - Tips for Writing Efficient and Faster Queries ........................... 36
Navita Kumari ......................................................................................................................................... 36
A Comparative Study on Concomitant of Order Statistics and Record Statistics for Weighted Inverse Gaussian
Distribution ........................................................................................................................................................... 40
Kishore K. Das*, Bhanita Das** and Bhupen K. Baruah*** ............................................................. 40
Design and Stress Analysis of Watt and Porter Governor .................................................................................... 48
*Ravindra Singh Rana, **Rajesh Purohit, *Alok Singh..................................................................... 48
Reviews on the Influences of Alloying elements on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Aluminum
Alloys and Aluminum Alloy Composites ............................................................................................................. 54
R. S. Rana, Rajesh Purohit, and S Das ................................................................................................. 54
Evaluating Demand Response of Hydro Plant with Mixed Pumped Storage ....................................................... 61
N. Venkateswarlu, M. Velmurugan, and S.Udaya Baskar ............................................................................. 61
Tamil Speech Recognition using Semi Continuous Models................................................................................. 65
Hanitha Gnanathesigar .......................................................................................................................... 65
Complex Dynamics in a Mathematical Model of Tumor Growth with Time Delays in the Cell Proliferation ... 70
M. Saleem and Tanuja Agrawal ............................................................................................................ 70
Fuzzy Spanning Tree Flow-Equivalent Algorithm ............................................................................................... 77
Dr. G.Nirmala, K.Uma ........................................................................................................................... 77
A Model Approach to Off-line English Character Recognition ........................................................................... 84
Binod Kumar Prasad*, Goutam Sanyal** ........................................................................................... 84
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Fuzzy Sub - Trigroup – Trilevel Properties .......................................................................................................... 89
1 G.Nirmala, 2 S.Suganthi ........................................................................................................................................ 89
Adjustment problems of Educable Mentally Retarded ......................................................................................... 93
Dr. Bharati ROY ..................................................................................................................................... 93
Design of Efficient XTEA Using Verilog ............................................................................................................ 98
Shweta Gaba, Iti Aggarwal, Dr. Sujata Pandey ................................................................................... 98
Performance analysis & Optimization of WDM-EPON for Metropolitan Area Networking ............................ 103
Tripuresh Joshi, Arvind Kumar Jaiswal, Mukesh Kumar ............................................................... 103
Next Generation of Internet Protocol for TCP/IP Protocol Suite ....................................................................... 107
Miss. Soni Samprati .............................................................................................................................. 107
Evaluation of Anticarcinogenic and Antimutagenic Effects of Triphala Extract ............................................... 112
R.C.Agrawal, Rajani............................................................................................................................. 112
Object Detection in Remote Sensing Images: A Review ................................................................................... 118
Er. Tanvi Madaan, Er. Himanshu Sharma ........................................................................................ 118
Genetic Variability Studies for Qualitative and Quantitative traits in Popular Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Hybrids of
India .................................................................................................................................................................... 121
V. Ravindra Babu 1 *, K. Shreya 2 , Kuldeep Singh Dangi 2 , G. Usharani 2 , P. Nagesh 3 ..................... 121
Thyristor Based Speed Control Techniques of DC Motor: A Comparative Analysis ........................................ 126
Rohit Gupta, Ruchika Lamba, Subhransu Padhee ........................................................................... 126
Automatic Face Detection Using Color Based Segmentation ............................................................................ 133
Yogesh Tayal, Ruchika Lamba, Subhransu Padhee.......................................................................... 133
DESIGN AND EVALUATION OF CHITOSAN CONTAINING MUCOADHESIVE BUCCAL PATCH OF
FLUXOTINE HCL ............................................................................................................................................. 140
NARESH KSHIRASAGAR*, NARESH THAMADA, V.N.BALAJI KUMAR NAIK, M.SUSHMA
GOPAL .................................................................................................................................................. 140
CHILD WELFARE PROGRAMME IN COLONIAL MYSORE ..................................................................... 145
Dr. THRIVENI ...................................................................................................................................... 145
Live Migration of Virtual Machines in Cloud .................................................................................................... 148
Ashima Agarwal, Shangruff Raina ..................................................................................................... 148
Regulation and Accounting Treatment of Future and Option in Indian Derivative Market ............................... 153
Matloob Ullah Khan, Dr. Ambrish Gupta and Dr. Sadaf Siraj ....................................................... 153
P-FUZZY SUBALGEBRA AND ITS PROPERTIES ....................................................................................... 159
Dr. G. NIRMALA 1 , S.PRIYADARSHINI 2 ......................................................................................... 159
Energy Conservation through Roof Surface Evaporative Cooling for Air Conditioning System ...................... 162
R.B. Lokapure, J.D.Joshi ..................................................................................................................... 162
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A Carrier Based Compact Model for Long Channel Undoped and Doped Body Symmetric Double Gate
MOSFETS........................................................................................................................................................... 167
Neha Goel, Dr.Vandana Nath .............................................................................................................. 167
Removal of Multiple Access Interference in DS-CDMA System ...................................................................... 171
And ................................................................................................ 171
Modeling of Liquid-Liquid Extraction in Spray Column Using Artificial Neural Network .............................. 177
S.L. Pandharipande, Aashish Nagdive, Yogesh Moharkar .............................................................. 177
Testing Market Efficiency of Indian Stock Market ............................................................................................ 187
Mr. Divyang J Joshi .............................................................................................................................. 187
Online Shopping and the Transaction Protection in E-Commerce: A case Of Online Purchasing in Libya. ..... 191
Abdulghader.A.Ahmed, Hadya.S.Hawedi .......................................................................................... 191
DIEL Variations of Physico-Chemical Factors and Planktonpopulation in a Swamp Of Harda, Purnia, Bihar
(India) .................................................................................................................................................................. 205
R.SIDDHARTHA, RANJANA KUMARI, K.D.TANTI* AND B.N.PANDEY .............................. 205
Effect of Various Concentration of Octacosane, Pentacosane and Tricosane on Foraging Behavior of
Trichogrammatids ............................................................................................................................................... 209
Shipra Mathur, Asfiya Zayeem, Srikanth Kanameni, Monica Tibrewal, Nitish Wadhwa, Priti
Arora and Archna Kumar ................................................................................................................... 209
Awareness of Health Insurance in Andhra Pradesh ............................................................................................ 214
Jangati Yellaiah ..................................................................................................................................... 214
Comparative Study of Sign Language Recognition Systems ............................................................................. 219
Ms. Rashmi D. Kyatanavar, Prof. P. R. Futane ................................................................................. 219
Age Related Changes in the Parasympathetic Control of the Heart ................................................................... 222
Vinutha Shankar MS, Shivakumar Veeraiah .................................................................................... 222
The Folk Medicinal Plants of the Mao Naga in Manipur, North East India ....................................................... 228
Adani Lokho .......................................................................................................................................... 228
Women and Soap-Operas: Popularity, Portrayal and Perception ....................................................................... 236
Dr. Aaliya Ahmed ................................................................................................................................. 236
Global and Factor Domination in Fuzzy Graph .................................................................................................. 242
G.Nirmala 1 , M.Sheela 2 ......................................................................................................................... 242
Active Device Usage in Filter Design – An Overview ....................................................................................... 246
SHEIKH AJAZ BASHIR ....................................................................................................................... 246
N.A.SHAH .............................................................................................................................................. 246
Tracking of Reference Signals by Advanced Unified Power Flow Controller .................................................. 253
K. Manoz Kumar Reddy ...................................................................................................................... 253
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Robust Digital Watermarking Using MDKP ...................................................................................................... 259
Mr A. Chandra, Ms. T. Kavitha .......................................................................................................... 259
Evaluation of antifungal activities of certain plant against Fusarium udum Butler causing wilt in pigeonpea
(Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) ............................................................................................................................... 263
Tongbram Ranjana Devi and GKN Chhetry ..................................................................................... 263
Recent Developments in Signal Encryption – A Critical Survey ....................................................................... 267
S. Rajanarayanan and A. Pushparaghavan ....................................................................................... 267
Impact of Seasonal and Habitat variation on composition of Total Lipid content in Muscle and Liver of Labeo
gonius (Ham) ...................................................................................................................................................... 274
B.K. Deka*, R. Mahanta* and U.C. Goswami** ............................................................................... 274
Retrieving Stream of Video Frames Using Query Processing............................................................................ 279
Ramancha Sandhyarani 1 , Shiramshetty Gouthami 2 and Baggani Ratna 3 ..................................... 279
Screening of phaseolus vulgaris Cultivars Growing in Various Areas of Jammu and Kashmir for Anthracnose
Resistance ........................................................................................................................................................... 283
Balbir Kour, Gurmeet Kour, Sanjana Kaul, Manoj K. Dhar .......................................................... 283
Love, Desire, and Theological Issues in Indo-Iranian Myths: A Comparative Introduction ............................ 291
Abbas Saeedipour ................................................................................................................................. 291
Performance Evaluation of DHT Based multi-path Routing Protocol for MANETs ......................................... 296
Gurmukh Singh, Dr. Savita Gupta, Sukhvir Singh ........................................................................... 296
Secure Data Hiding Algorithm Using Encrypted Secret message ...................................................................... 301
Harshitha K M, Dr. P. A. Vijaya ......................................................................................................... 301
Biodiesel Production and Process Optimization ................................................................................................. 305
Rajarshi Kar, Oindrila Gupta, Mukundu Kumar Das ..................................................................... 305
A study of Intellectual Property Management in Industries & Academics & ways for collaboration in India .. 311
First Author - Pankaj Prabhakar Borkar .......................................................................................... 311
Second Author - Dr. Ashutosh A. Paturkar ....................................................................................... 311
Prequalification Science Practical Activities for the Production of Effective Science Teachers: a Strategy for
Sustainable National Development ..................................................................................................................... 316
Jamil Mikhail Y..................................................................................................................................... 316
Education: A Solution to the Contemporary Challenges of a Common Woman in a typical Hausa-Fulani
Dominated Society in Nigeria ............................................................................................................................. 320
Jamil Mikhail Y..................................................................................................................................... 320
Circular Disk Monopole Antenna for Broadband Applications ......................................................................... 325
B.Saidaiah #1 , A.Sudhakar *2 , K. Padma Raju #3 .................................................................................. 325
Implementation Scheme for Online Medical Diagnosis System Using Multi Agent System with JADE ......... 329
Mr.Shibakali Gupta, Arindam Sarkar, Indrani Pramanik, Banani Mukherjee ............................ 329
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Multicarrier modulation with OFDM for 4G networks ...................................................................................... 335
M.Gopu*, Dr. Ritesh Khanna** ......................................................................................................... 335
Study and Comparison Performance of On-demand AODV and DSR, along with the traditional proactive
DSDV Routing Protocols for MANET ............................................................................................................... 339
Vijendra Rai*, Jaishree Jain** ............................................................................................................ 339
―Automated Innovation Analysis & Human Resource Management System‖ .................................................. 345
Prashik Nagkirti, Sagar Kunjir, Ganesh Rajput, Swapnil Patil ...................................................... 345
X-Ray Satellites in the Lα1 Region of 4d Transition Element ........................................................................... 348
Dr. Sameer Sinha *, Ajay Vikram Singh**, Kedar Nath Singh*** ................................................. 348
Characterization of Sulphamic Acid Single Crystal by Optical Techniques ...................................................... 353
Dr. Rita A. Gharde, Divakar T. Chunarkar....................................................................................... 353
Design of a 32 DOF Andro Humanoid Robot using Cascaded Computational Intelligence .............................. 357
S Shyam.R.Nair, Prof. Manjula Pramod ............................................................................................ 357
Image Processing Operations for 3d Image ........................................................................................................ 364
Mrs. A. Padmapriya, S.Vigneshnarthi ................................................................................................ 364
Transient Analysis of Mac Protocol in Sensor Networks ................................................................................... 370
Mada Amarnadh, M. Venkata Dasu ................................................................................................... 370
Measures to combat tuberculosis in colonial Mysore ......................................................................................... 374
Dr. Thriveni ........................................................................................................................................... 374
Condition based reporting of multi-machine monitoring system using GSM .................................................... 380
Jinia Datta(Das), Soumyajit Datta, Sumana Chowdhuri and Jitendranath Bera .......................... 380
Income Elasticities of Demand for major consumption items. ........................................................................... 385
Case study of Kashmir University Teachers ....................................................................................................... 385
Samira Khan.......................................................................................................................................... 385
Enhancing a Future version of the Nigerian SME Technology Incubation Model: Lessons for other developing
countries .............................................................................................................................................................. 390
Nkem Okpa Obaji 1 , Aslan Amat Senin 2 , Cameron Keith Richards 3 ............................................... 390
The Effect of Ionic Composition on Structural and Optical Properties of CdxZn1-xS Thin films Grown by Spray
pyrolysis .............................................................................................................................................................. 393
Ravangave L. S. 1 , Biradar U. V. 2 , Misal S. D. 3 ................................................................................. 393
Hybrid Algorithm for Segmentation of Left Ventricle in Cardiac MRI ............................................................. 398
R.Sreemathy 1 , Rekha S. Patil 2 , Priyanka Shirude 3 ............................................................................ 398
Effect of in-plane forces on frequency parameters ............................................................................................. 402
A.K.L. Srivastava, S.R.Pandey ............................................................................................................ 402
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An Efficient Synthesis of Bio Active Azetidinones and Thiazolidinones of 3-METHYL-1-PHENYL-1H-
PYRAZOL-5-OL ................................................................................................................................................ 421
Ravindra Kumar*, Abha Shukla**, and D.S.Tyagi*** .................................................................... 421
Colposcopy and carcinoma buccal mucosa: finding significance, a pilot study ................................................. 428
Dr.Abhishek Singh Nayyar 1 , Dr.Gayitri H.C. 2 , Dr.Mubeen Khan 3 , Dr.U.D.Bafna 4 , Dr.Siddique
Ahmed 5 ................................................................................................................................................... 428
On a class of g**-closed sets in topological spaces and some mappings ...................................................... 435
Dr. D.Saravanakumar, K.M.Sathishkumar ....................................................................................... 435
The White Tiger: Quest of Existence.................................................................................................................. 440
Prof. Sakate Bharat Shamarao ............................................................................................................ 440
Integrity Checking Mechanism with Effective 1nd Realistic Approach in Distributed Database ..................... 442
Pallavi Saxena, Nitin Dubey, Sonali Pathak ....................................................................................... 442
Empowerment of Women in India- An Attempt to Fill the Gender Gap (June, 2012) ...................................... 447
Dr. Ravi N. Kadam ............................................................................................................................... 447
Energy Efficient Multi Hop Clustering Protocol for Wireless Networks ........................................................... 450
M.Shankar, G.JegaJothi, S. Karthigaiveni, M.Ganesan, L Dinesh ................................................. 450
Migration of Mobicents SIP Servlets on Cloud Platform ................................................................................... 457
Mr. Manish Giri, Sachin Waghmare, Balaji Bandhu, Akshay Sawwashere, Atul Khaire ............ 457
Study of Fast Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum and Jamming Systems ..................................................... 461
Er.Nilesh Agrwal**, Er.Navendu Nitin**, Manjay Yadav* ............................................................. 461
The Compliance of Temporary Soft Lining Materials-An in vivo & vitro study ............................................... 464
Dr. N.Shanmuganathan, Dr.T.V.Padamanabhan, Dr.R.Subramaniam, Dr.S.Madhankumar ..... 464
A Case Report – MELAS Syndrome .................................................................................................................. 471
Dr Hariom Meena*, Dr Ramraj Meena*, Dr Surendra Khosya * ................................................... 471
Research Directions in Quantum Cryptography and Quantum Key Distribution .............................................. 474
Ms. Deepa Harihar Kulkarni ............................................................................................................... 474
Controller Performance Evaluation for Concentration Control of Isothermal Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
............................................................................................................................................................................. 477
Vishal Vishnoi, Subhransu Padhee, Gagandeep Kaur ...................................................................... 477
Design of Fractional Order PID Controller for Speed Control of DC Motor ..................................................... 484
Rinku Singhal, Subhransu Padhee, Gagandeep Kaur ...................................................................... 484
FUZZY GRAPHS ON COMPOSITION, TENSOR AND NORMAL PRODUCTS ........................................ 493
Dr. G.NIRMALA* and M.VIJAYA** ................................................................................................ 493
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Text Fusion in Medical Images Using Fuzzy Logic Based Matrix Scanning Algorithm ................................... 499
Pinki Jain, Anu Aggarwal (Guide) ...................................................................................................... 499
Impact of Peace and Disturbances on Tourism and Horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir ................................. 506
RAJNI SHARMA, VINOD KUMAR SHARMA AND VAR INDER SINGH WARIS ................. 506
Fate of Metals in Fish under Variable Sewage Input in Fish Ponds ................................................................... 513
Paulami Maiti * and Samir Banerjee ** ........................................................................................... 513
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“Jai Guru Dev”
Effect of Vedic Chanting (Homas, Yagyas, Meditation) on
crime rate (Oct 2011)
Abstract- Every sound generated in this universe has great
impact on human body and its surroundings. Ancient sages;
through power of meditation had found the benefits of various
chants and its impact on the surroundings. Vedic Chantings
(Homas, Yagyas, Meditation) leads to healthy body, mind and
soul which is more in sync with law of nature. Today there are
meditation, chantings been performed for holistic growth of
human and nature. This was studied by analyzing crime
registrations in four zones of Mumbai. The study has shown that
Vedic chants reduce crime rate.
Keywords- Crime - an action or an instance of negligence that
is deemed injurious to the public welfare or morals or to the
interests of the state and that is legally prohibited , Navratri –
Festival of lord Durga celebrated for 9 days in India, Sattva –
positive vibes and energy, Vedic Chanting - Homas, Yagyas,
Meditation
T
I. INTRODUCTION
here is negativity spread all over the planet, mainly due to
change in lifestyle, global warming, pollution and the rising
population. Due to excessive working hours, unemployment,
competition and corruption a common man falls prey to
depression, anxiety, helplessness, leading to violence betrayal of
trust, loss of brotherhood in the family and society etc.
Our ancient rishis and yogis used to chant mantras and perform
various pujas, to eradicate negativity from the surroundings. This
ancient technique, which when followed as per the rites and
rituals of the vedic culture, brings positivity in the environment.
The environment includes all the living beings in the cosmos.
Each and every small organism is influenced by the chanting and
the vibrations created in the space. The positive energy in the
surrounding increases, leading to more of peace and nonviolence
and an up-liftment in thoughts, work, health and
reduction of stress in individuals and society.
Meaning of Navratri: Nava‘ means ‗nine‘ and ‗Ratri‘ is made up
of ‗Ra‘, which also means ‗night‘ and ‗Tri‘ meaning the ‗the
three aspects of our life – the Body, the Mind and the Soul. So
‗Navaratri‘ means ‗giving rest to all the three aspects of our life,
for nine days‘.
Each day during Navratri has special implications: yagyas,
poojas and homas are performed. Among the things offered to
the fire are hundreds of different herbs, fruits, garments, and
mantras, all creating a gloriously divine atmosphere to drown in.
The significance of Vedic Chanting (Homas, Yagyas,
Meditation): These are not for the sages, who perform them, but
Dr. Rohit Sabharwal, Ms. Kinjal Dalal
The Art of Living
for the entire Universe, for all the misery, sorrow, and pain in the
world. The blessings of the yagyas and poojas teach the whole of
humanity and a lot of good comes out of these – peace, strength,
prosperity, success and faith.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
There is research conducted on effects of various vedic
chantings on intellect. It was concluded that vedic chanting
showed significant increase scoring in both the memory tests and
considerable reduction in total error and total time taken for
cancellation tests compared to non-chanting practitioners (Sripad
Ghaligi 1 ,H.R. Nagendra & Ramachandra Bhatt, 2006).
Every one attending to such Homas, Yagyas, Meditation (Vedic
Chanting) before has given a review that they experience peace
of mind, there is more relaxation which gives a feeling of
something settling within, experiencing meditative state of mind.
They have experienced decrease in illness and more of positive
energy within. However, there is no specific research conducted
which studies and proves to have reduced the crime rate due to
Vedic chanting (Homas, Yagyas, Meditation).
METHODOLOGY
The data as made available by Assistant Commissioner of
Police (ACP), West Region, Mumbai, record of the crimes in the
zones of Bandra Kurla Complex, Kherwadi, Bandra and Mahim
for the above mentioned dates has been used.
TYPE OF RESEARCH
This is an ex-post facto research. As the variables tested are
assumed to have relation among themselves. Researcher can only
report on what is happened. The aim is to look for patterns,
hypotheses or ideas that can be tested and will form the basis for
further research and betterment for society.
STUDY DESIGN
The objective of this study is to demonstrate the effect of
Vedic Chanting (Homas, Yagyas, Meditation) on crime rate. It is
opinionated that attending pujas and homas bring in high level of
sattva or positive energy in self and surroundings thereby
reduction in crime will be seen.
Zone Data: The data was collected as per that given by the
Assistant Commissioner of Police research cell. The Mumbai
Police has designed format for recording the crime rate for the
entire Brihan Mumbai. On the basis of the format; the following
1 Corresponding Author
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 10
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zones were selected as sample for study namely Bandra Kurla
Complex, Kherwadi, Bandra and Mahim. The Zone, where the
chanting was performed was the Bandra zone.
HYPOTHESES
Vedic Chanting (Homas, Yagyas, Meditation) reduce the crime
rate during the period it is performed.
Independent Variable: The period chosen: previous to the
Navratri week, during Navratri and after the Navratri week.
Dependent Variable: The crime rate for the period prior to
Navratri, During Navratri and after Navratri is chosen.
PLACE OF CONDUCTING RESEARCH
Mumbai. Maharashtra, India.
The vedic chants are performed in Mumbai 2011, Bandra Kurla
Complex zone during the Navratri period. Thus four surrounding
zones from Mumbai are selected namely Bandra Kurla Complex,
Kherwadi, Bandra and Mahim for the concentric evaluation of
research.
DATA COLLECTION
Data was collected from the Mumbai police website and
Assistant Commissioner of Police, West Region Bandra and
Mahim region.
Period
considered
Table 1: Details of Week considered for research
Abbrevation: R - Registered Crime
O=Observed
E=Expected
Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4
19.09.11
to
25.09.2011
(Pre - event)
Week1
26.09.2011 to
02.10.2011
DATES CHOSEN FOR RESEARCH
Data for the year 2011 - previous to the Navratri week
(19.09.2011 – 25.09.2011), during Navratri (average of the two
weeks – 26.09.2011 – 02.10.2011 and 03.10.2011 - 09.10.2011)
and after the Navratri week (10.10.2011 – 16.10.2011) is
considered.
During Navratri Dates for data:
The festival of Navratri was held from 26 th September
2011(Wednesday) to 5 th October 2011 (Wednesday). For
research; average of data of the following two weeks specifically,
from Monday to Sunday 26 th September 2011 – 2 nd October 2011
(2 nd week) and 3 rd October 2011 to 9 th October 2011 (3 rd week) is
considered as Navratri week.
III. RESEARCH AND FINDINGS
Data was run through the Chi-square test. Since the calculated
value was found to be 0.57 which was lesser than table value of
5.99, thus, null hypothesis was accepted at 5% level of
significance.
03.10.2011
to
09.10.2011
Table 2: Period considered and No. of crime registered
(During event) Week
2&3
No. of
crime
registered 26 31 31
Expected Frequency = Sum of week 1 + Week 2&3 + Week 4 / 3
= 26+31+31/3
= 88/3
=29.33
10.10.2011
to
16.10.2011
(Post - event)
Week 4
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 11
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Computation
Ho = Homas, Yagyas, Meditation (Vedic Chanting) reduce the crime rate during the period it is performed
H1 = Homas, Yagyas, Meditation (Vedic Chanting) does not reduce the crime rate during the period it is
performed
Table 3: Calculation of observed and expected frequency
(O-
Period O E O-E E)2 (O-E)2/E
29.3 -
1 26 3 3.33 11 0.38
29.3
2 31 3 1.67 3 0.10
29.3
3 31 3 1.67 3 0.10
88 88
x2 = Sumation (O-E)2/E = 0.57
df = 3 - 1 = 2
table value at 5% for 2 df = 5.99
Since the calculated value = 0.57 is lesser than table value of 5.99, null hypothesis is accepted at 5% level of
significance.
The results show that vedic chants reduce crime rate.
Details of the calculations has been mentioned in the
Annexure
In addition to the data collected the public opinion was summed
up to:
i. During any festival where there are masses of people
the Police security is increased; Inorder to avoid
adverse conditions there are many rules set prior to
any public event. This is helps the police to
maintain discipline among the crowd; leading to
decrease in crime.
ii. People have become more aware and avoid going to
places where there are mishaps likely to happen.
iii. People who attended meditations and various vedic
chants experienced happy and meditative state of
mind, they felt light, positive towards life and their
goals and experienced more productive in their
routine life. They became more inclined towards
doing work for betterment of themselves their
family members and their society.
IV. CONCLUSION
The data collected shows that there is reduction of crime,
during the period of Navratri when the vedic chants are
performed.
Generally, Navratri is associated with Garba or Dandiya; a
festival celebrated at night and chances are high for a greater
number of mishaps to take place, due to there being more people
0.57
around the city, outside their homes, at night. However, the data
collected shows that there were less crimes reported during the
Navratri period for the selected sample zones. Thus, it is proved
that Vedic Chants reduce crime rate during the period it is
performed.
LIMITATIONS
The crimes which are registered only are taken into
consideration.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The results prove that vedic chants reduce crime rate, thus, to
maintain the impact of positivity in the surrounding these chants
should take place more frequently.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Special thanks to Mrs. Nayana, Mr. Sujit Bankar, Mr. S.
Kadam, Prof.Preeti Shirodkar, Prof. Pallavi Mhatre, Dr.Nirmala
Joshi, Prof. Pranjal Muley, our family members, friends and well
wishers.
REFERENCES
[1] http://nopr.niscair.res.in/handle/123456789/6747
[2] http://www.mumbaipolice.org/
[3] Murthy S N, Bhojanna U. Business Research Methods – 2 nd Edition. New
Delhi: Excel Books, 2007.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 12
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AUTHORS
First Author - Dr. Rohit Sabharwal, B.D.S, M.D.S
(Periodontist), MAR Dental College, Pune,
drrohitsab@gmail.com
Second Author - Ms. Kinjal Dalal, MA (Industrial
Psychology), Don Bosco Institute of Management and Research,
Mumbai, kinjal.dbit@gmail.com
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 13
ISSN 2250-3153
APPROXIMATION OF FUNCTION BELONGING TO
W (Lp, () t ) CLASS BY (E, q) (N, pn) MEANS OF ITS
FOURIER SERIES
H. L. RATHORE*, U. K. SHRIVASTAVA**
* Department of Mathematics, J. K. Institute of Engineering, Bilaspur (C. G.), India
E-mail: hemlalrathore@gmail.com
** Department of Mathematics, Govt. Girl‘s P. G. College, Bilaspur (C. G.), India
Abstract- The present paper deal with approximation of a function belonging to the W(Lp, (t)) class by product summability method.
Here product of Euler (E,q) summability method and Nörlund (N, pn) method has been taken. A new estimate on degree of
approximation of a function belonging to W(Lp, (t)) class has been determined by (E, q) (N, pn) summability of a Fourier series.
Mathematics Subject Classification: 42B05, 42B08
Index Terms- Degree of approximation, W(Lp, (t)) class, (E, q) (N, pn) summability, Fourier series, Conjugate series of a Fourier
series
L
I. DEFINITION AND NOTATIONS
et f be a 2π-periodic function in L[-π, π]. The Fourier series associated with f at a point x is defined by
1 1
f ( x) a0 ancosnxbnsinnxa0Anx (1.1)
2 n1 2 n1
With partial sum sn (f; x)
where
1
an f x cos
nx dx
and
The Lp norm is defined by
1
bn f x sin
nx dx
1
2
p
p
1
a0 f x dx
f p
0
f x dx
,
p 1
and the degree of approximation En (f) is given by (Zygmund [6]).
Enfmin Tn
f x Tnxp
,
in term of n, where Tn (x) is a trigonometric polynomial of degree n.
A function
f Lip
if
f x t f x t
for n = 1.2.3……….
for 0 1 ,
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 14
ISSN 2250-3153
f x Lip , p
and
1
2
for 0x 2if.
p
p
f x t f x dx t
0
t
Given a positive increasing function ,
and
p 1
,
1
2
p
p,
f W
L t
We observe that
We write
, 0 1,
,
f Lip t p
p
f x t f x dx t
0
if
1
2
p
p
sin
fxtfx x dx t
0
0
p
if
t t
p
,
0
W L , t Lip t , p Lip , p Lip
1
2
t f x t f x t 2 f x
n
un sn uk
Let n0
th
be an infinite series with sequence of n partial sum k 0
P p 0
n k
n0
P 0 p
, 1 1
The Nörlund means of the sequence {sn} is given by (Hardy [2])
1 n
t p s
N
n
Pn
k0
nk k
p 1
(Mc Fadden [3])
and a sequence {pn} of real constant such that
N
t
If n s
as n , then the sequence {sn} is summable to s by Nörlund method.
The Euler means (E, q) is given by (Hardy [2])
n
q 1 n nk En n
q
sk
1 q
k0
k ,
q
E
If n s
as n , then the sequence {sn} is summable to s by Euler method. The (E, q) transform of the (N, pn)
un
transform define the (E, q) (N, pn) transform of the partial sum {sn} of series n0
. The (E, q) (N, pn) means defines a sequence
q
E N tn
q
E N
n
by
n
q
E N 1 n tn q
k n 1 q
k0
nk k 1
P
pkr
k r0
sr
t s
If
as n , then the sequence {sn} is said to summable by (E, q) (N, pn) method to s.
1 1
t
, where denotes the greatest integer not greater than t .
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 15
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Particular Cases : Two particular cases of (E, q) (N, pn) means are :
1) (E, q) (C, 1) if pn = 1, n
n1 pn
1
, 0
2) (E, q) (C, ) if
The following theorems are due to Binod Prasad Dhakal [1].
Theorem A : If
1
1
p
,
f : R R
is 2π – periodic function, Lebesgue integrable on [-π , π] and Lip(α, p) class function for
p 1
, then the degree of approximation of f by the (E,1) (N, pn) mean of its Fourier series is given by :
EN
n
t x f x
1
p
1
p
1 n 1
n 1
n k
EN
tn n pkrsr
2 k0 k P r 0
Where, k
(E, 1) (N, pn) means of Fourier series (1.1).
,
is
II. MAIN THEOREM
The degree of approximation of function belonging to the Lipschitz class by (E, q) (C, 1) and by (E, 1) (N, p n) mean has discussed
by a number of researchers like S.K. Tiwari and Chandrashekhar Bariwal [5] and Binod Prasad Dhakal [1]. But till now no work seem
to have been done to obtain the degree of approximation of the function belonging to
mean of its Fourier series.
p,
W L t
In an attempt to make study in this direction, one theorem on the degree of approximation of function of
product summability mean of the form (E, q) (N, pn) has been determined as following.
Theorem : If
q
f : R R
is 2π – periodic, Lebesgue integrable [-π, π] and belonging to the class
E N
tnx using on its Fourier series (1.1) is given by.
(2.1)
Provided
(2.2)
and
(2.3)
t
q
1
E N 1 P
tn f ( n 1)
p
n 1
satisfies the following conditions :
1
p
P
n1
t ()
t
p 1
sin t dt
(
t) n1
n1
1
p
P
t (
t) sin t
dt n
()
t
1
class by (E, q) (N, pn) product
p,
W L t
p,
W L t
,
class by
p 1
by
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 16
ISSN 2250-3153
Where is an arbitrary number such that
such that
1 p .
n k
q
E N 1 n nk 1
t q . p
n
1
q k k Pk
r
n kr and 0 0
Lemma 1 : If
q(1 ) 1 0
, conditions (2.2) and (2.3) hold uniformly in x and where
sr is (E,q) (N,pn) means of Fourier series (1.1).
q
q E N t n 1
Then n
Proof :
q
1
n k
1 n 1 sin r t
nk E N t .
2
n n q
p
kr 21qk 0 k Pk
r 0 sin t
2
0 t for n 1
1
n 1 n nk k q
sin r t
E N t
2
n n p
kr 21qk 0 k P r 0 sin t
k
2
r
n k 2 1 sin t
1 n 1 nk 2
n q
p
kr 21qk 0 k P r 0 sin t
k
2
q
2 1
n k
1 n k
nk q p
n
21 k P
q
n
kr
k0 r0
k
k0
n 1 n nk
q
k
21 k
( n 1)
q
n
k0
Lemma 2 : If n
q 1 E N t
n
t for 1 t
n and
Proof :
q
2 1
E N t is given as in lemma 1, then
n
k0
p P
nk n nk n
q q
k sin 1 kt , sin 2
t t
1
n k
1 n 1 sin r t
nk E N t
2
n n q
p
kr 21qk 0 k P r 0 sin t
k
2
1
n k
1 n 1
sin r t
2
q
p
nk n
kr 21qk0k P r0
k sin t
2
n k
1 n 1 nk q
p
21
n qt k0k P r0
n
1
p P
nk n
t k0
,
k
kr n
k0
n n k
n
q
1q k
1
n
1 1
1
p q
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 17
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III. PROOF OF THEOREM
Following Titchmarsh [4], the n th partial sum sn(x) of the Fourier series is given by
(3.1)
The (N, pn) transform of the sequence {sn (x)} is given by
(3.2)
The (E, q) transform of
1
1 (
t)sin n t
s ( ) ( )
2
n x f x
dt
t
2 0 sin
2
1
1 sin n t
t x f x t p
2
dt
n
N
n ( ) ( ) (
) k r
2 P
n 0 k 0 sin t
2
N tnx is given by
n k
q
E N 1 (
t)
n nk 1
t ( ) . sin 1
n f x k r
n
2 1
q p r tdt
q
2
0 sin t
k0 k Pk
r0
2
n1
q q
( ) (
)
n
n
t E N t dt t E N t dt
0
n1
(3.3)
I1 I2
(say)
Applying Hölder‘s inequality,
1
1
1
q q
p p
q
n 1
t 1
t sin t n
tENt n
0 t t sin t
0
I dt dt
1
q q
n1 n t
1
dt
1
n1 t
0
1
1
q
n t
.
n 1 dt
1
n1
t 0
n1
1
1q
t dt
n 1
0
1 1 q
1
q
1 n1
t
n 1
0
1 1 1 q
.
n 1
n 1
1 1
p
n1 .
n 1
(3.4)
1
q
0
q
()
t E N t dt
n
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 18
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Now,
2
1
1
p p q q
q
t t sin t ENt. t
n
.
t
t sin t
n1 n1
I dt dt
1
1
q
q
t
1
t
n1
1
q q
n dt
y dy
1 2
1 y y
n1
1
n 1 .
n1
1
q
1
(3.5)
Now combining (3.3), (3.4) & (3.5), we get
1 1q1
n y
n 1
q
1
E N 1 p
tn x f x n1
n1 1
1 1
q
n1 n1
n1 1 1 1 q
.
n 1
n1
1 1 p
.
n 1
n1
1 1 p
n1
n1 since
1
1
p p
2
q
1
E N 1 p
tn x f x n 1
dx
p
n 1
0
1
2
p
1 1 p
n 1
dx n 1
0
1 1 p
n1
n1 This completes the proof of the main theorem.
IV. COROLLARIES
1 1
1
p q
Following corollaries can be derived from our main theorem.
tt Corollary – 1 : β = 0 and
f W
Lp , t ,
then the degree of approximation of a function
0 1 is given by
q
E N
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tn x f x 1
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 19
ISSN 2250-3153
Which is reduces to the Theorem A due to Binod Prasad Dhakal
Corollary – 2 : If p in corollary 1, then for 0 1.
Where
q q
E N sub
1
E N
tn x f x tn x f x
x
n1 , for 0 1
n k
q
E N 1 n nk 1
t q
p
kk Pk
r
n
1 q
0
sr
n kr in the (E, q) (N, pn) means of Fourier series (1.1).
REFERENCES
[1] Dhakal, Binod Prasad, Approximation of Function Belonging to Lip , p
Class by (E, 1) (N, pn) Means of
its Fourier series, KATHMANDU University Journal of Science, Engg. and Technology Vol. 7 No.1, Sept.
2011, PP, 1 – 8.
[2] Hardy G.H., Divergent Series, Oxford University Press, 1949.
[3] McFadden L, Absolute Nörlund Summability, Duke Math. J., 9 (1942) 168 - 207.
[4] Titchmarsh, E.C., The Theory of functions, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, 1939.
[5] Tiwari, Sandeep Kumar and Bariwal Chandrashekhar, Degree of Approximation of Function Belonging to the Lipschitz Class by (E, q) (C, 1) Means of its
Fourier Series. IJMA 1 (1), Oct. – 2010, 2 – 4.
[6] Zygmund A, Trigonometric series, Cambridge University Press, 1959.
www.ijsrp.org

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 20
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Design and Implementation of Cipher Algorithm using
Randomized Alphanumeric Characters
Sudhakar Kumar Singh
School of Computing Science and Engineering, VIT University, Vellore - 632014,
TamilNadu India
Abstract- Cryptography is the technique that is used to ensure
the safety of communication over the network in most of the
computer communication systems. The strength of a
cryptographic algorithm is based on the difficulty of
cryptanalysis imposed over system. Our proposed Algorithm
provides the best security analysis, in terms of computational
time and effective environment over the network. As we are
aware of the security of communication has attracted the
attention towards the design of new Algorithm.
It is a combination of some of the best known encryption
algorithms in existence. Here, we apply the concept of RAC
(Randomized Alphanumeric Characters) proceeding with some
computation to reach the goal of cipher text. The algorithm that
we are proposing in our work is the resultant of some existing
algorithms that uses the strengths of one algorithm to compensate
the weakness of other by applying RAC as well as applying a
technique which is similar to Bit-Stuffing.
Keyword- Cryptography, Security, RAC, cipher text.
I. INTRODUCTION
The concept of cryptography begins thousands of years ago; it
takes number of versions based on the standards and the analysis
which ensures the standards of cryptography. Encryption is the
technique of changing the format of plaintext to cipher text
which is unrecognizable and useless to unauthorized party.
Decryption is the just reverse of encryption. It can be done in
three ways (I) Secret key (symmetric): uses a single key for both
encryption and decryption (II) Public key (asymmetric): uses two
keys one for encryption and other for decryption. (III) Hash
function (one way cryptography). In our proposed algorithm we
are using concept of XOR operation and bit stuffing in a specific
way.
II. EXISTING ALGORITHMS:
Several algorithms are available for the cryptography like
RSA, IDEA etc all these are used for the purpose of data
security. Each and every algorithm has its own public keys and
private keys with some special features and may use different
mathematical concepts to maintain the standards of
cryptography.
RSA: RSA is based on Public Key and Private Key, where
Public Key is made known to others while private key must be
kept in secret.
The step below shows how RSA keys are generated.
1. Two large prime numbers, p and q are chosen.
2. Compute the product of these two N=p.q.
3. Compute υ (N) = (p − 1) (q − 1)
4. e is the public key, chosen randomly
5. Find private key, d. d must be satisfy
e.d = 1 mod υ (N)
For encryption: - Cipher, c = me mod υ (N)
For decryption: - Message, m = ce mod υ (N)
IDEA: IDEA is based on public key.
The steps below show how IDEA key are generated.
1. Original text is divided into 64-bit blocks.
2. Each 64-bit block is further divided into four 16-bit subblocks:
X1, X2, X3, X4.
3. The 128-bit IDEA session key is divided into eight 16-bit keyblocks:
Ki, 1, Ki, 2, Ki, 3, Ki, 4, Ki, 5, Ki, 6, Ki, 7, Ki, 8.
4. Addition and Multiplication are perform on each block of Xn
and Ki, j.
5. The combination of operations is performed eight times to get
the final encryption.
III. PROPOSED ALGORITHM
Our proposed algorithm uses Randomized Alphanumeric
Character and applying XOR operation with message and the
technique of Bit-stuffing in specific way. We used asymmetric
private key and the public key which increases the efficiency
level of encryption algorithm .Here one 8-bit public key is
randomly selected among several generated Alphanumeric
Characters and one 5-bit private key. These may vary in real life
environment.
Encryption Flowchart of our proposed algorithm is given below.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 21
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 22
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IV. PROPOSED ALGORITHM PROCESS
Encryption Algorithm
1. Generate N number of 8-bit Alphanumeric Characters
randomly.
2. Randomly select any one among them, denoted as ‗A‘, and 5-
bit SECRET KEY assigned as ‗B‘.
3. Convert ‗A‘ and ‗B‘ in binary format.
4. Compute the quotient of these two Q=A/B.
5. Perform XOR operation with Message ‗M‘ and quotient ‗Q‘,
TEXT = M XOR Q.
6. Scanned TEXT and perform the Bit-Stuffing as per flowchart.
7. In this way we get the encrypted message as CIPHERTEXT.
Decryption Algorithm
1. Remove the extra bit from CIPHERTEXT.
2. Perform the XOR operation with ‗TEXT‘ and quotient ‗Q‘.
3. In this way we get the original message ‗M‘.
V. WORKING EXAMPLE
Encryption:
1. Input: Public Key as ‗A‘=SCSE04, Secret Key as ‗B‘=VIT
and Message as ‗M‘=11MSC
2. Conversion to binary format:
Message as M=11MSC
[1=0000001, 1=0000001, M=1001101, S=1010011, C=1000011]
M=00000010000001100110110100111000011 (11MSC)
Public key A= SCSE04
[S=1010011, C = 1000011, S= 1010011, E=1000101, 0=
0000000, 4= 0000100]
A= 101001110000111010011100010100000000000100
(SCSE04)
Secret key B=VIT
[V=1010110, I=1001001, T=1010100]
B=101011010010011010100 (VIT)
3. Quotient ‗Q‘; Q=A/B=111101101111110110001
4. TEXT = M XOR Q.
TEXT=100000010110110110110011.
5. CIPHERTEXT = TEXT with Bit-stuffing using SECRET
KEY, (Case: 2)
CIPHERTEXT =
100000010111011001110110001111010010011010100
[Encrypted Message (CIPHERTEXT) =
100000010111011001110110001111010010011010100]
Decryption:
It is just reverse of encryption.
1. Input as CIPHERTEXT =
100000010111011001110110001111010010011010100
Case 1: Remove the bit after 111 patterns and concatenate.
Removed bits =001010010011010100
Comparison of removed bits with SECRET KEY bits,
here mismatched, so break and go to next case.
Case 2: Remove the bit after 11 patterns and concatenate.
Removed bits=101011010010011010100
Comparison of removed bit with SECRET KEY bits,
here it matched, so go to next phase.
2. Performing XOR operation with TEXT and Quotient. In this
manner we get the original message.
Message M = 00000010000001100110110100111000011
(11MSC)
VI. CONCLUSION
Overall RSA, DES and IDEA are very strong encrypting
algorithms in existence, they do have their weaknesses: RSA
contains lengthy and complex computations, while the purpose
of initial and final permutation is not clear in DES algorithm,
whereas IDEA uses a single and lengthy key. By combining the
concept of above mentioned algorithms, our proposed algorithm
uses the strength of these two algorithms to in order to reduce the
weaknesses. As the result, our proposed cipher algorithm is one
of the strongest, simplest and fastest encryption algorithms.
REFERENCES
[1] S.C. Coutinho,University Press (India) Private Limited (2003).The
Mathematics of Ciphers ,Number Theory and RSA Cryptography.
Department of Computer science Federal University of Rio de Janeiro Rio
de Janerio, Brazil
[2] Evolution of Cryptography Mohd Zaid Waqiyuddin Mohd Zulkifli,
Evolution of Cryptography, 17th January 2007.
[3] Data Encryption and Decryption process Using Bit Shifting and Stuffing
(BSS) Methodology, B.Ravi Kumar et al. / International Journal on
Computer Science and Engineering (IJCSE).
[4] Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSA
[5] Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, from
[6] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Data_Encryption_Algorithm
[7] Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Encryption_Standard
[8] CareerRide.com, from http://www.careerride.com/Networking-DESweakness-and-strength.aspx
AUTHORS
First Author – Sudhakar Kumar Singh, M.SC (Computer
Science), VIT University Vellore, Sksingh2012@yahoo.com.
Second Author – Hariom Kumar, M.SC (Computer Science)
Third Author – K Praveen Kumar, M.SC (Computer Science)
Fourth Author – K Ramesh Babu, Faculty of VIT University.
Vellore.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 23
ISSN 2250-3153
Nutritional Status of Children (0-24 Months) In
Jammu Kashmir and Ladakh Regions
Abstract- This paper discusses the results of an analysis on
community based cross sectional study of infant growth faltering
and feeding practices in three regions of Jammu Kashmir and
ladakh for which data has been collected during 2004-2006 and
compiled in March 2007.results indicate a statistically significant
positive association between malnutrition and feeding practices.
Feeding practices in all the three regions studied were not as per
internationally accepted recommendations. Around 66% of
mothers gave pre-lacteal feeds, most common being sugar water,
honey, plain water, artificial milk and Jaggery. Pre-lacteal
feeding was common in Jammu and Kashmir regions but was not
very common in Ladakh. In all the three regions, as the age of
the studied children advanced from 0 to 2 years, the prevalence
rate of malnutrition exhibited a parallel increase. This pattern
was observed in higher frequency among infants from middle
and lower income groups. Chronic malnutrition evidenced by
stunting with insignificant inter-regional differences (P>0.01)
was observed in 14.1%, 17.2% and 16.8% of the children in
Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh.
Current malnutrition was more prominent in Kashmir as
29.3% children were underweight as against 16.2% in Jammu
and 15.8% in Ladakh (p< 0.01). Acute malnutrition also showed
significant inter-regional difference (P

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 24
ISSN 2250-3153
crushing the hair at a right angle to the scale and the height read
from the lower edge of the ruler to the nearest 0.5cm. (Jelliffe
DB 1966).
Children were categorized as malnourished or normal by
placing their measurements on the three most commonly used
anthropometric indices viz weight-for-height, height-for-age and
weight-for-age. The calculation of the three indices of child
malnutrition involved comparison with an international reference
population as recommended by the World Health Organization
(Dibley etal 1987a) (Dibley etal 1987 b).A Z-score cut-off point
of

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 25
ISSN 2250-3153
(10.0)
Normal 540
(79.0)
379
(74.0)
7.233 (.124)ns
parenthesis represents percentage
** Association is found highly significant (p0.01).
TABLE 2
73 (72.0) 992 (76.7)
Nutritional Present NFHS-2 All India
Status
Study J&K Levels
Stunting 15.5% 39% 47%
Wasting 13.8% 12% 16%
Under Weight 21.3% 35% 46%
UNICEF (2000) shows the prevalence of nutritional stunting among under age five children in India as 47% which is among the
highest in world, wasting as 16% and underweight problem as 46%. NFHS-2 Jammu and Kashmir reported 35% as underweight, 12%
as wasted and 39% stunted in the age group less than three years.
TABLE 3: INFLUENCE OF FEEDING PRACTICES ON WEIGHT OF INFANTS
Feeding Practices
Under weight
Normal
Type of first feed given
after birth
Prelacteal feed 181(21.2) 672(78.8)ns
Breast milk 95(21.6) 345(78.4)
Exclusive breast 0-6months 72(17.3) 345(82.7)
**
>=6 months 72(32.7) 148(67.3)
Colostrums
Fed 197(19.2) 831(80.8)
**
Not fed 79(29.8) 186(70.2)
Initiation of top milk ns 0-3months 62(21.0) 233(70.0)
4-6 months 20(19.8) 81(80.2)
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 26
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Type of top milk
ns
Weaning
**
Type of first semi solid
ns
>6months 73(24.5) 225(75.5)
Commercial 62(22.8) 210(77.2)
Animal 93(22.0) 329(78.0)
Early 23(15.4) 126(84.6)
Timely 34(21.3) 126(78.8)
Late 71(34.9) 137(65.9)
Commercial 40(18.8) 173(81.2)
Home made 88(28.9) 216(71.1)
** Association is found highly significant (p6months 47(15.8) 251(84.2)
commercial 41(15.1) 231(84.9)
animal 63(14.9) 359(85.1)
early 11(07.4) 138(92.6)
timely 15(9.4) 145(90.6)
late 54(26.0) 154(74.0)
Type of first semi solid ns commercial 26(12.2) 187(87.8)
Home made 54(17.8) 250(82.2)
** Association is found highly significant (p

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 27
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TABLE 5: INFLUENCE OF FEEDING PRACTICES ON HEIGHT FOR AGE
Feeding practices
Type of first feed given after
birth
Ns
Exclusive breast
**
Colostrums
Ns
Initiation of top milk
Ns
Type of top milk
Ns
Weaning
**
Stunted
Normal
Prelacteal feed 122(14.3) 731(85.7)
Breast milk 79(18.0) 361(82.0)
0-6months 39(09.4) 378(90.6)
> =6 months 66(30.0) 154(70.0)
Fed 154(15.0) 874(85.0)
Not fed 47(17.7) 218(82.3)
0-3months 46(15.6) 249(84.4)
4-6 months 07(06.9) 94(93.1)
>6months 63(21.1) 235(78.9)
Commercial 45(16.5) 227(83.5)
Animal 71(16.8) 351(83.2)
Early 22(14.8) 127(85.2)
Timely 24(15.0 136(85.0)
Late 65(31.3) 143(68.0)
Type of first semi solid* Commercial 32(15.0) 181(65.0)
Home made 79(26.0) 225(74.0)
**Association is found highly significant (p

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 28
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Lesser percentage of stunting was observed when Children were exclusively breast fed at

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 29
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of commercial infant foods. Scientific report No.4 Nutrition foundation of
India.
[5] Jones, G; Steketee, R.W; Blake, R.E. et al (2003). Child survival study,
Lancet, 362. July 5, 65-71.
[6] Jelliffe DB. (1966). the Assessment of Nutritional Status of the
Community, Monograph Series No. 53, World Health Organization
Geneva: 10
[7] National Family Health Survey; (NFHS-2) Jammu and Kashmir (1998-99),
International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai,
[8] International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS). 1995. National
Family Health Survey (MCH and Family Planning), India 1992-93.
Bombay: IIPS.
[9] WHO/ UNICEF; (2000); protecting promoting and supporting
breastfeeding. The special role of maternity services. Joint WHO/UNICEF
statement WHO Geneva.
[10] Victoria C.G. Vanghan P.J. (1984) prolonged breastfeeding associated with
malnutrition Am J. Clin Nutr. 39: 307.
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The Correlational Study of the Vertical Jump Test and
Wingate Cycle Test as a Method to Assess Anaerobic
Power in High School Basketball Players
Abstract- Basketball is a prime example of a sport that
predominantly utilizes anaerobic metabolism. The Wingate cycle
and vertical jump tests have been used to assess anaerobic power
in athletes for the purpose of providing information of anaerobic
performance in a given sports. The lack of research in the field of
more sport specific tests to assess anaerobic performance has
lead to the development of the present proposed investigation.
Aims & Objectives: A study to correlate the vertical jump test
and wingate cycle test as a method to assess anaerobic power in
high school basketball players.
Materials & Methods: A correlational study was conducted on
100 high school basketball players between the age group of 14-
18 years (15.6000 ± 1.14286 (SD)) was included from various
sprts institutes of Rajkot. Subjects were selected by simple
random sampling techniques. On the first day, anthropometric
measurements and the vertical jump test were performed. Peak
and mean anaerobic power were determined using equations
based on each subject‘s individual vertical jump height in
centimeters (cm), body mass in kilograms (kg), and height in
centimeters (cm). On the second day, the subjects were
performed the 30-second Wingate cycle ergometer test. Peak and
mean anaerobic power over the 30-seconds, were calculated by a
computer program during the test.
Results: Data were analyzed by Pearson Correlation coefficient
which showed significant positive correlation between average
power (r = 0.970, p > 0.05) & peak power of vertical jump test
and Wingate test (r = 0.263, p > 0.05), demonstrating the validity
of the vertical jump as a field test of anaerobic power.
Conclusion: The result suggested that vertical jump tests may be
accept as field measures of anaerobic power in high school
basketball players.
Keywords- Vertical jump test, Wingate cycle test, Anaerobic
power
A
I. INTRODUCTION
naerobic power, or anaerobic fitness, represents a local
characteristic of a muscle that exists independent of blood
and oxygen supply to that muscle. 1 It is the ability of the body‘s
musculature to generate significant amounts of power is
considered to be a strong predictor of athletic success. 2 Currently
anaerobic power tests are implemented in both clinical and field
settings and assess an athlete‘s capability to produce both power
Purvi K. Changela, Sarla Bhatt
Shri K K Sheth Physiotherapy College, Rajkot, India
Email: changelapurvi@gmail.com
and speed in a short period of time or over a relatively short
distance. 3
Basketball is a sport that mainly utilizes anaerobic
metabolism 4 that would benefit from anaerobic testing
procedures which incorporate sport specific movements.
Functional movements, such as jumping and sprinting, are
significantly related to playing time and performance in
basketball. 3,4 Therefore, it seems logical that testing procedures
that incorporate anaerobic power and sports specific movements
would provide a valuable tool to assess and monitor components
of basketball performance. 3
To date, numerous tests have been used in an attempt to
successfully measure anaerobic power and output in basketball
players, however no particular test has gained acceptance as a
standard measure of anaerobic power in basketball players. 3 The
Wingate cycle and vertical jump tests have been commonly used
tests to assess anaerobic power in athletes for the purpose of
providing vital information regarding anaerobic performance of
athletes in a given sports. 5,6
The Wingate anaerobic test on a cycle ergometer has been
used in laboratory settings both as an assessment of anaerobic
performance and as a means to analyze physiological responses
to supramaximal exercise. 6 The test was designed to be simple to
administer; non-invasive; intended to measure muscle
performance; 6 safe to assume that peak power which is a
reflection of the ability of either the arms or the legs to produce
high amounts of mechanical power and mean power reflects the
endurance of the muscle groups involved in the test, 3 but the
major drawback of it is expensive method and require equipment
which is not feasible for administration to a wide variety of
population.
The most common field test which is used is the vertical jump
test to evaluate anaerobic fitness improvements. It has been
stated the vertical jump test is a more true power test used to
measure both vertical jumping distance and power output. 3 The
height that is achieved on the vertical jump has a direct
correlation with the amount of force that is produced by muscle
fibers. 7 During the vertical jump, total jump height and peak
power can be measured and the mechanical work performed to
accomplish the jump could be determined by using the distance
that was measured. 5 Compare to wingate cycle ergometer test,
this test is inexpensive, easy to aseess and equipment is also not
needed, so we can easily use it as a field test.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 31
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There exists conflicting opinions on the nature of
contributions of various energy systems used in anaerobic power
tests. 3 During a vertical jump test, power output required to
attain maximal jump height and complete a single test is reached
between one and two seconds which suggests that only the ATP-
PC energy system is utilized since the test duration is so short. 8,9
However, the Wingate anaerobic cycle test requires contributions
was estimated to be 84% from all of the three main energy
systems. 3
Despite the introduction of the previously mentioned
anaerobic power tests, research in the area of anaerobic
performance is still lacking. A prevailing lack of interest in
anaerobic performance as a component of health and fitness has
led to the development of anaerobic tests used today. 3 Even
today, health professionals and fitness appraisers exclusively
associate physical fitness and work capacity with only aerobic
fitness. Reasons associated with a lack of interest in measuring
anaerobic power to assess fitness levels can be the lack of
motivation of subjects, use of suboptimal resistance when
calculating power output, measuring mean power rather than
peak power, and the limitation of exercise equipment. 10
Assessment of anaerobic power by various tests are frequent in
the literatures, however, to date there has been no single test
recognized as both a general indicator of anaerobic power as well
as sport-specific in nature that has lead to the development of the
present proposed investigation.
II. METHODOLOGY
Study design: Correlational study design
Sampling Technique: Simple Random Sampling
Sample collection: 100 high school basketball players between
the age group of 14-18 years15.6000 ± 1.14286 (SD)) were
included.
Study Setting: Various Sports academic institute of Rajkot.
Inclusion Criteria:
1. Age 14-20 years.
2. Healthy male and female high school basketball players.
3. Subjects with regular participation of more than 2 hours
a day, 3 days per week.
Exclusion Criteria:
1. History of any cardiovascular, musculoskeletal,
neurological problem.
2. History of smoking.
3. Subjects with regular participation in any athletic
activity
4. Anemia.
5. History of metabolic disorders.
6. Uncooperative subjects
Materials used:
1. Monark Cycle (894 E)
2. Weighing machine
3. Wall
4. Chalk
5. Inch tape
6. Paper and Pen
III. TESTING PROCEDURE
The proposed title and procedure were being approved by
ethical committee members. The potential risk and benefits, as
well as the underlying rationale for the investigation, were
explained to 100 high school Basketball players, written consent
was taken from subjects who fulfilled the inclusion and exclusion
criteria and they were randomly selected.
All the pariticipants had to undergo 2 days of study
investigation. On the 1 st day, participants were given overview of
the study. All the participants then were given opportunity to ask
the question about the test that they would be performing.
Anthropometric data that includes weight (kg), height (cms) and
BMI were taken and the Verticle Jump Test were asked to
perform. On Day 2, Wingate cycle ergometer test were done on
the participants.
The procedures of the Verticle Jump Test and Wingate Cycle
Ergometer Test were performed as follows:
PROCEDURE:
Day 1: Vertical Jump Test: 9
Prior to the vertical jump test, the subjects were lead
through an 8-10 minute dynamic warm-up which consisted of
squats, lunges, quad stretches and 20, 30, and 40 yard
progressive jogging exercises. The player chalks the end of her
finger tips and stands side onto the wall, keeping both feet
remaining on the ground, reached up as high as possible with one
hand and marked the wall with the tips of the fingers (M1) The
player from a static position jumped as high as possible and
marked the wall with the chalk on her fingers (M2). The therapist
measured and record the distance between M1 and M2.The
player repeated the test 3 times. The therapist recorded the best
of the 3 distance and used this value to assess the player‘s
performance.
Powerpeak (W) = [78.6 · VJ (cm)] + [60.3 · BM (kg)] –[15.3 ·
ht (cm)] -1,308
Poweravg (W) = [43.8 · VJ (cm)] + [32.7 · BM (kg)] –[16.8 ·
ht (cm)] + 431
Where: VJ = Vertical Jump BM = Body Mass
(Weight) ht = Height
Day 2: Wingate cycle ergometer test: 3
This test required the player cycle as fast as possible for
30 seconds. The therapist weighs the player (kg). The player
warm up for 10 minutes. The therapist recorded the flywheel
resistance required as follows:
Player‘s weight x 0.08.
The therapist gave the command ―GO‖ and starts the
stopwatch and the player pedals as fast as possible with no
flywheel resistance. After maximum rpm had reached, flywheel
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 32
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resistance was applied and the player continued to pedal as fast
as possible until 30 seconds has elapsed.After 30 seconds the
player was aked to stop pedalling. Peak power and mean power
were calculated by using computarized softwear.
Outcome Measure:
1. Peak Anaerobic Power
2. Mean Anaerobiv Power
IV. DATA ANALYSIS
Data were analyzed by Pearson Correlation Coefficient to
show the correlation between average power & peak power of
vertical jump test and Wingate cycle test to measure the anerobic
power in high school athletes at ≤ 0.05 with Cl of 95%
V. RESULTS
Table 1: Distribution of age groups
Frequency Percent
Cumulative
Percent
14 10 20.0 20.0
15 14 28.0 48.0
16 14 28.0 76.0
17 10 20.0 96.0
18 2 4.0 100.0
Total 50 100.0
Table 2: Gender Proposition
Frequency Percent
male 27 54.0
female 23 46.0
Total 50 100.0
Table 3: Correlation of average power of vertical jump test & wingate cycle test in high school basketball players.
Pearson
Correlation
Sig (2-tailed)
Pearson
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
Mean
668.0200
SD N Verticle jump test
mean power
231.15314
50 1
394.7080
43.23900
50
0.031
0.833
Wingate
power
0.031
0.833
cycle mean
1
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 33
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Table 4: Correlation of peak power of vertical jump test & wingate cycle test in high school basketball players.
Pearson
Correlation
Sig (2-tailed)
Pearson
Correlation
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean SD
773.7200 221.65951
447.5940 65.82322
N
50
50
Verticle jump
test mean
power
1
Wingate cycle mean
power
The above table shows there was a positive correlation between the two variables i.e. average power (r = 0.031, p > 0.05) and & peak
power (r = 0.044, p > 0.05) of vertical jump test and Wingate cycle test, demonstrating the validity of the vertical jump test as a field
test of anaerobic power in high school athletes.
0.044
0.759
0.044
0.759
Graph 1: Correlation of average power of vertical jump test & wingate cycle test in high school basketball players.
Graph 2: Correlation of average power of vertical jump test & wingate cycle test in high school basketball players.
1
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VI. DISCUSSION
The results of the present study indicated that there was a
positive correlation between the average power (r = 0.031, p >
0.05) & peak power (r = 0.044, p > 0.05) of vertical jump test
and Wingate cycle test, thereby supporting the experimental
hypothesis.
Vertical Jump and Wingate anaerobic power tests rely
heavily on ATP/PC energy system contributions to
produce/sustain maximal anaerobic power. Also, weight had a
considerable impact on performance on these two tests. The
heavier subjects in the current investigation had higher anaerobic
power outputs on both the Vertical Jump and Wingate tests.
Previously, the vertical jump and Wingate power tests have been
administered to athletes and recreationally active individuals to
assess anaerobic contributions, and are considered relatively
valid and reliable as suggested in the literatures. 3
The results of this study appear consistent with other studies
examining power performance in both a jump test and the
WAnT. The moderate correlations observed (r= 0.031 and r =
0.044 ) in both peak and mean power, respectively between these
2 modes of anaerobic power assessments were greater than that
recently reported by Hoffman et al., 11 but less than that
previously reported by Bosco et al.. 12 The differences between
these studies are not easily explainable.However, in the study
conducted by Hoffman et al., the subjects were elite-level
basketball players. Considering that the jumping test is a more
specific anaerobic power test for these athletes, their ability to
generate power may be quite different when using other modes
of assessment. Perhaps in a more diverse subject population, as
seen in this present study and that of Bosco et al, the less specific
the test is to the subject group the stronger the correlation
between 2 different modes of assessment.
The differences between these modes of anaerobic power
assessment (cycling vs. jumping) may also relate to the
significant differences observed in power outputs between these
tests. By recruiting a greater muscle mass (both legs acting
simultaneously and the inclusion of upper-body musculature), the
jump tests appears to result in a significantly greater power
expression. This is consistent with several studies examining
power performance using different modes of assessment. 11,12 In
addition, the greater power outputs observed in the jumping test
may also be related to a greater recovery of mechanical energy
that is stored in the elastic elements of the body during the
countermovement.
The present study used equations developed by Johnson and
Bahamonde (1996) to predict vertical jump power in watts (W)
from height, mass, and vertical jump height. When performing
the tests, the subjects with greater heights and/or weights
exhibited an ability to generate greater power outputs.This
suggests that individuals taller and/or heavier would be predicted
to a have higher anaerobic power output shows increased
dependency of anthropometric variables (especially body weight)
in the determination of anaerobic power in the tests. 9
The limited ability to predict basketball performance from
tests of anaerobic power is an indication that other variables are
responsible for success on the basketball court. Basketball
performance may be better predicted if the anaerobic tests mimic
sport-specific movements and skills. Tests that incorporate
jumping, sprinting speed, agility, muscular strength and
endurance, and hand-eye coordination would provide a valuable
tool to assess and monitor basketball performance. 3
VII. CONCLUSION
The result suggested that vertical jump tests may be accept as
a field measures of anaerobic power in high school female
basketball players.
LIMITATION AND FURTHER RECOMMENDATION
The sample size was small for the study. Verbal
encouragement can be administered by all people monitoring the
testing procedures will give false positive result. Fatigue could
have been limiting factors since test were performed. We can
recreate the current investigation using a larger sample size with
female athletic populations in Anaerobic Power tests.
Comparison of anaerobic power test can be done with result of a
similar age, gender, and anthropometric measurements can be
done.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I wish to express my thanks to respectable Principal of the
institute Dr Sarla Bhatt & Milin Nandani, student of MPT for
their kind support and guidance in making the research easy and
providing all the help in completion of the research and all my
colleagues and students for their valuable suggestions. Last but
not least I would like to thank all participants for their
contribution in the present study.
REFERENCES
[1] Fleck, S.J., and Kraemer, W.J. Designing Resistence Training Programs,
2nd ed. Champaign,IL: Human Kinetics, 1997.
[2] Bompa, T.O. Periodization of Strength. Toronto, Ontario: Veritas
Publishing Inc, 1993.
[3] Stauffer KA. The comparison of the Max Jones Quadrathlon With the
verticle jump and Wingate Cycle Tests as a method to access anaerobic
power in female Division I College Basketball Players. University of
Pittsburgh 2005.
[4] Hoffman JR., Epstein S., Einbinder M., and Weinstein Y. The Influence of
Aerobic Capacity on Anaerobic Performance and Recovery Indices in
Basketball Players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,1999;
13(4), 407-11.
[5] Adams, G.M. Exercise Physiology Laboratory Manual, 3rd ed. Boston,
MA: McGraw- Hill, 1998.
[6] Inbar, O., Bar-Or, O., and Skinner, J.S. The Wingate Anaerobic Test.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1996.
[7] Tom Evans. The Effects of Static Stretching on Vertical Jump
Performance. Thesis submitted toThe Graduate College of Marshall
UniversityIn partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science in Health and Physical Education. Marshall University,
May 2006.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 35
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[8] Harman, E.A., Rosenstein, M.T., Frykman, P.N., Rosenstein, R.M., and
Kraemer, W.J.. Estimation of Human Power Output From Vertical Jump.
Journal of Applied Sport Science Research, 1991; 5(3), 116-20.
[9] Johnson DL and Bahamonde R.. Power Output Estimate in University
Athletes. Journal of strength and Conditioning Research, 1996 ; 10(3), 161-
66.
[10] Brooks, G.A., Fahey, T.D., White, T.P., and Baldwin, K.M. Exercise
Physiology:Human Bioenergetics and its Applications, 3rd ed. Mountain
View, CA: Mayfield Publishing
Company, 2000.
[11] Hoffman, J.R., S. Epstein, M. Einbinder & Y. Weinstein. A comparison
between the Wingate anaerobic power test to both vertical jump and line
drill tests in basketball players. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2000 : 14:261–64.
[12] Bosco, C., P. Luhtanen & P.V. Komi. A simple method for measurement
of mechanical power in jumping. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 1983 ; 50:273–82.
First Author – Purvi K. Changela, Lecturer, Shri K K Sheth
Physiotherapy College, Rajkot
Second Author – Sarla Bhatt, Principle, Shri K K Sheth
Physiotherapy College, Rajkot
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 36
ISSN 2250-3153
SQL Server Query Optimization Techniques - Tips for
Writing Efficient and Faster Queries
Abstract- SQL statements can be used to retrieve data from
the any database. To get same results we need to write different
SQL queries. For better performance we need to use best, faster
and efficient queries. So we need SQL query tuning based on the
business and user requirements. This paper covers how these
SQL queries can be optimized for better performance. Query
optimization subject is very deep but we will try to cover the
most important points. In this paper I am not focusing on, indepth
analysis of database but simple query tuning tips & tricks
which can be applied to gain immediate performance gain.
T
I. INTRODUCTION
he best way to tune performance is to try to write your
queries in a number of different ways and compare their
reads and execution plans. Here are various techniques that you
can use to try to optimize your database queries. Query
optimization is an important skill for SQL developers and
database administrators (DBAs). In order to improve the
performance of SQL queries, developers and DBAs need to
understand the query optimizer and the techniques it uses to
select an access path and prepare a query execution plan. Query
tuning involves knowledge of techniques such as cost-based and
heuristic-based optimizers, plus the tools an SQL platform
provides for explaining a query execution plan.
II. QUERY PERFORMANCE OVERVIEW USING
STATISTICS IO
There are different ways to determine the best way to write
queries. Two of common methods are looking at the number of
logical reads produced by the query and looking at graphical
execution plans provided by SQL Server Management Studio.
For determining the number of logical reads, you can turn the
STATISTICS IO option ON. Consider this query:
SET STATISTICS IO ON
SELECT * FROM tablename
The following is returned in the Messages window in SQL
Server Management Studio:
Table ‗tablename‘. Scan count 1, logical reads 33, physical reads
0, read-ahead reads 0, lob logical reads 0, lob physical reads 0,
lob read-ahead reads 0.
There are several bits of data returned by STATISTICS IO, but
we are concerned with the logical reads portion because it will
tell us the number of pages read from the data cache. This is the
most helpful because it will stay constant when I run the same
Navita Kumari
Innovation Centre - Baba Farid Group of Institutions
query, which is important because there are sometimes external
factors that might vary the execution time of my queries, such as
locking by other queries. When tuning SQL queries, our goal
should be to get the number of logical reads as low as possible.
As fewer logical reads typically lead to faster execution times.
III. GENERAL TIPS FOR QUERY OPTIMIZATION
Specific Column Names instead of * in SELECT Query
The SQL query becomes faster if you use the actual columns
names in SELECT statement instead of than '*'. So we need to
restrict the queries result set by selecting only the particular
columns from the table, rather than all columns from a particular
table. This results in performance benefits, as SQL Server will
return only particular columns to the client, not all columns of a
table. This will help reduce the network traffic and also boost the
overall performance of the query.
Example: Write the query as
SELECT col_1, col_2, col_3, col_4, subject FROM
table_name;
Instead of:
SELECT * FROM table_name;
Alternatives of COUNT (*) for returning total tables row count
If we need to return the table's row count, we can use alternative
ways instead of the SELECT COUNT (*) statement. As
SELECT COUNT (*) statement makes a full table scan to return
the table's row count, it can take much time for the large tables.
There is another way to determine the total row count of a table.
We can use sysindexes system table. There is a ROWS column in
the sysindexes table. This ROWS column contains the total row
count for each table in a particular database. So, we can use the
following select statement instead of ―SELECT COUNT (*):
SELECT rows FROM sysindexes WHERE id = OBJECT_ID
('table_name') AND indid < 2‖. So we can improve the speed of
such queries thus resulting in better performance.
Try to avoid HAVING Clause in Select statements
HAVING clause is used to filter the rows after all the rows are
selected and is used like a filter. Try not to use HAVING clause
for any other purposes.
For Example: Write the query as
SELECT Col_1, count (Col_1)
FROM table_name
WHERE col_1!= ‗testvalue1‘
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 37
ISSN 2250-3153
AND col_1!= ‗testvalue1‘
GROUP BY col_1;
Instead of:
SELECT Col_1, count (Col_1)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY Col_1
HAVING Col_1!= ‗testvalue1‘ AND Col_1!= ‗testvalue2‘;
Try to minimize number of sub query blocks within a query
Sometimes we may have more than one sub query in our main
query. We should try to minimize the number of sub query block
in our query.
For Example: Write the query as
SELECT col_1
FROM table_name1
WHERE (col_2, col_3) = (SELECT MAX (col_2), MAX
(col_3)
FROM table_name2)
AND col_4 = ‗testvalue1‘;
Instead of:
SELECT col_1
FROM table_name1
WHERE col_2 = (SELECT MAX (col_2) FROM
table_name2)
AND col_3 = (SELECT MAX (col_3) FROM table_name2)
AND col_4 = ‗testvalue1‘;
Try to use operators like EXISTS, IN and JOINS appropriately
in your query
a) Usually IN has the slowest performance.
b) IN is efficient, only when most of the filter criteria
for selection are placed in the sub-query of a SQL
statement.
c) EXISTS is efficient when most of the filter criteria
for selection is in the main query of a SQL statement.
For Example: Write the query as
SELECT * FROM table1 t1
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT * FROM table2 t2 WHERE
t2.col_id = t1.col_id)
Instead of:
SELECT * FROM table1 t1
WHERE t1.col_id IN (SELECT t2.col_id FROM table2 t2)
Use EXISTS instead of DISTINCT when using table joins that
involves tables having one-to-many relationships.
For Example: Write the query as
SELECT d.col_id, d.col2
FROM table1 d
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT 'X' FROM table2 e WHERE
e.col2 = d.col2);
Instead of:
SELECT DISTINCT d.col_id, d.col2
FROM table1 d, table2 e
WHERE e.col2 = e.col2;
Try to use UNION ALL instead of UNION, whenever possible.
The UNION ALL statement is faster than UNION, because
UNION ALL statement does not consider duplicate s, and
UNION statement does look for duplicates in a table while
selection of rows, whether or not they exist.
For Example: Write the query as
SELECT id, col1
FROM table1
UNION ALL
SELECT id, col1
FROM table2;
Instead of:
SELECT id, col1, col2
FROM table1
UNION
SELECT id, col1
FROM table2;
We should try to carefully use conditions in WHERE
clause.
For Example: Write the query as
SELECT id, col1, col2 FROM table WHERE col2 > 10;
Instead of:
SELECT id, col1, col2 FROM table WHERE col2 != 10;
Write the query as
SELECT id, col1, col2
FROM table
WHERE col1 LIKE 'Nav%';
Instead of:
SELECT id, col1, col2
FROM table
WHERE SUBSTR(col1,1,3) = 'Nav';
Write the query as
SELECT Col1, Col2
FROM table
WHERE Col3 BETWEEN MAX (Col3) and MIN (Col3)
Instead of:
SELECT Col1, Col2
FROM table
WHERE Col3 >= MAX (Col3)
and Col3

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 38
ISSN 2250-3153
SELECT id, Col1, Col2
FROM table
WHERE Col2 < 25000;
Instead of:
SELECT id, Col1, Col2
FROM Table
WHERE Col2 + 10000 < 35000;
IV. SOME MORE TIPS FOR OPTIMIZATION OF
QUERIES/ TABLES/ STORED PROCEDURES IN
SQL SERVER
a. Table should have minimum of one clustered
index and appropriate number of non clustered
indexes, which should be created on columns
of table based on query which is running
following the priority order as WHERE
clause, then JOIN clause, then ORDER BY
clause and finally the SELECT clause.
b. Avoid using Triggers if possible; incorporate
the logic of trigger in a stored procedure.
c. Table should have a primary key.
d. Try to use constraints for selection instead of
using triggers, whenever possible. Constraints
are efficient than triggers enhance
performance. So, you should use constraints
instead of triggers, whenever possible.
e. Try to use table variables instead of temporary
tables as table variables require less locking
resources as well as less logging resources than
the temporary tables, so table variables should
be used whenever possible.
f. Avoid the use of views or replace views with
original tables.
g. Try to avoid the use of DISTINCT clause,
where ever possible. As the DISTINCT clause
will result in performance degradation, we
should use this clause only when it is necessary
or unavoidable.
h. Try to add SET NOCOUNT ON statement into
your stored procedures as it stops the message
indicating the number of rows affected by a
SQL statement.
It also reduces network traffic, because our
client will not receive any message indicating
the number of rows affected by a SQL
statement.
i. Try to use TOP keyword or the SET
ROWCOUNT statement in the select
statements, if we need to return only the first n
rows. This can improve performance of our
queries, as the smaller result set will be
returned. It can also reduce the traffic between
the server and the clients.
j. Try to use user-defined functions to keep the
encapsulated code for reuse in future.
The user-defined functions (UDFs) contain one
or more SQL statements that can be used to
encapsulate code for reuse. Using UDFs can
also reduce the network traffic.
k. If possible move the logic of UDF to SP as
well.
l. If you need to delete all rows of a table, try to
use TRUNCATE TABLE command instead of
DELETE command. Using the TRUNCATE
TABLE is a faster way to delete all rows of a
tables, because it removes all rows from a table
without logging each row delete.
m. Remove any unnecessary joins from tables.
n. If there is cursor used in query, see if there is
any other way to avoid the usage of this (either
by SELECT … INTO or INSERT … INTO,
etc).
Try to avoid using cursors whenever possible.
As SQL Server cursors can result in some
performance degradation as compared to select
statements. Try to use correlated sub-queries or
derived tables for row-by-row operations on
tables.
o. When writing a sub-query (a SELECT
statement within the WHERE or HAVING
clause of another SQL statement):
1. Try to use a correlated (refers
to at least one value from the
outer query) sub-query when
the return is relatively small
and/or other criteria are
efficient i.e. if the tables
within the sub-query have
efficient indexes.
2. Try to use a non-correlated
(does not refer to the outer
query) sub-query when
dealing with large tables
from which you expect a
large return (many rows)
and/or if the tables within the
sub-query do not have
efficient indexes.
3. Ensure that multiple subqueries
are in the most
efficient order.
4. Remember that rewriting a
sub-query as a join can
sometimes increase
efficiency.
p. Use char/varchar columns data type, instead of
nchar/nvarchar data type if we do not need to
store Unicode data. The char/varchar data
value uses only one byte to store one character;
whereas the nchar/nvarchar value uses two
bytes to store one character, so the char/varchar
columns use two times less space to store data
as compared to nchar/nvarchar data columns.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 39
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q. Try to use stored procedures instead of heavy
queries as they can reduce network traffic,
because our client will send to server only
stored procedure name (along with some
parameters) instead of heavy and lengthy
queries text. Stored procedures can be used to
enhance security. For example, we can give
different users, different set of permissions to
execute the stored procedure to work with the
restricted set of the columns and data.
r. We should try to return an integer value from a
RETURN statement instead of returning an
integer value as a part of a record set. As the
RETURN statement exits from a stored
procedure unconditionally, so the statements
following the RETURN statement are not
executed. The RETURN statement is generally
used for error checking, but we can also use
this statement to return an integer value for any
other reason. Using RETURN statement can
improve performance as SQL Server will not
create a record set.
s. Try to drop indexes that are not being used.
Because each index takes up disk space and
slow the DML operations, we should drop
indexes that are not used. We can use Index
Wizard to identify indexes that are not being
used in our SQL queries.
t. We should try to create indexes on columns
that have integer values rather than character
values. Because the integer values have less
size than the size of characters values, so we
can reduce the number of index pages which
are being used to store the index keys. This
finally reduces the number of reads required to
read the index and enhances the overall index
performance.
u. If we need to join several tables very
frequently, then we should consider creating
index on the joined columns which can
significantly improve performance of the
queries against the joined tables.
v. Try to avoid any operations on the fields,
where ever possible. Some operations will
prevent the use of index on a field even if it
exists—for example,
ltrim(rtrim(FieldColumnName)) as such
operations will degrade the performance. For
example, instead of using the
condition cast(DateColumn as varchar(20)) =
@dateStr, we should try to convert @dateStr to
an expression of datetime type and then
compare it to DateColumn value.
V. CONCLUSION
Query optimization has a very big impact on the performance
of a DBMS and it continuously evolves with new, more
sophisticated optimization strategies. Query optimization is a
common task performed by database administrators and
application designers in order to tune the overall performance of
the database system. Even if you have a powerful infrastructure,
the performance can be significantly degraded by inefficient
queries. So, we should try to follow the general tips as mentioned
above to get a better performance of queries. Optimization can be
achieved with some efforts if we make it a general practice to
follow the rules. The techniques described in this paper allow
basic optimization of queries, tables, indexes and stored
procedures for performance gains. The main focus was on query
optimizations.
REFERENCES
[1] Sunderi Dejan, Microsoft SQL Server 2005 Stored Procedure Programming
in T-SQL & .NET, Third Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2006, ISBN:0072262281.
[2] Dave Pinal, SQL SERVER – Optimization Rules of Thumb – Best Practices
– Reader's Article. April 26, 2008.
http://blog.sqlauthority.com/2008/04/26/sql-server-optimization-rules-ofthumb-best-practices-readers-article/
[3] Andrei Volkov, SQL Server Optimization, http://msdn.microsoft.com/enus/library/aa964133(v=sql.90).aspx.
[4] SQL Server 2005 Books Online, Introducing SQL Trace.
http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms191006.aspx.
[5] SQL Server 2005 Books Online, Understanding plan forcing.
http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms186343.aspx.
[6] SQL Tuning or SQL Optimization. http://beginner-sql-tutorial.com/sqlquery-tuning.htm
[7] SQL Server Optimization Tips.
http://santhoshgudise.weebly.com/uploads/8/5/4/7/8547208/sql_server_opti
mization_tips-1.doc
[8] Optimize MS SQL Server. http://omarabid.hubpages.com/hub/Optimize-
MS-SQL-Server
[9] SQL Spark. http://sqlspark.blogspot.in/2011/07/best-ways-to-write-sqlquery.html
[10] MySQL Load Balancing PHP script. http://www.f1teksolutions.com/
[11] What are the most common SQL Optimizations.
http://stackoverflow.com/questions/1332778/what-are-your-most-commonsql-optimizations
[12] Index Optimization Tips. http://www.mssqlcity.com/Tips/tipInd.htm
[13] Review, Change, or Delete Transferred or Imported data.
http://turbotax.intuit.com/support/iq/Import/Review--Change--or-Delete-
Transferred-or-Imported-Data/GEN12079.html.
AUTHORS
Navita Kumari, M.C.A., Innovation Centre - Baba Farid Group
of Institutions and navitakamra@gmail.com
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 40
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A Comparative Study on Concomitant of Order Statistics
and Record Statistics for Weighted Inverse Gaussian
Distribution
Kishore K. Das*, Bhanita Das** and Bhupen K. Baruah***
Abstract- A study on bivariate and trivariate weighted
inverse Gaussian distribution (WIGD) using a specific concept of
pseudo distribution has been attempted in this paper. Product
moment of bivariate pseudo WIGD has been obtained.
Distribution of -th concomitant of order statistics for the
resulting distribution has been obtained with some ordering
properties. An extension to bivariate concomitant for trivariate
pseudo WIGD also has been discussed. Concomitant of second
order upper record statistics and joint distribution of second and
fourth order concomitant of upper record statistics for bivariate
pseudo WIGD have been studied along with their properties.
Numerical values of survival functions have been computed for
comparison of concomitant of order statistics and record
statistics. This study reveals that for both concomitant of order
statistics and concomitant of second order upper record statistics
for WIGD survival probability decreases as time increases for
fixed values of the parameters and it increases for increasing
value of shape parameter holding time and scale parameter as
fixed.
Index Terms- WIGD, Bivariate pseudo distribution,
Concomitant, Order statistics, Record statistics.
O
*Department of Statistics, Gauhati University, Guwahati-781014, India
***Department of Chemistry, Gauhati University, Guwahati-781014, India
I. INTRODUCTION
rder statistics and record statistics are used extensively in
statistical models and inference and both describes random
variables arranged in order of magnitude. Usually, the ordered
values of independent and identically distributed (IID) samples
arranged in ascending order of magnitude are known as order
statistics (Aleem, 1998). The simplest and most important
functions of order statistics is the sample cumulative distribution
function (cdf) . Suppose are jointly
distributed random variables then arranging the in increasing
order of magnitude, are said to be smallest,
second smallest and largest order statistics.
**Corresponding Author
Bhanita Das
Department of Statistics
Gauhati University, Guwahati-781014
Assam, India
Phone: +9108822233531(M); Fax: +91- 0361-2700288
E-mail: bhanitadas83@gmail.com
According to David, (1981) if is a random sample
from a continuous population with probability density function
(pdf) and cumulative distribution function (cdf) and
are the order statistics obtained by arranging
the random sample in increasing order of magnitude, then the
probability density function (pdf) of -th order statistics
is given by
Study of bivariate order statistics motivated us to go for
concomitant of order statistics. To develop order statistics, for
bivariate and multivariate distributions, concomitant variables
play a significant role and are used in situations where
knowledge of initial values of a characteristic is important. The
term concomitant of order statistics was first induced and applied
extensively by David, (1973). According to Hanif, (2007) in
collecting any data for an observation several characteristics are
often recorded, some of them are considered as primary and
others can be observed from the primary data automatically. The
later one is called concomitant or going along with variables,
explanatory variables or covariables. Suppose we have a random
sample of size from an absolutely continuous bivariate
population . For , let and be the order
statistics of and sample values respectively, then the value
associated with is called concomitant of the -th order
statistics or an induced order statistics and is denoted by
(Bhattacharya, 1974). The distribution of -th concomitant
is given by David and Nagaraja, (2003) as
where is the -th order statistics and is the
conditional distribution. Shahbaz and Shahbaz, (2011) have
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 41
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extended the distribution of concomitant of order statistics to
bivariate concomitant of order statistics when a random sample is
available from trivariate distribution function .
According to Shahbaz and Shahbaz, (2011) the distribution of
bivariate concomitant is given as
where is the conditional distribution.
Literature review reported that concomitant of order statistics
were studied for several bivariate pseudo distributions under
assumption of identically and independently distributed (IID) or
independent samples (Shahbaz et al., 2009b; Shahbaz and
Ahamad, 2009a and Shahbaz and Shahbaz, 2010). The pseudo
distributions are new induction to statistical probability
distribution theory and the idea was developed by Filus and
Filus, (2006) and concept is used by various authors to derive
several bivariate distributions from the existing univariate
distribution to measure the failure rate of reliability. These
distributions have found applications in situations where standard
probability distributions are not suitable. The general setup for
the density function of bivariate pseudo distributions is given by
Filus and Filus, (2006) as
where is some function of random variable .
Concomitant of record statistics is also a new branch of
statistics with several applications to measure the failure rate of
reliability (Chandler, 1952 and Ahsanullah, 2010). Concomitant
of record statistics can arise in several applications. Suppose
individuals are to be selected on the basis of measurement of an
attribute (say income) whose high value is desirable. Suppose
(say expenditure) is an associated attribute which is known to
be correlated with . While is easy to measure, is not. So the
individuals are first measured on the basis of their values and
only those having value bigger (or smaller) than all previous
observations on qualify to be measured for their values and
sequence of values thus measured are concomitant of records.
Many such examples arise in the real field where concomitant of
records are useful.
In many practical situations it has been found that the only
available data are records. Record values are observations that
exceed or fall below current extreme value on a sequence of
random variables. Considering a sequence of pair wise r.v.'s
when the experimenter is interested in studying just
the sequence of records of the first component, the second
component associated with a record value of the first one is
termed as the concomitant of that record value (Amini and
Ahmadi, 2005). Record values were first discussed by Chandler,
(1952). Feller, (1966) has given some examples of record values
in the context of gambling problems. Nevzorov, (1988)
mentioned several applications of record values. Various
distributional properties of upper record values have been found
in Ahsanullah, (1995) and Nagaraja, (1988).
For a random variable distribution of -th upper record,
has been given by Ahsanullah, (1995) as
Where and is the distribution
function of .
The joint distribution of -th and -th upper records,
and has been obtained by Ahsanullah, (1995) using
the following expression
where .
Ahsanullah, (1995) obtained the distribution of -th concomitant
of upper record statistics as
where is the distribution of -th upper record statistics
given in equation (1.5). Ahsanullah, (1995) has also given joint
distribution of concomitant of -th and -th upper record values
as
where is given in equation (1.6).
According to David and Galambos, (1974); Balasubramanian and
Beg, (1998) and Beg and Ahsanullah, (2008) concomitants of
order statistics attracted a considerable amount of attention in the
literature but concomitants of record statistics received
comparatively little attention. Therefore, in this paper an attempt
has been made to study concomitant of order statistics and
concomitant of record statistics for WIGD which has its
applicability in drinking water quality data (Das et al., (2011))
using the concept of bivariate pseudo distribution.
In the estimation of water quality parameters a large number
physico-chemical parameters are found to be interrelated with
each other showing positive or negative correlation among them.
So bivariate distribution theory is applicable in such cases. In
water quality data it is reported that iron (Fe) and arsenic (As) are
positively correlated with each other, whereas, Fe and fluoride (F)
are negatively correlated. From the estimated value of Fe we can
observe the probable concentration of As as well as F in water.
Similarly, microbial concentration in water also can be estimated
from DO data. For these type of situations the concept of
concomitant arises naturally.
Bivariate Pseudo WIGD
II. RESULTS AND FINDINGS
According to Das et al., (2011) the pdf of WIGD is given by
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 42
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Suppose that the random variable (r.v.) also has WIGD with parameter where is some function of having pdf
Defining equation (2.1) and (2.2) as a compound distribution of two r.v.‘s the bivariate pseudo WIGD has the density
Considering in equation (2.3) the distribution becomes
The product moment of equation (2.4) is
Concomitant of Order Statistics for Bivariate Pseudo WIGD
To obtain the distribution of -th concomitant we first find out the distribution of -th order statistics for marginal distribution of
given in equation (2.1) as
Also the conditional distribution of given for equation (2.4) is
Using equations (3.1) and (3.2) in equation (1.2), the distribution of -th concomitant of order statistics for bivariate pseudo WIGD is
obtained as
Where
The expression for -th moment of the -th concomitant for bivariate pseudo WIGD is obtained as
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 43
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Survival function for -th concomitant of order statistics for bivariate pseudo WIGD is
The conditional hazard rate of given is
Which is decreasing function in and .
Again the conditional survival function
is decreasing function in , therefore according to properties given by Tahmasebi and Behboodian, (2010) it follows that has
increasing failure rate (IFR) distribution and (entropy ordering) for and is stochastically decreasing and is
denoted by SD( .
Extention to Bivariate Concomitant from Trivariate Pseudo Distributions
The trivariate pseudo WIGD has been defined as a compound distribution of three random variables. Suppose that the random
variable has WIGD with pdf given in equation (2.1) and the r.v. and also has WIGD with parameter and
respectively with pdf
And
Then the compound distribution of equations (2.1), (4.1) and (4.2) gives trivariate pseudo WIGD as
Using and , the density given in (4.3) becomes
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 44
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The product moment of trivariate WIGD is obtained as
The conditional distribution of given and can be obtained by using
Therefore,
For trivariate pseudo WBSD the -th order moment is
Considering , the conditional mean for trivariate pseudo WIGD is
And , gives
Variance of trivariate pseudo WIGD is
Again we have,
Using equations (3.1) and (4.5) in equation (1.3) the pdf of bivariate concomitant from trivariate pseudo WIGD is obtained as
Distribution of Concomitant of Record Statistics for WIGD
Distribution of -th concomitant of upper record statistics for bivariate pseudo WIGD has been obtained as a particular case of
and only for identically and independently distributed cases. The distribution of -th concomitant of record statistics can be obtained
by using equation (1.7). The distribution given in equation (1.7) requires the distribution of -th record statistics given in equation
(1.5) for r.v. and conditional distribution. If r.v. follows WIGD, then using the cdf of WIGD and equation (1.5) the distribution of
-th record statistics for WIGD is obtained by using
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 45
ISSN 2250-3153
Where . Using equation (1.5) the distribution of second order upper record statistics for bivariate pseudo WIGD is
Using the distribution of second order upper record statistics for WIGD and conditional distribution of WIGD distribution of
second order concomitant of upper record statistics for bivariate pseudo WIGD is obtained as
The -th moment about origin for concomitant of upper record statistics for bivariate pseudo WIGD is obtained as
The survival function of the second order concomitant of upper record statistics for bivariate pseudo WIGD is
Joint Distribution of Second and Fourth Order Concomitant of Upper Record Statistics for Bivariate Pseudo WIGD
The joint distribution of two concomitant of record statistics can be obtained using equation (1.8).But expression (1.8) requires the
joint distribution of two record statistics given in equation (1.6). Therefore first we derive the joint distribution of two record statistics.
The joint distribution for random variables and for WIGD is as follows
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 46
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Now, using the conditional distribution of given of bivariate pseudo WIGD and joint distribution of and in
equation (6.1), the joint distribution of second and fourth concomitant is obtained as
Where
Numerical Values of Survival Functions for Concomitant of Order Statistics and Concomitant of Record Statistics for
Bivariate Pseudo WIGD
To study the survivability of concomitant of order statistics and
second order upper record statistics numerical values of the
survival functions for bivariate pseudo WIGD have been
obtained for different values of the parameter and using
equations (3.5) and (5.3). From Table 1 and Table 2 it is clear
that for both concomitant of order statistics and concomitant of
second order upper record statistics for WIGD survival
[1]
[2]
[3]
Ahsanullah, M. (2010). ―Concomitant of upper
record statistics for bivariate pseudo Weibull
distribution‖. Applications and Applied
Mathematics, 5(10):1379-1388.
Aleem, M. (2006). ―Concomitant of order statistics from inverse Rayleigh
distribution‖. Pakistan Journal of Statistics and Operation Research,
2(1):45-48.
Amini, M., & Ahmadi, J. (2005). ―On moments of the concomitants of
probability decreases as increases for fixed values of the
parameters and and it increases for increasing value of
holding and as fixed.
[4]
classic record values and nonparametric upper bounds for the mean under
the Farlie-Gumbel-Morgenstern model‖. Journal Statistical Research of
Iran, 1(2):123-125.
Balasubramanian, K., & Beg, M. I. (1998). ―Concomitant of order statistics
in Gumbel‘s bivariate exponential distribution‖. Sankhya, 60, Series B:
Table 1: Numerical values for survival functions of -th concomitant of 399-406.
order statistics for WIGD
[5] Beg, M. I., & Ahsanullah, M. (2008). ―Concomitants of generalized
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
order statistics from Farlie Gumbel Morgenstern distributions‖.
Statistical Methodology, 5:1-20.
0.01 0.99569
0.02 0.98784
0.03 0.97774
0.04 0.96583
0.05 0.95239
0.06 0.93762
0.99765 0.99847 0.99890 0.99916 0.99946
0.99337 0.99569 0.99691 0.99765 0.99847
0.98784 0.99209 0.99433 0.99569 0.99719
0.98132 0.98784 0.99129 0.99337 0.99569
0.97395 0.98304 0.98784 0.99074 0.99398
0.96583 0.97774 0.98404 0.98784 0.99209
[6]
[7]
[8]
Bhattacharya, P. K. (1974). ―Convergence of sample paths of
normalized sums of induced order statistics‖. The Annals of Statistics,
2:1034-1039.
Chandler, K. N. (1952). ―The distribution and frequency of record
values‖. Journal of Royal Statistical Society, 14:220-228.
Das, K. K., Das, B., & Baruah, B. K. (2011). ―Development of New
Probability Model with Application in Drinking Water Quality Data‖,
0.07 0.92163 0.95703 0.97199 0.97991 0.98470 0.99004 Advances in Applied Science Research, 2(4):306-313.
0.08 0.90456 0.94761 0.96583 0.97549 0.98132 0.98784 [9] David, H. A. (1981). ―Order Statistics”. Wiley, New York, 2nd edition.
0.09 0.88648 0.93762 0.95929 0.97079 0.97774 0.98550 [10] David, H. A. (1973). ―Concomitants of order statistics‖. Bulletin of
0.10 0.86747 0.92709 0.95239 0.96583 0.97395 0.98304
Table 2: Numerical values for survival functions second order
concomitant of upper record statistics for WIGD
5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5
REFERENCES
[9] Ahsanullah, M. (1995). ―Record Statistics”. Nova Science, USA.
(6.2)
.001 0.97918 0.97979 0.98037 0.98092 0.98145 0.98195
.002 0.94121 0.94293 0.94456 0.94612 0.94761 0.94903
.003 0.89217 0.89532 0.89832 0.90117 0.90390 0.90650
.004 0.83425 0.83908 0.84368 0.84807 0.85225 0.85625
.005 0.76872 0.77546 0.78187 0.78799 0.79382 0.79939
.006 0.69645 0.70528 0.71369 0.72171 0.72936 0.73667
.007 0.61809 0.62918 0.63975 0.64983 0.65945 0.66863
.008
.009
0.53412
0.44496
0.54764
0.46105
0.56053
0.47639
0.57281
0.49101
0.58453 0.59572
www.ijsrp.org
0.50496 0.51828
0.01 0.35094 0.36974 0.38766 0.40474 0.42104 0.43661

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 47
ISSN 2250-3153
International Statistical Institute, 45:295-300.
[11] David, H. A., & Galambos, J., (1974). ―The asymptotic theory of
concomitants of order statistics‖. Journal of Applied Probability, 11:762-
770.
[12] David, H. A., & Nagaraja, H. (2003). ―Order Statistics”. John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 3rd edition.
[13] Feller, W. (1966). ―An Introduction to Probability Theory and its
Applications‖.Volume 2. Wiley, New York.
[14] Filus, J. K., & Filus, L. Z. (2006). ―On some new classes of multivariate
probability distributions‖. Pakistan J. Statistics, 21(1):21-42.
[15] Hanif, S. (2007). ―Concomitants of Ordered Random Variables‖. Ph.D
Thesis, National College of Business Administration & Economics, Lahore.
[16] Nagaraja, H. N. (1988). ―Record values and related statistics: A review‖.
Communication in Statistics: Theory and Methods, 17:2223–2238.
[17] Nevzorov, V. B. (1988). ―Records‖. Theory of Probability and its
Aplications, 32:201-228.
[18] Shahbaz, S., & Shahbaz, M. Q. (2011). ―The trivariate pseudo Rayleigh
distribution‖. World Applied Sciences Journal, 12(12):2279-2282.
[19] Shahbaz, S., & Shahbaz, M. Q. (2010). ―On bivariate concomitants of order
statistics for pseudo exponential distribution‖. Middle East J. Scientific
Research, 6(1):22-24.
[20] Shahbaz, S., Shahbaz, M. Q., & Mohsin, M. (2009b). ―On concomitants of
order statistics for bivariate pseudo exponential distribution‖. World
Applied Sciences Journal, 6(8):1151-1156.
[21] Shahbaz, S., & Ahmad, M. (2009a). ―Concomitants of order statistics for
bivariate pseudo Weibull distribution‖. World Applied Sciences Journal,
6(10):1409-1412.
[22] Tahmasebi, S., & Behboodian, J. (2010). ―A short note on entropy ordering
property for concomitants of order statistics‖. World Applied Sciences
Journal, 9(3):257-258.
AUTHORS
First Author – Kishore K. Das, M. Sc., Ph.D
Department of Statistics, Gauhati University,
Guwahati, Assam, India
Second Author – Bhanita Das, M. Sc., Ph.D
Department of Statistics, Gauhati University,
Guwahati, Assam, India
Third Author – Bhupen K. Baruah, M. Sc., Ph.D
.
.
Department of Chemistry, Gauhati University,
Guwahati, Assam, India
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Design and Stress Analysis of Watt and Porter Governor
*Ravindra Singh Rana, **Rajesh Purohit, *Alok Singh
*Assistant Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering M.A.N.I.T, Bhopal (M.P.), India
**Associate Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering M.A.N.I.T, Bhopal (M.P.), India
Abstract- The function of the governor is to maintain the speed
of an engine within specified limits whenever there is a variation
of load.. This device can be used in almost all vehicles. The
objective our investigation to identify the stress concentration
areas, areas which are most susceptible to failure when governor
is rotating about its axis, also the value of these stresses is
measured. This analysis is carried out with the help of PRO E.
The displacement of the various elements of the SPINDLE from
the base is also calculated and the graphs are plotted. Effect of
the ―WEIGHT OF THE ARMS‖ is the major area of concern for
our study and all the calculations are done considering the weight
of the arms. Weight of the arms acts on the centroid of the arms
and when the governor assembly rotates, centrifugal force starts
acting on the centroid of the arms and tends to deflect the arms,
this deflection or bending is to be minimized. In our work, we
have done the Stress analysis on a particular configuration of
governor assembly and then various materials are suggested on a
theoretical basis.
Index Terms- PRO E, Spindle, Weight of the Arms.
A
I. INTRODUCTION
Governor, or speed limiter, is a device used to measure and
regulate the speed of a machine, such as an engine. A
classic example is the centrifugal governor, also known as the
watt. [1-3] Centrifugal governors were used to regulate the
distance and pressure between millstones in windmills since the
17th century. Early steam engines employed a purely
reciprocating motion, and were used for pumping water an
application that could tolerate variations in the working speed. It
was not until the Scottish engineer James Watt introduced the
rotative steam engine, for driving factory machinery, that a
constant operating speed became necessary. Between the years
1775 and 1800, Watt, in partnership with industrialist Matthew
Bolton, produced some 500 rotati-vebeam engines. At the heart
of these engines was Watts self-designed "conical pendulum"
governor: a set of revolving steel balls attached to a vertical
spindle by link arms, where the controlling force consists of the
weight of the balls. Building on Watts design was American
engineer Willard Gibbs who in 1872 theoretically analyzed
Watts‘s conical pendulum governor from a mathematical energy
balance perspective. During his graduate school years at Yale
University, Gibbs observed that the operation of the device in
practice was beset with the disadvantages of sluggishness and a
tendency to overcorrect for the changes in speed it was supposed
to control. The objective our investigation to identify the stress
concentration areas, areas which are most susceptible to failure
when governor is rotating about its axis, also the value of these
stresses is measured. Analysis is carried out with the help of PRO
E. The displacement of the various elements of the SPINDLE
from the base is also calculated using PRO E and the graphs are
plotted. Different materials for different parts are used that are
theoretically justified.
II. MATERIALS FOR DIFFERENT PARTS
2.1 Spindle and Arms: The spindle of the governor is made
of STAINLESS STEEL. The properties of stainless steel are
given below: Physical Properties, Density= 0.29 lbs/in3(8.03
g/cm3) ,Modulus of Elasticity ksi (MPa) 28.0 x 103 (193 x 10^3)
in tension 11.2 x 103 (78 x 10^3) in torsion. STAINLESS
STEEL is used because of its high MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY in tension and the high modulus of elasticity in
tension means high bending strength, which is the major cause
for failure of the spindle, it is for this reason that stainless steel is
used for the design of spindle. Apart from that the Corrosion
resistant property of stainless steel and its stress concentration
corrosion resistance justify the use of stainless steel for both
spindle and arms.
2.2 Base: The base of the governor assembly is made up of
Fe30. This material is used because it has very good Vibrations
Damping capacity. It is a prerequisite for the governor or any
machine that the base should be stable and it should not vibrate,
it is for this reason that Fe30 is used.
2.3 Sleeve and Head: The sleeve of the governor is made up
of BRONZE. Sleeve is that part of governor which moves
relatives to spindle so there is always FRICTION associated with
it, and when there is friction, then when the sleeve is moving
upwards friction acts downwards and retards its speed and when
it moves downwards friction acts upwards, in this way for a
given height of governor there are two speeds on the controlling
curve which results in the INSTABILITY of the governor. The
friction of the governor is therefore be kept as low as possible,
Bronze is a material which is self-lubrication and it has very low
coefficient of friction.
2.4 Pins and Bushes: Self-lubricating bushings (lubrication
free bushings) are made up of one of two basic compositions:
PTFE-Based Metal-Polymer Materials
Thermoplastic-Based Metal-Polymer Materials
III. DESIGN OF GOVERNOR
3.1 Design of Watt Governor: The Design of Watt Governor
involves determining the Minimum and maximum speed of the
Governor. The minimum speed occurs when the sleeve is at its
rest or initial position.
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.
Here, AB- length of the arm (cm),BC = r = Radius of rotation
(cm) ,AC =h = Height of the Governor (cm)
30° = α = Angle of inclination Length AB =41cm; BC= 146mm;
α= 30º Height of governor, WKT hı = AB * cosα
= 14.6 * cos30º= 12.64 cm or .126 m
But hı= 895/Nı² , Nı²= 895/.126
Minimum speed, Nı=84.2 rpm. ,Assume sleeve lift =20mm
h2 = hı – 20 mm= 106.4 mm or .1064 mMax speed N2² =
895/h2=> 895/ .335N2= 91.46 rpm
Speed range % = (N1 ≈ N2)/ N2= (91.77 – 84.22) / 84.22= 8.37
%
DESIGN OF SHAFT:
Diameter of the shaft„d‟ = 13 mm, For d< 20 mm;
τ=σy / 2 where σy is the yield stress (N/mm^2) ,σy = 380
N/mm^2. From DDB.=>
τ= 190 N /mm², where τ is the shear stress in N/mm^2
Basic Specifications:
W.K.T.T=п /16 *τd³ , Where T-torque in the shaft „Nmm‟
=п /16 * 190* 13³= 81962.18 Nmm => 81.962 Nm
Power = 2пNT/60, Max speed N= 91.77
rpm= 2*п*91.77* 81.962 / 60=454.94 W
The power obtained is less than that of the power rating of a
FHP motor which is 746 W and hence the design is safe for 13
mm diameter of shaft.
3.2 Design of Porter Governor: The porter governor is a
modification of a watts governor; with central load attached to
the sleeve. This leads to larger centrifugal forces here high
speeds are required to bring the fly balls to the same radius. The
design of porter governor involves determining the minimum and
maximum speed of the governor. The minimum speed occurs
when the sleeve is at its rest or initial position. The only
difference between the watt and porter governor is the inclusion
of a dead weight as shown in the figure.
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(1) Power supply (2) 230 V AC, Single phase, Variance.
Materials :( 1) Spindle: Stainless Steel (2) Fly balls:
Cast Iron (3) Arms: Stainless steel(4) Frame: Mild
steel(5) Dead weight: cast Iron
Governor Mechanism: Speed of rotation, N= (m+M)/m *
895/h,Where m is Mass of the ball (kg)M – Mass of the dead
weight (kg)h – Height of the governor (cm) ,r– Radius of rotation
(cm),α – Angle of inclination,Fc– Centrifugal force = m ώ^2 r.,
Where ώ= 2 π N/ 60. N- Speed of rotation (rpm), Here m= .4 kg
M= 1.6 kgi) Height of Governor: h =√ (AB²- BC²), Here the
Length of the arms is equal, Radius of rotation, r ı = AB sin α=
.146 * sin 30º= .534 m Hı = AB cosα = 12.64 cm Speed N² = (m
+ M)/m * 895 / h1= (.4 + 1.4)/.4*895/ .1246N =179.21 rpm
DESIGN OF SHAFT:
For solid shaft d= 13 mm,
τ=σy/ 2 where τ is the shear stress in N/mm² ,σy = 380 N/mm^2.
From DDB. τ= 380/ 2 = 190 N/mm²
Torque ,T =п / 16 *τd³=п / 16 * 190 * 13³=81.962 Nmiv)
Power = 2пNT/60= 2п*179.21*81.962/60 = 723.26 WP < [P] i.e.
The power obtained is less than that of the power rating of a FHP
motor which is 746 W and hence the design is safe for 13 mm
diameter of shaft. Hence design is safe
Specifications of Bearing: A Bearing is a machine element
which is mounted on shafts for free and smooth rotation. The
bearing facilitates the rotation of the shaft along its axis without
any vibration. Generally for this purpose roller ball bearing is
chosen and we have done the same. The various stresses acting
on a roller ball bearing are (i) Radial force acting on the
bearing.(ii) Axial thrust on the bearing The design of bearings is
done on the basis of the stresses induced, the size of the setup
and its specifications
(i)The figure shows the dimensions of the bearing chosen. A
roller ball bearing of ID 26 mm and OD 52mm
(ii)The ID is chosen as 26mm so as to fix the sleeve rigidly on
the bearing.
Design Procedure:
(i)The design of bearings is done on the basis of the stresses
induced and the size of the setup.
(ii) The radial force acting on the governor is given by F = torque
/ distance. (N)F = 81.951 / .30Radial force F = 275 N
(iii) For F = 275 N and the inner diameter d = 26 mm, The
bearing to be chosen is SKF 6006. SKF 6206 and SKF 6306. Out
of which SKF6206 is highly recommended and chosen by us.
Additional Bearing:
Two more bearings are required for free flow movement of the
spindle connected to the motor with the help of a pulley. The
bearing of inner diameter13 mm is required so that the Shaft is
rigidly supported by the frame.
Design:
The Radial Force acting on the Governor is given by F = torque /
distance. (N)=81.962/ 36Radial Force F = 216.75 N. For F =
216.75 N and the inner diameter d = 12 mm, The Bearing to be
chosen is SKF 6006. SKF 6206 and SKF 6306. Out of which
SKF 6206 is highly recommended and chosen by us.
Hurdles Faced: (i)We experienced bending the spindle while trying to fix the
bearing in position which later led to wobbling of the spindle.
Hence we changed a new one later.
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(ii) Due to irregular speed control the arms bent while rotating
which we replaced later with a new arm of harder material to
overcome that problem.
(iii) We also experienced turbulence of the entire setup while
operating due to less weight of frame for which we added some
extra weight for stability.
(iv)Fixing the bearing in position caused failure of bearings
because of hard impact by hammer for which we replaced the
faulty bearing later.
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
(1.) From the stress analysis of the various parts of the
governor assembly we are able to identify the stress
Displacement of the Spindle
STRESSES on various elements
concentration areas, which are most susceptible to fail, so to
avoid failure we have to increase the strength in those areas and
to achieve this diameter of the shaft should be increased near the
base because this is the portion where stress concentration is
highest, so we have to provide a step a to increase the area which
is accompanied by fillet which has some radius to avoid stress
concentration.
(2.) As can be seen from the stress analysis the area near the
joint of the arm and the spindle head has high stress
concentration so the thickness of the arms should be a SPLINE
with high thickness near the joint and low at the centre, spline
design is chosen because we do not have to increase the weight
of the arms.
Strain at various elements of the assembly
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Limitations of our Study:
(i) Bending of the spindle, because of the forces acting on the
spindle head by the arms.
(ii) High sensitivity which results in HUNTING.
(iii) Woobling of the whole structure because of low weight.
V. FUTURE SCOPE
(i) Analysis on different materials for spindles and arms.
(ii) Dynamic analysis of the governor will give more accurate
results and also calculate the combined stresses acting on the
various parts of the governor.
(iii) Application of springs to avoid the problem of HUNTING.
(iv) The governors extend their scope in all kind of vehicles.
They can be employed in hydro plants assessment.
(v)They can also be used in speed sensing devices which employ
digital speed governors.
(vi) The introduction of analog and digital speed governors have
created a rage among the automobile industries
Stress Curve with respect to spindle head semi perimeter
Strain energy curve wrt spindle head
Displacement Magnitude w.r.t. spindle head
VI. CONCLUSION
(i) Thus governor plays an important role in speed control.
(ii) It ensures regulation of speed at any conditions
(iii)To study the effect of varying the mass of the center sleeve in
porter governor
REFERENCES
[1] WWW.ANSWERS.COM/TOPIC/GOVER-DE
[2] WWW.ENOTES.COM/TOPIC/GOVER-DE
[3] HTTP//EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/GOVER-DE
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AUTHORS
First Author –Ravindra Singh Rana, Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
M.A.N.I.T.Bhopal(M.P.), Email: ravindrarana74@gmanil.com
Second Author – Rajesh Purohit, Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering M.A.N.I.T.Bhopal(M.P.)
Third Author – Alok Singh, Assistant Professor Department of
Mechanical Engineering M.A.N.I.T.Bhopal(M.P.)
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Reviews on the Influences of Alloying elements on the
Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Aluminum
Alloys and Aluminum Alloy Composites
R. S. Rana, Rajesh Purohit, and S Das
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology,
Bhoapl-462051, India
Abstract- In recent year‘s aluminum and aluminum alloys are
widely used in automotive industries. These are light weight
(density of about 2.7g/cc),having good malleability and
formability, high corrosion resistance and high electrical and
thermal conductivity. High machinability and workability of
aluminum alloys are prone to porosity due to gases dissolved
during melting processes. However, in the engineering
application pure aluminum and its alloys still have some
problems such as relatively low strength, unstable mechanical
properties. The microstructure can be modified and mechanical
properties can be improved by alloying, cold working and heat
treatment in this regards, this paper reports the influences of
some alloying elements on the microstructures and mechanical
properties of Aluminum alloys and aluminum alloy composites.
Keywords- Aluminum alloy, aluminum alloy composites,
Machinability, alloying, Heat treatment, Cold working
A
I. INTRODUCTION
luminium and aluminium alloy are gaining huge industrial
significance because of their outstanding combination of
mechanical, physical and tribological properties over the base
alloys. These properties include high specific strength, high wear
and seizure resistance, high stiffness, better high temperature
strength, controlled thermal expansion coefficient and improved
damping capacity.[1]. These properties obtained through addition
of alloy elements, cold working and heat treatment. Alloying
elements are selected based on their effects and suitability. The
alloying elements may be classified as major and minor
elements, microstructure modifiers or impurities, however the
impurity elements in some alloys could be major elements in
others[2]. In this paper the influences of alloying Such as Major
elements (Si ,Cu ,Mg), Minor elements(Ni, Sn) ,Microstructure
modifier elements(Ti, B, Sr ,Be ,Mn ,Cr) and Impurity
elements(Fe, Zn) on microstructures and mechanical properties
of aluminium alloys are reviewed.
II. EFFECTS OF MAJOR ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN ALUMINIUM
It's the foremost preliminary step for proceeding with any
research work writing. While doing this go through a complete
thought process of your Journal subject and research for it's
viability by following means:
The major alloying elements in Aluminum and aluminium alloys
typically include Silicon (Si), copper (Cu) and magnesium (Mg).
2.1 Silicon(Si): Silicon is the most important single alloying
element used in majority of aluminum casting alloys.[2] It is
primarily responsible for so –called good castability (high
fluidity,low shrinkage),low density(2.34g/cm3)which may be
advantage in reducing total weight of cast component and has
very low solubility in Aluminum therefore precipitates as
virtually pure Si which is hard and improve the abrasion
resistance. Si reduces thermal expansion coefficient of Al-Si
alloys. Machinability is poor with addition of silicon in
Aluminum. [3].Depending on the Si concentration in weight
percentage, the Al-Si alloy systems are divided into three major
categories: Hypoeutectic (

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2.2 Effect of Cu addition: copper effect the strength and
hardness of aluminum casting alloys, both heat treated and not
heat treated and at both ambient and elevated service
temperature. It also improve the machinability of alloys by
increasing matrix hardness,.[2] On the down side, copper
generally it reduces the corrosion resistance of aluminum and in
certain alloys and tempers, it increase stress corrosion
susceptibility[2].S.G. Shabestari et al [5] Investigate the effect of
copper and solidification condition on the microstructure and
mechanical properties of Al-Si-Mg alloys . copper in the range
of 0.2-2.5wt% has been used in A356 aluminum alloy and cast at
different solidification condition(sand, graphite, copper and cast
iron molds). It has been found that Ultimate tensile strength of
the alloys increased with heat treatment(T6), mold cooling
rate(graphite) and copper content upto 1.5% . UTS increase
because of precipitation of copper bearing phase in the
interdendritc space cause by increasing copper. It has been found
that the best mechanical properties with about 1.5% Cu in Al si-
Mg alloy solidified in the graphite moulds.
2.3 Effect of Mg addition: Magnesium (Mg). Provides
substantial strengthening and improvement of the workhardening
characteristics of aluminium. It can impart good
corrosion resistance and weldability or extremely high Strength
[6, 7]. . Silicon combine with magnesium to form the hardening
phase Mg2Si that provides the strengthening [2]..Zhengang Liu
at el[8] investigate the influence of Mg addition on graphite
particle distribution in the Aluminum alloy matrix composites.in
this studied Mg as surface active agent was added into
commercial alumimum to prevent the graghite particles from
clustering and improve the physical and mechanical properties of
aluminum matrix. The results show that contents of graphite
increase with increasing Mg contents. The graphite particle
distribute uniformly in the particle reinforced PMMC with
0.6Wt%Mg. however, the agglomeration of graphite particles is
observed in matrix when Mg contents is more than 1Wt% Mg.
the proper Mg addition amount is beneficial to enhance the
mechanical properties of the graphite particles reinforced
aluminum alloy matrix composites and the abrasion resistance of
the materials due to uniformaly distribution of hard particles and
reduction of friction coefficient.
2.4 Effect of Mg and Si addition: Shubin Ren et.al[9]
Investigate the effect of Mg and Si alloy element in the
aluminum on the thermo-mechanical properties of pressureless
infiltrated SiCp/Al composites. Si and Mg addition to the
aluminum can improve the wettability of SiC by the aluminum
The results showed that, when the Si content was lower than 6
wt% or the Mg content was lower than 4 wt%, the composites
showed poor thermo-physical properties because of higher
porosity due to relative density of infiltrating SiCp/Al composites
is very low in the composites resulting from the poor wettability
between Al and Si. Increasing the Si content to the aluminum can
enhance the elastic modulus, thermal dimensional stability and
thermal conductivity of the composites and reduce the coefficient
of thermal expansion (CTE) of the composites. However,
excessive Si beyond 12 wt% can reduce the thermal conductivity
and bending strength of the composites. An optimum content of
Mg addition to aluminum was found to be 4–8 wt%, at which the
composites exhibited good thermo-mechanical properties.
However, as the Mg content was increased beyond 8 wt%, the
higher porosity in the composites resulting from the lower
pressure of the magnesium led to lower thermo-mechanical
properties.
III. EFFECT OF MINOR ELEMENTS:
3.1 Effect of Ni addition: JE Hanafee et al[10] Investigate the
effect of nickel on hot hardness of aluminum alloys It is shown
that nickel can be utilized to improve the hot hardness (up to 600
F) of aluminum-silicon (10 to 16 per cent silicon) casting and
forging alloys. The maximum benefits are realized by developing
a large volume and favourable distribution of nickel aluminide.
The addition of more than the eutectic amount of silicon was not
particularly helpful in improving hot hardness. While the
addition of more than the eutectic amount of nickel did improve
hot hardness.
F. Hernández-Méndez, A. Altamira no-Torres et al[11]
Investigate the Effect of Nickel Addition on Microstructure and
Mechanical Properties of Aluminum-Based Alloys. Alloys were
produced by powders metallurgy. Characterization results
indicate that the microstructure of the aluminum-nickel alloys
present a thin and homogeneous distribution of an intermetallic
compound in the aluminum‘s matrix, identified as Al3Ni.
Furthermore, it was find out that the amount of intermetallic
Al3Ni increase as the nickel content in the alloy rises. Regarding
the mechanical properties evaluated; it was establishes that the
hardness, compression and flexion resistances also were
improved due to the presence of the intermetallic compound.
3.2 Effect of tin addition: Tin (Sn) used in aluminum casting
alloys for reducing friction in bearing and bushing applications.
Alloying element Tin in emergency conditions can provide
short-term liquid lubrication to rubbing surfaces if such
bearings/bushings severely overheat in service..[2]
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IV. MICROSTRUCTURE MODIFYING ELEMENTS
Include titanium (Ti), boron (B), strontium (Sr),phosphorus (P),
beryllium (Be), manganese (Mn) and chromium (Cr)[2]
4. 1 Effect of Ti addition:
Majed Jaradeh, et al[12] investigate the Effect of titanium
additions on the microstructure of DC-cast AA 3003 aluminium
alloys. Some improved corrosion properties can be obtained
from increasing the Ti contents in aluminium alloys to a level
above the normal practice for grain refinement. However,
increasing the Ti content above the peritectic point, 0.15%, can
influence the grain refinement and cause casting difficulties. It
was found that with normal Ti contents in the range of 0.015%,
the grain refinement is effective. However, upon larger Ti
additions to levels around 0.15% the grain structure becomes
coarser .N. Saheb , T. Laoui et al[13] Investigate the effect of Ti
addition(up to 4Wt%) to Al–Si eutectic alloy. The addition of Ti
to Al–Si eutectic alloy resulted in the precipitation of the
intermetallic compound Al3Ti phase, which induced an increase
in the micro hardness of the binary alloy. Among the Ticontaining
alloys, the increase in Ti content improved their wear
resistance as a result of increase in the microhardness due to the
presence of relatively hard-phase Al3Ti. However, these alloys
showed higher wear rates (thus lower wear resistance) compared
with the binary alloy due to the tendency for embrittlement and
microcracking brought about by Al3Ti particles. Heat treatment
of the Ti-containing alloys at 200◦C for 6 h improved further
their wear resistance.
4.2 Effect of Titanium & Boron:
Titanium (Ti) and boron (B) are used to refine primary
aluminum grains. Titanium, added in aluminum alloy, forms
TiAl3, which serves to nucleate primary aluminum dendrites.
More frequent nucleation of dendrites means a large number of
smaller grains. Grain refinement is illustrated in Figure 1
Figure 1: Illustration of grain-refined aluminium
Grain refining is better when titanium and boron are used in
combination. Master alloys of aluminum with 5% titanium and
1% boron are commonly used additives for this purpose.
Titanium with boron form TiB2 and TiAl3, which together are
more effective grain refiners than TiAl3 alone..[2]
4.3 Effect of strontium addition: Strontium, Sodium, Calcium
and Antimony These elements are added to eutectic or
hypoeutectic aluminum silicon casting alloys to modify the
morphology and microstructure of the eutectic silicon phase,
eutectic silicon solidifies in a relatively coarse continuous
network of thin platelets, shown in Figure 2. That morphology
provides abundant stress risers and thus limits to achieve
maximum strength and ductility. Modification with one of the
above elements can changes the eutectic silicon into a fine
fibrous or lamellar structure (Figures 2b and 2c).[2]
Figure 2a:Unmodified Figure 2 b: Modified Figure 2c: Supermodified
A. Razaghia, M. Emamy et al[14] Investigate the effect of
strontium as a modifier on the microstructures and tensile
properties of two castable particulate metal matrix composites
The particulate metal matrix composites had similar matrix alloy
(A357) but different reinforcing fine particles (silicon carbide
and alumina). Results showed that the addition of 0.03%
strontium makes a modest improvement to the yield strength,
ultimate tensile strength and elongation percentage values, and
the scatter of these properties, but makes a significant
improvement to minimum strength and elongation results.
Microstructural examinations by scanning electron microscope
and energy dispersive spectroscopy analysis of metal matrix
composites showed segregation of strontium on both the silicon
carbide and alumina particles. Further results showed that the
addition of higher strontium levels contributes to the overmodification
of the eutectic silicon and promotes the formation
of an Al–Si–Sr intermetallic compound on the particle/matrix
interface.
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Fig. 3: Optical micrograph of A357: (a) non-modified, (b) modified with 0.01%Sr, (c) modified with 0.02%Sr, (d) Modified with
0.03%Sr, (e) modified with 0.05%Sr, and (f) modified with 0.1%S
4.4 Effect of Manganese & Chromium: Manganese or in
combination,with manganese (Mn) and chromium (Cr) change
the morphology of the iron-rich Al5FeSi phase (Figure 4a) from
its typical platelet/acicular form to a more cubic
Al15(MnFe)3Si2 form (Figure 4b) that is improve the ductility.
[2]‘‘.
Figure 4a: Fe-richAl5FeSi Figure4b: Cubic Al15(MnFe)3Si2
form.phase in platelet form
4.5 Effect of Mn addition: Soo Woo Nam and Duck Hee
Lee[15] Investigate the effect of Mn on the Mechanical Behavior
of Al Alloys.. Recently, it was found that as the manganese
content increases over 0.5 wt.% in aluminum alloys, both yield
and ultimate tensile strength increase significantly without
decreasing ductility. Adding manganese to aluminum
alloys enhances the tensile strength as well as
significantly improves low-cycle fatigue resistance.
Corrosion resistance is also improved by the addition
of manganese.
V. EFFECT OF IMPURITY ELEMENTS :
5.1 Effect of zinc addition: Zinc is only present in aluminum
casting alloys of 7XX series,. Otherwise, zinc is present merely
as an acceptable impurity element in many secondary (scrapbased)
die casting alloys. As such, zinc is quite neutral; it neither
enhances nor detracts from an alloy‘s properties. [2]. ZHU Meijun,
DING Dong-yan et al[16] Investigate the effect of Zn
content on tensile and electrochemical properties of 3003 Al
alloy. The effect of Zn addition on the microstructure, tensile
properties and electrochemical properties of as-annealed 3003 Al
alloy was investigated. It was found that High density
precipitates are observed in the Zn-containing alloys and the
alloy with 1.8% Zn addition also has rod-like precipitates.. The
alloy with 1.5% Zn addition has the highest ultimate tensile
strength. M.C. Carroll, P.I. Gouma et al [17]. Studied effect
of Zn addition on the grain boundry precipitation and corrosion
of Al. Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) concerns in aluminum
alloys containing Mg levels greater than 3.5%have been largely
attributed to the formation of the beta-phase (Al3Mg2) at grain
boundaries. It has been demonstrated that the beta-phase need not
be continuous in order to provide a path for crack propagation,
but aging treatments, exposure to intermediate to high
temperatures, and excessively corrosive environments can all
contribute to early failure of Al-Mg alloys due to SCC. Proof of
the presence of a corrosion-prone secondary phase can be
demonstrated easily through exfoliation testing and the
associated lining of grain boundaries, which can be confirmed
optically. Additions of Zn to these Al-Mg alloys in levels of 1–
2wt% have been shown to be more SCC resistant due to the
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formation of a stable ternary Al-Mg-Zn phase , the pie phase.
Recent studies have shown that Al-5083 variants which contain
even minor levels of Zn (0.68–0.70wt%) perform much better
during exfoliation testing. Zinc additions of 0.68–0.70wt% to
sensitized 5083-based Al-Mg-Mn alloys precludes the formation
of b-phase precipitates, resulting instead in the formation of a
chemically and structurally distinct Al-Mg-Zn t-phase at grain
and subgrain boundaries. The t-phase appears to be more
resistant to corrosion than the b-phase.
5.2 Effect of iron addition: John A. Taylor [18] Investigate the
effect of Iron in Al-Si Casting Alloys This paper discusses the
various sources of iron and how it enters aluminum alloys, the
way that iron leads to the formation of complex inter-metallic
phases during solidification, and how these phases can adversely
affect mechanical properties, especially ductility, and also lead to
the formation of excessive shrinkage porosity defects in castings.
The paper offers guidelines to the levels of iron that can be
tolerated, how to maintain these levels and how to minimize the
negative effects of iron. Author suggested some Practical
guidelines for addition of iron in Al-Si casting alloys:
Wherever possible, iron levels in Al-Si alloys should be
kept as low as practical in order to avoid the detrimental
effects on mechanical properties, particularly ductility
and fracture toughness. This means minimizing iron
contamination through careful selection of raw materials
(i.e. ingots, silicon, etc.) and the maintenance of good
refractory coatings on all steel tools used to prepare and
handle melts.
Iron levels above the critical level for the silicon content
of the alloy should be avoided as these can cause serious
loss of ductility in the final cast product and decreased
casting productivity through increased rejects due to
shrinkage porosity, and particularly ―leakers‖.
The critical iron content (in wt%) for an alloy can be
calculated using Fe crit ≈ 0.075 x [%Si] – 0.05.
If solidification/cooling rates are very high (e.g. high
pressure die casting), super critical iron contents may
not be detrimental, but as the cooling rate decreases
(gravity die casting → sand casting, etc.) the probability
of super critical iron levels causing problems
dramatically increases
Traditional heat treatment regimes for Al-Si alloys, e.g.
T6, do not alter the nature of the offending Fecontaining
phases. As-cast inter-metallic is retained and
although the overall performance of an alloy may be
improved by heat treatment, it would be better still with
low iron levels initially.
Additions of Mn to neutralize the effects of iron are
common, at Mn:Fe ratios of ~ 0.5, however, the benefits
of this treatment are not always apparent. Excess Mn
may reduce β-phase and promote α-phase formation,
and this may improve ductility but it can lead to hard
spots and difficulties in machining. Mn additions do not
always improve castability and reduce porosity in high
Fe alloys. Its affect is sensitive to alloy composition.
The addition of Mn to melts with high iron levels can
also promote the formation of sludge, if the sludge
factor (derived by [%Fe] + 2[%Mn] + 3[%Cr]) exceeds
a particular value for a given alloy and melt holding
temperature. This is a serious problem for die-casters
who use low melt temperatures and high impurity
secondary alloys
5.3 Effects of beryllium addition: Y. Wang, Y. Xiong [19]
Investigate effects of beryllium (Be) in Al–7Si–0.4Mg–0.2Ti–
xFe–xBe cast alloy. The results show that beryllium addition
changes the shape of iron-rich compound from needle or plate
shapes to Chinese scripts or polygons. And the iron-rich
compound (named Be–Fe) is aggregated when the composition
of Fe is high. The aggregation of Be–Fe phase is the main crack
nucleus in the alloy. It is also found that Be–Fe is formed during
peritectic reaction on titanium-rich particle and located inside the
a-Al. These lead to the higher mechanical properties of the alloy
with Be addition.& findings are-
(1) The Fe phase is one of the main deterioration to the
mechanical properties of cast aluminium alloy, especially the bphase
in the alloy leads to poor mechanical properties.
(2) Beryllium addition changes the morphology of iron-rich
compounds to Chinese scripts and polygons And aggregative
Be–Fe phases are found in high Fe contained alloy. Be–Fe
phases are local inside the a-Al.
(3) The fracture always takes place on iron-rich compounds. In
the Be-containing alloy with iron, the crack propagation on Fephase
was deterred during fracture, and this is considered to be
beneficial to the fracture toughness of the alloy.
(4) The mechanical properties of Be-containing alloy improve
significantly. This is contributed to the alternation of Fe phase
shape.
(5) It is expected to exceed the permissible exposure limit in the
low beryllium content alloy(B0.5%) industry.
5.4 Effect of iron and beryallium addition: Murali, S and
Trivedi, A and Shamanna et[20] al investigate the effect of iron
and combined iron and beryllium additions on the fracture
toughness and microstructures of squeeze-cast Al-7Si-0.3Mg
alloy. An increase in iron content significantly decreases fracture
toughness. Trace additions of beryllium completely neutralize the
detrimental effect of iron.
5.5 Effect of rare earth elements: It is well known that trace
element additions to aluminum alloys can strongly influence the
precipitation process, including modifying the dispersion,
morphology and crystal structure of the resulting
precipitations[21-23].Studies on rare-earths as micro-alloying
elements showed that they had beneficial effects on the
mechanical properties of aluminum alloys. It was reported that
addition of Ce to Al-Cu-Mg-Ag alloy improved the thermal
stability of the Ω phase thus raised the service temperature of this
alloy[24]. LI et al[25]demonstrated that adding 0.1%−0.2%
(mass fraction) Y improved the tensile properties of 2519 alloy at
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 59
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room and elevated temperatures for Y changed the size and
density of θ′ phase. It was indicated that Nd was mainly
distributed in form of intermediate compound AlCuNd, which
exerted a restraining force on the grain boundaries and enhanced
the mechanical properties of 2519 alloy at high temperature
[26].Some recent researches showed that Yb was considered as
an effective micro-alloying element in aluminum alloys. It was
reported that Yb addition improved the mechanical properties of
Al-Cu-Mg-Ag alloy and Al-Zn-Mg-Cu-Zr alloy [27-28].
Furthermore, complex additions of Yb, Cr and Zr to Al-Zn-Mg-
Cu alloy significantly enhanced the resistance to recrystallization
[29].
VI. CONCLUSION
Alloying elements are selected based on their effect and
Suitability. Silicon lowers the melting point and increase the
fluidity(improve casting characteristics ) of Aluminum. A
moderate increase in strength is also provided by Silicon
addition. Magnesium provides substantial strengthening and
improvement of work harding characteristic of aluminium alloy.
It can impart good corrosion resistance and weldability or
extremely high strength. Copper has a greatest impact on the
strength and hardness of aluminum casting alloys, both heat
treated and not heat treated and at both ambient and elevated
service temperature. It improve the machinability of alloys by
increasing matrix hardness. Nickel (Ni) enhances the elevated
temperature strength and hardness. Tin(Sn) improves antifriction
characteristic and fluidity of aluminum casting alloys. it decrease
electrolytic potential which is desirable in sacrificial anodes..It is
concluded that selection of alloying element depends on use of
materials requirement.
REFERENCES
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[2] http://wpedia.goo.ne.jp/enwiki
[3] http://www.keytometals.com/Article80.htm, retrieved on 16th April 2011
[4] G.T. Abdel-Jaber et al ―Solidification and Mechanical Properties behavior
of Al-Si Casting Alloys‖ International Journal of Mechanical &
Mechatronics Engineering IJMME-IJENS Vol: 10 No: 04
[5] S.G. Shabestari, H. Moemeni Effect of copper and solidification conditions
on the microstructure and mechanical properties of Al–Si–Mg alloys
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[6] Davis, J. R., Corrosion of Aluminum and Aluminum alloys, 1999,
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[7] Mondolfo, L. F., Aluminum alloys: Structure and Properties, 1976,London,
Butterworths
[8] Zhengang Liuy, Guoyin Zu, Hongjie Luo, Yihan Liu and Guangchun Yao J.
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[9] Shubin Ren , Xinbo He, Xuanhui Qu, Islam S. Humail, Yan Li ― Effect of
Mg and Si in the aluminum on the thermo-mechanicalproperties of
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[10] J E Hanafee Effect of Nickel on Hot Hardness of Aluminum-Silicon Alloys
Materials Science › Miscellaneous Papers volume 71
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[11] F. Hernández-Méndez, A. Altamira no-Torres et ―Effect of Nickel Addition
on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Aluminum-Based Alloys‖
[12] Majed Jaradeh, Torbjorn Carlberg ―Effect of titanium additions on the
microstructure of DC-cast aluminium alloys‖, Materials Science and
Engineering A 413–414 (2005) 277–282
[13] N. Saheb , T. Laoui , A.R. Daud, M. Harun , S. Radiman, R. Yahaya
―Influence of Ti addition on wear properties of Al–Si eutectic alloys‖Wear
249 (2001) 656–662
[14] A. Razaghia, M. Emamy et al ― Sr effect on the microstructure and tensile
properties of A357aluminum alloy and Al2O3/SiC-A357 cast composites‖
M A T E R I A L S C H A R A C T E R I Z A T I O N 6 0 ( 2 0 0 9 ) 1 3 6 1
– 1 3 6 9
[15] Soo Woo Nam and Duck Hee Lee ―the effect of Mn on the Mechanical
Behavior of Al Alloys.‖ METALS AND MATERIALS, Vol. 6, No. 1 (2000),
pp. 13-16
[16] ZHU Mei-jun, DING Dong-yan ― Effect of Zn content on tensile and
electrochemical properties of 3003 Al alloy‖ Transition of non ferrous
metal society china 20(2010)2118-2123
[17] M.C. Carroll, P.I. Gouma ―EFFECTS OF Zn ADDITIONS ON THE
GRAIN BOUNDARYPRECIPITATION AND CORROSION OF Al-
5083‘‘ Scripta mater. 42 (2000) 335–340
[18] John A. Taylor ―The Effect of Iron in Al-Si Casting Alloys‖ Cooperative
Research Centre for Cast Metals Manufacturing (CAST) The University of
Queensland Brisbane, Australia page 1-10
[19] Y. Wang *, Y. Xiong ―Effects of beryllium in Al–Si–Mg–Ti cast alloy‖
Materials Science and Engineering A280 (2000) 124–127
[20] Murali, S and Trivedi, A and Shamanna et al “Effect of iron and combined
iron and beryllium additions on the fracture toughness and microstructures
of squeeze-cast Al-7Si-0.3Mg alloy‟‟. In: Journal of Materials Engineering
and Performance, 5 (4). pp. 462-468
[21] [6] SOFYAN B T, RAVIPRASAD K, RINGER S P. ―Effects of
microalloying with Cd and Ag on the precipitation process of Al-4Cu-
0.3Mg(wt %) alloy at 200 ℃” [J]. Micron, 2001, 32:851−856.
[22] RINGER S P, HONO K, POLMEAR I J, SAKURAL T. ―Nucleation of
precipitation in aged Al-Cu-Mg-(Ag) alloys with high Cu: Mg ratios‖ [J].
Acta Materialia, 1996, 44(5): 1883−1898.
[23] BARLAT F, LIU J.‖ Precipitate-induced anisotropy in binary A1-Cu
alloys‘‘ [J]. Materials Science and Engineering A, 1998, 257: 47−61
[24] XIAO D H, WANG J N, DING D Y, YANG H L. ―Effect of rare earth Ce
addition on the microstructure and mechanical properties of an Al-Cu-Mg-
Ag alloy‖ . Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2003,352: 84−88.
[25] LI H Z, LING X P, LI F F, GUO F F, LI Z, ZHANG X M. ―Effect ofY on
microstructure and mechanical properties of 2519 aluminum alloy [J].
Transaction of Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 2007,17(6):
1191−1198.
[26] ZHANG X M, WANG W T, LIU B, CHEN M A, LIU Y, GAO Z G,YE L
Y, JIA Y Z. ― Effect of Nd addition on microstructures and heat-resisting
properties of 2519 aluminum alloy‖. The Chinese Journal of Nonferrous
Metals, 2009, 19(1): 15−20. (in Chinese)
[27] XIAO D H, HUANG B Y. ―Effect of Yb addition on precipitation and
microstructure of Al-Cu-Mg-Ag alloys‖ Transactions of Nonferrous
Metals Society of China, 2007, 17(6): 1181−1185.
[28] FANG H C, CHEN K H, ZHANG Z, ZHU C J. ―Effect of Yb addition on
microstructures and properties of 7A60 aluminum alloy‖ .Transactions of
Nonferrous Metals Society of China, 2008, 18(1):28−32.
[29] CHEN K H, FANG H C, ZHANG Z, CHEN X, LIU G. ―Effect of Yb, Cr
and Zr additions on recrystallization and corrosion resistance of Al-Zn-Mg-
Cu alloys‖ [J]. Materials Science and Engineering A, 2008,497: 426−431
[30] FANG Hua-chan CHEN Kang-hua, ZHANG Zhuo, ZHU Chang-jun
―investigate the Effect of Yb additions on microstructures and properties of
7A60 aluminum alloy.‖transition non ferrous metals society china 18(2008)
28-32
First Author – Ravindra Singh RanaAssiatant Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering Maulana Azad National
Institute of Technology Bhopal (M.P.) India,
ravindrarana74@gmail.com
Second Author – Dr. Rajesh Purohit, Associate Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering Maulana Azad National
Institute of Technology Bhopal(M.P.)India
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 60
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Third Author – Dr. S. Das Scientist, Advanced Materials
Processing Research Institute Bhopal (M.P.) India,
sdas88@hotmail.com
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 61
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Evaluating Demand Response of Hydro Plant with Mixed
Pumped Storage
Abstract- Demand response plays a key role in balancing
the demand and supply in an electricity grid. Though the
demand response measures implemented with industrial
and large commercial consumers are very effective, some
alternate solutions may be required in the case of systems
predominated by domestic loads. Pumped storage schemes
(PSS) are widely used for demand side management (DSM)
applications due to their high efficiency and quick response rate.
But PSS often become unavailable if the environmental
issues are considered. A practical method is to upgrade an
existing hydro plant to a mixed pumped storage plant. This
paper proposes a method to determine the optimum capacity
of a mixed pumped storage unit/units which can be augmented to
an existing hydro plant. In addition the proposed approach can be
easily extended for scheduling applications in deregulated
environment.
Index Terms- energy storage, power demand, hydrology,
power system economics, pumped storage.
.
I
N. Venkateswarlu, M. Velmurugan, and S.Udaya Baskar
Department of EEE
Audisankara College of Engineering & Technology, Gudur, Nellore Dist
I. INTRODUCTION
n an electricity grid, electricity consumption and
production must balance at all times. Any mismatch in the load
generation balance results in violation of power system
parameters. To keep the parameters under limits, the system
operator continuously monitors the grid and adjusts the
generation to match the load. The small variations in demand get
automatically adjusted with governor action. The capacity of the
power system to respond to the changes in demand is crucial as
system reliability and stability are also likely to be affected in
extreme cases. In addition to the technical issues, commercial
interests may have to be forgone unless sufficient planning is
done.
Usually the system operator manages the mismatch
between demand and supply with the spare capacity available in
the running units. Often, the mismatch is carried over to the
nearby control areas through deliberate transactions (planned
energy transfer involving open access) or otherwise
(unscheduled interchange). However, during peak hours, which
are remarkable in some parts of the country, where the demand is
predominated by domestic and commercial load with low base
industrial load, the spare capacity of running units is not
sufficient to maintaining the load-generation balance. In areas
where the irrigation requirement is high, part compensation can
be provided by restricting the permitted hours of consumption of
irrigation load. Kerala is a typical power system with high peak
demand and load factor in the range of 70%. The change of
demand during the onset and decay of evening peak hours runs to
15 – 25 MW/minute.
To keep the generation follow the demand so as to keep the
system parameters under limits, the system operator has to
ensure sufficient capacity to meet the peek demand.The
additional requirement posed on the system during peak hours
has to be met by the marginal capacity available with the
power system. For turbine technology based thermal
generation, the generally acceptable lower level of continuous
generation is 75%. Hence, the additional requirement during
peak hours which goes above 25% capacity of running thermal
units pose a commercial question for the system operator. As
internal combustion engine based generation which are capable
to peaking operation to a certain extent are costly, the first
alternative goes to hydro power. Economics of operation requires
the management of incremental demand during peak with hydro
power, which is operationally flexible for start stops at lowest
cost and part load operation, ability for quick response to
demand changes etc. However, the environmental concern,
especially in the tropical area, is the main hurdle in tapping the
hydro potential. Shortage of hydro potential to meet the peek
demand results in underutilization of the capacity of thermal
units, which are generally designed to operate for base load.
This low utilization factor of generation plants and
uneconomical operation have sparked utilities to invest in energy
storage systems (ESS) such as pumped storage plants,
compressed air energy storage plants, battery energy storage
systems(BES) and superconducting magnetic energy storage
systems(SMES) etc.[1]. Recently significant amount of
researches are reported on ESS, especially on superconducting
magnetic energy storage[2], battery storage[3],flywheel energy
storage[4] and their applicability on power system[5] are
described. With energy storage , energy can b stored on off- peak
load period and dispatched on peak load period [6] proposes a
determination methodology for optimizing the size of ESS
integrated with a thermal power system. Schemes meant for
reduction of peak demand by encouraging off-peak electricity
usage and hence optimized energy efficiency are referred
collectively as demand side management (DSM)[7]. Many
utilities offer Demand Response (DR) programs that offer
incentives for reducing loads for short periods during times of
peak demand. Among the DSM schemes, pumped storage
schemes are widely used because of their availability, high
efficiency and quick response rate[8]. The PSS do not affect the
natural load curve but it‘s double face characteristics (load or
generator) helps to avoid the unnecessary peak plant construction
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and also the better utilization of the existing base power
plants[9].
II. MIXED PUMPED STORAGE OPERATION IN EXISTING
PLANTS
The principle behind a pumped storage plant is simple and
proven. During off-peak time , water is pumped from a lower
reservoir to a higher reservoir consuming energy at a cheap rate.
The pumped water is stored in the upper reservoir and is released
in a controlled way during peak time generating electricity. So a
pumped storage plant can be considered as a pseudo customer
who can shift its load from peak time to off peak time. One of the
disadvantages of the pumped scheme from the cost point of view
is the low utilization factor of the generator unit, especially when
the market rate of power is not conducive due to the absence
of price differential between generating mode and pumping
mode operation schedules during some part of the year.
A previous study [10] tried to estimate the optimum
capacity of pumped storage generation that could be added to
Kerala power system so as to optimize on the cost of energy
procured. The results indicated around 300MW in the next 5 year
horizon. However, conceiving a new pumped storage plant is
just unthinkable in the environmentally fragile western ghat area,
the only possible hydel source for Kerala. Hence alternate
solutions were considered.
In the design and conceptualization of hydro electric plants,
the hydrology of the area and expected inflow are the main
parameters deciding the total reservoir capacity. But, the size of
the reservoir is often limited by the optimum submergence that
can be permitted. Such optimization, however, leads to a
situation of under utilization of the hydrological potential at the
location. The unit size and total capacity of the generating
station is to be optimized on cost, which again depends on the
utilized hydro potential. Thus the reservoir is likely to spill
during peak rainy season and may not be able to cater the peak
demand fully.
The present study is to explore the possibility of mixed
pumped storage operation by introducing one or a set of pumped
storage units in a station where the storage capacity of the
reservoir is constrained by design. A mixed pumped storage is a
plant where there is conventional hydro generation in addition to
the pumped storage operation. It has the advantage of improved
generation capacity of the plant and better utilization factor of the
units, thereby reducing the overall cost of generation. In the
proposed methodology such units function as generators during
the monsoon period utilizing the extra capacity which is
otherwise spilled off and operate as a pumped storage scheme
when the inflow is less than the generation capacity of the station
during other than monsoon season.
III. PROPOSED METHODOLOGY
For examining the scope of mixed pumped storage operation,
an existing hydro plant with a significant spill during
monsoon and extra storage capacity during summer is selected.
The reservoir data of the plant for 5 years is collected. These
data are classified into following 3 categories based on the
reservoir storage level.
1 storage between 80% to 100% of full storage capacity
2 storage between 50% to 80% of full storage capacity
3 storage less than 50% of full storage capacity
Category 1
This period mainly consists of the monsoon period which
presents a situation of spillage of the reservoirs in spite of full
generation from the station. This is due to the inflow through
streams which are active only during the active monsoon period.
An additional generation capacity can be thought of to utilize this
spillage which is computed as follows:
Let S be the average spillage in million units for a day during this
season.
The capacity P1 in MW to utilize this spillage = S.1000
24
The spillage during this season can be avoided by utilizing this
additional capacity as a generator for 24 hours in a day.
Category 2
Category 2 is a period where the installed generation capacity in
the station is capable of controlling the inflow. In this season
the proposal is to introduce an additional generation
capacity which is meant for peak hours by controlling the
generation during off peak hours. The limiting capacity
corresponds to the capability of reservoir to reduce the
generation from the existing units so as to preserve water for the
additional unit without compromising on the water discharge to
the river. The additional generation is considered during peak
hours (say 4 hours). The computation is based on the average rate
of inflow during this period.
Let i be the inflow rate in a day in this season.
Total inflow for 4 hours I= i.4 mu.
Unit size P2 in MW required to deplete this inflow= I.1000
4
Category 3
In the situation represented by category 3, the inflow will not be
sufficient to keep the existing generators work round the clock.
This season correspond to pumped storage operation. The
maximum limit of capacity is obtained from the extra storage
possible. This is a very high value. But practically the size of the
lower reservoir fixes the upper limit of the capacity whose
computation is beyond the scope of this study.
The unit size can be fixed by finding the optimum value on the
basis of further studies on environment impact and other
related matters.
Case study
As an illustration, Peringalkkutthu hydro plant operated by
Kerala Electricity Board and connected to Southern Electricity
Grid of Indian power system is considered. The plant has a total
capacity of 48MW with 4 units of 8MW capacity and one unit
having 16MW. The reservoir data is analyzed for 2006-10. The
additional capacities that can be introduced in each category are
found by the proposed methodology and the values are shown in
table1.
Table 1: Addition of Mixed Storage Capacity
Category Capacity (MW)
Duration of the
year ( % )
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 63
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1 16 30
2 12 15
3 - 55
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It is seen that the capacities that can be added to category 1
and 2 are 16 MW and 12 MW respectively. The upper limit of
the capacity suitable for category 3 is fixed on the basis of the
extra storage possible in this season whereas the size of the lower
reservoir fixes the lower end whose calculation is beyond the
scope of this study. However, this capacity can be fixed as the
optimum capacity that can produce maximum returns.
A. Determination of optimum capacity
The optimum capacity is the one which produces maximum
annual returns. Since there is a maximum limit for the capacity
for each mode of operation, the income for different capacities is
not linear. The total annual income (B) for each capacity is
calculated by calculating the income obtained in each mode of
operation assuming an average market price for each season. The
price is taken as the day ahead market clearing price (MCP) of
the southern region (SR) in the Indian Energy Exchange for the
year 2010 [11]. Commercial figures of plant characteristics are
not readily available Indian context. Hence figures as shown in
table 2 as per a study on European system [12] are considered for
the analysis. The annual fixed cost (C) is calculated with the
following assumptions:
Investment =Rs.3crore/MW assuming the availability of upper
reservoir and the power evacuation system
Interest/returns @10%
Life of the plant =35 years
Depreciation (assuming straight line depreciation with
10% residual value) =2.57%
Operation & maintenance cost=1% of investment
Then the annual returns R=B-C
The annual returns for different capacities are shown below:
Figure 1. Average annual returns Vs pump capacity
Table 2: Pumped Storage Characteristics
Efficiency 65-80%
Duration of power
supply
Hours up to days
Capacity 10MW -1GW
Total capital cost
2700-3300 USD/KW
(upgrade
600USD/KW)
From the figure it is clear that the optimum capacity of pumped
storage which can be installed in Peringalkkuthu station is 16
MW. It can be seen that the annual returns come around 90
million rupees so that the pay back period is almost 5 years. This
methodology can be used to find the optimum capacity of the
additional mixed pumped storage unit/units which can be
augmented to any existing hydro plant where there is significant
spillage during monsoon and excess storage capacity during
summer.
B. Determination of unit size:
Determination of unit size has to take into account the
possibility of full load operation in all possible cases of
operation. Another point considered is regarding the availability
of the unit in case of a breakdown. In consideration of
these aspects, the additional 16 MW capacity can be installed as
two units of 8 MW size.
C. Sump reservoir capacity:
The sump reservoir capacity corresponds to the maximum
water that has to be stored in the sump for pumping to the main
reservoir. The pumping is expected for a period which
corresponds to the generation in the pumped storage mode of
operation. This is assumed as 4 hours in this study. Hence, the
effective sump capacity can be taken as the water equivalent
corresponding to this generation. From the data of the existing
station, assuming the water/energy ratio (2.86 for this plant) as
almost the same as that of the existing unit, the effective storage
of the sump reservoir can be determined as 0.185 MCM.
V. CONCLUSION
We have shown that there is a large hydro potential in many of
the existing hydro plants which can be tapped easily for efficient
and economic operation of power systems. Capacity addition of
the station with a mixed pumped storage scheme is studied in
detail in this paper. Though many studies have been made on the
optimum operation of pumped storage schemes, the concept of a
mixed plant and the part operation of the unit as a pure generator
are not seen deliberated in detail in literatures. The cost impact
is also studied with this mode of operation. The addition of
capacity is ensured year round, contributing to the additional
hydro requirement for effective demand side management and
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hence optimise the cost of power procurement. The proposed
method is extremely simple for the system managers to adopt and
implement.
REFERENCES
[1] V.T. Sulzberger and I. Zeinoski, "The Potential for Application of Energy
Storage Capacity on Electrical Utility Systems in The United States-Part
I," IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol.PAS-95,
No.6, pp. 1872-1881, November/December 1976.
[2] Luongo C.A, ‗Superconducting storage systems‘, IEEETrans. Magn.,
1996, 32, pp. 2214–2223
[3] Mcdowall. J, ‗Conventional battery technologies-Present and future‘.
Proc. 2000 IEEE Power EngineeringSociety Summer Meeting, July
2000, vol. 3, pp. 1538–1540
[4] Taylor.P, Johnson L, Reichart. K, Dipietro P, Philip J, Butlar .P, ―A
summary of the state of the art of superconducting magnetic energy
storage systems, flywheel energy storage systems, and compressed air
energy storage systems‖ .SAND99-1854, Sandia National Labs, 1999
[5] Ribeiro P.F, Johnson B.K, Crow M.L, Arsoy A, Liu Y , ‖Energy storage
systems for advanced power applications‖, Proc.IEEE, 2001, 19, (12),
pp. 1744–1756
[6] S.Chakraborty, T.Senjyu, H.Toyama, A.Y.Saber.T. unabashi,
―Determination methodology for optimising the energy storage size for
power system‖, IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2009, Vol. 3, Iss. 11, pp.
1987–999
[7] Sheen J.N, ―Economic profitability analysis of demandside
management program‖ , Energy Conversion and Management,2005, 46,
(18–19), pp. 2919–2935
[8] Ibrahim H,Ilinca A, Perron J, ―Energy storage systems–characteristics
and comparisons‖, Renewable and Sustainable EnergyReviews, 2008,12,
(5), pp. 1221–1250
[9] Peter Kadar: ―Pumped Storage Hydro Plant model for educational
purposees‖ ICREPQ‘ 09 International Conference on Renewable Energy
and Power Qualiry; Valencia,Spain, April 15-17, 2009.
[10] P.G.Latha,S.R.Anand,Imthias Ahamed,G.Madhu,‖A Different
Approach on Pumped Storage Scheduling‖,AECT 2011,4 th National
Conference on Advanced Energy Conversion Technologies.
MIT,Manipal,India,Feb 03-05,2011
[11] Market clearance price in power exchange (www.iexindia.com)
[12] G Tobias Geschler,‖ Survey of energy storage options in Europe,
London‖ Research International Ltd, London, March 2010.
AUTHORS
First Author – N. Venkateswarlu, Department of EEE
Audisankara College of Engineering & Technology, Gudur,
Nellore Dist.
Second Author – M. Velmurugan, Department of EEE
Audisankara College of Engineering & Technology, Gudur,
Nellore Dist.
Third Author – S.Udaya Baskar, Department of EEE
Audisankara College of Engineering & Technology, Gudur,
Nellore Dist.
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Tamil Speech Recognition using Semi Continuous Models
Abstract- In this paper novel approach for implementing Tamil
Language Semi continuous speech recognition based on Hidden
Markov Models is discussed. Tamil and other Indian languages
share phonological features which are rich in vowel and
consonant realizations. The same phone in different words has
different realizations. This can be overcome by employing
phone-in-context. Therefore triphone models were chosen as
suitable sub-word units for acoustic training. The system is
trained with speech corpus of 37 Tamil phones. Speech corpus
consisted of 0.35 hours of speech. Training was done using
Carnegie Mellon University (CMU)‘s SphinxTrain acoustic
model Trainer. Accuracy of the training is measured by decoding
using PocketSphinx.
Index Terms- Speech Recognition, Tamil Phones, Acoustic
Model, Hidden Markov Model, Training
S
I. INTRODUCTION
peech is human‘s most efficient mode of communication and
is an alternative to traditional methods of interaction with a
computer. Beyond efficiency, humans are comfortable and
familiar with speech as it is the natural mode of communication.
Tamil is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly in the state
of Tamilnadu in India and Sri Lanka. It is the official language of
the Indian state of Tamilnadu and also has official status in Sri
Lanka and Singapore [9].
II. TAMIL PHONOLOGY
Tamil phonology is characterised by the presence of
retroflex consonants and multiple rhotics[7]. Tamil phonemes are
categorized into vowels, consonants, and a secondary character,
the āytam.
A. Vowels
With respect to orthography, vowels occur in their isolated
character only in the beginning position of words. In all the other
positions, such as medial and final positions, they are realized in
the form of a secondary symbol.
TABLE I: Tamil Vowels [5,8]
S. No Vowel VL VH VF LR
1. அ s l b -
2. ஆ l l b -
3. இ s h f -
4. ஈ l h f -
Hanitha Gnanathesigar
Informatics Institute of Technology, Sri Lanka,
5. உ s h b +
6. ஊ l h c +
7. ஋ s m f -
8. ஌ d c - -
9. ஍ d c - -
10. எ s m b +
11. ஏ l m c +
12. ஐ d c - +
VL Vowel Length (s)hort, (l)ong, (d)ipthong, sc(h)wa,
(g)eminate
VH Vowel Height (h)igh, (m)id, (l)ow, (c)losing, (o)pening
VF Vowel Frontness front, mid, back
LR Lip Rounding (+) Yes, (-) No
B. Consonants
There are 18 consonants in Tamil Language.
஑ ஓ ட ஡ த ந
ஒ ஞ ஠ ஢ ஥ ண
஦ ஧ ன ஬ ஫ ப
However depending on the context certain consonants are
pronounced differently increasing the number of consonant
phonemes to 25. Nasal consonants ஢, ண, ஠, ஒ and ஥ are
pronounced variously based on the environment in which they
occur. The consonants with which these nasals occur include ஡,
த ட and ஑.
க is pronounced 'g' after nasal consonants.
Eg: அங்க஑
க is pronounced 'h' between vowels and after ர் and ய்.
Eg: த஑ல், ஊர்஑ள்
க is pronounced 'k' in word initial position and in clusters
Eg: ஑ர஧
ச is pronounced 's' between vowels and optionally in word initial
position
Eg: ஆரஓ, சஓவ்஬ாய்
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 66
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ஓ is pronounced 'ch' in word initial position and in clusters
Eg: சஓவ்஬ாய், தச்ரஓ
ஓ is pronounced 'j' after nasal consonants
Eg: தஞ்சு
ட is pronounced D after nasal consonants and between vowels
Eg: ஑஧ண்டி, ஏடம்
ட is pronounced t in word initial position and in clusters
Eg: ட஥ா஧ம், தட்டு
஡ is pronounced dh after nasal consonants and between vowel
Eg: தந்து, அது
஡ is pronounced th in word initial position and in clusters
Eg: ஡஥ிழ். தத்து
த is pronounced b after nasal consonants and between vowels
Eg: ஡ம்தி, அதா஦ம்
த is pronounced p in word initial position and in clusters
Eg: தடி, அப்தா
TABLE II
Tamil Consonants [5,8]
S. No Consonant IPA TC PA CV
1. ஑ k p v -
2. ஑ g p v +
3. ஑ h f g -
4. ஒ ŋ n v +
5. ஓ tʃ f p +
6. ஓ s f a -
7. ஓ ʝ f p +
8. ஞ ɲ n p +
9. ட ʈ p r -
10. ட ɖ p r +
11. ஠ n n a +
12. ஡ t p a -
13. ஡ d p a +
14. ஢ ɳ n r +
15. த P p b -
16. த b p b +
17. ஥ m n b +
18. ஦ j m p +
19. ஧ R t u +
20. ன l m a +
21. ஬ v f l +
22. ஫ L m v +
23. ப ɭ m r +
24. ந r t a +
25. ண N n u +
TC Type of Consonant (n)asal, (p)losive, (f)ricative,
appro(x)imant, (t)rill, flap or (t)ap, late(r)al fricative, lateral
approxi(m)ant, ( l)ateral flap
PA Place of Articulation (b)ilabial, (l)abio-dental, (d)ental,
(a)lveolar, p(o)st-alveolar, (r)etroflex, (p)alatal, (v)elar,
(u)vular, p(h)aryngeal, (e)piglottal, (g)lottal
CV Consonant Voicing (+) Yes, (-) No, NA Not Applicable
S.
No
TABLE III
Tamil Phonemes
ARPABET IPA Tamil
1. AH ʌ அ - அம்஥ா
2. AA aː ஆ - ஆம்
3.
4.
IH ɪ இ - இது
IY i ஈ - ஈ
5. UH ʊ உ - உன஑ம்
6. UW uː ஊ - ஊர்
7. EH ɛ ஋ - ஋ண்தது
8. EY əɪ ஌ - ஌ற்நம்
9. AY aɪ ஍ - ஍க஦ா
10. AO ɔ எ - எரு
11. OH ɔː ஏ - ஏடு
12. AW aʊ ஐ
13. K k ஑ - அக்஑ா
14. G g ஑ - அங்க஑
15. HH h ஑ - த஑ல்
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16. NG ŋ ஒ - அங்க஑
17. CH tʃ ஓ - தச்ரஓ
18. S s ஓ - ஆரஓ
19. J ʝ ஓ - தஞ்சு
20. NC ɲ ஞ - தஞ்சு
21. T ʈ ட - தாட்டு
22. D ɖ ட - ஢ாடு
23. NX n ஠ - ஑ண்
24. TH t̪ ஡ - தத்து
25. DH d̪ ஡ - அது
26. NH ɳ ஢ - தந்து
27. P P த - தத்து
28. B b த - க஑ாதம்
29. M m ஥ - ஥ரன
30. Y j ஦ - ச஑ாய்஦ா
31. RR R ஧ - ஑ர஧
32. L l ன - தல்
33. V v ஬ - சஓவ்஬ாய்
34. Z L ஫ - ஡஥ிழ்
35. LL ɭ ப - ஑டவுள்
36. R r ந - ஑ரந
37. N N ண - ஢ான்
III. CHOICE OF SUB-WORD UNIT FOR TRAINING
The number of words in Tamil is around 3 lakhs (approx.).
Hence maintaining a large vocabulary is also difficult when the
system needs to use Tamil[10]. For a language with large
vocabulary like Tamil, training all the words adequately is
problematic. Also memory requirement grows linearly with
number of words. A syllable is a larger unit than a phone since it
encompasses two or more phone clusters. These phone clusters
account for the severe contextual effects. Tests on measuring
accuracy of syllable-based Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR)
reveals that the baseline results were much higher than
monophone ASR and slightly worse than fine-tuned triphone
ASR[2]. For both the phone and word recognition, triphone
model reduced word error rate (WER) by about 50% [11]. In this
scenario, when the vocabulary is high and speakers are limited,
triphone based model is suitable.
IV. TRAINING
Hidden Markov Model based system, like all other speech
recognition systems, functions by first learning the characteristics
(or parameters) of a set of sound units, and then using what it has
learned about the units to find the most probable sequence of
sound units for a given speech signal. The process of learning
about the sound units is called training. Acoustic models for
Tamil language is created using SphinxTrain. SphinxTrain is
CMU‘s open source acoustic model trainer[6]. It consists of a set
of programs, each responsible for a well defined task and a set of
scripts that organizes the order in which the programs are called.
A. Transcript File
The trainer also needs to be told which sound units you want
it to learn the parameters of, and at least the sequence in which
they occur in every speech signal in your training database. This
information is provided to the trainer through transcript file. In
this the sequence of words and non-speech sounds are written
exactly as they occurred in a speech signal, followed by a tag
which can be used to associate this sequence with the
corresponding speech signal.
UTAVIYI KAADCHIPADUTTUVATIL TAVARU
(utt13)
KURAL KADDUPAATTU URUPADI PEECINAAL
MEELMEESIYI KADDUPADUTTA UTAVUM (utt14)
B. Control File
This file consists of name of each audio file used for training.
utt1
utt2
utt3
utt4
C. Dictionary Files
This file maps every word to a sequence of sound units, to
derive the sequence of sound units associated with each signal.
There are two dictionaries. One in which legitimate words in the
language are mapped sequences of sound units and another in
which non-speech sounds are mapped to corresponding nonspeech
or speech-like sound units. Former is the language
dictionary and the latter filler dictionary.
AAYATTAM AA Y AH TH TH AH M
ADIVU AH D AY V UH
ADUTTA AH D UH TH TH AH
SIL
SIL
SIL
D. Phone List
This tells the trainer what phones are part of the training set. It
is made by listing all the above identified ARPABET phones
without duplicates and arranged alphabetically.
AA
AH
AO
AY
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E. Language Model
Statistical tri-gram language models were built using the Sphinx
Knowledge Base Tool for a corpus of 334 sentences and 85
unique words.
F. Development of speech Corpus
Contemporary speech recognition systems derive their power
from corpus based statistical modeling, both at the acoustic and
language levels. Corpus is a large collection of written or spoken
texts available in machine readable form accumulated in
scientific way to represent a particular variety or use of a
language [4]. It serves as an authentic data for linguistic and
other related studies. Statistical modeling, of course, presupposes
that sufficiently large corpora are available for training. For
Tamil language such corpora, particularly acoustic ones, are not
immediately available for processing[3]. Therefore necessary
speech corpora are developed in-house. All the utterances of the
transcript files are recorded and corpus is developed based on
following parameters.
TABLE IV
Speech Corpus Parameters
Parameter Value
File Type mswav
File Extension Wav
Sampling Rate 16 kHz
Depth 16 bits
Mono/Stereo Mono
Feature File Extension mfc
Vector Length 13
G. Training of acoustic models with sphinxTrain
It consists of following steps [6].
1. Flat-start monophone training: Generation of monophone seed
models with nominal values, and re-estimation of these models
using reference transcriptions. This is also called flat
initialization of CI model parameters.
2. Baum-Welch training of monophones: Adjustment of the
silence model and re-estimation of single-Gaussian monophones
using the standard Viterbi alignment process.
3. Triphone creation: Creation of triphone transcriptions from
monophone transcriptions and initial triphone training. This step
creates CD untied model files and flat initialization of model
files.
4. Training CD untied models: Again the Baum-Welch algorithm
is iteratively used. This takes 6 – 10 iterations.
5. Building decision trees and parameter sharing: A group of
similar states is called a senone. Senone is also called as a tied
state. Then the senones are trained.
6. Mixture generation: Split single Gaussian distributions into
mixture distributions using an iterative divide-by-two clustering
algorithm and re-estimation of triphone models with mixture
distributions.
H. Decoding
PocketSphinx, CMU‘s fastest speech recognition system is
used to for decoding. It‘s a library written in pure C which is
optimal for development of C applications as well as for
development of language bindings. At real time speed it‘s the
most accurate engine, and therefore it is a good choice for live
applications. Also it includes support for embedded devices with
fixed-point arithmetic. This is built on top of Sphinx3[1]. The
results are tabulated in the following table.
Type of
Data
Trained
Corpus
Test
corpus
Trained
Corpus
Test
Corpus
TABLE V
Results – Error Rate
Hours of No. of Sentence Word
Training Segmen Error Error
ts Rate Rate
0.17 (10 167 81.4% 89.9%
min)
(136/167) (283/316)
0.17 (10 133 97.7% 100.4%
min)
(130/133) (252/251)
0.35 (21 334 1.8% 0.9%
min)
(6/334) (6/632)
0.35 (21 7 57.1(4/7) 46.1%(11
min)
/26)
I. Results
Word error rate (WER) is calculated as
S D I
WER
N
where
S is the number of substitutions,
D is the number of the deletions,
I is the number of the insertions,
N is the number of words in the reference.
Word accuracy (WAcc) is calculated as
N S D I
WAcc 1
WER
N
TABLE VII
Results – Word Accuracy
Type of Hours of No. of Word
Data Training Segments Accuracy Rate
Trained
Corpus
0.17 (10 min) 167 10.1%
Test
corpus
0.17 (10 min) 133 -0.4%
Trained 0.35 (21 min) 334 99.1%
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 69
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Corpus
Test
Corpus
0.35 (21 min) 7 53.9%
V. CONCLUSION
37 phonemes are identified in Tamil Language. Of which 12
are vowels and 25 consonants. Acoustic model training for semi
continuous models was performed using SphinxTrain. Results of
the Decoding carried out by PocketSphinx shows that the
accuracy was higher for trained corpus in compare to test corpus.
Though only little amount of Training was performed it is
observed that accuracy improved tremendously with increased
training.
REFERENCES
[1] Carnegie Mellon University, (2010). Pocketsphinx. [Online] Available
from: http://cmusphinx.sourceforge.net/wiki/versions [Accessed 16 January
2011].
[2] Hejtmánek, J. A. P., T., (2008). Automatic speech recognition using
context-dependent syllables. 9th International PhD Workshop on Systems
and Control: Young Generation Viewpoint. Izola, Slovenia.
[3] Ganesh, K. M., Subramanian, S.(2002). Interactive Speech Translation in
Tamil. College of
Technology, Peelamedu.
[4] Ganesan, M. (n.d). Tamil Corpus Generation and Text Analysis. Annamalai
University
[5] IPA, (2005). ―The International Phonetic Association (revised to 2005) IPA
Chart.‖ [Online]. Available:
http://www.langsci.ucl.ac.uk/ipa/IPA_chart_(C)2005.pdf
[6] Singh, R. (2000). SphinxTrain Documentation [Online]. Available at
[Accessed 02
January 2011].
[7] Schiffman, Harold F.; Arokianathan, S. (1986). "Diglossic variation in
Tamil film and fiction". In Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju; Masica, Colin P..
South Asian languages: structure, convergence, and diglossia. New Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 371–382. ISBN 8120800338. at p. 371
[8] Schiffman, Harold F.; Arokianathan, S. (1999). "A reference grammar of
spoken Tamil‖ [Online]. Available
:http://books.google.com/books?id=Oqe-
QsaZnnQC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false
[9] Thangarajan, R., Nagarajan,A.M., Selvam, M., (2008). Word and triphone
based approaches in
continuous speech recognition for Tamil language. WSEAS Transactions
on signal processing, 4, 76-85.
[10] Thilak, R. A., Madharaci, R. (2004). Speech Recognizer for Tamil
Language. Tamil Internet
2004,Singapore.
[11] Lee, K., (1990). Context-Dependent Phonetic Hidden Markov Models for
Speaker-Independent Continuous Speech Recognition., Carnegie Mellon
University.
AUTHORS
Hanitha Gnanathesigar, BSc (Hons) Software Engineering,
Informatics Institute of Technology (IIT), Sri Lanka,
ghanitha@gmail.com.
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Complex Dynamics in a Mathematical Model of Tumor
Growth with Time Delays in the Cell Proliferation
M. Saleem and Tanuja Agrawal
Department of Applied Mathematics, Z. H. College of Engineering & Technology,
A.M.U, Aligarh (UP) 202002, India
Abstract- In this paper, a simple prey-predator type model for
the growth of tumor with discrete time delay in the immune
system is considered. It is assumed that the resting and hunting
cells make the immune system. The present model allows delay
effects in the growth process of the hunting cells. Qualitative and
numerical analyses for the stability of equilibriums of the model
are presented. Length of the time delay that preserves stability is
given. It is found that small delays guarantee stability at the
equilibrium level (stable focus) but the delays greater than a
critical value may produce periodic solutions through Hopf
bifurcation and larger delays may even lead to chaotic attractors.
Implications of these results are discussed.
Index Terms- tumor growth, prey-predator model, immune
system, time delay.
I
I. INTRODUCTION
t is well known that the cancer is one of the greatest killers in
the world and the control of tumor growth requires great
attention. The development of a cancerous tumor is complex and
involves interaction of many cell types. Main components of
these cells are tumor cells (or abnormal cells also known as bad
cells) and immune and healthy tissue cells (or normal cells also
known as good cells).
A tumor is a dynamic nonlinear system in which bad cells
grow, spread and eventually overwhelm good cells in the body.
The form of the dynamic nonlinear system modeling the cancer
and the class of the equations which describe such a system are
related to the scaling problem. Indeed, there are three natural
scales which are connected to different stages of the disease and
have to be identified. The first is the sub-cellular (or molecular)
scale, where one focuses on studying the alterations in the
genetic expressions of the genes contained in the nucleus of a
cell. As a result of this some special signals which are received
by the receptors on the cell surface are transmitted to the cell
nucleus. The second is the cellular scale, which is an
intermediate level between the molecular scale and the
macroscopic scale to be described in the following. The third is
the macroscopic scale, where one deals with heterogeneous
tissues. In the heterogeneous tissues, some of the layers (e.g. the
external proliferating layer, the intermediate layer and the inner
zone with necrotic cells) constituting the tumor may occur as
islands. This leads to a tumor comprising of multiple regions of
necrosis engulfed by tumor cells in a quiescent or proliferative
state [1]. In case of macroscopic scale, the main focus is on the
interaction between the tumor and normal cells (e.g., immune
cells and blood vessels) in each of the three layers. For more
details about description of the scaling problem and the passage
from one scale to another, one may refer to Bellomo et al. [1, 2].
A great research effort is being devoted to understand the
interaction between the tumor cells and the immune system.
Mathematical models using ordinary, partial, and delay
differential equations [3] play an important role in understanding
the dynamics and tracking the tumor and immune system
populations over time.
Many authors have used mathematical models to describe the
interaction among the various components of tumor
microenvironment, (see de Boer et al. [4], Goldstein et al. [5], de
Pillis et al. [6] and Kronic et al. [7]). These papers mainly deal
with immune response to tumor growth. In the last few years a
great deal of human and economical resources is devoted to
cancer research with a view to develop different control
strategies and drug therapies with main emphasis on
experimental aspects and immunology (see Aroesty et al. [8],
Eisen [9], Knolle [10], Murray [11], Adam [12], Adam and
Panetta [13], Owen and Sherrat [14], de Pillis et al. [15], Dingli
et al. [16] and Menchen et al. [17]). There are many existing
reviews of mathematical models of tumor growth and tumor
immune system interactions such as Bellomo and Preziosi [18],
Araujo and McElwain [19], Nagy [20], Byrne et al. [21],
Castiglione and Piccoli [22], Martins et al. [23], Roose et al. [24],
Chaplain [25] and Bellomo et al. [26]. Some of these reviews
follow a historical approach (Araujo and McElwain [19]) while
others focus on multi-scale modeling or on particular aspects of
tumor evolution Bellomo and Preziosi [18], Martins et al. [23]
and Bellomo et al. [26]). Recently, Bellomo et al. [27] study the
competition between tumor and immune cells modeled by a
nonlinear dynamical system which identifies the evolution of the
number of cells belonging to different interacting populations
such as tumor and immune cells at different scales namely
molecular, cellular and macroscopic. Bellomo and Delitala) [28]
have applied the methods of the classical mathematical kinetic
theory for active particles to study the immune competition with
special attention to cancer phenomena. They mainly focus on
modeling aspects of the early stage of cancer onset and
competition with the immune system.
Several authors have used the concept of prey-predator type
interactions in tumor studies where in general the immune cells
play the role of predator and the tumor cells that of prey (see
Kuznetsov et al. [29], Kirschner and Panetta [30], Sarkar and
Banerjee [31], and El-Gohary [32]). These are mainly ordinary
differential equation models which certainly provide a simpler
framework within which to explore the interactions among tumor
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cells and the different types of immune and healthy tissue cells.
Kuznetsov et al. [29] study nonlinear dynamics of immunogenic
tumors with emphasis on parameter estimation and global
bifurcation analysis. Immunotherapy of tumor-immune
interaction has been studied by Kirschner and Panetta [30]. They
indicated that the dynamics between tumor cells, immune cells,
and IL-2 can explain both short-term oscillations in tumor size as
well as long-term tumor relapse. Sarkar and Banerjee [31]
discuss self-remission and tumor stability by taking stochastic
approach.
The delay differential equations have long been used in
modeling cancer phenomena [33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39]. Byrne
[40] considers the effect of time delay on the dynamics of
avascular tumor growth by incorporating a time-delayed factor
into the net proliferation rate of the cells. Buric et al. [41]
consider the effects of time delay on the two-dimensional system
which represents the basic model of the immune response. They
study variations of the stability of the fixed points due to time
delay and the possibility for the occurrence of the chaotic
solutions. Recently Fory‘s and Kolev [42] propose and study the
role of time delay in solid avascular tumor growth. They study a
delay model in terms of a reaction-diffusion equation and mass
conservation law. Two main processes are taken into account i.e.
proliferation and apoptosis. Galach [43] studies a simplified
version of the Kuznetsov-Taylor model where immune reactions
are described by a bilinear term with time delay. Yafia [44]
analyzes an interaction between the proliferating and quiescent
cells tumor with a single delay. He shows the occurrence of Hopf
bifurcation as the delay crosses some critical value.
Recently, El-Gohary [32] studied a cancer selfremission
and tumor system and provided optimal control
strategies that made its unstable steady states asymptotically
stable. In the present paper, we introducing a model with
constant time delay T in the growth rate of the hunting cells of
the immune system. This model while on one hand incorporates
certain thresholds which may be helpful to control the tumor cell
growth; on the other hand it hints at the complex dynamics that a
tumor may have. It may be mentioned here that by representing
tumor growth with ordinary differential equations we indeed
operate in the present study at the super-macroscopic scale while
the link with the lower cellular scale is represented by the delay.
Of course, we do not consider heterogeneity, mutations and link
with the lower molecular scale in the present paper (for details
one may see [27, 28, 45, 46]).
II. THE MODEL AND EQUILIBRIUM SOLUTIONS
In this paper, we shall study the dynamical behaviors of a
simple prey-predator type model for the growth of tumor with
discrete time delay in the immune system. We are assuming
that there is a constant time delay since the time resting cells
give signal to hunting cells for activation and the mature
hunting cells are ready to kill the tumor cells. More
specifically, we incorporate the growth term in equation (2.1b)
by . The model developed consists of
the following three equations:
(2.1)
In (2.1), different variables and parameters have the following
interpretations:
, , : Densities of tumor cells, hunting predator cells and
resting cells at time
: Growth rate of tumor cells
: Rate of killing of tumor cells by hunting cells
: Specific loss rates of the tumor cells
:Conversion rate of the resting cells to hunting predator cells
: Specific loss rates of the hunting predator cells
: Rate of killing of hunting predator cells by tumor cells
: Growth rate of resting cells
:Conversion rate of the resting cells to hunting predator cells
: Specific loss rates of the resting cells
: Rate of killing of resting cells by tumor cells
Equating the right hand side of (2.1) to zero the following
equilibrium points can be obtained.
1. The first equilibrium state is given by
2. The second equilibrium state is given by
, always exist
We can easily observe that this equilibrium state is positive if
and therefore it will be biologically feasible if
this condition is satisfied.
3. The first equilibrium state is given by
where
,
and
where
Let
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 72
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If
Under the biologically feasible conditions as
and (2.2)
III. LINEAR STABILITY ANALYSIS
3.1 Stability with delay (i.e. )
Assuming small deviations around the equilibrium
such that , the linearized system
of the model (2.1) becomes
(3.1)
In the case of a positive delay , the characteristic
equation for this system can be written as
where
such that
and
(3.2)
Now substituting (where is positive) in equation (3.2)
and separating the real and imaginary parts, we obtain the
following system of transcendental equations
(3.3)
(3.4)
Squaring and adding (3.3) and (3.4), we get
which can be simplified to
where
Equation (3.5) can be written as a cubic
with .
(3.5)
(3.6)
For parameter values such that is positive, the simplest
assumption that (3.6) will have a unique positive root is
. Since is positive, it requires that
for to be negative. Hence, it can be said that
there is a unique positive root say of (3.6). Denoting
, it follows that the characteristic equation (3.2) has a
pair of purely imaginary roots of the form . Eliminating
from (3.3) and (3.4), we get
Then corresponding to is given by
Since is stable for , it implies from Freedman and
Rao[47] that remains stable for .
3.2 Estimation of the length of delay to preserve stability
(3.7)
Let us consider the system (2.1). Taking the Laplace transform
of this system, we get
,
where
.
Following lines of Erbe et al. [48] and using the Nyquist criterion
(Freedman and Rao[47]), it can be shown that the sufficient
conditions for the local asymptotic stability of
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 73
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are given by
(3.8)
(3.9)
where
and is the smallest positive root of (3.8).
Inequality (3.8) and the equation (3.9) can alternatively be
written as
(3.10)
(3.11)
Now if equations (3.10) and (3.11) are satisfied simultaneously,
they are sufficient conditions to guarantee stability. These are
now used to get an estimate to the length of the time delay. The
aim is to find an upper bound to , independent of , from
(3.11) and then to estimate so that (3.10) holds true for all
values of such that and hence, in particular, at
.
Equation (3.11) is rewritten as
Maximizing the right hand side of (3.12)
Subject to
we obtain
Hence if
then clearly from (3.13) we have .
From (3.10) we obtain
(3.12)
(3.13)
. (3.14)
Since is locally asymptotically stable for
the inequality (3.14) will continue to hold for sufficiently
small . Using (3.12), (3.14) can be rearranged as
(3.15)
Using the bounds
and
we obtain from (3.14)
where
Hence, if
then for the Nyquist criterion holds true and
estimates the maximum length of the delay preserving the
stability.
IV. NUMERICAL SIMULATION
The purpose of this section is to illustrate dynamics of the
model (2.1) numerically with variation in the delayed responses
of the immune system. For this purpose we consider the
following set of parameters
which satisfies the biologically feasible conditions. For this set,
the positive equilibrium of the model (2.1) is
. It can be seen that for these
parameter values the coefficients of the cubic (3.6) are such that
and . It guarantees that the cubic (3.6) has a
unique positive root. It turns out from (3.7) that and
the stability result of section 2 yields that the positive equilibrium
of model (2.1) is stable for such that . For
, Figure 1 illustrates the approach of the trajectory of
the model (2.1) to the equilibrium .
resting predator cells
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
4
3
2
hunting predator cells
1
0
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
tumor cells
Figure 1: Three-dimensional phase portrait depicting stable
dynamics of the model (2.1) for . The trajectory spirals
and approaches to starting from the initial
point .
Indeed the existence of as unique root of (3.5) implies
that there exists a pair of pure imaginary eigen values that
satisfies the characteristic equation (3.2) corresponding to the
delay value . It thus follows that as increases from zero and
,
.
1.2
1.4
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 74
ISSN 2250-3153
crosses a Hopf bifurcation occurs meaning thereby an
initiation of periodic solution(s). One such periodic solution
(limit cycle) of the model (2.1) is shown to exist for in
Figure 2.
resting predator cells
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
4
3
2
hunting predator cells
1
0
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
tumor cells
Figure 2: Limit cycle solution of the model (2.1) for
starting from the initial point .
It has been well known from ecological model results
(McDonald [50], Cushing [51], May [52]), especially for models
with prey-predator type interactions, that while small delays help
stability large delays in the growth response of the species may
cause instability. In order to check if such possibility of
instability of equilibrium occurs for this model also, we
integrated model (2.1) numerically for large values of delay . It
has been quite interesting to note that for large values of delay ,
model (2.1) showed irregular pattern in time series for each cell
population. The fact that these irregular patterns are indeed
chaotic in nature giving rise to chaotic attractors is confirmed by
the sensitivity of the solutions to initial conditions. We present
here only two illustrations of chaotic attractors for and
in Figures 3 and 4 respectively.
populations
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
( a )
-1
0 100 200 300 400 500
time
600 700 800 900 1000
1.2
tumor cells
hunting predator cells
resting predator cells
1.4
resting predator cells
hunting predator cells
resting predator cells
-0.5
8
tumor cells
1
0.5
0
6
4
hunting predator cells
2
1
2
0
0
( b )
( c )
0.5
tumor cells
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
10
5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
1
0
-1
0 100 200 300 400 500
time
600 700 800 900 1000
Figure 3: (a) Time series solution of the model (2.1) for
(b) Corresponding chaotic attractor in the phase space (c)
Sensitivity of solution to initial conditions:
for both types of curves but for solid curve (i.e. on the
attractor) and for dashed curve.
populations
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
( a )
-1
0 100 200 300 400 500
time
600 700 800 900 1000
1
tumor cells
hunting predator cells
resting predator cells
1.5
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 75
ISSN 2250-3153
resting predator cells
tumor cells
resting predator cells
hunting predator cells
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
10
5
hunting predator cells
0
-5
0
( b )
0.5
tumor cells
( c )
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
1
0.5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
time
600 700 800 900 1000
Figure 4: (a) Time series solution of the model (2.1) for
(b) Corresponding chaotic attractor in the phase space (c)
Sensitivity of solution to initial conditions:
for both types of curves but for solid curve and
for dashed curve.
V. CONCLUSION
The response of the tumor diseases to treatment depends
upon many factors including the severity of the tumor, the
application of the treatment and most importantly the patient‘s
immune response. Tumor cells are characterized by a vast
number of genetic and epigenetic events leading to the
appearance of specific antigens called neo antigens triggering
antitumor activity by the immune system (Gohary [53],
d‘Onofrio [54]). Though this paper does not deal directly with
any external treatment of the tumor but of course it focuses on
the indirect treatment aspects of the disease by looking into the
role of the immune system if it does not get triggered
immediately but shows delayed responses. With this in mind, we
modify the model of El-Gohary [32] to incorporate time delayed
responses of the immune system through the growth mechanism
of the hunting cells and some other terms. It is assumed that
hunting cells do not respond to killing of tumor cells as soon as
they get signal from resting cells but they get activated after a
constant time delay . As has been mentioned in the
introduction, the model of this paper represents a link between
the super-macro scale (in terms of ordinary differential
equations) and the lower cellular scale (in terms of delay).
The dynamics and the stability results of the model show three
main patterns of solutions: (i) stable equilibrium (ii) limit cycle
1
1.5
solution (iii) chaotic attractor. More specifically, it is found that
when hunting cells are either all time-alert ( or alert
enough ( all three cell populations approach to
equilibrium values and the tumor can be said to be nonmalignant.
For averagely-alert hunting cells (i.e. when or slightly
greater than ), all the three cell populations may coexist in a
limit cycle or periodic solution. In this case, the tumor can be
termed as mildly malignant. The existence of periodic solutions
is relevant in cancer models. It implies that the tumor levels may
oscillate around a fixed point even in the absence of any
treatment. Such a phenomenon, known as Jeff‘s phenomenon or
self-regression of tumor [49], has been observed clinically. When
the hunting cells play too lethargic in their response to killing of
tumor cells (i.e. when is large enough), all the three cell
populations may grow in an irregular fashion with time leading
to chaotic attractors. This is indeed the case when the tumor can
be said to be malignant and it is the case where a serious
treatment strategy is required because of continuously changing
density of tumor cells all the time.
It is well known from ecological-model results that large
delays cause instability of equilibriums. Thus one can say that
the results of the present model are on the known lines but we
feel that instability in the form of chaotic attractors in cancer
modeling is quite an interesting observation of this study linking
super macro scale to lower cellular scale. The allowable time
delay for activation of the immune system and the estimation of
the length of delay to preserve stability may be the two important
parameters that may help decide the mode of action for
controlling the disease.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author MS acknowledges the financial support of
the UGC, New Delhi for this work under the Project No. 37-
483/2009(SR).
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AUTHORS
First Author – M. Saleem, PhD and Email:
saleemmd60@gmail.com
Second Author – Tanuja Agrawal, MPhil and email:
tanu.18aug@gmail.com
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 77
ISSN 2250-3153
Fuzzy Spanning Tree Flow-Equivalent Algorithm
Dr. G.Nirmala, K.Uma
Associate Professor in Mathematics, K.N.G.A. College (Women), Thanjavur, India
Associate Professor in Mathematics, A.V.V.M. Sri Pushpam College, Poondi, Thanjavur, India
Abstract- By introducing, the new concept fuzzy edge cut-set,
multiple sources and sinks of fuzzy graphs and with arc and
vertex capacities of fuzzy graphs , simple variations of the
maximal flow problem is introduced. A maximum flow matrix is
constructed by a spanning tree using vertex condensation
process. Also, in this paper a fuzzy spanning tree with
maximum flow is constructed, which is equivalent to an
undirected graph by algorithmic representation. In general, the
flow equivalent fuzzy tree is not unique.
Index Terms- Fuzzy Edge cut-sets- arc and vertex capacity-
Fuzzy equivalent-flow.
T
I. INTRODUCTION
he purpose of a network is to implement a flow of water, oil,
electricity, traffic, or whatever the network is designed to
carry. Mathematically, a flow in a network N is a function that
assigns to each edge (i, j) of N a nonnegative number fij that does
not exceed arc capacities qij. Intuitively, fij represents the amount
of flow passing through the edge (i, j) when the flow is f.
Informally, we refer to fij as the flow through edge (i ,j) . We also
require that for each node other than the source and sink, the sum
of the fkj on edges leaving node k. This means that flow cannot
accumulate, be created, dissipate, or be lost any node other than
the source or the sink. This is called conservation of flow. A
consequence of this requirement is that the sum of the flows
entering the sink. This sum is called the value of the flow.
In some cases, for example in the case where the graph
represents a telephone network with vertices corresponding to
stations and the arcs corresponding to the telephone cables, what
may be required is the maximum rate of communication between
any two stations s and t, assuming that only a single pair of
stations can communicate with each other at any one time. In this
example the capacity of a cable is the number of independent
calls that can be routed through it. A similar situation exists in
the case where the graph represents a road network and where,
say, a system of one-way streets is proposed. What is then
required is to determine how then one-way streets affects the
maximum rate of traffic flow between any two areas, when those
areas are considered in isolation. This problem could be solved
by simply considering the (s to t) maximum flow problem for
every pair of vertices (s,t).
II. DEFINITIONS
Definition 2.1. A fuzzy graph with V as the underlying set is a
pair G: (A, Γ) where A: V [0,1] is a fuzzy subset, Γ :
VxV [0,1] is a fuzzy relation on the fuzzy subset A, such
that Γ(u,v) ≤ A(u) ∩ A(v) for all u,v є V.
Definition 2.2. A flow of a fuzzy graph f is an assignment of an
integer value f (e) to each edge e that satisfies the following
properties:
Capacity Rule: For each edge e, 0 ≤ f (e) ≤ q(e)
Conservation Rule: For each vertex v ≠ s,t
∑ f(e) = ∑ f(e)
e є Γ + (v) e є Γ - (v)
Where, Γ - (v) and Γ +(v) are the incoming and outgoing arcs of
v, respectively. The value of a flow f, denoted |f|, is the total flow
from the source, which is the same as the total flow into the sink.
Definition 2.3. A flow of a fuzzy graph N is said to be
maximum if its value is the largest of all flows for N.
--2--
Definition 2.4. If the vertices of a undirected fuzzy graph G=(A,
Γ) are partitioned into two sets A0 and Ã0 (where A0 C A and
Ã0 is the complement of A0 in A), then the set of links of fuzzy
graph G whose terminal vertices lie one in A0 and the other in
Ã0, is called a edge cut-set of fuzzy graph G. The set of links in
the cut-set can be represented by the vertex set doublet (A0 ,Ã0).
Definition 2.5. Consider a fuzzy graph G = (A, Γ) , with s and t
being of G chosen at random. Let us say that (A0 ,Ã0) is the
minimum cut-set corresponding to this maximum flow and
consider two vertices xi and xj which are both in A0(or both in
Ã0).If we now wish to find fij, the maximum flow from xi to xj,
then all vertices of Ã0 ( or A0 if xi and xj єÃ0) may be
―condensed ― into a single vertex xc, say, as far as this flow
calculation is concerned. The condensation is such that links
(xa,xb), xaє A0 and xb є Ã0 are replaced by links (xa,xc), and
any parallel links between the same pair of vertices (which may
result) are replaced by a single link of capacity equal to the sum
of the capacities of the parallel links. Figures 2.1(a), 2.1(b) and
2.1(c) illustrate the Fuzzy Vertex Condensation process.
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Minimum (s to t) cut-set
Link capacity
Fig 2.1(a)
Fig.2.1(b): Fuzzy vertex condensation for xi to xj flow calculation
Fig. 2.1(c): Condensed Fuzzy graph
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III. FUZZY GRAPHS WITH MULTIPLE SOURCES AND
SINKS
Consider a fuzzy graph with Ns sink vertices and assume that
flow can go from any sources to any sink. The problem of
finding the maximum
total flow from all the
sources to all the sinks can be converted to the simple (s to t)
maximum flow problem by adding a new artificial source vertex
s and a new artificial sink vertex t with added arcs leading from s
to each of the real source vertices and from every real sink to t.
Fig. 3.1
The above figure shows how multiple sources and sinks can be reduced to a single source and a single sink.
3.1 Fuzzy Graphs With Arc and Vertex Capacities
For a fuzzy graph G let the arcs have capacities qij, and in
addition let the vertices have capacities wj, say(j=1,2,3….n) so
that the total flow entering vertes xj must have a value less than
wj.
(ie) ∑ ξij ≤ wj for all xj
Let the maximum flow between vertices s and t for such a fuzzy
graph be required. Let us define a fuzzy graph G0 so that every
vertex xj of fuzzy graph G corresponds to two vertices xj + and xj
– in the fuzzy graph G0 , in such a way so that for every arc
(xi,xj) of G incident at xj corresponds an arc (xi - ,xj + ) of G0
incident at xj +, and for every arc (xi,xj) of G emanating from xj
corresponds an arc (xi - ,xj + ) of G0 emanating from xj - . moreover
, we introduce an arc between xj + and xj - of capacity wj , (ie)
equal to the capacity of vertex xj.
EXAMPLE- 3.1
Fig 3. 2: Fuzzy graph with both vertex and arc capacities
Fig. 3.3: Equivalent fuzzy graph with arc capacities only.
Since, the total flow entering a vertex xi + must, by necessity,
travel along the arc (xi + ,xj - ) whose capacity is wj, the maximum
flow in the fuzzy graph G with vertex capacities , is equal to the
maximum flow in the graph G0 which has only arc capacities.
Remark: 3.1
If the minimum edge cut-set of G0 does not contain arcs of the
form (xi + ,xj - ), then the vertex capacities in G are inactive and
superfluous;
If on the other hand the minimum edge cut-set of G0 contains
arcs of the form (xi + ,xj - ), then the corresponding vertices of G are
saturated by the maximum flow solution
3.2. Fuzzy Spanning Tree Algorithm
The algorithm that is given in this section generates a tree T*
which is flow-equivalent to the undirected fuzzy graph G. The
maximum flow fij between two vertices xi and xj of the fuzzy
graph G can then be found from this tree as:
fij = min [q̕ik1, q̕k1k2, q̕k2k3,……………… q̕kpj]--------------- (3.1)
where (x̕i, x̕k1 , x̕k2, ……………, x̕j) is the unique path along links
of T* which leads from x̕I to x̕j. Every vertex x̕k of T*
corresponds to a vertex xk of G and q̕kl is the capacity of link (x̕k
, x̕l) of T*. Since the algorithm generated T* gradually and since
at any one of the (n-1) stages of the algorithm the ―vertices ― of
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T* may in fact be sets composed of vertices of G, we will, in
order to avoid confusion , refer to the vertices of G as G –vertices
and to the vertices of T* as T*-vertices.
Step 1: Set a set δ1 = A, N= 1. At any stage, T* is the graph
defined by N T*-vertices δ1, δ2,……….., δN each one of which
corresponds to a set of G- vertices. T* is initialized to be the
single vertex δ1 .
Step 2: Find a set δ* є { δ1, δ2,……… δN} which contains more
than one G-vertex in it. If none exist go to step 6, otherwise go to
step 3.
Step 3: If δ* were to be removed from T*, the fuzzy tree
would in general be reduced to a number of fuzzy sub-trees
(connected components).Condense the T*-vertices in each subtree
into single vertices to form the condensed fuzzy graph. Take
any two vertices xi and xj є δ* and calculate the minimum
cut-set (A0 ,Ã0) of G separating xi from xj by doing an ( xi to xj)
maximum flow calculation.
Step 4: Remove the T*-vertex δ* together with its incident links
from T*, and replace it by two T*-vertices composed of the Gvertex
sets δ*∩A0 and δ*∩ Ã0 , and a link of capacity v(A0,Ã0)
between them. Also, for all T*-vertices δi which were incident on
before the replacement, add the link (δi , δ*∩ A0 ) to T* if
δi ⊂ A0; or add the link (δi , δ*∩ Ã0 ) to T* if δi ⊂ Ã0. The
capacities of the links being taken as ci o (link of capacity)
regardless of which one is added.
Step 5: Set N=N+1. The vertices of T* are now the sets of Gvertices
δ1, δ2,……, δ*∩ A0, δ*∩ Ã0, … δN where δ* has been
replaced by the two T*-vertices δ*∩ A0 and δ*∩ Ã0 as explained
earlier. Go to step 2.
Step 6: Stop. T* is the required flow-equivalent tree of G and its
T*-vertices are now single G-vertices. The link capacities of T*
corresponds to the values of the (n-1) independent cut-sets of G.
equations (3.1) can then be used to calculate the fij ( for any xi, xj
є A), directly from T*.
EXAMPLE: 3.2
Consider an undirected fuzzy graph G shown in figure 3.2 where the link capacities are shown next to the links. It is required to find
the maximum flow between every pair of vertices of G.
From the above algorithm we get.
Step 1: δ1= {x1, x2, x3, x4, x5, x6 } ; N=1
Step 2: δ* = δ1
Fig. 3.2: Fuzzy graph.
Step 3: The fuzzy graph cannot be condensed. Take xi= x1 and xj = x2 arbitrarily. From an (x1 to x2) maximum flow calculation we
find the minimum cut-set to be (A0 ,Ã0) where A0={ x1, x5, x6, } and Ã0 ={ x2, x3, x4}, the value of the cut-set being 0.52.
Step 4: The fuzzy tree T* and its link capacities are now shown in figure 3.2(a)
Step 5: N=2 (i.e. T* now has 2 vertices δ1 and δ2 as shown in figure 3.2(a)).
Similarly, proceeding to step 2 and continuing the process till δ* = δ3 we get the following figure:-
{X1,X5,X6} {X2,X3,X4}
Fig. 3.2(a): T* after the first stage
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Fig.3.2 (b and d): The condensed fuzzy graph after the 2 nd (b) and 3 rd stages (d)
Fig .3.2(c): T* after the 2 nd stage
Fig .3.2(e) : T* after the 3 rd stage
Fig .3.2(f and h): The condensed fuzzy graph after the 4 th (f) and 5 th (h) stages
Fig. 3.2(g): T* after the 4 th stage
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Fig. 3.2(i): Final flow – equivalent fuzzy tree T*
Continuing in the same way and taking δ* = δ1 next, the development of the flow-equivalent fuzzy tree is illustrated above. Also, the
maximum flow matrix [fij] of the original fuzzy graph can be calculated as follows:
X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6
X1 - 0.52 0.52 0.31 0.37 0.45
X2 0.52 - 0.59 0.31 0.37 0.45
X3 0.52 0.59 - 0.31 0.37 0.45
X4 0.31 0.31 0.31 - 0.31 0.31
X5 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.31 - 0.37
X6 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.31 0.37 -
Maximum Flow Matrix
The five fuzzy cut-sets (in general n-1) of fuzzy graph G corresponding to the links of the fuzzy tree T* are shown in dotted figure 3.3
.
Fig.3.3: Cut-sets forming fuzzy tree T*
In general, the flow-equivalent fuzzy tree T* is not unique. One such fuzzy tree is shown in following Figure 3.4.
Fig. 3.4: Another flow-equivalent fuzzy tree
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IV. CONCLUSION
Using fuzzy graphs with multiple sources and sinks, and with
arc and vertex capacities we can construct a fuzzy spanning tree
with maximum flow using condensation process which is flow
equivalent to an undirected graph by algorithmic representation.
The paper concludes that the flow equivalent fuzzy tree is not
unique.
REFERENCES
[1] L.S. Bershtein, Т.А. Dziouba (2000). Allocation of maximal bipartite part
from fuzzy graph. In Proceedings of European Symposium on Intelligent
Techniques ESIT‟2000, pages 45-47,full version on CD, Aachen, Germany,
2000.
[2] N. Christofides (1975). Graph theory. An algorithmic approach. London,
Academic press.
[3] G. Frank, I. Frish (1978). Networks, connection and flows. Moscow,
translation from English.
[4] H.J.Zimmermann (1991).Fuzzy Set Theory and Its Applications (2 nd
edition). Boston/Dordrecht/London,Kluwer Academic Publishers.
[5] Berge C., 1989, Hypergraphs, Amsterdam, North-Holland.
[6] Bershtein L.S.,Dziouba T.A.,1998,Construction of the optimal bipartite part
in the fuzzy graph,Proceedings of IT&SE.98,Yalta, Ukraine.
[7] Dubois, D., Prade H., 1980, Fuzzy Sets and Systems: Theory and
Applications, Academic Press, London.
[8] Kaufmann, Arnold, 1977, Introduction a la theorie des sous-ensemles flous,
Masson, Paris, France.
[9] Volkmann L., 1991, Graphen und Digraphen: eine Einfuehrung in die
Graphentheorie, Wien; New York: Springer.
[10] [Zadeh, Lotfi, 1975, Fuzzy sets and their application to cognitive and
decision, Academic Press, New York, USA.
AUTHORS
First Author – Dr. G.Nirmala, Associate Professor in
Mathematics, K.N.G.A. College(Women), Thanjavur
Second Author – K.Uma, Assistant Professor in
Mathematics,A.V.V.M. Sri Pushpam College, Poondi,
Thanjavur, India Email: umak1976@yahoo.in
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A Model Approach to Off-line English Character
Recognition
Binod Kumar Prasad*, Goutam Sanyal**
* Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Bengal College of Engineering andTechnology, Durgapur, INDIA
(binod.krpr@rediffmail.com)
** Department of Computer Science and Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, INDIA
(nitgsanyal@gmail.com)
Abstract- Recognition rate of handwritten character is still
limited due to presence of large variation of shape, scale and
format in hand written characters. A sophisticated hand written
character recognition system demands a better feature extraction
technique that would take care of such variation of hand writing.
In this paper, we propose a recognition model based on Hidden
Markov Models (HMMs) supported by novel feature extraction
technique. Ultimately post-processing is done to enhance the
recognition rate further.
A data-base of 13000 samples is collected from 100 writers
written five times for each character. 2600 samples have been
used to train HMM and the rest are used to test recognition
model. Using our proposed recognition system we have achieved
a good average recognition rate of about 93.24 percent.
Index Terms- Hidden Markov Model, Sobel masks, gradient
features, curvature features and projected histogram.
T
I. INTRODUCTION
he off-line handwriting recognition (OHR) continues to be
an active area for research towards exploring the newer
techniques that would improve recognition accuracy because
several application including mail sorting, bank processing,
document reading and postal address recognition require offline
handwriting recognition systems. Character recognition is
nothing but Machine simulation of human reading [1], [2]. It is
also known as Optical Character Recognition. It contributes
immensely to the advancement of an automation process and can
improve the interface between man and machine in numerous
applications. Several research works have been focussing on new
techniques and methods that would reduce the processing time
while providing higher recognition accuracy. The methods of
Character recognition have grown up sequentially [3], [4]. The
recognition of isolated handwritten character was first
investigated [5], but later whole words [6] were addressed. Most
of the systems reported in literature until today consider
constrained recognition problems based on vocabularies from
specific domain e.g., the recognition of handwritten check
amounts [7] or postal address [8]. Free handwritten recognition,
without domain specific constraints and large vocabularies was
addressed only recently in a few papers [9], [10]. The recognition
rate of such system is still low and there is a need of
improvement [11].It is now a well established fact that the
direction of character strokes contain vast important information
for character recognition .If we can precisely describe that
strokes in certain directions occur at certain positions in the
character image, the character will be easily categorized. Many
statistical features used in character recognition are designed
according to this idea.[12]Previous researchers [13][14]
demonstrated that among direction features the gradient features
[15] outperform various other directional features.
That‘s why we have given due stress on Gradient features by
finding it both globally and locally for a character image.
The tool to train the system with the obtained feature vectors is
taken to be HMM because OHR systems based on HMM have
been shown to outperform segmentation based approaches [16]-
[19]. With the usage of HMM models for the pattern recognition
or character recognition, a HMM model keeps information for a
character when the model is trained properly and the trained
model can be used to recognize an unknown character. The
advantage with HMM based systems is that they are
segmentation free that is no pre segmentation of word/line
images into small units such as sub-words or characters is
required [20]. However there are well-known limitations with
HMM based approaches. These limitations are due to two
reasons-(a) the assumptions of conditional independence of the
observations given the state sequence and (b) the restriction on
feature extraction imposed by frame based observations [21].
The rest of the paper has been arranged as follows-
Section 2 shows the proposed model, section 3 details out preprocessings,
section 4 deals with feature extraction methods;
section 5 describes the classifier whereas in section 6, postprocessings
are described. Section 7 is about the experiments and
results. Conclusions have been drawn in section 8 and in section
9, we have discussed our future works followed by section 10
which contains a single set of collected samples.
II. PROPOSED MODEL
Features are extracted in both global and local
processing.HMM model for each character has been trained by
the sequence of the symbols of the features extracted from
collected samples. To test a handwritten character image, we
extract the similar features using same procedure as earlier and
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the corresponding sequence (observation) is processed with each
HMM model P(O/λ), probability of the observation sequence (O)
by the models (λ) is compared and the highest probability
concludes the highest matching of the features with the
corresponding model
Figure 1: System Overview
III. PRE-PROCESSING
Any image processing application suffers from noise like
isolated pixels. This noise gives rise to ambiguous features which
results in poor recognition rate or accuracy. Therefore a
preprocessing mechanism has been executed before we could
start with feature extraction methods. Here a sequence of
operations is carried out in succession as shown in flow diagram
.We have used median filter for its better performance to get rid
of unwanted marks or isolated pixels. Thinning is performed to
get the skeleton of character image so that strokes could be
conspicuous.
Figure 2: Block Diagram for Pre-processing
IV. FEATURE EXTRACTION METHODS
Feature extraction is an important part of any type of pattern
recognition. A better feature extraction method may yield better
recognition rate by a given classifier. Therefore, much attention
is paid to extract the suitable features from the preprocessed
images. Our feature extraction process consists of
4.1 GLOBAL FEATURE EXTRACTION METHOD
Global feature of an image sample describe its overall structure.
We extract global features as described below:
Gradient Features
To compute the density of line segments in the quantized
direction we use only two masks - Horizontal sobel mask and
Vertical sobel mask. Magnitude and phase of the gradient
obtained by Sobel masks are calculated as below
Figure 3: Gradient Feature Extraction using Sobel Masks
Phase is quantized in eight directions as shown in Fig. 6.For each
quantized phase value, corresponding magnitudes are added to
get the total strength in that direction. To get the feature within
finite number of symbols (here eleven symbols are used),
magnitudes are normalized and quantized. Finally, we consider
four global gradient (G) features combining following pairs-(0°,
±180°), (45°,−135°), (90°,−90°) and (135°,−45°).
4.2 LOCAL FEATURE EXTRACTION METHODS
To extract the local information contained in the preprocessed
character image, we divide the image by nine equal blocks and
then, from each block four gradient features (as discussed earlier)
are extracted. Thus, the local feature (L) contains 36
observations.
Therefore, our final observation sequence contains 50
observations obtained by global and local feature extraction
methods, as shown below
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O = [G(4) L(36)] (3)
V. HIDDEN MARKOV MODEL
Hidden Markov Model (HMM) is a finite state machine
in which a sequence of observations (O) is produced by this
model but the corresponding sequence of states remain hidden
within this model[16]. This HMM model can be defined as
λ = (π, A, B) (4)
where π is initial state probability vector, A is final state
transition probability matrix and B is final observation
probability matrix. The HMM model was initially used for
speech recognition purpose, but later it has been proved that the
HMM model can be efficiently utilized for other recognition
process like character recognition, pattern recognition etc. In this
paper we use a closed left to right chain HMM model for
handwritten English characters recognition. A sketch of 5 states
HMM model is shown in
Figure 4: Left to Right Chain HMM Model with 5 States
5.1 TRAINING OF HMM MODEL
For the HMM model shown in Fig.4, π is taken as
[1 0 0 0 0 ] (5)
Initial value of A and B are taken as below:
We have used Baum-Welch algorithm to train the HMM using
observation sequence obtained from the feature vectors. At the
end of training process we obtain the final value of A and B
which is used for recognition purpose.
5.2. RECOGNITION BY HMMM MODEL
Consider an observation vector (O) of length L as below
O = [O1 O2 O3 ·· · OL] (6)
We use Viterbi decoding algorithm to decode the sequence of
states of the HMM model λ for the sequence of observation O
and it returns P (O/λ), the probability of generating the given
sequence O by the HMM model λ.
VI. POST-PROCESSING
A post-processing block is included at the final stage of
recognition process in order to provide special care to the highly
confused group of characters due to their high structural
correlation factor (similarity). Few examples of such groups are
mentioned below-
(1) O and Q,
(2) M and N,
(3) V and Y,
(4) C and O,
(5) B, K,R and P etc.
For each group, one or more new features are extracted that
can discriminate these characters with good accuracy. For
example, O and Q can be easily differentiated using signature
features, as shown in Fig.5-7.
Figure 5: Samples of Character Image for Post-processing
(a) Character O and (b) Character Q
Figure 6: Signature and Derivative of Signature Plot for
Character O Shown in Fig.5 (a).
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Figure 7: Signature and Derivative of Signature Plot for
Character Q Shown in Fig.5 (b).
These show that the differentiation of signature plot of Q
contains very large spike that can be utilized to distinguish this
(Q) from the character O using a threshold criteria. Note that, this
signature feature is not used to train the HMM models of all
characters. The effect of this post-processing block is presented
in the next section providing some experimental studies.
VII. EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS
A total of 13000 samples are collected from 100 persons. Each
writer wrote 5 set of A-Z characters. Each character image is
converted to a fixed size of 150×150 pixels .We have applied our
feature extraction method on these samples and then these
feature values are quantized and encoded to the eleven symbols
in order to create sequences of observation symbols. First 100
samples of each character are used to train the corresponding
character HMM. Rest 400 samples are used to test our HMM
classifier. For our experiment we have started with only 5 state
model but we observed that as the no. of states of HMM model is
increased, the corresponding recognition rate is also improved.
Finally, with 36 states HMM model we have got our expected
result as shown in table. Table I shows the effectiveness of our
proposed model.
In table 1 we have shown final recognition rate of our
character recognition system using post-processing and it is
compared with result obtained without post processing technique.
This produces an average recognition rate of 93.24%.
TABLE 1: Recognition Rate With or Without Post-
Processing (PP) Using Proposed HMM Model
Char Recognition
-acter Rate (%)
With Wi
out pp th pp
A 89.50 89
.50
B 91.00 93
.25
C 93.75 94
.25
D 93.25 93
.25
E 93.75 93
.75
F 94.00 94
.00
G 92.50 92
.50
H 93.75 93
.75
I 94.25 94
.25
J 93.50 93
.50
K 92.50 93
.75
L 93.75 93
.75
M 92.25 93
.50
VIII. CONCLUSION
In this paper, an approach has been made to increase the rate
of recognition of handwritten character by finding both local and
global features. In the post-processing section, a trial has been
done to put a line of demarcation between similar looking
characters.
All these specialties of this paper has made us obtain an
average accuracy of 93.24%. For the letters ‗A‘ and ‗W‘,the
recognition rate is found to be very low, because of a lot of
variations in writing style of these letters as shown in fig.
(c) (d)
Char Recognition
-acter Rate (%)
With Wi
out pp th pp
N 93.75 94
.25
O 91.50 94
.25
P 91.25 92
.75
Q 92.25 94
.00
R 90.75 93
.25
S 90.50 91
.50
T 93.25 93
.25
U 93.50 93
.50
V 91.75 93
.75
W 89.25 89
.25
X 93.25 93
.25
Y 91.25 93
.75
Z 94.50 94
.50
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Fig. 8 Two completely different formats for handwritten
character A (a) A1 (b) A2 and for character W (c) W1 (d)
W2
IX. CONCLUSION
HMM is a flexible tool by its inherent nature which is capable
of absorbing a little bit of variations in character images. It is
obvious from the samples shown above that their gradient
features should differ considerably. So, our future works will be
concentrated on improvement of recognition rate of such letters.
X. DATA-SET
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Our thanks to the authority of Bengal College of Engineering
and Technology, Durgapur (W.B.) to provide us with WI-FI
connection and other facilities to carry out research works.
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[22] R. C. Gonzalez and P. Wintz, ―DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING,‖ 2 nd
Edition, ADDISON WESLEY, Reading Mass, 198.
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Fuzzy Sub - Trigroup – Trilevel Properties
1 G.Nirmala, 2 S.Suganthi
1 Associate prof.of Mathematics, PG and Research Department of mathematics, K.N.G.A.College(Women),Autonomous,Thanjavur.
2 Research Scholar, Manonmaniam sundaranar University,Thirunelveli.
Abstract- In this paper, some characteristic description and a
kind of representation of the fuzzy sub-trigroup with respect to
operation addition are Introduced.Fuzzy sub-trigroup,union of
fuzzy trigroups trilevel subset of a fuzzy sub-trigroup are
defined. Properties of fuzzy sub-trigroup are proved with
examples. some results of trilevel subset of fuzzy sub-trigroups
are also proved.
T
Index Terms- Trilevel subset, Trigroup, Fuzzy sub-trigroup
I. INTRODUCTION
he concepts of fuzzy sets was introduced by Zadeh.Since the
paper fuzzy set theory has been considerably developed by
zadeh himself and some researchers.The original concept of
fuzzy sets was introduced as an extension of cribs (usual) sets, by
enlarging the truth value set of ―grade of members‖from the two
value set {0,1} to unit interval {0,1} of real numbers. The study
of fuzzy group was started by Rosenfeld.
It was extended by Roventa who have introduced the fuzzy
groups operating on fuzzy sets.W.B.Vasantha kandasamy
introduced fuzzy sub-bigroup with respect to ‗+‘ and ‗.‘and
illustrate it with example. W.B.Vasantha kandasamy was the first
one to introduce the notion of bigroups in the year 1994.Several
mathematicians have followed them in investigating the fuzzy
group theory. We now recall the previous and preliminary
definitions, and results that are required in our discussion.
1. Preliminaries:
Definition: 1.1
Let X be a nonempty set.A fuzzy set µ of the set X is a function
µ : X → [0,1].
Definition: 1.2
The most commonly used range of membership functions is the
unit interval [0,1].In this case,each membership function maps
elements of a given universal set x,which is always a crisp
set,into real numbers in [0,1]
Two distinct notations are most commonly employed in the
literature to denote membership functions.
The membership functions of a fuzzy set A is denoted by A
Ã:x → [0,1].
Definition: 1.3
Let A and B be two fuzzy sets for all [0,1]
Min of AB=Aα(۸)Bα
= [a1 (α) ,a2 (α) ]۸[b1 (α) , b2 (α) ]
= [a1 (α) ۸b1 (α) ,a2 (α) ۸b2 (α) ]
Max of AB= Aα(۷)Bα
= [a1 (α) ,a2 (α) ] ۷[b1 (α) ,b2 (α) ]
= [a1 (α)
۷ b1 (α) ,a2 (α) ۷b2 (α) ]
Definition: 1.4
Let G be a group.A fuzzy subset µ of a group G is called a fuzzy
subgroup of the G if i. µ(xy) ≥ min{ µ(x) , µ(y)}
for every x,y G
ii. µ(x -1 ) = µ(x) for every x G
Definition: 1.5
Let µ be a fuzzy subset of G.For t [0,1] the set µt = { x G/
µ(x) ≥ t} is called a level subset of the fuzzy subset µ.
Definition: 1.6
Let µ1 be a fuzzy subset of a set X1 and µ2 be a fuzzy subset of a
set X2, then the fuzzy union of the fuzzy sets µ1 and µ2 is defined
as a function.
µ1µ2: X1X2 → [0,1] given by
max(µ1(x), µ2(x)) if x X1∩ X2
(µ1µ2)(x) = µ1(x) if xX1 and xX2
µ2(x) if xX2 and xX1
Definition: 1.7
Let µ1 be a fuzzy subset of a set X1 and µ2 be a fuzzy subset of a
set X2, µ3 be a fuzzy subset of a set X3then the fuzzy union of
the fuzzy sets µ1 and µ2, µ3 is defined as a function.
µ1µ2µ3: X1X2X3 → [0,1] given by
max(µ1(x),µ2(x), µ3(x))
if x X1∩ X2∩ X3
(µ1µ2 µ3)(x) = µ1(x) if xX1 x X2, X3
µ2(x) if xX2 x X1, X3
µ3(x) if xX3 x X1, X2
II. RESULTS
Let G = (G1G2G3,+) be a trigroup.Then µ : G → [0,1] is
said to be a fuzzy sub-trigroup of the trigroup G if there
exists three fuzzy subsets µ1 of G1 and µ2 of G2, µ3 of G3
such that
(i) (µ1,+) is a fuzzy subgroup of (G1,+)
(ii) (µ2,+) is a fuzzy subgroup of (G2,+)
(iii) (µ3,+) is a fuzzy subgroup of (G3,+)
µ = (µ1µ2 µ3).
Let (G = G1G2G3,+) be a trigroup and
µ = (µ1µ2 µ3) be a fuzzy sub-trigroup of the trigroup G.The
tri level subset of the fuzzy sub-trigroup µ of the trigroup G
is defined as (Gµ ) t = (G1µt) t (G2µt) t (G3µt) t
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for every t [0,min{µ1(e1), µ2(e2) , µ3(e3)}] where e1, e2 , e3 are
denotes the identity element of the group (G1 , +) ,(G2 ,+) ,(G3,+)
respectively.
A fuzzy subset µ of a group G is said to be a union of three
fuzzy sub-groups of the group G if there exists three fuzzy
subgroups µ1,µ2 and µ3 of µ (µ1=µ , µ2=µ and µ3=µ) such
that
µ = (µ1µ2 µ3).Here by the term fuzzy subgroup λ of μ we
mean that λ is a fuzzy subgroup of the group G and λ μ (where
μ is also a fuzzy subgroup of G).
The condition
t [0,min{µ1(e1), µ2(e2) , µ3(e3)}] is essential for the trilevel
subset to be a sub-trigroup for if
t [0,min{µ1(e1), µ2(e2) , µ3(e3)}] then the trilevel subset
need not in general be a sub-trigroup of the trigroup G.
2. Properties of fuzzy sub –trigroup.
Example: 2.1
Let x1 = {1,2,3,4,5} and
X2 ={2,4,6,8,10},X3 = {1,3,5,7,9} be three sets
Define µ1: x1 → [0,1] by
1 if x = 1,2
µ1(x) = 0.6 if x =3
0.2 if x = 4,5
Define µ2: x2 → [0,1] by
1 if x = 2,4
µ2(x) = 0.6 if x =6
0.2 if x = 8,10
And Define µ3: x3 → [0,1] by
Hence
1 if x = 1
µ3(x) = 0.6 if x =3,5
0.2 if x = 7,9
1 if x = 1,2,4
(µ1µ2µ3)(x) = 0.6 if x =3,5,6
0.2 if x = 7,8,9,10
Example: 2.2
Consider the trigroup
G = {±i, ±0, ±1,±2,±3,±4,………..}
Under the operation ‗+‘ where
G1 = {0, ±1,±2,±3,………………}
G2 = {±i,0},G3 = {0, ±2}.
Define µ: G → [0,1] by
1/3 if x = i,-i
µ (x) = 1 if x {0,±2,±4,….}
1/2 if x {±1,±2,±3,………}
We can find
Define µ1: G1 → [0,1] by
µ1(x) =
1 if x {0, ±2,±4,…….}
1/2 if x {±1,±3,±5,………}
Define µ2: G2 → [0,1] by
µ2(x) =
1/3 if x = ±i
1 if x = 0
Define µ3: G3 → [0,1] by
µ3(x) =
1 if x =0
1/2 if x = ±2
Hence there exists two fuzzy subgroups µ1of G1, µ2 of G2 and µ3
of G3 such that µ = (µ1µ2µ3).
Theorem: 2.1
Every t-level subset of a fuzzy sub-trigroup µ of a trigroup G
need not in general be a sub-trigroup of the trigroup G
Proof:-
We can prove this theorem by an example
Take G = {-2,-1,0,1,2} to a bigroup under the operation ‗+‘
Where G1 = {-2,0,2}, G2 = {-1,0,1}, G3 = {0} are groups w.r.to
‗+‘ .
Define µ: G→ [0,1] by
1 if x = -2,2
µ (x) = 1/2 if x = -1,1
1/4 if x = 0
Then clearly (µ,+) is a fuzzy sub-trigroup of the trigroup (G,+).
Now consider the level subset Gµ 1/2 of the fuzzy sub-trigroup µ.
Gµ 1/2 = {-2,-1,1,2} is not a sub – trigroup of the trigroup
(G,+).
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Hence the t level subset
Gµ t (of t =1/2) of the fuzzy sub – trigroup µ is not a sub –
trigroup (G,+).
Theorem: 2.2
Every trilevel subset of a fuzzy sub – trigroup µ of a trigroup G
with respect to the usual addition is a sub-trigroup of trigroup G.
Proof :-
Let µ = (µ1µ2µ3) be the fuzzy subgroup of a trigroup
(G = G1G2G3,+).
Consider the trilevel subset Gµ t of the fuzzy sub – trigroup µ for
every
t [0,min{µ1(e1), µ2(e2) , µ3(e3)}]
Where e1, e2 and e3 denote the identity elements of the
groups G1,G2 and G3 respectively.
Then Gµ t = G3µ3 t G2µ2 t G1µ1 t
Where G1µ1 t , G2µ2 t , and G3µ3 t are subgroups of G1,G2 and G3
respectively.
Since G1µ1 t is a t-level subset of the group G1, G2µ2 t is a t-level
subset of the group G2 and G3µ3 t is a t-level subset of the group
G3.
Hence the sub-trigroup Gµ t is a sub-trigroup of the trigroup G.
Example: 2;3
G = {0, ±1, ±i} is a trigroup with repect to the addition.
Clearly G1= {0},G2 ={0, ±1},
G3 = {0, ±i} are groups with respect to addition.
Define µ: G → [0,1] by
1 if x = 0
µ (x) = 0.5 if x =±1
0.3 if x =±i
Therefore µ is a fuzzy sub – trigroup of the trigroup G as there
exists three fuzzy subgroups µ1: G1 → [0,1] , µ2: G2 → [0,1] and
µ3:G3 → [0,1] such that µ = µ1Uµ2Uµ3
Where
µ1(x) = 1 if x = 0
0.8 if x = 0
REFERENCES
[1] S. AbouZaid, On fuzzy subnearrings and ideals, Fuzzy Sets and Sys. 44
(1991), 139146.
[2] Yuan Bo and Wu Wangming, Fuzzy ideals on a distributive lattice, Fuzzy
Sets and Sys. 35 (1990), 231240.
[3] P. S. Das, Fuzzy groups and level subgroups, J. Math. Anal. and Appl. 84
(1981), 264269.
[4] V. N. Dixit, R. Kumar and N. Ajal, On fuzzy rings, Fuzzy Sets and Sys. 49
(1992), 205213.
[5] N. Kuroki, Fuzzy biideals in semigroups, Comment.Math. Univ. St. Pauli.
28 (1979), 1721.
[6] N. Kuroki, On fuzzy ideals and fuzzy biideals in semigroups, Fuzzy Sets
and Sys. 5 (1981), 203215.
µ2(x) = 0.5 if x =±1
0.9 if x = 0
µ3(x) = 0.3 if x =±i
Now we calculate the trilevel subset Gµ t for t = 0.5
Gµ t = G3µ3 t G2µ2 t G1µ1 t
={xG1/µ1(x) ≥t}{xG2/µ2(x) ≥t}
{ xG3/ µ3(x) ≥ t}
Gµ t = {0}{0,±1}{0}
= {0, ±1}
G t = {0, ±1} is a sub-trigroup of the trigroup G.
Theorem: 2.3
Let µ = µ1Uµ2Uµ3 be a fuzzy sub – trigroup of the trigroup
G.Where µ1,µ2 and µ3 are fuzzy sub groups of the group G.The
trilevel subset Gµ t of µ for
t[0,minµ1(e1),µ2(e2), µ3(e3)}] can be represented as the union of
three subgroups of the group G.
That is Gµ t = G3µ3 t G2µ2 t G1µ1 t .
Proof:-
Let µ be a fuzzy sub – trigroup of the group G with
respect to addition and
t [0,min{µ1(e1), µ2(e2) , µ3(e3)}]
there exists fuzzy subgroups µ1,µ2 and µ3 of the group G such
that µ = µ1µ2µ3.
Let Gµ t be the level subset of µ,
Then we have
xGµ t µ(x) ≥ t
max{ µ1(x),µ2(x), µ3(x)} ≥ t
µ1 ≥ t or µ2(x) ≥ t or µ3(x) ≥ t
xG1µ1 t or xG2µ2 t or xG3µ3 t
xG1µ1 t G2µ2 t G3µ3 t
Hence Gµ t = G1µ1 t G2µ2 t G3µ3 t
III. CONCLUSION
In this paper with the basic concepts of group theory,we define
related concepts of fuzzy sub-trigroup and further we proved
properties of fuzzy sub-trigroup.
[7] G.Nirmala,S.Suganthi, fuzzy algebra –presended the paper in national
conference on Recent advances in pure and applied mathematics –Govt.Arts
college for women (Aut),Pudukkottai.
[8] G.Nirmala,S.Suganthi published the paper-Lagrange‘s theorem in fuzzy
approach-The pmu journal of Humanities and Sciences-july-december
2011.
[9] W. B. Vasantha Kandasamy, Smaramdache fuzzy Algebra
American Research Press Rehoboth 2003.
10.Zimmermann H., Fuzzy Set Theory and its Applications (2001),
ISBN 978 – 0 – 7923- 7435 – 0
AUTHORS
First Author – G.Nirmala, Associate prof. of Mathematics, PG
and Research Department of mathematics,
K.N.G.A.College (Women), Autonomous,Thanjavur, India
Tamilnadu,India.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 92
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Email id - nirmalamanokar11@yahoo.com
Second Author – S.Suganthi, Research Scholar, Manonmaniam
sundaranar University,Thirunelveli,Tamilnadu,,India.
Email id : mathisuganthi@gmail.com
*Correspondence Author – S.Suganthi,
Email id : mathisuganthi@gmail.com
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 93
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Adjustment problems of Educable Mentally Retarded
Abstract- The study examined the adjustment problems of
educable mentally retarded students of Ranchi (India). The total
sample in the study consisted of 200 subjects – out of which 100
served as experimental group (mentally retarded) and 100 as
normal control. The subjects in the experimental group were
selected from the schools of mentally retarded and normal
control subjects were selected from different high schools of
Ranchi. They were matched with the experimental group with
respect to various socio-demographic variables, like age,
economic status, religion and domicile. The Purposive sampling
technique was adopted. For assessing the intelligence and
adjustment problems of the subjects, Sandford Binet intelligence
scale and Bell adjustment inventory were administer. Result
showed that:
(i) Mentally retarded subjects had greater adjustment problems
than the normal control group.
(ii) Mentally retarded group showed highest score in social area
and lowest score in health area in comparison to other areas of
adjustment.
Index Terms- Educable Mentally retarded, Adjustment,
Control group, Experimental group
M
I. INTRODUCTION
ental retardation is a complex clinical condition with a
heterogeneous etiology in which people have below
intelligence that limits their ability to function normally. This
type of people may have problems with communication, taking
care of themselves, daily living social skills, community
interactions, directing themselves, health, safety and work.
Mental retardation has posed a great problem throughout the
world due to its highly complex social, medical, psychological
and educational components, apart from various unanticipated
problems.
The American Psychiatric Association in DSM-IV-TR
defined mental retardation as ‗significantly sub average general
intellectual functioning…. that is accompanied by significant
limitation in adaptive functioning.‘ The term adaptive
functioning refers to the person‘s ability to cope with life‘s
demand and live independently, according to the standards of his
or her age groups, communities, social clam and culture.
Mental retardation varies in severity. The DSM-IV-TR
classified four different degrees of mental retardation: mild,
moderate, severe and profound. These categories are based on
the person‘s level of functioning and IQ Scores. Children with
mild mental retardation are classified as the educable mentally
retarded, and compose approximately 85% of the mentally
retarded. Initial diagnosis of mental retardation occurs very
frequently at ages 5 to 6. During early childhood, individuals
Dr. Bharati ROY
Email: bharatiroy.roy15@gmail.com
with a mild degree of intellectual impairment, often appear to be
normal. Their sub average intellectual functioning becomes
apparent only when difficulties with school works lead to a
diagnostic evaluation. When adequate facilities are available for
their education, children in this group can usually master
essential school skills and achieve a satisfactory level of socially
adaptive behavior. (Carson, Butcher, Mineka and Hooley, 2008)
Educable retarded children are basically very similar to other
children generally they do not have physical characteristics
which set them apart from other children. They are capable of
engaging in the same physical activities that other children enjoy.
They do not exhibit behavior patterns which deviate noticeably
from their peers. Educationally they learn in much the same way
that other children do. They begin school at the same age other
children do and are able to profit from education as it is
presented in the public schools. The social and emotional
adjustment of mildly retarded children is often approximately are
that of adolescents, although they tend to lack normal
adolescent‘s imagination, inventiveness, curiosity and judgment.
Ordinarily they do not show sign of brain pathologies or other
physical anomalies, but still they require some measure of
supervision because of their limited abilities to foresee the
consequences of their actions. With early diagnosis, parental
assistance, and special educational programs, the great majorities
of mildly retarded individuals can adjust socially, master simple
academic and occupational skills and become self supporting
citizens.
There are few differences which are common to all educable
retarded children. These are:
(1) Intellectually they function at a slower rate of learning
than most children in school. Their score on individual
intelligence tests will usually fall between 50 and 80 I.Q.
(2) Academically they are marked below their chronological
grade level.
The inability of the educable mentally retarded to compete
academically may adversely affect his personal and social
adjustment in the school setting. It may lead to profound feelings
of inferiority and may sharply reduce his ability to realistically
assess his abilities and limitations.
Mild mentally retarded have IQs over 50, are relatively normal in
appearance and come mostly from lower social economic
classes. According to Frank, Hewett, Steven and Forness ‗mild
mental retardation most likely results from the complex interplay
of familial, environmental and social factors in which heredity
tends to set limits on intellectual potential or capacity, whereas
experience determines to what extent such potential will be
fulfilled. With regard to etiology, there are probably four
overlapping types of causes associated with mild retardation.
The first type is familial, which includes the small percentage
of each ethnic group or minority group that falls at the lower end
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of the polygenetic distribution of intelligence for their respective
groups. The second type of cause is neurological. It is possible in
some cases to pinpoint that a specific pathologic condition may
have caused some damage to the child‘s central nervous system,
resulting in a mild level of retardation. Lead poisoning, either
through prolonged exposure to industrial lead dust or ingestion of
chipped lead paint, may be one such cause (Moore and Moore,
1977) the third type of cause is nutritional. There is increasing
documentation that chronic malnutrition, either in the mother or
subsequently in the developing child, may be one of the more
significant factors in eventual mental performance (Perkins 1977,
Winnick 1976). The fourth cause is environmental. Socioeconomic
factors or poverty is an important factor of mild
retardation. In general, mild mental retardation is somewhat more
prevalent in families with low incomes than in families with high
incomes. This risk factor is related to parental intelligence and
the amount of intellectual stimulation the child receives. A
related risk factor may be maternal age. A number of studies
pointed out that most of these children come from poverty
stricken, unstable and often disputed family back grounds
characterized by a lack of intellectual stimulation, an inferior
quality of interaction with others, and general environmental
deprivation (Cullinan, 1985)
II. OBJECTIVE
The objective of present study is to examine the adjustment
problems of educable mentally retarded.
III. HYPOTHESIS
It is hypothesized that educable mentally retarded would show
more adjustment problems in different areas that normal.
IV. METHOD
4.1 Participants
The study comprised of 100 educable mentally retarded
children (87 were male and 13 were female) and 100 normal
controls, (50 male and 50 female) their chronological age ranged
from 15 to 18 years. Subjects of retarded group were selected
from the schools for mentally retarded and the sample of normal
control subjects were selected from different high schools of
Ranchi purposive sampling technique was employed for the
selection of sample.
4.2 Tools
The following tools were used in the present study:
4.2.1 Stanford – Binet Intelligence Scale – LM Form: An
Indian adaptation of Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale revised
LM Form by Kulshrestha (1971) was used for measuring
intelligence of both mentally retarded and normal individuals.
The reliability of this scale ranges from 0.95 to 0.98 for age 14 to
18 years. The validity co-efficient ranges between 0.40 to 0.75.
4.2.2 Mohsin – Shamshad Adaptation of Bell Adjustment
Inventory (1987): The inventory consists of 135 items
measuring adjustment in four different areas: home, health, social
and emotional separately as well as it yields a composite score
for overall adjustment.
4.3 Procedure
All subjects who were selected for the present study were
interviewed and then assessed for IQ with the help of Stanford –
Benet intelligence scale. Thereafter, Bell‘s adjustment inventory
was individually administered on each mentally retarded and
average intelligent student. After getting back the completed
questionnaire the responses were scored as per the predetermined
standard scoring procedure.
4.4. Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis was done with the help of Statistical
Package for Social Science (SPSS). The percentages, means,
standard deviations and t tests were used to find if there were
significant differences between the groups.
V. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
Analysis or Social-demographic data presented in table-1,
indicated that, in educable mentally retarded group maximum
number of sample (50%) was in the age group of 17 years.
Majority (87%) of retardeds were male, from Muslim community
(89.5%) rural area (75%) and 70% were from lower socioeconomic
back ground.
Result given in table II and figure-1 clearly showed that
maladjustment scores of educable retarded groups are higher
(Mean-78.82) in comparison to maladjustment scores of normal
group (mean 40.46). Mean maladjustment scores of mentally
retarded groups are higher in all the areas of adjustment i.e.
home, health, social and emotional. The total maladjustment
score of educable mentally retarded group is almost double to the
score of normal control group.
It was observed that the mean score of mentally retarded
group was particularly higher in the social area (mean- 19.82)
which was higher than the scores on other areas of adjustment.
This probably indicates that the subject has difficulties in their
social life. Because of their poor mental ability, the retarded find
it difficult to adjust to the demands of the society and get a high
maladjustment score in the social area. A considerable amount of
research has been done on the social adjustment of mentally
retarded (Meyers et al, 1979, Sukla, 1982, Kumar Singh and
Akhtar 2009). It was found that social mal adjustment among
mentally retarded have been manifested by difficulty in
establishing close intimate relationship, loneliness, lack of
friends, frustration and dissatisfaction with existing relationships.
The feeling of loneliness decreases their active involvement in
social relations.
Mentally retarded children also exhibit severe adjustment
problems in the emotional area, indicating presence of
depression, nervousness, and anxiety. They suffer from
emotional disturbance and try to cope in every aspect of life in a
maladaptive and immature manner. The retarded must face the
reality of his retardedness for the history of failure on intellectual
tasks and they suffer from the feeling of inferiority,
worthlessness, anger, helplessness, non-assertiveness and
inadequate self confidence.
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Mean scores of mentally retarded is quite high in the home
adjustment area. The family life to which the retarded must
adjust is complicated by parental guilt. Some parents of retarded
children show evidence of strong guilt feeling for having brought
into the world a child with limited abilities. One prevalent form
of expression of his guilt is parental over protection. Such pattern
of parental behavior encourages a dependent style of interaction
in child. Other parents express guilt by denying the child‘s
disabilities, the different reaction of the parents namely
overprotection and denial, may creat adjustment problems for
retarded children.
Mentally retarded group gets lowest score in the health area in
comparison to other areas of adjustment although this score was
much higher than normal control group. Normal group shows
poorer adjustment in emotional area in comparison to other
dimensions of adjustment. It is quite natural because adolescent
Table – I: Socio-demographic characteristics of the sample.
Characteristics Number of Cases
period is characterized as a period of stress and strain. During
this period adolescents face with rapid physiological changes.
Erickson (1950) has described adolescence as ‗period of identity
crisis‘. Normal group belongs to this period & if they have
shown adjustment problems in the emotional area, the findings
are in the expected direction.
Result given in table III reveal that the males of mentally
retarded group showed significantly higher score in comparison
with female group on social adjustment dimension.
The male group of normal control significantly scored higher
in comparison with female group on social, emotional and home
dimensions. They did not differ in health dimension score. The
table showed that there is no considerable difference between the
male and female retarded group on home, health and emotional
dimensions of adjustment.
Age distribution in years Educable retarded Normal control
N % N %
13 years 10 10 15 15
16 years 30 30 20 20
17 years 50 50 25 25
18 years 10 10 40 40
Male 87 87 50 50
Gender
Religion
Domicile
Socio-economic Status
Female 13 13 50 50
Hindu 6 6 25 25
Muslim 89 89 25 25
Christian 5 5 25 25
Sikh 0 0 25 25
Urban 25 25 50 50
Rural 75 75 50 50
High 30 30 50 50
Low 70 70 50 50
Table – II: Comparison of Educably mentally retardeds and normal controls in terms of Mean adjustment scores.
Dimension Groups Mean SD SEM MD t
Home
Health
Social
Emotional
Total
Retarded 16.30
Normal 8.35
Retarded 12.42
Normal 8.65
Retarded 19.82
Normal 8.36
Retarded 16.00
Normal 10.25
Retarded
Normal
78.82
40.46
2.6
3.48
3.44
3.36
3.24
3.40
4.15
3.10
9.25
3.20
.26
.348
.344
.336
.324
.340
.415
.310
.925
.320
7.95 18.92**
3.77 8.19**
11.46 24.91**
5.75 11.5**
38.36 39.54**
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** Significant at 0.01 level.
Dimension
Home
Health
Social
Emotional
Figure – I: Mean maladjustment scores of educably mentally retarded and non-retarded sample.
Mean
S D
Mean
S D
Mean
S D
Mean
S D
Table – III: Gender difference in adjustment.
Group
Mentally Retarded Normal
Male Female t Male Female t
16.18
7.92
27.98
8.88
19.25
16.12
1.12
18.05
9.15
18.15
.05
0.6
0.01
8.62
3.37
7.15
4.15
8.98
7.25
3.75
8.10
3.69
7.02
8.16 7.18 3.45 3.12
19.02
8.66
20.15
8.75
.92
18.64
8.25
16.25
7.18
2.74
1.66
4.35
2.19
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VI. CONCLUSION
(i) Educable mentally retarded group had greater adjustment
problems than the normal control group.
(ii) E.M.R. group showed highest maladaptive score in social
area and lowest score in the health area in comparison to other
areas of adjustment.
(iii) No significant difference was found between the male and
female retarded group on home, health and emotional area of
adjustment.
REFERENCES
[1] Carson, R.C., Butcher, J.N., Mineka & Hooley, J.M. (2008): Abnormal
Psychology 12th Ed. Pearson Education Inc. and Dorling kindersey
Publishing.Inc.
[2] Cullinan, D & Esplin, M.H. (1985).Adjustment problems of mildly
handicapped and non-handicapped students.Revedial and Special
education.6.No. 2-5-11.
[3] Erickson, E.H. (1950). Growth and crises of the healthy personality.
Symposium on the Healthy Personality. Josiah Macy, Jr.Found, New York.
[4] Kulshrestha, S.K. (1971).Stanford Binet intelligence Scale. Hindi
Adaptation.Manas Sewa Sausthan, 10, Louther Road, Allahabad.
[5] Kumar, I., Singh.A.R. & Akthar.S. (2009).Social development of children
with mental retardation. Industrial Psychiatry Journal.18 (1):56 – 59.
[6] Mohsin, S.S & Shamshad, H. (1987).Manual for Mohsin-Shamshad, Hindi
Adaptation of Bell Adjustment Inventory. Psycho-Scientific works.
Publication Division, Mahendru, Patna, 1970.
[7] Moore, B. C., & Moore, S. M. (1977).Mental retardation; Causes and
Prevention. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E.merrill Publishing Co.
[8] Perkins, S.N. (1977).Malnutrition and mental development. Exceptional
Children.43, 214-220.
[9] Sukla, T.R., Khoche, V. (1982).A study of adjustment problems of mentally
retarded children. Indian Journal of mental retardation.7 (1):4 – 13.
[10] Winnick, M, (1976).Malnutrition and brain development.Newyork: Oxford
University, Press.
AUTHORS
Correspondence Author – Dr. Bharati ROY, Professor of
Psychology,
Ranchi University, Ranchi – 834 006, India.
E-mail: bharatiroy.roy15@gmail.com
Telephone #: 0651-2563686
Mobile #: 09430789030
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Design of Efficient XTEA Using Verilog
Shweta Gaba, Iti Aggarwal, Dr. Sujata Pandey
Electronics and Communication Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology,
Amity University, India
Abstract- In this age of viruses and hackers of electronic
eavesdropping and electronic fraud, security is paramount. A
cryptographic system ( or a cipher system) is a method of hiding
data so that only certain people can view it. A cryptographic
system typically consists of algorithms, keys, and key
management facilities. There are several algorithms to choose
from that vary in the security they provide, their size, the time it
takes to encrypt or decrypt a block of data. In this paper, we
analyze and evaluate the development of a cheap and relatively
fast hardware implementation of the extended tiny encryption
algorithm (XTEA). Originally the research was split into separate
encipher/decipher units, but these have now been combined into
a single unit. The design will start by using finite state machine
(FSMs) and will use Verilog hardware description language to
describe the design. Minimizing the chip area and security
transmission of data will be our main goal. The targeted
hardware systems are the reconfigurable Spartan III and Xilinx
Virtex IV modern field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs).
Index Terms- Encipher, Decipher, Finite State Machines,
cryptographic system.
T
I. INTRODUCTION
he security of symmetric cryptosystem [9] is a function of
two parameters: the strength of the algorithm and the length
of the key. The algorithm must be so secure that there is no better
way to break it than with a brute-force attack. The security of the
algorithm must be resided in the key and delta value we choose.
So therefore, there is balance between choosing long key, delta
and the time required to complete the enciphering operation.
Many encryption algorithms [8] are available in the market and
the selection of a specific one is dependent on the relatively tight
constraints. The selected algorithm should be small, relatively
secure, with a proven history of overcoming possible well known
attacks on it. The Tiny Encryption Algorithm (TEA) (Wheeler
and Needham 1994), [6] and hence its successor the Extended-
TEAs (XTEAs) (Needham and Wheeler 1997; Russell 2004;
Kelsey et al. 1997; Moon et al. 2002) [7] are among the best
choices available for security purpose. The name of block cipher
came from the fact that block cipher encrypts plaintext as blocks
[8]. These blocks differ in size between block cipher algorithms,
for example, in Data Encryption Standard DES the plaintext is
divided into blocks of length 64, but it is 32 in International Data
Encryption Algorithm (IDEA) [11], if the length of block cipher
equal one them, it will become stream cipher.
This paper uses the Verilog description language to implement
the core function of XTEA and integrate them into a FPGA [10]
chip. XTEA consist of two parts namely encipher and decipher
units but we are developing in a single module. The unit accepts
data in data_in1 and data_in2, a key in key, a delta in delta and
the mode in block (‗00‘ for encipher, ‗11‘ for decipher). The
all_done wire is raised when the results of the operation are
ready to be read from out_1 and out_2. It needs to be reset before
each use. The paper is arranged as follows:
1) Abstract
2) Introduction
3) Verilog designing of XTEA
4) Results of simulation and synthesis
5) Conclusions
II. IDENTIFY, RESEARCH AND COLLECT IDEA
After attending the conference on VLSI MEMS and NEMS
held in Amity University we got an idea to do some research
work on XTEA. We have studied some research papers and
Google it thoroughly. Till now a key of different 128 bit is
required for both encipher and decipher but we have design it in
such a way that we require same key for both encipher an
decipher module.
III. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
XTEA [1] is a symmetric block cipher designed to correct
weakness in TEA [6]. Like TEA, XTEA is a 64-bit block Feistel
network with a 128-bit key and a suggested 64 rounds. Several
differences from TEA are apparent, including a somewhat more
complex key-schedule and a rearrangement of the shifts, XORs
and additions (Hong et al. 2003; Ko et al.2004). Fig.1 shows the
block diagram of an XTEA.
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Fig.1 Block Diagram of XTEA
In this proposed XTEA we are using different value of
DELTA and KEY to increase the security. By doing this only the
sender and receiver knows the value of both delta and key. And
we also use 32 cycles for encrypting and decrypting the data in
Feistel function to increase the security. Fig.2 shows the block
diagram of a single XTEA round.
Fig.2 A single XTEA round with its normal computational constructs.
The crossed square for the sum, crossed circle for an XOR, >> for a
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data. So, we use Mealy Machine because mealy Machines use
less number of states than Moore machine. In this state diagram,
after resetting all the data at S0 state decides whether data has to
be encrypted or decrypted. This is done by Block: If ―Block=00‖
data goes for encryption i.e. state S1 and If ―Block=11‖ data goes
for decryption i.e. State S9. After engaging the Encrypt signal,
the system will enter the state s1, and will finish the encryption
after busy signal goes low (x>32) and we get data at state S7.
In the same manner, data which will be decrypted goes for
decryption i.e. state S9.After engaging the Decrypt signal ,the
system will enter the state S9,and will finish the decryption after
busy signal goes low(x>32) and will get the decrypted data at S7.
It must be noted that the encrypted data must be sent as input for
decryption to get the same input data (as in encryption process)
as output.
Fig.4 Flow diagram for data decryption using Fiestel function
IV. STATE DIAGRAM OF XTEA
The state diagram of XTEA shows that how our XTEA works
and tells about the actual flow of data during encryption and
decryption and shown below in Fig.5:
Fig.5 State diagram of XTEA
While coding for XTEA, we want our algorithm which utilize
minimum chip area and provide more security transmission of
V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The proposed XTEA has been simulated on the ModelSim SE
10.0a and has been synthesized on the Xilinx ISE 10.1. The
figure 1 shows the generalized block diagram of XTEA with the
maximum frequency of 129.099 MHz in case of Virtex4 and
71.114MHz in case of Spartan3.
In Fig.6, we show the waveforms of testing the encryption
process. The reset signal was activated at first to insure that all
the registers are cleared before starting any operation, note that
the asynchronous reset is active high once. After that low the
reset and select the block to set the module. Now, the module is
ready to either encrypt or decrypt. One can distinguish
between these two by the control signal i.e. block provided as an
input to the system. After engaging the Encrypt signal, the
system will enter the state s1, and will finish the encryption after
busy signal goes Low (x>32). You can notice that the output is
available at that time when x is equal to 32 which can easily
shown in Fig.7.
Fig.6 Testing the Encryption Process (shows the starting Portion of the
waveform).
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FIG.7 Testing the Encryption Process (shows the Output after x is equal to 32)
In Figure 8, we depict the waveforms of decryption state
transition testing. The encryption and the Decryption processes
are quite the same in architecture, but the decryption operates in
a reverse manner on the data, and uses a subtract or rather than
an adder. This test shows the transition of the state from the S0 to
S9, because block is selected for decryption and here the input
given is same as of output of encryption module, and will finish
the decryption after busy signal goes high. You can notice that
the output is available at that time when x is equal to 32 which
can easily shown in figure 9.
Fig. 8 Testing the Decryption Process (shows the starting Portion of the
waveform).
FIG.9 Testing the Decryption Process (shows the Output after x is equal to 32).
VI. RTL SCHEMATIC
The top module of the XTEA is shown below which we will get
after synthesize our main module on Xilinx ISE 10.1.
Fig.10 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF XTEA WITH TWO
BLOCKS - ENCIPHER AND DECIPHER
VII. SYNTHESIS RESULT
The synthesis result contains a table which shows the
comparison between the old research and the proposed XTEA.
While doing comparison we will find that our research shows
great significance as our all the parameters are consuming less
area and consumes less power to operate.
TABLE.1Comparison between old research and proposed XTEA
Parameters Virtex4SX25
FF668
Virtex4SX25
FF668 [3]
Spartan3s200tq
144-4
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LUTs
Clock
1252 4,608 1182
Period(ns) 7.746 6.403
14.062
Slice flip
flops
Maximum
frequency
244 1,081
259
129.099MHz 156.177MHz 71.114MHz
VIII. CONCLUSIONS
This uses Verilog description language to get the modules of
XTEA. After studying the comparative analysis with [3] we
conclude that there is a difference in between the number of
slices, LUTs, GCLKs and the maximum frequency. While
synthesizing our optimization goal is speed. The results are quiet
stable and reliable and has great flexibility with high integration.
REFERENCES
[1] Extended TEA Algorithm proposed by Tom St Denis, April 20 th 1999.
[2] Julio C. Hernandez, Pedro Isasi ―New results on the Genetic Cryptanalysis
of TEA Reduced Round versions of XTEA‖ 2000 IEEE.
[3] Steven M. Aumack, Michael D. Koontz Jr. ―Hardware Implementation of
XTEA‖.
[4] Derek Williams CPSC 6128- Network Security Columbus State University
―The Tiny Encryption Algorithm (TEA)‖ April 26, 2008.
[5] Gaidaa Saeed Mahdi, ―A Modification of TEA Block Cipher Algorithm for
Data Security (MTEA)‖, Eng. & Tech., Journal, vol.29, No.5, 2011.
[6] Wheeler, David J. and Needham, Roger M. TEA, ―a Tiny Encryption
Algorithm‖ Computer Laboratory, Cambridge University, England.
November, 1994.
[7] Wheeler, David J. and Needham, Roger M. TEA Extensions. Computer
Laboratory, Cambridge University, England. October, 1997.
[8] Scheier, Bruce.‖ A Self-Study Course in Block-Cipher Cryptanalysis‖,
Crypto logia, Vol.24 (1).January 2000.
[9] Feistel, Horst.‖ Cryptography and Computer Privacy‖, Scientific American.
Vol. 228(5). May 1973.
[10] Ke Wang,‖ An Encrypt and Decrypt Algorithm Implementation on
FPGAs‖, Semantics, Knowledge and Grid, 2009. SKG 2009. Fifth
International Conference, Page(s): 298 – 301. B. Smith, ―An approach to
graphs of linear forms (Unpublished work style),‖ unpublished.
[11] Biham, Eli and Shamir, Adi,‖ Differential Cryptanalysis of the Data
Encryption Standard‖, Springer Verlag, 1993. ISBN 0-387-97930-1, ISBN
3-540-97930-1.
AUTHORS
First Author – Shweta Gaba, Pursuing M.Tech in VLSI, Amity
School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University and email
– gabashweta18@yahoo.co.in.
Second Author – Iti Aggarwal, Pursuing M.Tech in VLSI,
Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University
and e-mail – agarwal.iti7@gmail.com
Third Author – Dr. Sujata Pandey, HOI of Electronics and
Communication Dept. Amity School of Engineering and
Technology, Amity University and e-mail – spandey@amity.edu.
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Performance analysis & Optimization of WDM-EPON
for Metropolitan Area Networking
Tripuresh Joshi, Arvind Kumar Jaiswal, Mukesh Kumar
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Sam Higginbottom Institute of Agriculture, Technology and Science, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India -211007
Abstract- In this paper, we introduce Bidirectional WDM-
EPON for metropolitan area network for simultaneous transfer of
Data and Video for replacing copper pair cable, with high data
rate communication between CO (Central Office) and Subscriber
End/ ONU (Optical Network Unit). We analyses the network
with different data rate to minimize the problem of high
attenuation, power loss, and improve the efficiency.
Index Terms- Digital video, passiveoptical network (PON),
video overlay, wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM).
I
I. INTRODUCTION
n the era of high data rate communication there are various
ways to communicate either Using the traditional
communication system by coaxial cable, twisted pair cable or
wirelessly. In early 70‘s a new communication technique was
evolved incorporating optical fiber cable communication. Fibers
are Silica glass fiber cables used to transmit data in optical
domain with high speed and enormous bandwidth. There are
several ways to transmit data using fiber cables which may be
divided on the basis of ways of transmission of fiber
communication system;direct communication optical fiber
system and shared communication optical fiber system.
The simplest optical distribution network is called direct fiber.
In this architecture, each fiber leaving the central office goes to
one customer, but technique is very expensive when we are
talking in terms of several customers. So the shared fiber
techniques have been evolved where in the fiber leaving the
central office is shared by many customers. It is not until such a
fiber gets relatively close to the customers that it is split into
individual customer-specific fibers. There are two competing
optical distribution network architectures which achieve this
split; active optical networks (AONs) and passive optical
networks (PONs).
Passive optical networks (PONs) have been considered
attractive due to their longevity, low operational costs, and huge
bandwidth and are widely deployed in the first/last mile of
today‘s operational access networks. PONs come in a number of
flavours. The so-called asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) PON
(APON) and broadband PON (BPON) are ATM-based systems.
Gigabit PON (GPON), the successor of BPON, is able to support
traffic other than ATM (e.g., telephony and Ethernet) in its native
format by using time-division multiplexing (TDM) partitions and
generic framing procedure (GFP) which are similar formats.
Recently, Ethernet PONs (EPONs), standardized by the IEEE
802.3ah Ethernet in the First Mile (EFM) Task Force, have been
attracting and considerable attention from both industry and
academia has been given. EPONs aim at converging the low-cost
equipment and simplicity of Ether-net and the low-cost fiber
infrastructure of PONs. EPONs are evolved to be a promising
solution to provide sufficient bandwidth for emerging services
such as video conferencing, distributed gaming, IP telephony,
and video on demand.
Current EPONs are single-channel systems; that is, the fiber
infrastructure carries a single downstream wavelength channel
and a single upstream wavelength channel, which are typically
separated by means of coarse wavelength-division multiplexing
(CWDM). In the upstream direction (from sub-scriber to
network), the wavelength channel bandwidth is shared by the
EPON nodes by means of TDM. In doing so, only one common
type of single-channel transceiver is used network-wide,
resulting in simplified network operation and maintenance. At
present, single-channel TDM EPONs appear to be an attractive
solution to provide more bandwidth in a cost-effective manner.
Given the steadily increasing number of users and band-widthhungry
applications, current single-channel TDM EPONs are
likely to be upgraded in order to satisfy the growing traffic
demands in the future. Clearly, one approach is to increase the
line rate of TDM EPONs. Note, however, that such an approach
implies that all EPON nodes need to be upgraded by replacing
the installed transceivers with higher-speed transceivers,
resulting in a rather costly upgrade. Alter-natively, singlechannel
TDM EPONs may be upgraded by deploying multiple
wavelength channels in the installed fiber infrastructure in the
upstream and/or downstream directions, resulting in WDM
EPONs. As opposed to the higher-speed TDM approach, WDM
EPONs provide a cautious upgrade path in that wavelength
channels can be added one at a time, each possibly operating at a
different line rate. More important, only EPON nodes with
higher traffic demands may be WDM upgraded by deploying
multiple fixed-tuned and/or tuneable transceivers, while EPON
nodes with lower traffic demands remain unaffected. Thus, using
WDM enables network operators to upgrade single-channel
TDM EPONs in a pay-as-you-grow manner where only a subset
of EPON nodes may be upgraded gradually.
In this paper ourfocus is on how to communicate up to the
nearest part of subscriber‘s home or work place, in a
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN). Sharing of one fiber in
optical communication system can be done by using WDM-
PONs (Wavelength Division Multiplexing Passive Optical
Networks).
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II. WDM EPON ARCHITECTURE
2.1 Proposed Bidirectional WDM PON
Diverse services like Video-on-demand and multimedia
broadcasting using minimum number of wavelengths have been
incorporated in WDM PON increasing its utility to offer
broadcasting services.The system proposed is developed and
simulated for full duplex VoIP, data and digital broadcast Video
signals over single mode fiber based on WDM PON as shown in
figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Proposed Bidirectional WDM PON Network. STB: Set Top Box
2.2Down Streaming of Data, VoIP and Video Signals
2.2.1 Operation at Central Office (CO)
For the downstream data transmission, four Continuous Wave
(CW) lasers operating in the range of 1550 ~ 1553 nm at the
central office (CO) are being used. The output power of
threelasers(1550, 1551 and 1552 nm) was set to be 0 dBm and
laser at 1553 nm was set to be 1 dBm. Three laser sources
operating at 1550, 1551 & 1552 nm have been modulated at
10gbps, 5 gbps& 9gbps for data and laser source at 1553 nm is
modulated at 10gbps for video signal. These are MZ Modulated
in NRZ Format and then were multiplexed by using a 4X1 WDM
Multiplexer. The modulated WDM channels passed through the
1.3/1.5 µm WDM couplers, which were used for the separation
of upstream and downstream channels. For the digital broadcast
video signal, a CW laser operating at 1553 nm (output power:
1dBm) have been used. This signal consisted of digital HD video
channels from a bit sequence generator (operating in the range of
10 GHz). The root-mean-square (rms) optical modulation index
(OMI) per channel was set to be 2.6%. The video signal was
multiplexed with the 3 downstream data channels at the WGR
and amplified by using an erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA)
(output power: 17 dBm). These multiplexed channels were
transmitted to the remote node (RN) through 30 km of singlemode
fiber (SMF).
2.2.2 Operation at Remote Node (RN)
At the RN, the downstream channels were separated into
baseband data and video signal using a 1:4 WDM DEMUX. The
video signal operating at 1553 nm was then split by using a 1X3
splitter and sent to three 2:1 WDM MUX input ports, so that it
could be broadcasted to the 4 ONUs via 5 km of SMF. The
baseband signals, delivered by three WDM channels operating in
the range of 1550~1552 nm, were de-multiplexed by the WDM
DEMUX and sent to each corresponding ONU. In order to
minimise the work load of the central office we shifted the
distribution system to the remote node for simplification of
simulated optical network.
2.2.3 Operation at Optical Network Unit (ONU)
At the ONU, the video and baseband signals were directed to
1:2 WDM DEMUX and sent to corresponding p-i-n photo-diode
(PIN-PD) receiver by the 1.3/1.5- µm WDM couplers. We used
dedicated receiver to detect both the video and baseband signals
when the data rate of the downstream data was 10Gb/s.
The output signal of the receiver was split, and sent to an error
detector and a TV for the BER and video quality measurements,
respectively. When the downstream data rate was 10 Gb/s, we
separated the baseband and video signals using an additional
1550~1552/1553- nm WDM DEMUX and sent to two
independent receivers.
2.3 Up Streaming of Data, Voice and Video Signals
For the upstream channels, a directly modulated LED
operating at 1300~1302 nm at each ONU to transmit 2.5-Gb/s
data has been used. The output power and 3-dB bandwidth of the
LED were about 3 dBm, respectively. In this simulation, we
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operated the upstream channels only at 2.5 Gb/s due to the
limited power budget. However, if necessary, it could be possible
to increase the upstream data rate up to about 7.5 Gbps by using
the high-power LEDs capable of operating at high speed. The
upstream data were first coupled into the same fiber used for the
downstream channels by using 1.3/1.5 µm WDM couplers, and
then sent to the corresponding ports of the WDM MUX at the
RN. Thus, the upstream channels were automatically spectrumsliced
and multiplexed by the WDM MUX at the RN. After
transmission over 5 km of SMF, the multiplexed upstream
channels were de-multiplexed by the WDM DEMUX at the CO.
The de-multiplexed upstream channel was then detected by using
the PIN photo-diode receiver via a 1.3/1.5 µm WDM coupler. In
this network, identical transmitters were used at the entire ONUs
since we used LEDs for the upstream transmission.
III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
For this channel, the fiber length is set to be between 10 Km
to 50 Km from CO to RN and 5Km will be added from RN to
ONU. Value of Q-factors and signal power is taken and
compared within the range of fiber length as shown in figure 3.1
and figure 3.2 respectively. The value of the Q-factor are
decreasing when the length of the fiber is increasing same as the
transmission signal power, it be will decrease as the length is
increasing. The variation of OSNR with distance coverage as
shown in figure 3.3 indicates that when the fiber reach 30 Km the
quality of transmission is still good and gets deteriorated as the
length is increased beyond 30 Km, but when it reaches40 Km to
50 Km, the performance of transmission is getting worst. It is
further observed that when the length reaches 40 Km to 50 Km,
its performance is worst and therefore an amplifier needs to be
incorporated. The value of parameters e.g. Q-factor, signal
power, noise power and OSNR for the specified length(0+5,
10+5, 20+5, 30+5, 40+5 and 50+5 Km), at different data rates
are shown in Table No. 3.1, Table No. 3.2, Table No. 3.3 &
Table No. 3.4.
Table 3.1: System Measurement at 10 Gb/s at 1550 nm for Data.
Length
(Km)
Q-Factor Signal
Power
(dBm)
Noise
Power
(dBm)
OSNR
(dB)
0+5 4.21518 10.2810 -51.2647 51.5457
10+5 4.10117 8.19247 -49.2647 51.4572
20+5 4.33012 6.18614 -47.2647 51.4509
30+5 4.37036 4.16775 -45.2647 51.4325
40+5 4.38897 2.1423 -43.2647 51.4070
50+5 4.45080 0.13474 -41.2647 51.3995
Table 3.2: System Measurement at 5 Gb/s at 1551 nm for Data.
Length
(Km)
Q-Factor Signal
Power
(dBm)
Noise
Power
(dBm)
OSNR
(dB)
0+5 5.54020 8.50604 -50.9485 49.4546
10+5 4.76874 6.37868 -48.9485 49.3272
20+5 5.1722 4.36422 -46.9485 49.3128
30+5 5.35873 2.34143 -44.9485 49.2900
40+5 5.51902 0.321221 -42.9485 49.2698
50+5 5.59244 -1.71130 -40.9485 49.2372
Table 3.3: System Measurement at 9 Gb/s at 1552 nm for Data.
Length
(Km)
Q-Factor Signal
Power
(dBm)
Noise
Power
(dBm)
OSNR
(dB)
0+5 4.40331 7.76382 -50.7254 48.4892
10+5 4.14752 5.57348 -48.7254 48.2989
20+5 4.30115 3.54628 -46.7254 48.2717
30+5 4.13236 1.51757 -44.7254 48.2429
40+5 4.07893 -0.527713 -42.7254 48.1977
50+5 3.99816 -2.548160 -40.7254 48.1772
Table 3.4: System Measurement at 10 Gb/s at 1553 nm for Video.
Length
(Km)
Q-Factor Signal
Power
(dBm)
Noise
Power
(dBm)
OSNR
(dB)
0+5 5.61559 6.91018 -55.2344 52.1446
10+5 5.56571 4.58242 -53.2344 51.8168
20+5 5.33704 1.92976 -51.2344 51.1642
30+5 4.96501 -0.934781 -49.2344 50.2996
40+5 5.03402 -3.74776 -47.2344 49.4866
50+5 5.78113 -6.14907 -45.2324 49.0853
Figure3.1: GraphQ-Factor (dB) with Distance Variation
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Figure 3.2: Graph Noise Power (dBm) with Distance Variation
Figure 3.3: Graph OSNR (dB) with Distance Variation
IV. CONCLUSION
We have proposed and demonstrated a bidirectional PON for
the simultaneous transmission of 4 WDM signals and HD digital
broadcast video channels, up to35 km. This network could be
implemented cost-effectively using a single strand of SM fiber
for bidirectional transmission, LEDs for upstream WDM
channels and one receiver for the detection of basebandsignals at
2.5 Gb/s. In addition, the capacity of the proposed network could
be upgraded easily by incorporating an additional WDM coupler
and a receiver at the ONU.
REFERENCES
[1] D. K. Jung, H. Kim, K. H. Han, and Y. C. Chung, ―Spectrum-sliced
bidirectional passive optical network for simultaneous transmission of
WDM and digital broadcast video signals,‖ Electron. Lett., vol. 37, no. 5,
pp. 308–309, 2001.
[2] P. P. Iannone, K. C. Reichmann, and N. J. Frigo, ―High-speed point-topoint
and multiple broadcast services delivered over a WDM passive optical
network,‖ IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett., vol. 10, pp. 1328–1330, Sept. 1998.
[3] M. Akbulut, C. H. Chen, M. C. Hargis, A. M. Weiner, M. R. Melloch, and
J. M. Woodall, ―Digital communications above 1 Gb/s using 890-nm surface-emitting
light-emitting diodes,‖ IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett., vol. 13,
pp. 85–87, Jan. 2001.
[4] U. Hilbk, T. Hermes, J. Saniter, and F.-J. Westphal, ―High capacity WDM
overlay on a passive optical network,‖ Electron. Lett., vol. 32, no. 23, pp.
2162–2163, 1996.
[5] D. K. Jung, S. K. Shin, and Y. C. Chung, ―Wavelength-tracking technique
for spectrum-sliced WDM passive optical network,‖ IEEE Photon. Technol.
Lett., vol. 12, pp. 338–340, Mar. 2000.
AUTHORS
First Author – Tripuresh Joshi;PG-Student;SHIATS-DU,
Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India-211007 email address –
coolcog@gmail.com.
Second Author – Arvind Kumar Jaiswal;Professor;SHIATS-
DU, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India-211007 email address –
arvindkjaiswal@yahoo.co.in.
Third Author – Mukesh Kumar;Assistant Professor;SHIATS-
DU, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India-211007 email address –
mukesh044@gmail.com.
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Next Generation of Internet Protocol for TCP/IP
Protocol Suite
Abstract- The Internet has instantly evolved into a vast global
network in the growing techonology.TCP/IP protocol is the basic
requirement for the recent time Internet .In TCP/IP proposed a
security enhancement. This enhancement adds three modules.
These are Security Policy, security control and data link layer.
Security policy belongs to application layer, Security control is
management located in the transport layer and Data security
layer located between transport layer and IP layer. Security
policy interacts with the system administrator for defining
policies and roles of security to be applied in the data
communications. Security control module provides the means to
apply security policy module and established security channels.
It usage four way handshaking and public key cryptography
(PKC) to create virtual secure connection and secret key
cryptography (SKC). Data security layer proposed Thin security
over IP protocol. Thin security protocol encrypt and encapsulated
the coming transport layer packet into TSP packets. Internet
usage continues to increase exponentially. So network security
becomes a growing problem. Even though IPv6 comes with build
mechanism IPSec for security, it lacks security in application
layer of TCP/IP protocol suite.IPv6 solves most of the security
breaches for IPv4 with the use of IPSec but IPSec does not have
any security provision in application layer and for security
purpose there is a need for security mechanism. Here in TCP/IP
architecture includes a layer called Security Layer, which
guarantees security to provide Application layer using a protocol
Application Layer Security Protocol.
Index Terms- Internet, TCP/IP, Security policy, Security
control, Data Security Layer
T
I. INTRODUCTION
he emergence of IPv6 enables new generation of application
and services. Security is traditionally connected to
exigencies of defining sensitive data from illegal access. But in
the moment network security is approached from a different
perception. With the growing use of the internet infrastructure for
commercial applications, the demand for quality of service is one
of the Emerging paradigms in internet and seems to be corner
stone for more and more network services. An increasing number
of applications need multifaceted, consistent controls for
guaranteeing Quality of service. Internet is based on TCP/IP
protocol suite. IP was not planned with security in mind. TCP/IP
suite is used for communication. It enabled million of computers
to communicate globally.IPv6 is not designed to provide
Miss. Soni Samprati
Department of Computer Science of Engineering
MIT Pune‘s, Maharashtra Academy of Engineering, Alandi(D).
Pune University, India
sonisamprati16@yahoo.com
backward compatibility with IPv4, most IPv6 mission critical
applications must be able to continuously interoperate with
legacy IPv4 nodes. The most common transition mechanism now
a days in Dual stack. A node with a dual stack allows coexistence
and interoperability of IPv4 and IPv6 nodes using IPv4
and IPv6 packets. The gateway which is located at the boundary
of IPv4 and IPv6 address real translates IPv4 header into IPv6
header or vice versa. To ensure end to end security between the
end nodes, the deployment of IPSec since IPSec has been widely
used in IP networks. AH header is inserted into the IP packet
immediately after the outer IP header. Then, AH authentication
the entire packet including the preceding IP header. The
underlying of IPSec mechanism which preserve of translation
gateway for most applications in the practices. When the
translation gateway modifies the IP header from one address
realm to another, IPSec evaluating this as violation of integrity
and discards the packet. Therefore header from one address
realm to another, IPSec evaluating this as violation of integrity
and discard the packet. Here for TCP/IP suite security
enhancement will be used. This enhancement adds three modules
i.e. Security policy, security control and data security layer. The
security policy belongs to application layer, and the security
control and management located in the transport layer, the data
security layer is located between the transport layer and IP layer.
Security policy interacts with system administrator to define the
policies and roles of security to be applied in data
communication. Security control module provides the means to
apply the security policy defined in security policy module and
established a secure channel. It uses four way handshaking and
public key cryptography (PKC) to create virtual secure
connection and security entity (SE). SE holds the secret key
cryptography (SKC) addresses of two host that share this SKC
and other vital information necessary to carry out a secure data
communication. For data security, proposed a thin security
protocol (TSP) over IP protocol. TSP protocol encrypts and
encapsulated the coming transport layer packet into TSP packets.
The Tsp packet header consists only of two fields each of them is
one byte. The first field identifies the TSP packets such as public
key request, public key acknowledgement, secret key and secret
key, and secret key acknowledgment. The second field carries
information about the transport layer protocol.TSP designed and
implementation, to concern minimize the overhead added to IP
including traffic volume and transmission delay.
IPv6 is current version, and most widely used internet
protocol. IP enables data to be sent from one workstation to
another in a network and is known as a connectionless protocol
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since there is no continuous connection between the two
communicating devices. Therefore when a message is sent by
means of IP it is broken up into packets, which may travel
through a number of different routes to their final destination,
and on arrival at their destination they are reassembled in their
original form. Each device in a network has an IP address, which
is used by the IP protocol to ensure that the packets of
information to reach their correct destination. It holds great
guarantee to become the backbone of the prospect of the internet
and an important improvement over IPv4 in terms of scalability,
security, mobility and convergence.
Existing or Related Work
The existing network layer protocol in the TCP/IP protocol
suite is as present IPv4. IPv4/IPv6 translation gateway breaks
IPSec. IPSec supports transport mode in providing end to end
security between nodes. However, applying IPSec across
translation gateway for this purpose violates TCP/UDP intrinsic
functionalities. The co-existence of translation gateway and
IPSec ESP is not feasible due to the IP header translation which
cause the TCP/UDP checksum invalid.TCP/UDP checksum has a
dependency on IP source and destination addresses through the
inclusion of TCP/UDP pseudo-header in the calculation. Like
normal Network Address Translation (NAT), while the
translation gateway translates the IP address, it should also recompute
the checksum. Since IPSec ESP encrypt and
authenticates ESP header and TCP/UDP header, any attempt to
modify to checksum causes the integrity check to fail.
Alternately, if translation gateway dose not update the checksum,
TCP/UDP verification will fail. NAT-Traversal (NAT-T) is
designed to solve the problems inherent in using IPSec and
translation gateway. The following section extensively describes
the operation of NAT. With NAT-T, the UDP-ESP encapsulation
is deployed to support the IPSec packets from both end nodes to
traverse the translation gateway and to avoid any problems with
the IPSec aware gateway. Let‘s imagine multiple connections are
mapped to one allocated address. Since IPSec ESP does not use
port information, the translation gateway can only utilize the
protocol field in IP header to distinguish the packets. When the
first IPSec connection in the table so that all IPSec ESP packets
will be routed to the first connection. However, when there is the
new IPSec connection, the translation gateway replaces the entry
in the table and thus breaking the first IPSec connection. UDP-
ESP encapsulation gives the translation gateway an UDP header
containing UDP port that can be used for multiplexing IPSec data
streams.
Even though IPv4 is well designed, its security breaches make
it inappropriate for the fast emerging Internet. To overcome these
drawbacks, IPv6 also known as IPing was planned which became
a standard in the recent past.
IPv6 Security Issues
From a security point of view, the new IPv6 protocol stack
represents a considerable advance in reliable to the old IPv4
stack. However, despite its innumerable virtues, IPv6 still
continues to be by far vulnerable. IPv6 where security continues
to be an important issues:
Dual stack related issues: Presently, the internet
continues to be mostly IPv4 based. However, it is
reasonable to expect that this scenario will change soon
as more and more networks are migrated to be new
protocol stack. Unfortunately, migrating millions of
networks is going to take quite some time. In the mean
time, some form of 6 to 4 dual-stack will supply the
desired functionality without any doubt; IPv4-IPv6 dual
stacks increase the potential for security vulnerabilities-
as a consequence of having two infrastructures with
specific security problems. However, most of the issues
are not direct result of specific IPv6 design flaws but
mostly a result of inappropriate configuration.
Header manipulation issues: The use of extension and
IPSec can deter some common sources of attack based
on header manipulation. However the fact that EH must
be proposed by all stacks can be source of trouble- a
long chain of EH or some considerably large size could
be used to overwhelm certain node an attack. Its uses
source of security problems such as address spoofing- in
this case if the spoofed address is used to masquerade an
external packet as one that was originated from the
inside network.
Flooding issues: Scanning for valid host address and
services is considerably more difficult in IPv6networks
that it is in IPv4 networks. However, the larger
addressing space does not mean that IPv6 is totally
invulnerable to this type of attack. Nor the lack of
broadcast address makes IPv6 more secure. New
features such as multicast address continue to be source
of problem.
Mobility: Mobility is a totally new feature of IPv6 that
was not available in this predecessor. Mobility is a very
complex function that raises a considerable amount of
concern when considering security. Mobility uses two
types of addresses, the real address and the mobility
address. The first is a typical IPv6 address contained in
an extension header. The second is a temporary address
contained in the IP header. Because of the
characteristics of this networks, the temporary
component of a mobile node address could be exposed
to spoofing attacks on the home agent. Mobility requires
special security measures and networks administrators
must be fully aware.[1]
II. TCP/IP ARCHITECTURE
The TCP/IP protocol suite referred to as the Internet protocol
suite, is the set of communication protocol that implements the
protocol stack on which the internet and most commercial
networks run. It is made up of two most important protocols in
suite: the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet
protocol (IP). Internet protocol is the foundation of the TCP/IP
protocol suite, science it is the mechanism responsible for
delivering datagram‘s. The TCP/IP protocol suite is like OSI
Reference model which is defined as a set of layers. Upper layers
are logically to the users and deal with more abstract data,
relying on lower protocols to translate data into forms that are
transmitted physically over the network.TCP/IP suite which is
the De facto standard for internet manages security with many
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other issues in the application layer making its a very thick one.
Hence more, this means that the security problem needs to be
solved by application developer whose consternation mainly on
the main task of their application.
Figure 1: TCP/IP architecture
2.3.1. Security policy module:
Security policy module lies on the application layer with
respect to TCP/IP protocol suite and interacts with user to define
the proper security requirements. This security policy are stored
and used by security control and management module to define
the actions that should be accomplished for each communication
session.
2.3.2. Security control and management module:
Security control and management module gets security
requirements from its upper layer, which is security policy
module. Based on the requirements, this module acts on each
communication session .Security control and management
module is responsible on providing the means required by data
security layer. It creates a security entity(SE) for each
communication session. SE contains an address of the sender, an
address of the receiver, symmetric encrypt key, encryption
algorithm, compressing algorithm, compressing enable and SE
lifetime for which this SE will stay alive in security cache. Fig.2
[2] shows a four- way handshaking approach to establish a secure
connection and exchange symmetric encryption keys between the
sender and receiver.
Figure 2: Exchanging symmetric encryption key using four-way
handshaking
2.3.3. Data security layer:
Data security layer uses symmetric data encryption algorithm.
The symmetric key used in this layer is provided by security
control module. For each communication session there is security
entity (SA). Hence more data security layer may uses data
compressing algorithm to reduce the size of the encrypted data.
We used data compressing because some encrypted algorithm
output size is larger than input data the overhead added by
compressing is accepted by security policy define by the system
administrator. In fact the size is larger the input size in this case
of the input size is small.
2.3.4. Thin security protocol:
Thin security protocols (TSP) intend to provide data security
for all packets coming from transport layer. It encrypts transport
layer packets using symmetric encrypt algorithm as shown in
figure 1. The TSP header is only two bytes. The first one holds
protocol vital information and the other preserve transport layer
protocol type such as TCP or UDP.TSP two bytes header are
specified in detail in figure 3.
Figure 3: TSP Protocol Header
The first byte contain TSP type field, which is 5-bits long; it
holds the type of TSP packet that is transmitted. TSP types are
public key request, public key acknowledgment (ACK), secret
key, secret key ACK, end connection, and end connection ACK
packet. The rest of the first byte is used as indication flags, the
first one which is denoted as ―Include Trans. Layer‖ specifies
wither this TSP packet has encrypted transport layer header or it
is outside the encryption boundaries. The second bit denoted
―Compress Packet‖ indicates if this packet is compressed.
Compressing packet data is done after encrypting it. So it works
as an indicator to allow the post-decryption handler to
decompress the received data. The last bit is reserved for future
utilization. The second byte, which indicates the upper layer
protocol, is an identical field to the one in the original IP header.
The upper layer protocol field is filled with 255 to indicate that
TSP protocol is used [3].
III. CRYPTOGRAPHIC ALGORITHM
Cryptography algorithms provide high security to information
on controlled networks. These algorithms are required to provide
data security and users authenticity. Numerous encryption
algorithms are extensively available and can be categorized into
symmetric and asymmetric key. Some of the common algorithms
are RE 2, DES, 3DES, RC6, Blow fish, Elgamal and AES.
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Among these algorithms Blowfish and Elgamal are taken for the
analysis that can be used for the proposed architecture.
TABLE 1: Differentiate between these algorithms
Attribu
tes
Blowfish Elgamal RC6 DES
Block
size
64 bit NA NA 64 bit
Keys Variable( One Symmet Constant
32-448 Secret ric (56 bits)
bits) key
Speed Fast Slower Slower Slower
than Blow than than
fish Elgamal Blow
fish
Memor Large Comparati Less Less
y space memory vely less
than
space
Blow
fish
Perfor Very Good Good Good
mance Good
A. Blowfish:
Blowfish is a variable length key, 64-bit block cipher. The
algorithm consists of two parts: A key– expansion part and a data
encryption part. Key expansion part converts a key of at most
448 bits into several sub key arrays totally 4168 bytes. Blowfish
uses a large number of sub keys. These keys must be
precomputed before any data encryption or decryption. The key
array also called p-array consists of 18 32 bit sub keys:
p1,p2,….,p18. There are four 32 bit s-boxes with 256 entries
each. S1, 0, S1, 1… S1, 255; S2, 0, S2, 1... S2, 255; S3, 0, S3,
1....., S3, 255; S4, 0, S4, 1… S4, 255;
Data encryption occurs via a 16 round Feistel network
[reference]. Each round consists of a key dependent permutation,
a key and a data dependent substitution. All operations are EX-
Ors and additions on 32 bit words.
Algorithm .1 (Encryption)
1. The input is a 64 bit data element, i.e. X.
2. Divide X into two 32 bit halves: XL,XR.
3. then 16 rounds Feistel network: for i=1 to 16:
4. XL=XL XOR Pi: for prevent the potential attack
5. XR=F(XL) XOR XR
6. After that swap XL and XR
7. swap XL and XR again to under the last swap
After 1s6 round.
8. then XR=XR XOR P17 and XL=XL XOR P18
9. Recombine XL and XR to get cipher text.
TABLE 2: Dataset From Simulation
Round No. of Files Original ALSP
Architecture Architecture
1 1 300ms 420ms
2 3 800ms 925ms
3 5 1750ms 2500ms
4 8 820ms 900ms
5 10 2200ms 2300ms
Decryption for Blowfish is relatively straightforward. Ironically,
decryption works in the same algorithmic direction as encryption
beginning with the cipher text as input. However as expected, the
sub keys are used in reverse order[ 3].
IV. PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
Performance is the vital part of the TCP/IP Protocol suite.
Several performance metrics are used to evaluate the
performance of the encryption algorithms such as Encryption
time, Decryption time, CPU process time, and CPU clock cycles
and Battery. To demonstrate the performance for the proposed
architecture, a series of simulation runs are performed on a
variety of set of data.
Fig 4: Performance Evaluation
From the previous one, it shows that the proposed architecture
has poor performance when compared to the existing TCP/IP
architecture. It also shows that the execution time of encryption
algorithm is very high which a major reason for the lack of
performance is[3].
Blow Fish Algorithm is fast, free alternative to existing
encryption algorithm. It is slowly gaining acceptance as a strong
encryption algorithm and also Unpatented, license free and
available for all users. It uses sub keys that are a One-way hash
function. In Blow fish, no linear structure therefore, it reduces
the complexity of exhaustive search. And also it is easy to
understand therefore here Blow fish algorithm would be used.
Here, We can modified to reduce the execution time Only that
case performance of proposed system can be increased.
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V. CONCLUSION
In this paper outlined several security problems of IPv6.It also
outlined new ideas to design efficient security mechanism for the
TCP/IP protocol suite. With some changes in the existing model,
high level of security can be obtained. In this new structure of
TCP/IP we added three modules. These modules are: Security
policy, Security Control and Data security layer. It uses four way
handshaking and Public key cryptography (PKC) to create virtual
secure connection and security entity (SE). SE holds the secret
key cryptography (SKC), and address of two hosts that share this
SKC.TSP protocol minimizes the overhead added to IP including
traffic volume and transmission delay. In term of data size, TSP
adds only two bytes as TSP header. Hence more, TSP compress
the encrypted data before sending it. It provides tight security
with the minor overhead of the exiting model based on this
Application Layer Security Protocol (ALSP) architecture.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
My heartfelt thanks to my guide, Prof. R. M. Goudar, Asst
Professor, College of Maharashtra Academy of Engineering,
Pune, who offered her whole hearted guidance and invaluable
suggestions throughout the preparation of this paper. Above all I
must and do thank God Almighty from the depth of my heart for
the being with me at each and every stage assuring hope,
confidence and courage to get the task accomplished in time.
REFERENCES
[1] Samuel Sotillo, IPv6 Security Issues, East Carolina University.
[2] Mohammad Al-jarrah, Abdel-Karim R.Tamimi, Computer Engineering
Department, Hijjah, Faculty for Eng. Techonology, Yarmouk University,
Irbid 21163-Jordan.
[3] M.Anand Kumar, Security Model for TCP/IP Protocol Security, Karpagam
University.
[4] Yongguang Zhang, A Multilayer IP Security Protocol for TCP Performance
Enhancement in Wireless Networks, Member, IEEE.
AUTHORS
Soni Samprati, M.E (1 st year), Maharshtra Academy of
Engineering, Pune
sonisamprati16@yahoo.com
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Evaluation of Anticarcinogenic and Antimutagenic
Effects of Triphala Extract
R.C.Agrawal, Rajani
Research Department, Priyamvada Birla Cancer Research Institute, Satna, Madhya Pradesh, India
Abstract- The results of the present investigation showed that
topical single application of DMBA. followed by 1 % croton oil
produced skin papillomas. The incidence of tumours reached
100% and the value of cumulative number of papillomas in these
animals were recorded 40 and the average number of papillomas
per mouse (tumour yield) was found 6.6. The mice which
received Triphala extract additionally showed a significant
decrease in the number and incidence of tumour as compared
with DMBA + croton oil group. When triphala extract was
topically applied at the dose of 40 mg /kg body weight for 16
weeks to the skin of animals the tumor incidence was found 60%
and the value of cumulative number of papillomas in these
animals were recorded 6 and the average number of papillomas
per mouse in this group was found 1.5. The differences in the
values of results of the experiment was statistically analyzed and
found significant in comparison to the control group at (p< 0.05).
In another study the effect of triphala extract on B16F10
melanoma tumour bearing mice was also evaluated. The
inhibition rate was 69 % in triphala extract groups group as
compared to control group. The life span was also increased by
52 % as compared to control group. The tumour volume of
triphala treated mice was significantly reduced as compared to
control. The result was found significant in comparison to the
control group (p< 0.05).
In antimutagenicity studies, single application of triphala
extract at the dose of 40, 80 and 120 mg/kg body weight, 24
hours prior the intraperitonial administration of
Cyclophosphamide (at the dose of 50 mg/kg) have significantly
prevented the micronucleus formations and chromosomal
aberrations in dose dependent manner in bone marrow cells of
mice as compared to Cyclophosphamide group. It may be
concluded that triphala extract exert anticarcinogenic and
antimutagenic effect in the present set of experiments.
T
I. INTRODUCTION
riphala is a combination of the dried fruits of Terminalia
chebula, Terminalia belerica, and Emblica officinalis in
equal proportions. It is therefore making it useful as an internal
cleansing, detoxifying formula ( Jagetia et al,2002 ). This
compound and its individual ingredients are highly valued in
Ayurveda, and being compared to a "good manager of the
house," aiding digestion, nutrient absorption and body
metabolism. In a study it has been reported that Triphala
possessed the ability to induce cytotoxicity in tumor cells but
spared the normal cells (Sandhya et al, 2005 and 2006). Another
report found that "Triphala" showed a significant cytotoxic effect
on cancer cell-lines. It has been concluded that the action was
due to gallic acid-a major polyphenol found in "Triphala". (Kaur
et al ,2005) It was also effective in reducing tumor incidences
and increasing the antioxidant status of animals. It was observed
that Triphala was more effective in reducing tumor incidences as
compared to its individual constituents (Deep et al,2005 ).
Antioxidant studies conducted revealed that all three constituents
of triphala are active and they exhibit slightly different activities
under different conditions and the mixture, triphala, is expected
to be more efficient due to the combined activity of the
individual components (Naik et al, 2005). Similar results were
also reported that ―Triphala, an ayurvedic rasayana drug, protects
mice against radiation-induced lethality by free-radical
scavenging.‖(Jagetia et al, 2002) Triphala, may be potent and
novel therapeutic agents for scavenging of Nitrous Oxide ( NO)
and thereby inhibited the pathological conditions caused by
excessive generation of NO and its oxidation product, per
oxynitrite. Since there is a paucity of information regarding
anticarcinogenicity and antimutagenicity of triphala extract, we
have therefore undertaken to study these parameter in the
experimental animals.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Animals: Random bred male Swiss Albino and C57 Bl hybrid
mice of (6-8 weeks old) of 15-20 gms body weight were obtained
from the animal colony of our research centre. They were kept
on controlled temperature (22 0 C) and 12 : 12 hours light and
dark cycle and were given synthetic pellet diet and water ad
libitum. The experiment was approved by the institutional animal
ethic committee before conduction of the experiments.
Chemicals: Cyclophosphamide was purchased from Sigma
chemical Co., U.S.A. and other chemical were reagents grade
and were procured locally for the study.
III. PREPARATION OF TRIPHALA EXTRACT.
Triphala was purchased from Dabur chemical co. The 50 gm
powder was mixed in 50 % methanol and kept in separating
funnel for 6 hours. The supernatant was collected and this
process was repeated until clear solution of supernatant was
obtained. All supernatant was pooled together and dried to the
powder at 40 0 C water bath. The final powder was soluble in
water therefore it was dissolved in double distilled water before
the each treatment at required concentrations.
(A) Experimental design
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Skin Bioassay Protocol
Procedure
Experiments were performed as per the method reported by
Berenblum (1975) and Sukumaran and Kuttan R. (1991). A
group of 6 mice (Shaved on dorsal skin two days earlier) single
application of 104 μg of DMBA in acetone (100 μl), was began 1
week after initiation Triphala extract (100 μl) were applied 1 hr.
before each croton oil treatment. The extract was applied to the
shaved area using the micropiptette. The experiment was
continued for 16 weeks. Skin tumour formation was recorded
weekly and the tumours greater than 1 mm in diameter were
included in counting of total number of papillomas / mouse,
tumour incidence and tumour yield was recorded if they
persisted for two weeks or more.
Group 1 (Untreated control) No treatment was given. .
Group 2 (Vehicle control) 100 μl acetone 2 times /week up to
16 weeks
Group 3(DMBA alone) 104 μg DMBA was dissolved in 100 μl
acetone and single application was given.
Group 4 (Croton oil alone) 1 % Croton oil was applied on skin
2 times a week up to 16 weeks.
Group 5 (DMBA + Croton Oil) The animals were treated with
a single dose of DMBA (104 μg/100 μl of acetone) over the
shaven area of the skin of the mice. One week later, croton oil
(1% in 100 μl of acetone) was applied as a promoter 3 times per
week until the end of the experiment (i.e. 16 weeks).
Group 6 (DMBA + Triphala extract. + Croton Oil) The
animals were treated with Triphala extract (40 mg /kg) topically
one week after DMBA (104 μg/100 μl of acetone) application,
followed by the application of croton oil (1% in 100 μl of
acetone thrice a week) until the end of the experiment (i.e. 16
weeks).
Group 7 (Triphala extract alone): - The animals were treated
Triphala extract (40 mg /kg) without DMBA and Croton oil was
given 3 times a week up to 16 weeks.
Each group‘s consists of 6 animals for skin model assay and
the animals of all groups were kept under observation for gross
and microscopic changes in skin.
(B) Melanoma model
Melanoma cell line was obtained from National Cell Science
Research Centre, Pune and 5 lacks cells / animal were injected.
After implantation of the melanoma cell line, animal were kept
under observation and experiment was started after 10 days when
the tumours were seen. The treatment was given orally for 30
days and tumour volume and survival time of each animal was
recorded. The following groups were maintained.
Control Group: This group consisted of four mice. The
melanoma cell line (B6F10) were injected subcutaneously (S.C.)
in all four mice.
Test Group: This group was divided into two sub groups.
Each group consisted of four animals. The melanoma cell line
was injected by S.C. route. The tumour bearing mice were orally
given dose of 40 mg/ Kg body weight in 50 % methonolic extract
of Triphala. as standardized by us in earlier experiments
(Agrawal et al, 2009).
Antimutagenic study: The cytogenetic damage in the bone
marrow cells were studied by chromosomal aberrations and
micronuclei induction.
(i) Chromosomal aberrations analysis: For the
chromosomal aberrations assay, the Triphala
extract at different dose levels i.e. 40 ,80 and 120
mg/kg body weight in the volume of 0.2 ml was
injected 24 hours before the treatment of
cyclophosphamide. The positive control group
received single i.p. injection of 50 mg/kg
cyclophosphamide in 0.9% saline. Colchicine (4
mg/kg b.wt ) was administered intraperitoneally 2
hours before the harvest of the cells. Animals were
sacrificed by cervical dislocation and bone marrow
cells were harvested. The slides were prepared
essentially as per modified method of Preston et al
(1987) for chromosomal aberrations and method of
Schmid (1975) and standardized by us (Agrawal et
al ,1998, 1999) for micronucleus evaluations. The
femur was excised and the bone marrow was
extracted in 0.56 % KCl. The harvested cells were
incubated at 37 0 C for 20 minutes and then
centrifuged for 10 minutes at 1000 rpm. Cells were
fixed in Carney‘s fixative (Methanol: Acetic acid,
3:1) and burst opened on a clean slide to release the
chromosomes. The slides were stained with 5 %
Giemsa solution for 15 minutes and then put in
xylene and mounted with DPX. A total of 100 well
spread metaphase plates were scored for
chromosomal aberrations at a magnification of
1000 X (100 x 10 X) for each group. Different
types of chromosomal aberrations such as
chromatid breaks, gaps, pulverization, polyploidy,
centromeric association etc. were scored and
expressed as % chromosomal aberrations.
(ii) Micronuceus assay: The femur of mice was
dissected out and the bone marrow was flushed out
in HBBS solution as described by us earlier (
Agrawal et al,1998) . The smear was made in
precleaned slides, air dried and fixed in absolute
methanol. The slides were stained with
Maygrunwald and Giemsa stain. About 2000 cells
were counted and number of micronucleated
polychromatid and Normochromatid erythrocytes
cells were scored. PCE/NCE ratio was also
calculated. The data are presented in MNPCE+SE.
The statistical significance was evaluated using
Student's `t' test.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 114
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IV. RESULTS
The results of the present investigation have been summarized
in Tables 1 and 2. Topical single application of DMBA at the
dose of 104 mg/kg b. wt. followed by 1 % croton oil produced
skin papillomas. The incidence of tumours reached 100% and
the value of cumulative number of papillomas in these animals
were recorded 40 and the average number of papillomas per
mouse (tumour yield) was found 6.6.
The mice which received Triphala extract showed a
significant decrease in the number and incidence of tumour as
compared with that of the DMBA + croton oil group. When
triphala extract was topically applied at the dose of 40 mg /kg b.
wt. for 16 weeks to the skin of animals the tumor incidence was
found 60% and the value of cumulative number of papillomas in
these animals were recorded 6 and the average number of
papillomas per mouse in this group was found 1.5 . The
differences in the values of the results of experimental groups
were statistically analyzed and found to be significant in
comparison to the control group at (p< 0.05).
Histopathology of skin tumour
The animals which received the treatment of DMBA + Croton
oil for 16 weeks showed the infiltration nests of neoplastic
squamous epithelium . The tumour cells exhibited a high nuclear
cytoplasmic ratio. Moderate cytoplasm and dense clumped
chromatin were also seen. Adjacent epithelium showed marked
hyperkeratosis. This is suggestive of kerating squamous cell
carcinoma grade II. When the triphala extract was applied along
with the DMBA and Croton oil malignant tumours were not seen
as compared to DMBA + Croton oil group. In the case of this
group only four mice had tumours and the histopathology report
suggest in these animals were having papillomatous hyperplasia,
papilloma, extracellular keratin and epithelial hyperplasia with
mild displasia was reported and the remaining animals showed
the normal skin.
The study showed the effect of triphala extract on B16F10
melanoma tumour bearing mice. The preventive effect of triphala
extract was calculated using the parameter of inhibition rate (IR),
Increase in the life span (ILS), and Volume of tumour . The
inhibition rate was 69 % in triphala extract treated group as
compared to control group. The life span was also increased in
52 % as compared to control group. The volume of triphala
treated mice was significantly reduced as compared to control.
The differences in the values of the results of experimental
groups were statistically analyzed and found significant in
comparison to the control groups (p< 0.05).
In cytogenetic studies, single application of triphala extract
at the dose of 40, 80 and 120 mg/kg dry weight, 24 hours prior
the i.p. administration of Cyclophosphamide (at the dose of 50
mg/kg) have significantly prevented the micronucleus formations
in dose dependent manner in bone marrow cells of mice as
compared to Cyclophosphamide group (Table 4). The dose
dependent protection was also observed in chromosomal
aberrations assay in bone marrow cells of mice in triphala
extract treated mice as compared to known mutagen,
Cyclophosphamide treated groups (Table 5)
V. DISCUSSION
The present study demonstrated that when triphala extract was
given one hour before the each application of croton oil, the
incidence and the number of skin papillomas was significantly
decreased. The reduction in tumour count may be due to effect in
the promotional phase of tumourgenesis which prevent the
reduction of free radicals (Huachen and Krystyn, 1991). Triphala
becomes one of the highly potential herbal medicines in cancer
treatment and prevention because all three compositions of
Triphala have been found to possess notable anticancer
properties (Sandhya et al., 2006a).Although very little is known
about the mechanism by which these plants act against cancer
cells. The mechanism of in vitro cytotoxicity and tumor growth
reduction in vivo induced by Triphala seems to involve apoptosis
induction. In addition, the components of Triphala may exert
synergistic cytotoxic action on tumor reduction. Gallic acid is
one of the major components of Triphala and capable of
inhibiting cancer cell proliferation suggesting the key factor
responsible for antimutagenic and cytotoxic effects of Triphala
(Kaur et al., 2005). Polyphenols such as tannins and gallic acid, a
component unit of hydrolysable tannins, are well known inducers
of apoptosis in tumor cells (Inoue et al., 2000). Topical
application of TPA (active constituent of croton oil) has been
reported to increase production of free radicals (Huachen, and
Krystyna, 1991). This is perhaps due to the free radical oxidative
stress that has been implicated in the pathogenesis of a wide
variety of clinical disorders (Das, 2002). Many antioxidants and
anticarcinogenic compounds appear to have major effect on the
detoxification of the carcinogens by the induction of Phase II
detoxification enzymes since these enzymes divert carcinogens
to react with critical cellular macromolecules (Prochaska et al.,
1992). The anticarcinogenic effect of triphala extract suggests its
role in chemoprevention of skin cancer. These results are
important because this drug is used globally as a bowl cleaning
agent. It may also be an important drug for chemotherapeutic
treatment of cancer.
REFERENCES
[1] Agrawal, R.C. and Kumar, S. Prevention of cyclophosphamide induced
Micronucleus formation in mouse bone marrow by Indole-3-carbinol, Food
and Chemical Toxicol, 36, 1998, 975-977.
[2] Agrawal, R.C. and Kumar, S. ―Prevention of chromosomal aberrations in
mouse bone marrow by Indole-3-carbinol‖, Toxicology Letters, 106,
1999, 137-141.
[3] Agrawal, R.C.; Jain,R.; Raja,W and Oves,M. (2009) Anticarcinogenic
effects of Solanum lycopersicum fruit extract on Swiss albino and C57 BL
mice. Asian Pacific journal of Cancer prevention,Vol 10, 379-382
[4] Berenbrum,I. (1975) Sequential aspects of chemical carcinogenesis in skin
Cancer: A comprehensive treatise, Plenum press,New York,1,323-324
[5] Das UN. (2002) A radical approach to cancer. Med. Sci. Monit. 8: 79-92.
[6] Deep G, Dhiman M, Rao A R, Kale R K, Chemopreventive Potential of
Triphala ( a composite Indian drug) in benzo (a) pyrene induced
forestomach tumorgenesis in murine tumor model system J. exp. Clin.
cancer Res 2005 Dec, 24 (4): 555-63
[7] Huachen W and Krystyna F. (1991) In vivo formation of oxidized DNA
base in tumor promoter-treated mouse skin. Cancer Res.,51: 4443.
[8] Inoue, M., Sakaguchi, N., Isuzugawa, K., Tani, H. And Ogihara, Y. 2000.
Role of reactive oxygen species in gallic acid-induced apoptosis. Biological
& Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 23, 1153-1157
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 115
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[9] Jagetia GC, Baliga MS, Malagi KJ, Klamath M. The evaluation of the
radioprotective effect of Triphala (an ayurvedic rejuvenating drug) in the
mice exposed to gamma-radiation. Phytomedicine. 2002; 9:99-106.
[10] Kaur S, Michael H, Arora S, Harkonen PL, Kumar S. 2005 The in vitro
cytotoxic and apoptotic activity ofTriphala-an Indian herbal drug. Journal of
Ethnopharmacology, 97, 15-20.
[11] Naik GH, Priyadarsini KI, Bhagirathi RG, et al. In vitro antioxidant studies
and free radical reactions of triphala, an ayurvedic formulation and its
constituents. Phytother Res. 2005; 19:582-586.
[12] Naik, H. Priyadarsini K. I., and Hari Mohan. Free radical scavenging
reactions and phytochemical analysis of triphala, an ayurvedic formulation
RESEARC COMMUNICATIONS CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 90, NO.
8, 25 APRIL 2006
[13] Prochaska HJ, Santamaria AB and Talalay P. (1992) Rapid detection of
inducers of enzymes that protect against carcinogens. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
USA 89: 2394-2398.
[14] Preston ,J, R., Brian J. Dean, Sheila Galloway, Henry Holden, Alfred F.
MeFee, and Michael Shelby, ―Mammalian in vivo cytogenetic assays,
Analysis of chromosomal aberrations in mouse bone marrow cells‖,
Mutation Research, 189, 1987, 157-165.
[15] Sandhya T.; Lathika K.M.; Pandey B.N; Mishra K.P; potential of ayurvedic
formulation, Triphala, as novel anticancer drug cancer letters 2006
vol.231,n02 , p.p. 206-214
[16] Schmid,W., ―The micronucleus test‖, Mutation Research,1975,31, 9-15.
First Author –R.C.Agrawal, Research Department, Priyamvada
Birla Cancer Research Institute, Email:
rcagrawal60@yahoo.com, Phone: 91-9826949427
Table 1: Cumulative no, of Papilloma on Triphala extract treated Swiss mice.
GROUPS DOSE TIME OF 1 st
CUMULATIVE MEAN NO.
APPEARANCE OF NO. OF
OF
PAPILLOMA PAPILLOMA PAPILLOMA
DMBA* + 104 µg/ animal On 29
Croton Oil** + 1 %
th day 40 6.6
DMBA* alone 104 µg/ animal - 0 -
Croton oil** 1 % - 0 -
DMBA* + 104 µg/ animal On 69th day 6 1.5
Croton Oil** + + 1 % + 40
Triphala
***extract
mg/kg b wt
Triphala
***alone
40 mg/kg b wt - 0 -
* Single application of DMBA was given at the dose of 104 µg/animal
(4 mg/kg b.wt.)
**1 % croton oil was given one hour before each application of Triphala extract.
*** Triphala extract at the dose of 40 mg/kg body weight was given one hour before the each application of croton oil.
Table2: Tumour incidence in mice treated with Triphala extract
GROUPS NO.OF WEEKS
4 th WEEK 8 TH WEEK 12 TH WEEK 16 TH WEEK
DMBA* + Croton 1/6
3/6
5/6
6/6
Oil**
(16 %) (50%)
(83%)
(100%)
DMBA alone* 0/6 0/6 0/6 0/6
Croton oil** 0/6 0/6 0/6 0/6
DMBA* + Croton 0/6
1/6
3/6
4/6
Oil** +Triphala
extract ***
(0 %) (16 %)
(50%)
(60%)
Triphala extract *** 0/6 0/6 0/6 0/6
* Single application of DMBA was given at the dose of 104 µg/animal
(4 mg/kg b.wt.)
**1 % croton oil was given one hour before each application of Triphala extract.
*** Triphala extract at the dose of 40 mg/kg body weight was given one hour before the each application of croton oil.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 116
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Table 3: Malenoma Skin bio Assay (Triphala extract treatment)
GROUP DOSE
( mg/kg b wt)
TUMOUR
VOLUME
(in mm)
MEAN
SURVIVAL
(in days)
ILS( %) IR (%)
Untreated
Group
- 1638 ± 345.5 17.5 - -
Triphala ext 40 505± 17* 26.6 52 69.2
* denotes stastical significance at p

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 117
ISSN 2250-3153
2.
Triphala Ext. + CP (
40 mg/kg + 50 )
3. Triphala Ext. +
CP(80 mg/kg +
50)
4. Triphala Ext. +
CP(120 mg/kg +
50)
5. Triphala Alone (40
mg/kg)
22.40 ± 6.70* 4 5 3 3 8
17.74 ± 3.80* 3 4 2 2 7
13.07 ± 3.80* 2 3 1 1 6
9.08 ± 0.80 *
2 2 Nil Nil 5
* denotes statistical significance in `t' test as compared to
cyclophosphamide treated group at P < 0.05
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 118
ISSN 2250-3153
Object Detection in Remote Sensing Images: A Review
Abstract- In this paper, we address the problem of presegmentation
for object detection and statistics in remote sensing
image processing. It plays an important role in reducing
computational burden and increasing efficiency for further image
processing and analysis. We follow the paradigm of object
detection by Active Contour Method, then imposes structural
constraints for the detection of the entire object. We have
analyzed the performance of the proposed scheme
comprehensively and specifically using some measured data, and
carried out comparisons of the existing algorithms. The results
show that the proposed scheme could improve the application
ability in target detection.
Keywords- Remote Sensing Images, Active Contour Method,
Hough Transform
A
I. INTRODUCTION
s the advance of remote sensing technology, the very high
quantity remote sensing images become widely available.
With the increasing volume of image data, it is desirable to
develop the technique for remote sensing image analysis and
understanding. However, the overwhelming amount of image
data impose heavy computation constrain. Also, many
applications, such as target or object detection, are only focusing
on some salient regions in the image [1]. It is desired to extract
regions of interest before further processing and analyzing.
Salient region extraction is an important method to detect the
region of interest. It is operated to select a subset of the available
sensory information before further processing and sample the
most relevant features, most likely to reduce the complexity of
scene analysis [2].. Due to such superiority, salient region
extraction has been adopted in widely applications, such as
image compression [3], distinctive objects detection [4], image
segmentation [5] etc.
Most information of an image is concentrated in edges.
Variations of light can influence the appearance of a region
markedly, but not its edges. Remote sensing images are
frequently influenced by several changes, such as camera
viewpoints, distance and illuminance, so different targets
automatic recognition methods in remote sensing images by
using edges or gradient have attracted many researchers in recent
years. Edges are detected to enhance the linear features.
However, in these algorithms, edge detectors are often used to
find region boundaries or edge details in an image and they only
utilize the gradient magnitude but neglect the area, threshold,
radius etc. In this paper, an object recognition method with the
object statics is proposed. This method realizes the object
detection combining the texture and geometry characteristics.
Er. Tanvi Madaan, Er. Himanshu Sharma
M.M. University, Mullana, Ambala, India
II. PROPOSED METHOD
Here the aim is to analyze the image in order to find out the
objects. Due to noise or shadow, objects cannot be recognize
properly. So some steps can be followed to remove these factors
and after that find the objects and calculate their statistics.
Following are the steps to be followed:
a) Process the image to remove noise and shadow present
in the image. A segmentation algorithm often needs a
preprocessing step like noise smoothing to reduce the
effect of undesired perturbations (artifacts) which might
cause over- and under-segmentation.
b) The purpose of image segmentation is to decompose an
image domain into a number of disjoint regions so that
the features within each region have visual similarity,
strong statistical correlation and reasonably good
homogeneity. The preprocessed image works as the
input to segmentation algorithm.
c) After segmentation either follow binary conversion of
image using thresholding or grey scale conversion:-The
goal of thresholding is to create a binary representation
of the image & to discard irrelevant data and keep only
the important segments of data which lie above
threshold curve. It segments the digital image based on
certain characteristics of pixels (for example intensity
value).Grey scale dumps all the color information and
leaves with very little information to work with. NTSC
standard is used for the conversion to grey scale There
exist several methods for segmenting gray-level images.
Gray-level thresholding is one of the oldest techniques
for image segmentation.
d) Contour extraction, depending on the image quality &
structure has two possibilities. The first one is
performing image segmentation based on color &
texture. If color based segmentation is not possible due
to unknown information about objects, then the second
way to compute the contour is direct edge detection
since one need contours with a thickness of one pixel.
Finally, calculate the threshold, region, boundary and
the area of extracted objects using Hough
transformation.
III. ACTIVE CONTOUR METHOD
Besides challenges due to imaging noise and partial volume
effects, the similarity in intensity and texture between
neighboring structures complicates the task of identifying distinct
boundaries between the structures. So the active contour method
was introduced which developed the concept of shape contours
.When evolving shape contours, the interaction consists of
modeling the ―forces‖ of attraction, repulsion, and competition
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 119
ISSN 2250-3153
by taking into account the relationship between object contours
and their shape estimates.
An active contour is an ordered collection of ‗n‘ points in the
image plane:
v {
v ,......... ... v
v
i
}
( x , y ) , i ( 1 ,...., n)
i i i i i --- (1)
The points in the contour iteratively approach the boundary of an
object through the solution of an energy minimization problem.
For each point in the neighborhood of ‗Vi‘, an energy term is
computed:
E E
( v ) E
i
Where
( v )
int i ext i
E
( ) v
int i
n
is an energy function dependent on the shape
Eext
( vi
)
of the contour and is an energy function dependent on
the image properties, such as the gradient, near point
v . ,
i
and are constants providing the relative weighting of the
E , EintandE
energy terms. i
ext are matrices. The value at the
center of each matrix corresponds to the contour energy at
point i v . Other values in the matrices correspond (spatially) to
the energy at each point in the neighborhood of i v .
Each point, i v '
v
is moved to the point i , corresponding to the
location of the minimum value in i E
. Corresponding to the
location of the minimum value in i E
. This process is illustrated
in Figure 1. If the energy functions are chosen correctly, the
contour, v , should approach, and stop at, the object boundary.
Figure 1: Procedure for feature extraction
3.1 Internal Energy
The internal energy function is intended to enforce a shape on
the deformable contour and to maintain a constant distance
between the points in the contour. Additional terms can be added
to influence the motion of the contour.
The internal energy function used herein is defined as follows:
E
( v ) cE ( v ) bE
Where
( v )
int i con i bal i
Econ(
vi
)
of the contour and
---(2)
is the continuity energy that enforces the shape
Ebal(
vi
)
is a balloon force that causes the
contour to grow (balloon) or shrink. ‗c‘ and ‗b‘ provide the
relative weighting of the energy terms.
Figure 2: Extraction of object using Active Contour Method
3.2 External Energy
The external energy function attracts the deformable contour
to interesting features, such as object boundaries, in an image.
Any energy expression that accomplishes this attraction can be
considered for use.
Image gradient and intensity are obvious (and easy)
characteristics to look at (another could be object size or shape).
Therefore, the following external energy function is investigated:
Eext
( vi
) mEmag
( vi
) gEgrd
( vi
)
Where
Emag
( vi
)
high or low intensity regions and
--(3)
is an expression that attracts the contour to
Egrd
( vi
)
is an energy term that
moves the contour towards edges. Again, the constants, m,g are
provided to adjust the relative weights of the terms.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 120
ISSN 2250-3153
IV. HOUGH TRANSFORMATION
The Hough transform is a technique which can be used to
isolate features of a particular shape within an image. Because it
requires that the desired features be specified in some parametric
form, the classical Hough transform is most commonly used for
the detection of regular curves such as lines, circles, ellipses, etc.
A generalized Hough transform can be employed in applications
where a simple analytic description of a feature is not possible.
Due to the computational complexity of the generalized Hough
algorithm, we restrict the main focus of this discussion to the
classical Hough transform. Despite its domain restrictions, the
classical Hough transform (hereafter referred to without the
classical prefix) retains many applications, as most manufactured
parts (and many anatomical parts investigated in medical
imagery) contain feature boundaries which can be described by
regular curves. The main advantage of the Hough transform
technique is that it is tolerant of gaps in feature boundary
descriptions and is relatively unaffected by image noise.
The Hough transform algorithm uses an array, called an
accumulator, to detect the existence of a line y = mx + b. The
dimension of the accumulator is equal to the number of unknown
parameters of the Hough transform problem. For example, the
linear Hough transform problem has two unknown parameters: m
and b. The two dimensions of the accumulator array would
correspond to quantized values for m and b. For each pixel and
its neighborhood, the Hough transform algorithm determines if
there is enough evidence of an edge at that pixel. If so, it will
calculate the parameters of that line, and then look for the
accumulator's bin that the parameters fall into, and increase the
value of that bin. By finding the bins with the highest values,
typically by looking for local maxima in the accumulator space,
the most likely lines can be extracted, and their (approximate)
geometric definitions read off. The simplest way of finding these
peaks is by applying some form of threshold, but different
techniques may yield better results in different circumstances -
determining which lines are found as well as how many. Since
the lines returned do not contain any length information, it is
often next necessary to find which parts of the image match up
with which lines. Moreover, due to imperfection errors in the
edge detection step, there will usually be errors in the
accumulator space, which may make it non-trivial to find the
appropriate peaks, and thus the appropriate lines.
V. CONCLUSION
With the aim of designing a highly practical process of target
detection in remote sensing images, this research has proposed an
improved scheme consisting of algorithms for object detection.
At the systematic level, an integrative frame sequentially
combining the algorithm based on feature extraction and the
knowledge of object has been presented. At the algorithmic level,
first, the discriminative features have been extracted. Second, a
HOUGH TRANSFORM algorithm has been presented.
According to the comparisons of the existing algorithms and
abundant experimental results, the proposed scheme is found to
improve the application ability in object detection.
REFERENCES
[1] X. Gang, ―Extracting salient object from remote sensing image based on
guidance of visual attention pb -,‖ Proceedings of SPIE – The International
Society for Optical Engineering, vol. 6790, 2007.
[2] M. Jager, ―Saliency and salient region detection in sar polarimetry,‖
IGARSS 2005: IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing
Symposium, Vols 1-8, Proceedings, pp. 2791–2794, 2005.
[3] C. Christopoulos, ―Efficient region of interest coding techniques in the
upcoming jpeg2000 still image coding standard,‖ 2000 INTERNATIONAL
CONFERENCE ON IMAGE PROCESSING, VOL II, PROCEEDINGS, pp.
41–44, 2000.
[4] B. C. Ko, ―Object-of-interest image segmentation based on human attention
and semantic region clustering,‖ JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY
OF AMERICA A-OPTICS IMAGE SCIENCE AND VISION, vol. 23, no. 10,
pp. 2462–2470, 2006.
[5] U. Rutishauser, ―Is bottom-up attention useful for object recognition? Pb -,‖
Proceedings of the IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision
and Pattern Recognition, vol. 2, pp. II37–II44, 2004.
[6] R. Achantay, ―Frequency-tuned salient region detection pb -,‖ 2009 IEEE
Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition
Workshops, CVPR Workshops 2009, pp. 1597–1604, 2009.
[7] Qihao Weng, Ph.D.,‖ Remote Sensing and GIS Integration, Theories,
Methods, and Applications‖ McGraw-Hil-2010
[8] Xu Yuanjing,Wang Qiaojue,Shen Huanfeng,Li Pingxiang,Zhang
Hongyan,A Remote Sensing Image Restoration Method Estimation and
Regularization Model,[J]. Journal of Geomatics,2010(6).
[9] Y. N. Xu, Y. Zhao, L. P. Liu, and X. D. Sun, ―Parameter identification of
point spread function in noisy and blur images,‖ vol. 17, No. 11, pp. 2849-
2856, Nov 2009.
[10] P. L. Rosin, ―A simple method for detecting salient regions,‖ PATTERN
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AUTHORS
First Autho – Er. Tanvi Madaan, M.Tech Scholar, M.M.
University, Mullana,Ambala, Email: ertanvimadaan@gmail.com
Second Author– Er. Himanshu Sharma, Department of
Electronics and Communication Engineering, M.M. University,
Mullana, Ambala, Email: himanshu.zte@gmail.com
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 121
ISSN 2250-3153
Genetic Variability Studies for Qualitative and
Quantitative traits in Popular Rice (Oryza sativa L.)
Hybrids of India
V. Ravindra Babu 1 *, K. Shreya 2 , Kuldeep Singh Dangi 2 , G. Usharani 2 , P. Nagesh 3
1 Crop Improvement Division, Directorate of Rice Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, India.
2 Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, ANGRAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, India.
3 Research Associate, Grain Legume, Groundnut Breeding, ICRISAT, Patancheru, Hyderabad, India.
Abstract- The present investigation is carried out to study the
genetic parameters for yield, yield attributing, quality and
nutritional characters in twenty one rice hybrids. Analysis of
variance revealed significant differences for all the traits under
study. The characters viz., number of filled grains per panicle,
number of chaffy grains per panicle and iron content exhibited
high Genotypic Coefficient of Variation (GCV) and Phenotypic
Coefficient of Variation (PCV). Small differences between GCV
and PCV were recorded for all the characters studied which
indicated less influence of environment on these characters. The
characters viz., number of filled grains per panicle and water
uptake exhibited high heritability coupled with high genetic
advance indicating that simple selection could be effective for
improving these characters.
Index Terms- Genetic advance, Genetic variability,
Heritability and Rice
R
I. INTRODUCTION
ice is one of the most important cereal crops of the world
meeting the dietary requirements of the people living in the
tropics and sub-tropics. Quantum jump in yield improvement has
been achieved in rice with the development of high yielding
heterotic hybrids under commercial cultivation. However, being
the staple food of the population in India, improving its
productivity has become a crucial importance (Subbaiah et al.,
2011). Knowledge on the nature and magnitude of genetic
variation governing the inheritance of quantitative characters like
yield and its components is essential for effecting genetic
improvement. A critical analysis of genetic variability is a prerequisite
for initiating any crop improvement programme and for
adopting of appropriate selection techniques.
A paradigm shift in the rice (Oryza sativa L.) breeding
strategies from quantity centered approach to quality oriented
effort was inevitable, since India has not only become self
sufficient in food grain production but also is the second largest
exporter of quality rice in the world (Sreedhar et al.,2005).
Improvement in grain quality that does not lower yield is the
need of hour at present context in order to benefit all rice growers
and consumers. Like grain yield, quality is not easily amenable to
selection due to its complex nature. Lack of clear cut perception
regarding the component traits of good quality rice is one of the
important reasons for the tardy progress in breeding for quality
rice varieties. With the increase in yield, there is also a need to
look into the quality aspects to have a better consumer
acceptance, which determines the profit margin of rice growers
which in turn dictates the export quality and foreign exchange in
India. Genetic enhancement is one of the important tools to
improve the productivity. Hybrid technology has been widely
acclaimed and accepted. High magnitude of variability in a
population provides the opportunity for selection to evolve a
variety having desirable characters.
Grain quality characteristics are very important in rice
breeding as it is predominantly consumed as a whole grain. The
milling percentage, grain appearance, cooking quality and
nutritional components constitute the quality traits. Nutritional
components include proteins and micronutrients like Iron and
Zinc. The average percentage of protein in rice grains is 8 per
cent (The amino acid profile shows that it is rich in Glutamic
acid and Aspartic acid, highest quality cereal protein being rich
in lysine (3.8 %), the first limiting amino acid); Fe is 1.2 mg/100
g and Zn is 0.5 mg/100 g. Malnutrition is a large and growing
problem in the developing world mostly in South and S.E. Asia
and Sub Sahara Africa (Reddy et al., 2005). Over 3 billion
people suffer micro nutrient malnutrition (Welch and Graham,
2002). Iron deficiency may affect 3 billion people worldwide
(Long et al., 2004). It is estimated that 49 per cent of the world‘s
population is at risk for low zinc intake (Cichy et al., 2005). In
order to enhance the micronutrient concentration in the grain
suitable breeding programmes should be followed. Keeping in
view the above perspectives, the present investigation is carried
out with the following objective of estimating the genetic
variability in rice hybrids for yield, yield attributing characters,
quality and nutritional traits.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present experiment is carried out at Directorate of Rice
Research Farm, ICRISAT, Patancheru, Hyderabad, Andhra
Pradesh, India, situated at 17.5°N latitude, 78.27°E longitude and
altitude of 545 m above mean sea level. The materials comprised
of twenty one rice hybrids (Table 1) obtained from Department
of Plant Breeding, Crop Improvement Section, Directorate of
Rice Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. The experimental
material was planted in a Randomized Block Design with three
replications in three blocks. Each block consisted of twenty one
genotypes randomized and replicated within each block. Twenty
seven days old seedlings were transplanted 20cm apart between
rows and 15cm within the row. All necessary precautions were
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taken to maintain uniform plant population in each treatment per
replication. All the recommended package of practices was
followed along with necessary prophylactic plant protection
measures to raise a good crop. Five representative plants for each
hybrid in each replication were randomly selected to record
observations on the quantitative characters under study. Days to
50% flowering were computed on plot basis. Data was recorded
on physico-chemical quality characters from the bulk samples.
The milling characteristics were computed following the method
given by Ghosh et al., (1971). Iron and zinc content of seed
samples was estimated by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
as suggested by Lindsay and Novell (1978). The treatment means
for all the characters viz., days to 50 percent flowering, plant
height (cm), number of productive tillers per plant, panicle length
(cm), number of filled grains per panicle, number of chaffy grain
per panicle, 1000 grain weight (g), single plant yield (g), grain
moisture percentage, head rice recovery (%), kernel length (mm),
kernel breadth (mm), L/B ratio, volume expansion ratio, water
uptake (ml), alkali spreading value, gel consistency (mm),
protein content (%), Iron content (mg/100g) and Zinc content
(mg/100g), except for the milling percentage were subjected to
analysis of variance technique on the basis of model proposed by
Panse and Sukhatme (1961). The genotypic and phenotypic
variances were calculated as per the formulae proposed by
Burton (1952). The genotypic (GCV) and phenotypic (PCV)
coefficient of variation was calculated by the formulae given by
Burton (1952). Heritability in broad sense [h 2 (bs)] was calculated
by the formula given by Lush (1940) as suggested by Johnson et
al. (1955). From the heritability estimates, the genetic advance
(GA) was estimated by the following formula given by Johnson
et al. (1955).
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
a) Variability parameters
Greater variability in the initial breeding material ensures better
chances of producing desired forms of a crop plant. Thus, the
primary objective of germplasm conservation is to collect and
preserve the genetic variability in indigenous collection of crop
species to make it available to present and future generations.
The analysis of variance indicated the existence of significant
differences among all the hybrids for all the traits studied. The
results of analysis of variance are presented in Table 2. The
characters studied in the present investigation exhibited low,
moderate and high PCV and GCV values. Among the yield
characters, highest PCV and GCV values were recorded for
number of chaffy grains per panicle, followed by number of
filled grains per panicle and the lowest PCV and GCV values
were recorded for grain yield per plant. Among the grain quality
characters highest PCV and GCV values were recorded for iron
content and lowest PCV and GCV was recorded for kernel
breadth. High phenotypic variations were composed of high
genotypic variations and less of environmental variations, which
indicated the presence of high genetic variability for different
traits and less influence of environment. Therefore, selection on
the basis of phenotype alone can be effective for the
improvement of these traits. Similar results were observed by
Kumar et al. (1994), Chaudhary and Singh (1994), Pathak and
Sharma (1996), Sarvanan and Senthil (1997), Rather et al.
(1998), Satya et al (1999), Shivani and Reddy (2000),
Iftekharudduala et al. (2001) and Sao (2002). Coefficients of
variation studies indicated that the estimates of PCV were
slightly higher than the corresponding GCV estimates for all the
traits studied indicating that the characters were less influenced
by the environment. Therefore, selection on the basis of
phenotype alone can be effective for the improvement of these
traits.
b) Heritability
The estimates of heritability act as predictive instrument in
expressing the reliability of phenotypic value. Therefore, high
heritability helps in effective selection for a particular character.
Heritability is classified as low (below30%), medium (30-60%)
and high (above 60%). The characters studied in the present
investigation expressed low to high heritability estimates ranging
from 25.5 to 98.4 percent. Among the yield characters, highest
heritability was recorded by days to 50 percent flowering
followed by number of chaffy grains per panicle, number of
filled grains per panicle, whereas, in grain quality characters
alkali spreading value recorded highest heritability and head rice
recovery percentage recorded lowest heritability value. High
heritability values indicate that the characters under study are
less influenced by environment in their expression. The plant
breeder, therefore, may make his selection safely on the basis of
phenotypic expression of these characters in the individual plant
by adopting simple selection methods. High heritability indicates
the scope of genetic improvement of these characters through
selection. Similar results have been reported by Panwar et al.
(1997), Sarawgi et al., (2000), Gannamani (2001) and Sao
(2002).
c) Genetic advance
The genetic advance is a useful indicator of the progress that can
be expected as result of exercising selection on the pertinent
population. Heritability in conjunction with genetic advance
would give a more reliable index of selection value (Johnson et
al. 1955). Genetic advance was highest for number of filled
grains per panicle followed by days to 50 percent flowering and
lowest for grain yield per plant among yield characters. In case of
grain quality characters, water uptake recorded highest genetic
advance followed by gel consistency and the lowest for kernel
breadth. The genetic advance as per cent of mean was highest in
case of number of chaffy grains per panicle, while lowest
recorded by grain yield per plant among yield characters,
whereas, in grain quality characters, iron content recorded the
highest genetic advance as per cent mean, while the lowest was
recorded by head rice recovery percentage. The information on
genetic variation, heritability and genetic advance helps to
predict the genetic gain that could be obtained in later
generations, if selection is made for improving the particular trait
under study. Similar findings were also reported by Regina et al.
(1994), Vanniarajan et al. (1996), Shivani and Reddy (2000),
Iftekharuddaula et al. (2001), Gannamani (2001) and Sao (2002).
In general, the characters that show high heritability with high
genetic advance are controlled by additive gene action (Panse
and Sukhatme, 1957) and can be improved through simple or
progeny selection methods. Selection for the traits having high
heritability coupled with high genetic advance is likely to
accumulate more additive genes leading to further improvement
of their performance. In the present study, high heritability along
with high genetic advance was noticed for the traits, number of
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filled grains per panicle and water uptake. Other characters
showed high heritability along with moderate or low genetic
advance which can be improved by intermating superior
Table 1. Details of twenty one popular rice hybrids of India
genotypes of segregating population developed from
combination breeding (Samadia, 2005).
S.No. Name of the hybrid Nominating Agency
1 DRRH – 2 Directorate of Rice Research, Hyderabad
2 PA 6129 Bayer Bio-Science
3 Sahyadri – 2 Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli
4 Sahyadri –4 Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli
5 Pusa RH -10 Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi
6 Indirasona Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Raipur
7 GK 5003 Ganga Kaveri Seeds
8 PSD-3 G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar
9 Sahyadri – 3 Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli
10 PA 6201 Bayer Bio-Science
11 HSD-1(HKRH-1) Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Karnal
12 PA 6444 Bayer Bio-science
13 Suruchi (MPH 5401) Mahyco seeds, Hyderabad
14 JKRH- 2000 JK Agri. Genetics
15 US - 312 US Agri Seeds
16 CORH- 3 Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
17 KRH-2 University of Agricultural Sciences, Mandya
18 Sahyadri -1 Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli
19 PHB – 71 Pioneer Overseas Corporation
20 CRHR - 5 Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack
21 CRHR - 7 Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack
Table 2: ANOVA for yield and quality characters in rice hybrids
S. No. Character
Mean sum of squares
Replications Treatments Error
(d.f. = 2) (d.f. = 20) (d.f. = 40)
1 Days to 50 per cent flowering 3.09 253.45** 3.16
2 Plant height (cm) 2.11 224.14** 30.56
3 Panicle length (cm) 1.89 4.66** 0.61
4 No. of productive tillers/plant 0.56 4.46** 1.46
5 No. of filled grains/panicle 1.11 2146.95** 37.46
6 No. chaffy grain/panicle 0.02 235.49** 3.85
7 Grain yield/plant (g) 0.43 2.07* 1.02
8 1000-grain weight (g) 0.13 15.24** 0.31
9 Grain moisture (%) 0.01 1.25** 0.01
10 Milling percentage (%) 0.01 3.01 26.25
11 Head rice recovery (%) 13.21 43.62* 20.38
12 Kernel Length (mm) 0.002 1.17** 0.014
13 Kernel breath (mm) 0.002 0.016** 0.001
14 L/B ratio 0.01 0.42** 0.006
15 Volume expansion ratio 0.01 0.81** 0.01
16 Water uptake (ml) 0.02 1506.78** 26.25
17 Alkali spreading value 0.02 2.98** 0.016
18 Amylose content (%) 0.1 8.20** 0.20
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19 Gel consistency (mm) 0.57 271.64** 4.17
20 Protein content (%) 0.01 2.52** 1.05
21 Iron (mg/100g) 0.42 16.02** 3.83
22 Zinc (mg/100g) 0.017 0.57** 0.027
* Significant at 5 per cent level
** Significant at 1 per cent level
Table 3: Estimates of variability, heritability, genetic advance and genetic advance as per cent of mean in rice hybrids
S. No. Character
Phenotypic
variance
Genotypic
variance
PCV
(%)
GCV
(%)
Heritability
(h 2 ) (%)
GA
(5%)
GA as per cent
mean (5%)
1. Days to 50 per cent flowering 86.59 83.43 9.62 9.44 96.3 18.47 19.10
2. Plant height (cm) 95.09 64.53 10.02 8.26 67.9 13.63 14.01
3. Panicle length (cm) 1.96 1.35 5.37 4.45 68.9 1.99 7.61
4. No. of productive tillers/plant 2.46 1.00 16.91 10.77 40.6 1.31 14.14
5. No. of filled grains/panicle 740.63 703.16 23.87 23.26 94.9 53.23 46.68
6. No. chaffy grain/panicle 81.07 77.21 44.67 43.60 95.2 17.67 87.66
7. Grain yield/plant (g) 1.37 0.35 5.10 2.58 25.5 0.62 2.68
8. 1000-grain weight (g) 5.29 4.98 9.54 9.25 94.1 4.46 18.49
9. Grain moisture (%) 0.42 0.41 5.59 5.52 97.5 1.31 11.23
10. Milling percentage (%) 18.51 -7.74 5.98 3.87 -41.9 -3.71 -5.16
11. Head rice recovery (%) 28.13 7.75 8.02 4.21 27.5 3.01 4.55
12. Kernel Length (mm) 0.40 0.39 9.80 9.63 96.5 1.26 19.48
13. Kernel breath (mm) 0.01 0.01 3.72 3.34 80.6 0.13 6.18
14. L/B ratio 0.14 0.14 12.16 11.92 96.0 0.75 24.05
15. Volume expansion ratio 0.28 0.27 11.41 11.19 96.2 1.04 22.61
16. Water uptake (ml) 519.76 493.51 7.37 7.18 94.9 44.59 14.41
17. Alkali spreading value 1.01 0.99 17.65 17.51 98.4 2.03 35.77
18. Amylose content (%) 2.87 2.67 7.65 7.38 93.0 3.24 14.65
19. Gel consistency (mm) 93.33 89.16 17.44 17.05 95.5 19.01 34.33
20. Protein content (%) 1.55 0.49 15.63 8.80 31.7 0.81 10.21
21. Iron (mg/100g) 7.89 4.06 41.10 29.49 51.5 2.98 43.59
22. Zinc (mg/100g) 0.19 0.16 11.74 10.88 85.8 0.77 20.75
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AUTHORS
First Author – V. Ravindra Babu, Principal Scientist, Plant
Breeding, Crop Improvement Section, Directorate of Rice
Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, -500 030, Andhra Pradesh,
India.
Email id : rbvemuri1955@gmail.com
Second Author – K. Shreya, M. Sc.(Ag.), Department of
Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Email id : shreya834@gmail.com
Third Author – Dr. Kuldeep Singh, Associate Professor,
Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of
Agriculture,Rajendranagar,Hyderabad-500030, Andhra Pradesh,
India.
Email id : dangiks404@rediffmail.com
Fourth Author – G.Usharani, Ph.D Scholar, Department of
Genetics and Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Email id : ushagenetics@gmail.com
Fifth Author – Dr. P. Nagesh, Ph.D Research Associate, Grain
Legume, Groundnut Breeding,ICRISAT, Patancheru, Hyderabad,
AndhraPradesh,India.
Email id : nageshpatne@gmail.com
*Correspondence Author – Dr. V. Ravindra Babu Email:
rbvemuri1955@gmail.com
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 126
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Thyristor Based Speed Control Techniques of DC Motor:
A Comparative Analysis
Rohit Gupta, Ruchika Lamba, Subhransu Padhee
Department of Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering,
Thapar University, Patiala, India
rohit.udai@yahoo.in, ruchika.mehta@thapar.edu, subhransu_padhee@yahoo.com
Abstract- The versatile control characteristics of DC motor
have contributed in the extensive use of DC motor in the
industry. With the increasing use of power semi conductor units,
the speed control of DC motor is increasingly getting
sophisticated and precise. Speed of the DC motor is controlled by
controlling the armature voltage. Armature voltage is controlled
using different single phase AC/DC converter. Half converter,
semi converter, full converter and dual converter are some of the
thyristor based circuits which are used for speed control of DC
motor. This paper studies different speed control techniques of
DC motor and makes a comparative study of different converter
based speed controller techniques.
Index Terms- AC/DC converter, DC motor, speed control.
DC
I. INTRODUCTION
motors are widely used in industry because
of its low cost, less complex control structure
and wide range of speed and torque. There are many
methods of speed control of DC drives namely field
control, armature voltage control and armature
resistance control methods [2]. DC motors provide
high starting torque which is required for traction
applications. In DC motor control over a large speed
range, both below and above the rated speed can be
achieved quite easily. DC motors have inherent
disadvantages that it needs regular maintenance and it
is bulky in size. DC motors are tailor made, so it is
very difficult to replace them. In general, armature
voltage control method is widely used to control the
DC drives. In this method, a controlled rectifier, or
chopper is used but due involvement of power
electronics elements, nonlinear torque speed
characteristics are observed which are undesirable for
control performance [1].
Nowadays state of art speed control techniques of
DC motor are available. Thyristor based DC drives
with analog and digital feedback control schemes are
used. Phase locked loop control technique is also used
for precise speed control and zero speed regulation. In
past, many researchers presented various new
converter topologies of DC motor control for different
applications of industry [5,6,8,9], but at the basic level
in all of them thyristor based AC-DC converter are
used. MATLAB with its toolboxes like Simulink and
SimPowerSystem are used for simulation [3,7].
This paper provides a comparative study of
different thyristor based speed control techniques.
II. MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF DC MOTOR
The dynamic and steady-state model of separately
excited DC motor is needed to analyse the torque
speed characteristics. The schematic representation of
the model of a separately excited DC motor is shown
below in figure 1 in which ea is the terminal voltage
applied to the motor, Ra and La are the resistance, and
inductance of the armature circuit respectively, Rf and
Lf are the resistance, and inductance of the field
circuit respectively, eb is generated back emf and Tm is
the electromagnetic torque developed by the motor.
The related DC Motor parameters are mentioned in
appendix A.
Figure 1: Equivalent circuit of separately excited DC motor
The torque is produced as a result of interaction of field flux with
current in armature conductors and is given by Eq. (1)
T K i
(1)
m t a
Here is a constant depending on motor windings and
geometry and is the flux per pole due to the field winding.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 127
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The direction of the torque produced depends on the direction of
armature current. When armature rotates, the flux linking the
armature winding will vary with time and therefore according to
Faraday‘s law, an emf will be induced across the winding. This
generated emf, known as the back emf, depends on speed of
rotation as well as on the flux produced by the field and given by
Eq. (2)
e K
(2)
b t
By applying KVL at input side of in figure 1,
dia
ea iaRa La eb
(3)
dt
In steady state condition, Ea IaRa Eb
(4)
In terms of torque and speed, the steady state equation will be
given by Eq. (5)
Tm
Ea Ra Kt
Kt
(5)
Ea So,
K
Tm
K
Ra
(6)
t t
2
Thus from the above equation it is clear that speed can be
controlled by varying there parameters, namely , , and .
The three methods of speed control are as following:
i. Armature voltage controlled ( ).
ii. Armature resistance controlled ( ).
iii. Flux controlled ( ).
Speed control using armature resistance by adding external
resistor is not used very widely because of the large energy
losses due to the Rext. Armature voltage control is normally used
for speed up to rated speed (base speed). Flux control is used for
speed beyond rated speed but at the same time the maximum
torque capability of the motor is reduced since for a given
maximum armature current, the flux is less than the rated value
and so as the maximum torque produced is less than the
maximum rated torque [4]. Here the main attention is given to
the armature voltage control method. In the armature voltage
control method, the voltage applied across the armature ea is
varied keeping field voltage constant. As equation (6) indicates,
the torque-speed characteristic is represented by a straight line
with a negative slope when the applied armature voltage is ideal,
that ideal torque speed characteristic is illustrated in figure 2
[10].
Figure 2: Torque speed characteristics of the separately excited
DC motor at different armature voltages
III. THYRISTOR BASED TECHNIQUES OF DC MOTOR SPEED
CONTROL
A separately excited DC motor fed through single phase half
wave converter is shown in figure 3. Single phase half wave
converter feeding a DC motor offers only one quadrant drive.
Such type of drives are used up to about 0.5 kW DC motor.
Figure 3: Single phase half wave converter drive
For single phase half wave converter, average output voltage
of converter can be calculated as, given as Eq. (7)
Vm
V0 1 cos
, for 0
(7)
2
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A half wave converter in the field circuit will increase the
magnetic losses of the motor due to high ripple content on the
field excitation current, so an ideal DC source is preferred over
half wave converter for field circuit. A separately excited DC
motor fed through single phase semiconverter is shown in figure
4. This converter also offer only one quadrant drive and is used
up to 15 kW DC drives.
Figure 4: Single phase semi converter drive
With a single phase semiconverter in the armature circuit,
equation (8) gives the average armature voltage as,
Vm
V0Vt1 cos
, for 0 (8)
The armature voltage is varied by single phase full wave
converter as shown in figure 5. It is a two quadrant drive, and is
limited to applications upto 15kW. The armature converter gives
+Vo or –Vo and allows operation in the first and fourth quadrant.
The converter in the field circuit could be semi, full or even dual
converter. The reversal of the armature or field voltage allows
operation in the second and third quadrant.
Figure 5: Single phase full converter drive
The average armature voltage in armature circuit for single phase
full converter drive is given by Eq. (9)
2Vm
V0Vt 1 cos
, for 0 (9)
To realize single phase dual converter, two single phase full
converters are connected as shown in figure 6.
Figure 6: Single phase dual converter drive
In fig. 6, there are two single phase full wave converters either
converter 1 operates to supply a positive armature voltage Vo, or
converter 2 operates to supply negative armature voltage –Vo.
Converter 1 provides operation in first and fourth quardants, and
converter 2 provides operation in second and third quardants.It is
four quardant drive and provides four modes of operation:
forward powering, forward braking (regenration), reverse
powering, and reverse breaking (regeneration). The field
converter could be a full wave converter, a semiconverter, or a
dual converter.
If converter 1 operates at a firing angle of α1 then equation (10)
gives the armature voltage as,
Vm
V V 1 cos
, for 0 (10)
0 t
1
And similarly, if converter 2 operates at a firing angle of α2 then
equation (11) gives the armature voltage as, [11].
Vm
V V 1 cos
(11)
0 t
2
IV. SIMULATION
To investigate the effect of armature voltage on the
torque speed curve six different firing angles are used
with the voltage applied to the field circuit kept
constant 300V. A constant 240 V, 50 Hz AC supply is
applied to the input of single phase half wave
converter. The average value of converter output is
controlled by changing the firing angle .
A cosine firing angle scheme is used to change the
firing angle. The firing angles used to get different
output voltages for armature are 0°, 18°, 36°, 54°, 72°
and 89°.
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The simulink model used to get torque speed
characteristic for a single phase half wave converter is
shown in figure7.
Figure 7: Simulink realization of armature voltage speed control
method using a single phase half wave converter drive
The torque speed curves for a single phase half
wave converter drive are shown in figure 8.
Figure 8: Torque-speed characteristics for a single phase half
wave converter drive
It is clear that torque speed contains both linear and non linear
regions. The linear region of operation for 0° firing angle
approximately starts at 100 N.m load torque, but for 18° firing
angle linear region starts at 105N.m load torque, while for 36°
firing angle linear region starts at approximately at 110 N.m and
so on. The discontinuous armature current results in a highly
non-linear torque speed characteristic. Figure 9 and 10 shows the
armature voltage and current obtained at 50 N.m (in the nonlinear
region) and 135 N.m (in linear region) with firing angle
89°. These figures clearly show the discontinuous and continuous
operation of single phase half wave converter drive in non linear
and linear regions, respectively.
Figure 9: Armature current and voltage at 50N.m with firing
angle 89° for single phase half wave converter drive
Figure 10: Armature current and voltage at 135N.m with firing
angle 89° for single phase half wave converter drive
To investigate the effect of armature voltage on the torque speed
characteristic, six different firing angles are applied to the firing
angle generator while the voltage applied to the field circuit is
kept constant 300V. A constant 240V, 50Hz AC is applied to the
input of single phase semi converter. The average value of the
converter output is controlled by the firing angle (α). The firing
angles used to get different output voltages for armature are 0°,
18°, 36°, 54°, 72° and 89°. The simulink model used to get
torque speed characteristic for a single phase half wave converter
is shown in figure11.
Fig
ure 11: Simulink realization of armature voltage speed
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control method using a single phase semiconverter
drive
Figure 12: Torque-speed characteristics for a single phase
semiconverter drive
The fig 12, showing the torque speed
cherecteristics, the non linear and linear operating
regions are clearly visible for different firing angles.
The linear operating range for single phase semi
converter drive decrease as firing angle increases. For
firing angle 0°, it is 60 to 180 N.m, for 18° it is 65 to
180 N.m, for 36° it is 80 to 180 N.m and for 89° it is
100 to 180 N.m. The non linearity in the speed torque
characteristic is due to the discontinuity in armature
current. Figure 13 and 14 shows the armature voltage
and current obtained at 50 N.m (in the non-linear
region) and 135 N.m (in linear region) with firing
angle 0°. These figures show the discontinuous and
continuous operation of single phase semiconverter
drive in non linear and linear regions, respectively.
Figure 13: Armature current and voltage at 50N.m with firing
angle 0° for single phase semiconverter drive
Figure 14: Armature current and voltage at 135N.m with firing
angle 0° for single phase semiconverter drive
The simulink model used to get torque speed characteristic for a
single phase full converter drive is shown in figure15. The effect
of armature voltages on the torque speed characteristic is
observed for six different firing angles, as the voltage applied to
the field circuit is kept constant at 300V, and a constant 240V, 50
Hz AC is applied to input of single phase full converter. The
average value of applied armature voltage is varied by varying
the firing angle of full converter.
Figure 15: Simulink realization of armature voltage speed control
method using a single phase full converter drive
Figure 16 shows the torque speed characteristics of single phase
full converter drive with firing angles 0°, 18°, 36°, 54°, 72°, and
89°.
Figure 16: Torque-speed characteristics for a single phase full
converter drive
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Linear and non linear regions for single phase full
converter drive are clearly visible in the above shown
torque speed curve. Non linearity is because of the
discontinuity in the armature current, and also it is
observed that the range of non linearity increases as
firing angle is increased. For firing angle 0°, non
linearity range of load torque 0 to 85 N.m, for 18° it is
0 to 100 N.m, for 36°, it is 0 to 110 N.m,, for 54° it is
0 to 54 N.m and for 89° it is 0 to 120 N.m. The
armature voltage and current waveforms for single
phase full converter drives are shown in figure 17 and
18. These were obtained at 50 N.m (in the non-linear
region) and 135 N.m (in linear region) with firing
angle 89°. These figures show the discontinuous and
continuous operation of single phase full converter
drive in non linear and linear regions, respectively.
Figure 17: Armature current and voltage at 50N.m with firing
angle 89° for single phase full converter drive
Figure 18: Armature current and voltage at 135N.m with firing
angle 89° for single phase full converter drive
It is clearly seen that for all firing angle, the linear region of
operation extends when single phase semi converter is used. The
linear operating ranges of load torque for different converter
drives with respect to firing angles are tabulated in table 1.
Table I: Linear operating range of Load torque for different
converter drives and firing angles
Drive type
Firing angle
Half wave
Drive
Load Torque(N.m)
Semiconverter
Drive
Full wave
converter
Drive
0 100 to 180 60 to 180 85 to 180
18 105 to 180 65 to 180 100 to 180
36 110 to 180 80 to 180 110 to 180
54 115 to 180 100 to 180 115 to 180
72 120 to 180 80 to 180 120 to 180
89 130 to 180 100 to 180 120 to 180
V. CONCLUSION
This paper presents speed control of separately
excited DC motor using different single phase AC/DC
converter. Speed torque curves for three types of
single phase AC/DC converter (Half wave converter,
Semiconverter ans full converetr) are obtained for a
wide-range of loading conditions. From the above
results, it can be concluded that the reason of non
linearity in speed torque curve is discontinuity in
armature current which is highly non-desirable for
industrial applications. To remove the discontinuity in
armature current an inductor should be used in series
to make the armature current continuous. It is also
observed that the range of non linearity is small in
semiconverter as compared to half wave and full
converter drives, so semi converter drives can be
preferred for the wide range of load torque.
APPENDIX A
The parameters of separately excited DC motor
Rated Power (P) 5 Hp
Rated Armature Voltage 240 V
Armature Resistance R a 2.518 Ω
Armature Inductance L a 0.028 H
Field Resistance f R 281.3 Ω
Field Inductance f
L 156 H
Rated Speed 1750 RPM
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Rated Field Voltage 300 V
REFERENCES
[1] D. A. staton, M. I. McGilp and T. J. E. Miller, ―DC machine teaching
experiment,‖ in proceedings of the European Power Electronics Association
EPE, Brighton, pp. 35 – 40, 1993
[2] S. J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, New York:
WCB/McGraw-Hill,1998.
[3] W. M. Daniels and A. R. Shaffer, ―Re-inventing the electrical machines
curriculum,‖ IEEE Transactions on Education, vol. 41, pp. 92-100, May
1998.
[4] N. Mohan, Electric Drives: An integrative approach, University of
Minnesota Printing services, 2000.
[5] M. Nedeljkovic and Z. Stojiljkovic, ―Fast current control for thyristor
rectifiers,‖ IEE Proceedings- Electr. Power Appl., Vol. 150, No. 6, pp. 636-
638, Nov. 2003.
[6] Alfio Consoli, Mario Cacciato, Antonio Testa and Francesco Gennaro,
―Single Chip Integration for Motor Drive Converters With Power Factor
Capability,‖ IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 19, No. 6, pp.
1372-1379, Nov. 2004.
[7] S. Li and R. Challo, ―Restructuring an electric machinery course with an
integrative approach and computer-assisted teaching methodology,‖ IEEE
Transactions on Education., vol. 49,pp. 16-28, Feb.2006.
[8] Manoj Daigavane, Hiralal Suryawanshi and Jawed Khan, ―A Novel Three
Phase Series-Parallel Resonant Converter Fed DC-Drive System,‖ Journal
of Power Electronics, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 222-232, July 2007.
[9] Wai Phyo Anug, ―Analysis on Modeling and Simulink of DC Motor and its
Driving System Used for Wheeled Mobile Robot,‖ World Academy of
Science, Engineering and Technology 32, pp. 299-306, 2007.
[10] A. Gelen and S. Ayasun, ―Effects of PWM chopper drive on the torquespeed
characteristic of DC motor‖ 43rd International Universities Power
Engineering Conference, 2008.
[11] P. S. Bhimbhra, Power Electronic, Khanna publishers, 2010.
AUTHORS
First Author – Rohit Gupta, M.E.(Instrumentation & control),
Thapar University, Patiala, Punjab, India-147004
E-mail ID: rohit.udai@yahoo.co.in
Second Author – Ruchika Lamba, M.E.(Instrumentation
Engineering), Thapar University, Patiala, Punjab, India-147004
E-mail ID: ruchika.mehta@thapar.edu
Third Author – Subhransu Padhee, M.E.(Instrumentation &
control), Thapar University, Patiala, Punjab, India-147004
E-mail ID:- subhransu_padhee@yahoo.com
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 133
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Automatic Face Detection Using Color Based
Segmentation
Yogesh Tayal, Ruchika Lamba, Subhransu Padhee
Department of Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering
Thapar University, Patiala-147004, Punjab, India
yogesh.tayal87@gmail.com, ruchika.mehta@thapar.edu, subhransu_padhee@yahoo.com
Abstract- Because of the increasing instances of identity theft
and terrorism incidences in past few years, biometrics based
security system has been an area of quality research. Modern day
biometrics is a cutting edge technology which enables the
automated system to distinguish between a genuine person and
an imposter. Automated face recognition is one of the areas of
biometrics which is widely used because of the uniqueness of
one human face to other human face. Automated face recognition
has basically two parts one is face detection and other one is
recognition of detected faces. To detect a face from an online
surveillance system or an offline image, the main component that
should be detected is the skin areas. This paper proposes a skin
based segmentation algorithm for face detection in color images
with detection of multiple faces and skin regions. Skin color has
proven to be a useful and robust cue for face detection,
localization and tracking.
Index Terms- Color space model, Face Detection, HSV
Component, Morphology operation, Skin detection
D
I. INTRODUCTION
ifferent aspects of human physiology are used to
authenticate a person‘s identity. The science of ascertaining
the identity with respect to different characteristics trait of human
being is called biometrics. The characteristics trait can be broadly
classified in to two categories i.e. physiological and behavioral.
Measurement of physical features for personal identification is an
age old practice which dates back to the Egyptians era. But it was
not until 19 th century that the study of biometrics was extensively
used for personal identification and security related issues. With
the advancement in technology, biometric authentication has
been widely used for access management, law enforcement,
security system. A person can be identified on the basis of
different physiological and behavioral traits like fingerprints,
faces, iris, hand geometry, gait, ear pattern, voice recognition,
keystroke pattern and thermal signature.
This paper presents an improved color based segmentation
technique to segment the skin regions in a group picture and use
of skin based segmentation in face detection. Skin based
segmentation has several advantages over other face detection
techniques like this method is almost invariant against the
changes of size of face, orientation of face. The primary aim of
skin based segmentation is to detect the pixels representing the
skin regions and non skin regions. After detection of pixels
which represents the skin region, the next task is to classify the
pixels which represent the faces and non faces.
II. FACE DETECTION SYSTEM
Face detection is an interdisciplinary field which integrates
different techniques such as (i) image processing, (ii) pattern
recognition, (iii) computer vision, (iv) computer graphics, (v)
physiology, and (vi) evaluation approaches. In general, the
computerized face recognition/face detection includes four steps.
(i) Face image is acquired, enhanced and segmented. (ii) face
boundary and facial features are detected. (iii) the extracted facial
features are matched against the features stored in the database.
(iv) the classification of the face image into one or more persons
is achieved.
Figure 1 shows the basic block diagram of face recognition
system. The first step of face recognition is to acquire an image
either online or offline. After acquisition of image, preprocessing
operation is carried out. The unique features of the image are
extracted with the help of different image processing algorithm.
After the features are extracted, it is matched with the feature
database and the final result is obtained.
Stored template
Input Image
Pre-processing
Feature
Extraction
Template
Generator
Post-processing
Match
?
Output Image
Figure 1: Block diagram of face detection/face recognition
system
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There are different approaches for face detection system.
Mainly these are divided in to four parts i.e. (i) knowledge based
(ii) feature based (iii) image or appearance based (iv) template
based which is shown in figure 2.
Knowledge Based
Multi-resolution
rule based
method
Feature Based
Mixture of
Gaussian
Face Detection
SGLD
Shape
Template
Template
Matching
ASM
Eigen-face
Based
Figure 2: Types of face detection system
III. RELATED WORK
Appearance
Based method
SVM
Based
HMM
Based
Sung and Poggio [1] proposed and successfully implemented
Gaussian clusters to model the distribution of facial and non face
patterns. Rowley et.al [2] used artificial neural network for face
detection. Yang et.al [3] classified face detection methods in four
categories. (i) Knowledge based (ii) feature invariant (iii)
template matching (iv) appearance based. Lu et.al [5] used
parallel neural network for face recognition. Zhao et.al [6]
proposed Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) for face
recognition.
Face Databases
There are different standard face databases available in internet.
This section shows some of the standard face databases.
Yale Database [7]: It consists of a set of standard 165 black and
white images of 15 different people (11 Images per Person) taken
from Yale university standard database for use in facial
algorithm. All the images are properly aligned and taken in same
and good lighting and background conditions. Resolution of each
image is taken as 320x243 pixels. Figure 3 shows some of the
faces of Yale database.
Figure 3: Faces of Yale Database
Extended Yale Database [8]: It contains 16128 images of 28
human subjects under 9 poses and 64 illumination conditions.
FERET Database, USA [9]: The database contains 1564 sets of
images for a total of 14,126 images that includes 1199
individuals. All the images are of size 290x240. This database
was cropped automatically and segregated into sets of 250
female and 250 male faces. Figure 4 shows some of the images
of the FERET database.
Figure 4: Faces of FERET database
IV. SKIN BASED SEGMENTATION AND FACE
DETECTION
Color model is to specify the colors in some standard. Some of
the color models used is RGB color model for color monitors,
CMY and CMYK model for color printing.
HSV color model is the cylindrical representation of RGB color
model. HSV stands for hue, saturation and value. In each
cylinder, the angle around the central vertical axis corresponds to
"hue" or it form the basic pure color of the image, the distance
from the axis corresponds to "saturation" or when white color
and black color is mixed with pure color it forms the two
different form "tint" and "shade" respectively, and the distance
along the axis corresponds to "lightness", "value" or "brightness"
or it provides an achromatic notion of the intensity of the color or
brightness of the color.
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Figure 5: HSV color space
In situations where color description plays an integral role, the
HSV color model is often preferred over the RGB model. The
HSV model describes colors similarly to how the human eye
tends to perceive color. RGB defines color in terms of a
combination of primary colors, where as, HSV describes color
using more familiar comparisons such as color, vibrancy and
brightness. The color camera, on the robot, uses the RGB model
to determine color. Once the camera has read these values, they
are converted to HSV values. The HSV values are then used in
the code to determine the location of a specific object/color for
which the robot is searching. The pixels are individually
checked to determine if they match a predetermined color
threshold.
(a)
(b)
Hue Component
(c)
Figure 6 (a) (b) (c): RGB image, HSV image and H component
of image
HSV color space can be defined as
1
2 R G R B
1
H cos
2
R G R B G B
(1)
R G B
min , ,
S 13 R G B
1
V R G B
3
(2)
(3)
V. THE PROPOSED ALGORITHM
Color is a prominent feature of human faces. Using skin color
as a primitive feature for detecting face regions has several
advantages. In particular, processing color is much faster than
processing other facial features.
Furthermore, color information is invariant to face orientations.
However, even under a fixed ambient lighting, people have
different skin color appearance. In order to effectively exploit
skin color for face detection, a feature space has to be found, in
which human skin colors cluster tightly together and reside
remotely to background colors.
Skin and Non- skin regions for different color spaces
The first step of face detection is to segment the color image
into skin and non skin region. Different color space has different
ranges of pixels which represents skin region and non skin
region.
Skin region in B color space lies in the following range
0.79G 67 B 0.78G 42
Non skin region in B color space lies in the following range
0.836G 14 B 0.836G 44
Non skin region in H color space lies in the following range
19 H 240
Skin region in Cb color space lies in the following range
102 Cb 128
From the above ranges the skin and non skin segmentation is
performed. So now the output image only shows the skin regions
and non skin regions are blackened. After segmentation,
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morphological operators are implemented with a structuring
element. After application of morphological operators, the
standard deviation of the area is calculated and rectangles are
drawn in the skin regions. If any unwanted rectangles are created,
it is then removed. The complete flow chart of face detection is
shown in figure 7.
Start
Read RGB image
Convert RGB Image
into HSV component
Find the "Hue"
component
Calculate histogram
of "Hue" component
Set the threshold
values from the
histogram
Threshold
Check
Yes
Skin region
Convert resultant
image into binary
image
Apply morphological
processing with
structuring element
Calculate centroid of
binary image
Calculate standard
deviation
Check
Standard
Deviation
Yes
Retain that faces
Draw the rectangle
on retain faces
End
No
No Non-skin region
Reject that portion
Figure 7: Flow chart of Face Detection
VI. CONCLUSION
The automatic face detection algorithm is applied on a
wide variety of images taken under different lighting conditions
and with different backgrounds. The images also have areas
containing skin from other parts of the body such as hands, necks
and areas with color very similar to that of skin. These areas get
classified as skin.
For a 380×270 size of image, the total time taken by the
algorithm was 2.30 seconds. The histogram is formed using a
training set of over 4,90,000 pixels drawn from various sources
on the internet. The training set contained skin pixels of people
belonging to different races.
The various stages in the algorithm are
explained using the boy image (Fig. 10). First of all
the algorithm classifies skin pixels and non-skin
pixels using H components of the HSV color space.
Figure 10(c) classifies between the skin pixels and
non skin pixels. Fig. 10(d) shows the image after
applying morphological operators. The remaining part
of the algorithm uses the skin detected image and the
hue image, finds the skin regions and checks the
percentage of skin in that region. For regions
classified as faces, it uses the height and width of the
region to draw a rectangular box with the region‘s
centroid as its centre. The final result of the algorithm
is shown in Fig. 10(e). It is to be noted that the face
has been correctly located and almost at the right
scale.
(8.1)
(8.2)
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(8.3)
(8.4)
(8.5)
(8.6)
(8.7)
(8.8)
Figure 8: Result of face detection algorithm in different image
(a)
(b)
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(c)
(d)
Figure 9 (a) (b) (c) (d): RGB image, Skin detected image
Figure 9(a) shows the RGB image and figure 9(b) shows the
skin region using color based segmentation. Figure 9(c) shows
the RGB image and figure 9 (d) shows the skin region using
color based segmentation.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e)
Figure 10 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e): A test image with boy sitting, H
Component image, Skin detected image, image after
morphology, result of the proposed algorithm
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
Figure 11 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f): Different training faces for skin
color of same size
To evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithm,
following parameters are taken in to consideration. The
parameters under consideration are number of faces, detected
faces, number of repeat faces, false positive, and time to execute
the algorithm and accuracy of face detection.
Table 1: Performance evaluation of proposed algorithm
Figure 8.1
Figure 8.2
Number of faces 14
Detected faces 14
Number of repeat
faces
0
False positive
(Wrong detections)
0
Time to execute 1.684
sec.
Accuracy 100%
Number of faces 8
Detected faces 8
Number of repeat
faces
0
False positive
(Wrong detections)
2
Time to execute 1.760
sec.
Accuracy 75%
Number of faces 7
Detected faces 7
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Example 8.3 Number of repeat
faces
0
False positive
(Wrong detections)
2
Time to execute 1.559
sec.
Accuracy 71.5%
Number of faces 3
Detected faces 3
Example 8.4 Number of repeat
faces
0
False positive
(Wrong detections)
0
Time to execute 1.560
sec.
Accuracy 100%
Number of faces 10
Detected faces 9
Example 8.5 Number of repeat
faces
0
False positive
(Wrong detections)
3
Time to execute 1.671
sec.
Accuracy 70%
Number of faces 6
Detected faces 6
Example 8.6 Number of repeat
faces
0
False positive
(Wrong detections)
5
Time to execute 2.526
sec.
Accuracy 60%
Number of faces 4
Detected faces 4
Example 8.7 Number of repeat
faces
0
False positive
(Wrong detections)
7
Time to execute 1.868
sec.
Accuracy 42%
Number of faces 34
Detected faces 32
Example 8.8 Number of repeat
faces
0
False positive
(Wrong detections)
10
Time to execute 2.518
sec.
Accuracy 70.5%
Table 1 shows the performance evaluation of the proposed
algorithm and the overall accuracy of the algorithm is found out
to be 73.68%
VII. CONCLUSION
In this research paper, the authors propose color
segmentation based automatic face detection algorithm. Though
there are some cases of false positives, the overall performance
of the proposed algorithm is quite satisfactory. The training
images on which the algorithm is tested are natural images taken
under uncontrolled conditions. The efficiency of the face
detection was found to be 73.68%.
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[5] J Lu, X. Yuan, and T. Yahagi, ―A method of face recognition based on
fuzzy c-means clustering and associated sub-NNs,‖ IEEE Transactions on
Neural Networks, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 150–160, Jan. 2007.
[6] H Zhao and P C Yuen, ―Incremental linear discriminant analysis for face
recognition,‖ IEEE Transactions on System Man and Cybernetics B, vol.
38, no. 1, pp. 210–221, Feb. 2008.
[7] http://face-rec.org/databases
[8] http://vision.ucsd.edu/~leekc/ExtYaleDatabase/
[9] http://face.nist.gov/colorferet
AUTHORS
First Author – Yogesh Tayal, M.E. (Instrumentation &
Control), Thapar University, Patiala, Punjab, India-147004
E-mail ID- yogesh.tayal87@gmail.com
Second Author – Ruchika Lamba, M.E. (Instrumentation &
Control), Thapar University, Patiala, Punjab, India-147004
E-mail ID- Ruchika.mehta@thapar.edu
Third Author – Subhransu Padhee, M.E. (Instrumentation &
Control), Thapar University, Patiala Punjab, India-147004
E-mail ID- subhransu_padhee@yahoo.com
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DESIGN AND EVALUATION OF CHITOSAN
CONTAINING MUCOADHESIVE BUCCAL PATCH
OF FLUXOTINE HCL
NARESH KSHIRASAGAR*, NARESH THAMADA, V.N.BALAJI KUMAR NAIK, M.SUSHMA GOPAL
SREE DATTHA INSTITUTE OF PHARMACY, SHERIGUDA, IBRAHMIPATNUM, HYDERABAD
Abstract- The main objective of present study was to design
and evaluate the Muco adhesive buccal patch. The buccal region
is an attractive route of administration for systemic drug delivery.
To provide prolonged desire state concentration of Fluxotine
Hydrochloride with minimal fluctuation and improved
bioavailability, a mucoadhesive buccal patch is designed in the
present study that Fluxotine hydrochloride is an antidepressant
with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, its oral bioavailability
is 80% because of first pass metabolism.
In this study Mucoadhesive buccal patches were prepared
with chitosan dissolved in glacial acetic acid and glycerol as
plasticizer. Mucoadhessive patch containing 20mg of Fluxotine
Hcl were evaluated with respect to their invitro drug permeation
through goat buccal mucosa in 3 hr by using Franz diffusion cell,
weight variation, uniformity of film, Area of the film,
determination of % yield of buccal patch, percentage moisture
loss, Mucoadhesive strength, folding endurance, drug content
uniformity, swelling behaviour and surface pH were obtained.
The physicochemical interaction between drug and polymer were
investigated by FTIR spectroscopy revealed that there is no
interaction.
Then the formula could be promising for the fabrication of
buccal patches.
Index Terms- Fluxotine Hcl, buccal patches, invitro release,
evaluation
R
I. INTRODUCTION
ecent years have seen an increasing interest in the
development of novel mucoadhesive buccal dosage forms.
These are useful for the systemic delivery of drug as well as for
local targeting of drug to a particular region of the body. Buccal
delivery for the transmucosal absorption of the drug into the
systemic circulation offers number of advantages for those drugs
that suffer from first pass metabolism in the liver, poor oral
bioavailability. Conceivably buccal delivery systems provide
easy administration, thereby increasing patient
compliance.[1],[2]. FLUXOTINE HCL is an SSRI (selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitor) used mainly as an antidepressant to
treat major depression, bipolar disorder, obsessive compulsive
disorder, bulimia nervosa, panic disorder and premenstrual
dysphoric disorder. Fluxotine hydrochloride was selected as the
model drug for the investigation because it has got certain
characteristics that a drug should possess to get absorbed through
buccal route viz., biphasic solubility and low molecular weight
(309.33 g/mol). Moreover it undergoes first-pass metabolism, so
its bioavailability may be improved when delivered through
buccal route.[3]
The main aim was to prepare mucoadhesive buccal patches by
using different concentration of mucoadhesive polymer to drug
ratio in order to obtain desired concentration of the drug when
compared to conventional dosage forms. As the bioavailability of
conventional dosage form is less than 80%
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
FLUXOTINE HCL was obtained as a gift sample from
NATCO PHARMA LTD. Hyderabad. Chitosan was provided
from Hi Media Laboratories Pvt. Ltd Mumbai.PVP K-30,
glycerol, glacial acetic acid were obtained from S.D. Fine
Chemicals, India. All other reagent and chemicals were of
analytical grade.
Methods
SOLVENT CASTING METHOD: Preparation of
mucoadhesive buccal patches:
1%,2%(m/V) of chitosan was dissolved in 10 mL 1.5% (V/V)
acetic acid under occasional stirring for 12 hr. The resulting
viscous chitosan solution was filtered through nylon gauze to
remove debris and suspended particles. To improve patch
performance and release characteristics, a water-soluble
hydrophilic additive, PVP K-30, was added in different
concentrations. The drug and PVP K-30 were added into the
chitosan solution under constant stirring. PEG 6000 was added
into the solution as plasticizer under constant stirring. This
viscous solution was left overnight at room temperature to ensure
a clear, bubble-free solution. The solution was poured into a
glass Petri dish (16 cm diameter) and allowed to dry at ambient
temperature till a flexible film was formed. Dried films were
carefully removed, checked for any imperfections or air bubbles
and cut into patches of 16 mm in diameter, containing 20 mg of
drug per patch.[4],[5]. The patches were packed in aluminum foil
and stored in an airtight glass container to maintain the integrity
and elasticity of the patches. TABLE 1 contains the
compositions of different formulations.
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TISSUE ISOLATION:
Buccal tissue was taken from goat at a slaughter-house. It was
collected within 10 minutes after slaughter of the goat and tissue
was kept in Krebs buffer solution. It was transported
immediately to the laboratory and was mounted within 2 hours of
isolation of buccal tissue. The tissue was rinsed thoroughly using
phosphate buffer saline to remove any adherent material. The
buccal membrane from the tissue was isolated using surgical
procedure. Buccal membrane was isolated and buccal epithelium
was carefully separated from the underlying connective tissue.
Sufficient care was taken to prevent any damage to the buccal
epithelium.[6]
TABLE 1: Composition of chitosan buccal patches of fluxotine
hydrochloride
COMPONENTS F1 F2 F3
Drug content uniformity:
The F4 amount of drug contained in the patch was determined by
dissolving the patch by homogenization in 100 ml of an isotonic
FLUXOTINE(mg) 20 20 20
phosphate buffer (pH 6.8) for 8 h under occasional shaking. The
5 20 ml solution was taken and diluted with isotonic phosphate
buffer pH 6.8 up to 20 ml, and the resulting solution was filtered
CHITOSAN 0.1 0.1 0.2 through 0.2 a 0.45 μm Whatman filter paper. The drug content was
then determined after proper dilution by UV spectrophotometer
PEG200(ml) 1 1 (Shimadzu-1700 -
Japan) at λmax of 226 nm. The experiments
were carried out in triplicate
Content uniformity:
The drug loaded patch was allowed to dissolved in
100mLmphosphate buffer, pH 6.8 The amount of fluxotine in
the patch was measured spectrophotometrically at λmax of 226
nm (n = 3).
Surface pH. – Buccal patches were left to swell for 2 h on the
surface of an agar plate,prepared by dissolving 2% (m/V) agar in
warmed isotonic phosphate buffer of pH 6.75under stirring and
then pouring the solution into a Petridish till gelling at room
temperature. The surface pH was measured by means of a pH
paper placed on the surface of the swollen patch. The mean of
three readings was recorded.
Folding endurance test. –The folding endurance of the patches
was determined by repeatedly folding one patch at the same
place till it broke or folded up to 300 times, which is considered
satisfactory to reveal good film properties.
The number of times the film could be folded at the same place
without breaking gave the value of the folding endurance.
Radial swelling:
Radial swelling was determined by diameter method. After
determination of the original patch diameter, the patch was
allowed to swell on the surface of an agar plate kept in an
incubator maintained at 37 o C. Measurement of the diameter of
the swollen patch was done at one hour intervals for 6 h. Radial
swelling was calculated from the following equation:
SD (%) = [(Dt – Do) / Do] x 100
Where SD (%) is the percent swelling, Dt is the diameter of the
swollen patch after time t, and Do is the original diameter of the
patch at time zero.
PEG6000(ml) - 1 - 1
In vitro Swelling Studies of Buccoadhesive patch: The degree
PVP (gm) 0.01 0.01 0.01
of swelling of bioadhesive polymer is important factor affecting
0.01
adhesion. Upon application of the bioadhesive material to a
VANILLIN(gm) 0.02 0.02 0.02
tissue a process of swelling may occur. The swelling rate of
buccoadhesive 0.02 patch was evaluated by placing the film in
phosphate buffer solution pH 6.8 at 37±0.5 oC. Buccal patch
DISTILLED
5 5 5 was 5 weighed (W1), placed in a 2% (w/v) agar gel plate and
WATER(ml)
incubated at 37 ±10C. At regular one-hour time intervals (upto 3
h), the patch was removed from the petridish and excess surface
EVALUATION OF PATCHES:
Mass uniformity and patch thickness. – Assessment of mass and
thickness was done on ten patches. The mean and standard
deviation were calculated.
water was removed carefully using the filter paper. The swollen
patch was then reweighed (W2) again and the swelling index was
calculated.[11]
Swelling index = W2- W1 / W1.
Bioadhesion force:
The tensile strength required to detach the bioadhesion patch
from the mucosal surface was applied as a measure of the
bioadhesion performance. The apparatus was locally assembled
and mainly composed of two‐arm balance. The left arm of the
balance was replaced by a small platinum lamina vertically
suspended through a wire. At the same side, a movable platform
was maintained in the bottom in order to fix the mucosal
membrane. For determination of bioadhesion force, the
mucoadhesive patch was fixed to the platinum lamina using
cyanoacylate adhesive. A piece of rabbit intestinal mucosa was
also glued to the platform. The patch surface was moistened with
10 μL of phosphate buffer and left for 20 s for initial hydration.
On the right pan, a constant weight of 5 g was added at 2 min
interval, until the hydrated patch was brought into contact with
the mucosal surface. The total weight required for complete
detachment of the patch was recorded and the bioadhesion force
was calculated per unit area of the patch as follows:
F = (Ww x g) / A
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where F is the bioadhesion force (kg m‐1 S‐2), Ww is the mass
applied (g), g is the acceleration due to gravity (cm s‐2), A is the
surface of the patch (cm2). The bioadhesion force data reported
represent the mean of three determinations.[7],[8]
In vitro drug release study:
For in vitro release study, goat buccal mucosa membrane was
used as a barrier membrane with Phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) as a
medium. The patches were evaluated for drug release using franz
diffusion cells. Buccal mucosa membrane was mounted between
the donor and receptors compartments. The patch was placed on
the mucosal membrane. The diffusion cell was placed in a
simulated saliva maintained at 37±2°C.The receptor
compartment was filled with 50 mL phosphate buffer (pH 7.4)
and hydrodynamics was maintained by stirring with a magnetic
bead at 300 rpm. Five mL sample was withdrawn and replaced
with 5 mL fresh medium to maintain the sink condition. The
samples were analyzed in U.V. spectrophotometer at 226
nm.[9].[10]
Fig.1: in vitro Buccal Permeations studies:
COMPOSITION OF SIMULATED SALIVA: 2.38 g
Na2HPO4, 0.19 g KH2PO4 and 8.00 g NaCl per liter of distilled
water adjusted with phosphoric acid to pH 6.75[12]
DRUG RELEASE PROFILE:
FIG: 1 In vitro drug release profiles of different formulations
through buccal membrane
TABLE NO: 2 Characterstics of mucoadhesive buccal patch
of fluxotine hcl:
FTIR STUDIES:
Spectrum of chitosan
Spectrum of F3
FIG: 2 FTIR spectra of chitosan
FIG: 3 FTIR spectra of optimizes formulation
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Spectrum of fluxotine hydrochloride
FIG: 4 FTIR spectra of drug( fluxotine HCL)
Spectrum of PEG 6000
FIG: 5 FTIR spectra of PEG 6000
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of Physical Characteristics of patches containing
individual concentration of polymer are shown in Table 2. The
patches were 10 mm in diameter, and 1.01±0.01 to 1.07±0.02
mm in thickness. The weight ranged from 117±0.15 to 123±0.22
mg.
Considering the fact that acidic or alkaline pH may cause
irritation to the buccal mucosa. The surface pH of the buccal
films was determined to optimize both drug permeation and
muco adhesion. Attempts were made to keep the surface pH as
close as to salivary pH. The pH values of all the formulations
were within the range of salivary pH. No significant difference
was observed in surface pH for different formulations. The
surface pH of all formulations was nearer to neutral (≈7) and
hence no mucosal irritation was expected. The folding endurance
was measured manually, by folding the film repeatedly at a point
till they were broken. The breaking time was considered as the
end point. The recorded folding endurance of the patch was >
300 times. The patch exhibited good physical and mechanical
properties. Assessment of the swelling behavior was done by
measuring radial swelling. F3 patches showed high radial
swelling, followed by f4 and then f2 ; All the formulations
showed good mucoadhesive strength. Among the formulations
F3 showed maximum mucoadhesive strength while formulation
F1 showed less mucoadhesive strength. Maximum bioadhesion
was recorded for f3 (65.60 x 102 kg m‐1s‐2), followed by the f4
(58.46 x 102 kg m‐1s‐2), then f‐2 (50.7 x 102 kgm‐1s‐2).
Drug content in all formulations was found to be uniform
ranging from 95.2% to 97.9%. This indicates that the drug was
dispersed uniformly throughout the patches. The in vitro drug
release a study was performed using cellophane membrane.
The release profile of mucoadhesive buccal patches is shown in
Fig.1. The extent of fluxotine release within 1h from f‐1, f‐2 and
f‐3 and f-4 patches was 85.65%, 88.45% , 98.45% and 92.33%
respectively. FTIR studies were performed and has been showed
and clearly shows that there is no interactions between drug and
selected polymers. Chitosan patches containing 10 mg fluxotine
were subjected to 2‐ months storage at 37± 0.5o C and 75± 0.5
RH and found that they exhibit excellent drug content over the
storage period. The folding endurance test revealed good
flexibility and elastic properties. The formulation F4 did not
control the release and it releases the fluxotine as immediate
release formulation, but F3 offers promising drug release pattern
and good swelling index.
IV. CONCLUSION
It may be concluded that adhesion of buccal drug delivery
device to mucosal membrane leads to an increased drug
concentration gradient at the absorption site and therefore
improved bioavailability of systemically delivered drug.
Mucoadhesive patches
are a promising drug delivery system for fluxotine in
maintaining drug level in blood. The mucoadhesive polymer
chitosan showed good mucoadhesive and swelling
characteristics.
From the present investigation, one can conclude that the
optimized Buccoadhesive patches of Fluxotine hydrochloride
with the combination of chitosan PEG 200, PEG 6000 and PVP
K-30 can meet the ideal requirements for buccal devices, which
can be a good way to bypass the extensive hepatic first pass
metabolism
REFERENCES
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naltrexone following transbuccal administration by an
electronically‐controlled intraoral device: A trial on pigs, J.controlled
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[2] Swami P.V., Amit Kumar and Shirsand S.B., Design and Evaluation of
Buccal patches of Granisetron Hydrochloride, Indian J.Pharm Educ. Res,
2010, 44(1) :95‐101.
[3] Suraj k.Benerjee, Ankith Pavan.J.S, fluoxetine medline plus drug
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http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a689006.html.
[4] Ana Figueiras, Juliane H., and Andreas B.S., In‐vitro evaluation of natural
and methylated cyclodextrin as Buccal permeation enhancing system for
omeprazole delivery, Eur. J. Pharmaceutics and Biopharm, 2009, 71 :
339‐345.
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[5] Khairnar A., Parridhi J. and Dheeraj B., Development of Mucoadhesive
Buccal patch containing Aceclofenac : In vitro evaluations, International J.
Pharm. Tech Research, 2009, 1(4): 978‐981
[6] Navneeth varma, a.k.ghosh, P. chhottapadey.., PREPARATION AND
INVITRO ASSESSMENT OF MUCOADHESIVE BUCCAL PATCHES
CONTAINING CARVEDILOL. International Journal of Pharmacy and
Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vol 3, Issue 3, 2011.
[7] Satishbabu BK, Srinivasan BP. Preparation and evaluation of bucoadhesive
films of atenolol. Indian J Pharm Sci 2008, 70, 175.
[8] Semalty M, Semalty A, Kumar G. Formulation and characterization of
mucoadhesive buccal films of glipizide. Indian J Pharm Sci 2008 70, 43.
[9] Henrihsen I., Green L.K. Bioadhesion of hydrated chitosan : an in vitro and
in vivo study. Int. J. of Pharmaceutics 1996, 145:231‐240.
[10] Chandra Shekhar, Kishan V. and Yamsani M.R., Development of
Mucoadhesive patches for Buccal administration of Prochlorperazine:
Evaluation of In‐vitro release and Mechanical Properties, International J. of
Pharm. Sci. and Nanotech, 2008, 1 (1) : 64‐70.
[11] Bhanja Satyabrata, P Ellaiah, Rohit Choudhury, KVR Murthy, Panigrahi
Bibhutibhusan, Martha Sujit Kumar, Design and evaluation of methotrexate
buccal mucoadhesive patches Int J Pharm Biomed Sci 2010, 1(2), 31-36
ISSN No: 0976-5263.
[12] Kok Khiang Peh, Choy Fun Wong, Polymeric Films As Vehicle For
Buccal Delivery: Swelling, Mechanical, and Bioadhesive Properties. J
Pharm Pharmaceut Sci (www.ualberta.ca/~csps) 2 (2):53-61, 1999.
AUTHORS
First Author – Naresh kshirasagar, M.PHARMACY.M.B.A,
Sree Dattha Institute of Pharmacy, Ibrahmipatnum, Hyderabad
Email: arenmpharm2009@gmail.com.
Second Author – NARESH THAMMADA.M. PHARMACY
Sree Dattha Institute of Pharmacy, Ibrahmipatnum, Hyderabad
E-MAIL: nareshthammada@gmail.com
Third Author – Balaji naik Kumar.V.N., M.Pharmacy , Sree
Dattha Institute of Pharmacy, Ibrahmipatnum, Hyderabad
Fourth author: Sushma Gopal. M.Pharmacy.
Sree Dattha Institute of Pharmacy, Ibrahmipatnum, Hyderabad
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 145
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CHILD WELFARE PROGRAMME IN COLONIAL
MYSORE
Abstract- Princely state has adapted some scientific measures
to provide female medical aid and for improving the health of
babies most effectively serving individual children in order to
raise the level of community health. The high rate of infant
mortality exists in the state due to the shortage of child welfare
activities and other medical facilities.
T
I. INTRODUCTION
he princely state of Mysore was one among six hundred and
forty eight native states which were indirectly controlled by
the British Paramount power in India.
The research article focuses on the welfare measures in Infant
Health in Princely State of Mysore from 1881 to 1947. This is
the period of conservation, preservation and creativeness with
thrust on Public welfare. The Mysore rulers were farsighted,
responsible and intellectual; their liberal and able administration
brought tremendous welfare which consequently made Mysore a
successful State in imperial India.
“Bestow blessings on those little, innocent lives bloomed
on earth, who have brought the message of joy from heavenly
garden”. Rabindranath Tagore.
National policy for the welfare of children, the nation’s
children are a supremely important asset, their nurture and
solicitude are our responsibility. Every nation, developed or
developing links its future with the status of the child.
Childhood holds the potential and also sets the limit to the
future development of the society and the children are the
greatest gift to the humanity.
The high rate of infant mortality due to the shortage of
maternity and child welfare centre and other medical facilities
besides deeply sunk in poverty it was impossible to take adequate
care and protection of the children by means of feeding, nursing
and medical assistance, the bad housing conditions in sanitary
environments also contribute to increase in the death rate. There
was high mortality among infants under one year of age in
improving the health of Babies, to provide female medical aid in
the state has received the attention of the government at the
commencement of the 20 th century.
Philanthropy, Former Dewan, M. Kantharaj urs, donated Rs.
1, 20,000\ to establish a Trust in the name of his mother
Gunamba. The Gunamba Maternity and child welfare trust,
which was established on 21st may 1924, The Trust started
working in the building of Ayurvedic hospital under the officers
of Dr. A. Hardi Bank and Mathura boi. A committee was also
formed by His. Highness, and according to their
Dr. THRIVENI
MAHARAJAS COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY OF MYSORE, MYSORE
Email: thriveniurs@gmail.com
recommendations Medical investigation of natal treatment was
started by Doctors. House to house survey was conducted and
two centers were opened at Mysore. Nutritious food and milk
were provided freely, made arrangements to give medical
education through magic lantern slides and lectures. The trust
was consisting the staff of 3 trained midwives, 2 nurses and 2
assistant dais with medical kit and other equipment of weighing
mission bathing tub, milk bowls, and medicine kit. Expenditure
of the trust was 1,500/ month. 2
Gunamba Maternity and child welfare center operating
through trained intelligence and scientific methods, most
effectively serving individual children in raising the level of
community health appreciated by Dr. Fredrick Robinson, the
well-known American Educationist, President of the collage of
the city of New York in visitors Book. Mr. Allen Lane, the
famous London Publisher wrote, I can only say that I honestly
congratulate all concerned in this magnificent work. 3 A voluntary
organization Red Cross Society joined their support in 1925,
under the guidance of Sir Charles Todhunter, private secretary to
the Maharaja was specially note worthy in combating the
ignorance which is responsible for so much suffering and in
establishing the maternity homes and child welfare centers and it
organized Baby week in Jan 1925 for 5 days and then extended
its activities to all over the state. 4
The civic and social progress association was established in
the year 1930, it started maintains a Milk center at Ganigarpet in
Bangalore city to which the municipality contributed a sum of
Rs. 30 per mensem. A crèche opened by the maternity and child
welfare association near the Binny Mills, and 4 child welfare
centers were started working in Kolar Gold Field area. 5
Milk Centers: These centers were established under supervision
of medical officer of Health department in 1930. The essential
provision for center was a well-equipped lady health visitor, who
was assisted by a trained Dai. The center consisted of a small
dispensary, lady health visitor, mid wife, and a trained Dai in
close proximity to the welfare center with a large compound as
play ground for the children. A lady health visitor and midwife
2 Maramath Dpt file no B-13 of 1915, p. 162. Divisional Archives
Mysore.
3 Mysore Information Bulletin, Mythic Society, vol-IV, Bangalore.
4 Shamrao M. Modern Mysore. P-421 & 422.
5 Mysore Administration Report 1930, P. 6.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 146
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annually attended to about 200 to 240 births, 200 infants and
about 600 to 700 pre school children. A midwife should have to
attend to 100 births. A lady superintendent was supposed to spare
some time to assist the lady health visitor in her work. 6
A visiting lady medical officer attends the centers once or twice
in a week. She was a specialist in diseases of women and
children besides taking care of antenatal and baby clinics. One
or two trained dais and mid wives were attached to the center to
render assistance. Specialist Doctors also attend the center once
or twice a fortnight to provide medical and hygienic advice to the
mothers and were persuaded to bring their children to the centers
for periodical check up. Leaflets in different languages
distributed to give instructions regarding maternity and child
welfare work, milk was supplied free of cost to children. 7
Maternity and child welfare work advanced in the year 1930,
Annual baby shows were held and about 7-8000 babies came
under expert scrutiny of doctors. A baby and Health week
celebrations were held in 49 places. 8 A Successful Health and
Baby week was organized in the year 1932 Mysore, which
secured a certificate of Merit from the ―All Empire Baby week
committee London‖. Mysore state got 2 nd best in the world. Two
more maternity and child welfare centers, a toddler‘s center in
Gajasala and a Crèche in the Krishna Rajendra Mills were
opened. The civic and social progress Association at Mysore and
Bangalore was established to maintain child-welfare and milk
centers. 9
The Gunamba maternity and child welfare trust maintaining 5
milk centers and one crèche. 32.332 babies availed the
humanitarian service of the trust. Baby clinics were running by
the Wesleyan mission in Shimoga, in Bangalore by the Mahila
Seva Samaja and a child welfare center by social welfare
committee in the Military area at Hebbal. 10
At Dasara session of the representative assembly held in 1934,
the Dewan specially called attention to the great need for
extending medical aid to women and children. He pointed out
that the deaths from plague; Cholera and smallpox put together
were less than 1/3 of the deaths of women in child – birth and of
children in the first two years of their life. The Government
extended the employment of midwives and also made special
arrangements for appointment of lady doctors to extend their
activities by visiting places within reach from their head quarters.
All empire competition and Baby week shows begun and held,
Mysore was ranked in the 2 nd , 1 st and 3 rd places respectively in
the year 1932, 1933 and 1934.
The Vani Vilas shield for the Best Baby week campaign in
1935 was awarded to Mandya branch of the Red Cross society,
35 maternities and child welfare organizations existed in the year
1935. 11 Baby and health week celebration were held throughout
the state the Mysore state secured the 3 rd place in imperial Baby
week challenge shield competition and the 2 nd place in the Vani
Vilas shield for the best Baby week campaign in 1934 was
6 Mysore Administration Report MAR 1930 p. 60
7 Ibid
8 Ibid
9 Mysore Administration Report, 1932
10 Mysore Administration Report, 1933, P- 138
11 Mysore Administration Report, 1935
awarded to French Rocks. There were 17 maternity & child
welfare organizations working in the state. 10 in Bangalore
district, 5 in the Mysore district and one among these in the
Shimoga district and one in the Tumkur district The Gunamba
Maternity and Child Welfare Trust maintained 6 centers, two
nursery schools & a crèche at the Sri Krishnarajendra Mills.
In order to organize maternity and child welfare work under the
department of Health, Dr. Mrs. Erika Deussen Rosenthal, M.D.
was appointed towards the close of the year as organizer of
Maternity & child welfare work in the state. 12
The Indian Red Cross Society of Mysore Branch Started 26
new branches in the state making a total of 43 branches of
maternity and child welfare centers. A Doctor from Mysore state
represented the 16 th International Red Cross conference held in
London. A medical officer from the Gunamba maternity and
child welfare trust Mysore was the recipient of the Carlo
Forlanini Institute scholarship of Rome for a course of study in
the treatment and care of Tuberculosis. 13
Anti natal Clinics: In 1938 there were 43 anti-natal clinics were
working, of which 20 were in rural areas. The Government
appointed a whole time officer to organize & co-ordinate the
maternally & child welfare Movement. 14
School Clinics: Medical Department made certain important
suggestions such as the establishments of school clinic for the
follow-up causes, provisions of midday meals or other nutritious
feeds to the children. Provisions of better hygienic requirements
& better seating arrangements in schools, introduction of
systematic physical education, introduction of shorter periods,
arrangements of periodical talks with the parents for
improvements in the nutrition of care of the children, and supply
of free cod-liver oil to deserving cases on the recommendation of
the medical inspector of schools. 15
Nursery Schools: Sir, Charles Todhunter who had established a
child welfare centre, a nursery school and a solarium in each of
the Mohallas of the city of Mysore. 16 Nursery schools were
established in Mysore, Bangalore and Chikballapure in the year
1938, and continued excellent work. The state had given high
priority to improving child nutrition the children attending the
solarium during the early morning hours were given graded sun
bathes, milk, eggs, fruit Juice and cod-liver oil for their
nourishment. They are weighed and examined every week for
testing their progresses in health.50 maternity homes were in
existence in various parts of the state. The organizing secretary
did five propaganda tours and delivered 25 lectures in different
parts of the state. 17
Bureau of maternity and child welfare: With a view to
organize a regular and efficient service of child welfare
12 Mysore Administration Report , 1934, P-135
13 Mysore Administration Report,1945, p. 69
14 Mysore Information Bulletin. Vol-III, Mythic Society, Bangalore.
15 Mysore Information Bulletin., 1939, vol-II, Bangalore.
16 Ibid
17 Mysore Administration Report, 1938, P- 151.
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throughout the state, a bureau of maternity and child welfare was
opened in the year 1945. With the object of inspecting the
working of Crèches, Nursery schools and Milk centers. 18 In the
year, 1946 (77) seventy-seven maternity homes were visited and
their work were examined and the establishment of crèches was
suggested. The established nursery schools were inspected and
useful instructions were issued for the proper feeding of children
and their periodical medical examination. Milk centers were
started with free supply of milk to poor children in the sub-health
units of ( plases called) Mandya, the Mahila Samajas of
Chickballapur, Hassan and Shimoga. The scheme of 20
stipendiary pupil midwives, on a scholarship of Rs.15 each per
month, for undergoing training in midwifery was sanctioned. 19
II. CONCLUSION
The infant mortality rate was considerably reduced with the
introduction of modern system of midwifery and rapid
implementation of maternity and child welfare services. The
child welfare centers had increased from 4 to 32 during 1881-
1947 in Co-operation between Government, Local bodies &
organization of Red Cross society. 20 54 hospitals among 419
Medical institutions were considered as Women‘s and children‘s,
and 25, 94,251 children were treated in the hospitals of the
state. 21
18 Mysore Administration Report 1944, p.147
19 Mysore Administration Report, 1947 p. 143
20 Mysore information Bulletin, May, 1940
21 Mysore Administration Report, 1946, p. 147
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Live Migration of Virtual Machines in Cloud
Abstract- Migration of a virtual machine is simply moving the
VM running on a physical machine (source node) to another
physical machine (target node). It is done as, while the VM is
running on the source node, and without disrupting any active
network connections, even after the VM is moved to the target
node. It is considered ―live‖, since the original VM is running,
while the migration is in progress. Huge benefit of doing the live
migration is the very small (almost zero) downtime in the order
of milliseconds.
There exists a model in which the load is balanced among the
servers according to their processor usage or their IO usage and
keeping virtual machines zero downtime. To increase the
throughput of the system, it is necessary that the virtual machines
are load balanced statically, i.e. the load is distributed to each
part of the system in proportion to their computing IO capacity.
To migrate a virtual machine from one physical host to
another, the control of virtual machines is converted to the
management of services in Red Hat Cluster Suite. This creates a
high availability and load balancing cluster services, to migrate a
virtual machine from one physical host to another.
Software services, file systems and network status can be
monitored and controlled by the cluster suite, services and
resources can be failed over to other network nodes in case of
failure. The cluster suite forcibly terminates a cluster node's
access to services or resources to ensure the node and data is in a
known state. The node is terminated by removing power or
access to the shared storage.
W
I. INTRODUCTION
hat is virtual machine?
One computer containing multiple operating systems
loaded on a single PC, each of which functions as a separate OS
on a separate physical machine. Virtualization [1] software does
just that by creating and managing one or more virtual machines
on a single, physical host PC. It can run its own operating
systems and applications as if it were a physical computer. A
virtual machine [2] behaves exactly like a physical computer and
contains it own virtual (i.e. software-based) CPU, RAM hard
disk and network interface card (NIC).
Benefits of virtual machines
1. Isolation: While virtual machines can share the physical
resources of a single computer, they remain completely
isolated from each other as if they were separate
physical machines. If, for example, there are four virtual
machines on a single physical server and one of the
virtual machines crashes, the other three virtual
machines remain available. Isolation is an important
Ashima Agarwal, Shangruff Raina
Department of Computer, MIT College of Engineering Pune, India
reason why the availability and security of applications
running in a virtual environment is far
2. Encapsulation: A virtual machine is essentially a
software container that bundles or ―encapsulates‖ a
complete set of virtual hardware resources, as well as an
operating system and all its applications, inside a
software package. Encapsulation makes virtual
machines incredibly portable and easy to manage.
3. Hardware Independence: Virtual machines are
completely independent from their underlying physical
hardware. For example, you can configure a virtual
machine with virtual components (eg, CPU, network
card, SCSI controller) that are completely different from
the physical components that are present on the
underlying hardware. Virtual machines on the same
physical server can even run different kinds of operating
systems (Windows, Linux, etc).
II. WHAT IS LIVE MIGRATION?
Live migration [3] is the movement of a virtual machine from
one physical host to another while continuously powered-up.
When properly carried out, this process takes place without any
noticeable effect from the point of view of the end user. Live
migration allows an administrator to take a virtual machine
offline for maintenance or upgrading without subjecting the
system's users to downtime.
When a VM is running a live service it is important that this
transfer occurs in a manner that balances the requirements of
minimizing both downtime and total migration time. The former
is the period during which the service is unavailable due to there
being no currently executing instance of the VM; this period will
be directly visible to clients of the VM as service interruption.
The latter is the duration between when migration is initiated and
when the original VM may be finally discarded and hence, the
source host may potentially be taken down for maintenance,
upgrade or repair. It is easiest to consider the trade-offs between
these requirements by generalizing memory transfer into three
phases:
Push phase: The source VM continues running while certain
pages are pushed across the network to the new destination. To
ensure consistency, pages modified during this process must be
re-sent.
Stop-and-copy phase: The source VM is stopped, pages are
copied across to the destination VM, then the new VM is started.
The time between stopping VM on source and resuming it on
destination is called "down-time". Down-time of a VM during a
live migration could be a few milliseconds to seconds according
to the size of memory and applications running on the VM. There
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are some techniques to reduce live migration down-time such as
using probability density function of memory change. [3]
Pull phase: The new VM executes and, if it accesses a page
that has not yet been copied, this page is faulted in (.pulled.)
across the network from the source VM. VM migration is
initiated by suspending the VM at the source. With the VM
suspended, a minimal execution state of the VM (CPU, registers,
and non-pageable memory) is transferred to the target. The VM
is then resumed at the target, even though the entire memory
state of the VM has not yet been transferred, and still resides at
the source. At the target, when the VM tries to access pages that
have not yet been transferred, it generates page-faults, which are
trapped at the target and redirected towards the source over the
network. Such faults are referred to as network faults. Source
host responds to the network-fault by sending the faulted page.
Since each page fault of the running VM is redirected towards
the source, it can degrade the applications running inside the
VM. However, when pure demand-paging accompanied with the
techniques such as pre-paging can reduce this impact by a great
extent. Live migration is widely used in virtualization ready data
centers and enterprise IT departments. It separates software‘s
from physical servers, and provides desirable abilities such as
online server maintenance, dynamic load balancing, and etc.
Live migration can be applied in both local area network
(LAN) environment and wide area network (WAN) environment.
Live migration in LAN environment is simpler, because live
migration process avoids virtual storage migration by sharing a
network storage. Furthermore, live migration in LAN skips the
migration of network topology, and the migration process only
needs to broadcast an unsolicited ARP reply from the migrated
VM, in order to advertise the MAC relocation.
III. SEAMLESS LIVE MIGRATION
When down-time of a VM during a live migration is zero or a
few millisecond which is not noticeable by end user, it is called a
seamless live migration. Otherwise, the end user will feel a small
or relatively long glitch in the service.
What is the purpose of live migration?
Migrating an entire OS and all of its applications as one unit
allows us to avoid many of the difficulties faced by process-level
migration approaches. With virtual machine migration, on the
other hand, the original host may be decommissioned once
migration has completed. This is particularly valuable when
migration is occurring in order to allow maintenance of the
original host.
Secondly, migrating at the level of an entire virtual machine
means that in-memory state can be transferred in a consistent and
(as will be shown) efficient fashion. This applies to kernelinternal
state (e.g. the TCP control block for a currently active
connection) as well as application-level state, even when this is
shared between multiple cooperating processes.
Thirdly, live migration of virtual machines allows a separation
of concerns between the users and operator of a data center or
cluster. Users have `carte blanche' regarding the software and
services they run within their virtual machine, and need not
provide the operator with any OS-level access at all. Live OS
migration is a extremely powerful tool for cluster administrators,
allowing separation of hardware and software considerations, and
consolidating clustered hardware into a single coherent
management domain. If a physical machine needs to be removed
from service an administrator may migrate OS instances
including the applications that they are running to alternative
machine(s), freeing the original machine for maintenance.
How is live migration achieved?
By using a pre-copy approach in which pages of memory are
iteratively copied from the source machine to the destination
host, all without ever stopping the execution of the virtual
machine being migrated. Page level protection hardware is used
to ensure a consistent snapshot is transferred, and a rate-adaptive
algorithm is used to control the impact of migration traffic on
running services. The final phase pauses the virtual machine,
copies any remaining pages to the destination, and resumes
execution there. We eschew a `pull' approach which faults in
missing pages across the network since this adds a residual
dependency of arbitrarily long duration, as well as providing in
general rather poor performance.
The logical steps that we execute when migrating an OS are
summarized in Figure 3. We take a conservative approach to the
management of migration with regard to safety and failure
handling. Although the consequences of hardware failures can be
severe, our basic principle is that safe migration should at no
time leave a virtual OS more exposed to system failure than
when it is running on the original single host. To achieve this, we
view the migration process as a transactional interaction between
the two hosts involved:
Stage 0 Pre-Migration: We begin with an active VM on
physical host A. To speed any future migration, a target host may
be preselected where the resources required to receive migration
will be guaranteed.
Stage 1 Reservation: A request is issued to migrate an OS from
host A to host B. We initially confirm that the necessary
resources are available on B and reserve a VM container of that
size. Failure to secure resources here means that the VM simply
continues to run on A unaffected.
Stage 2 Iterative Pre-Copy: During the first iteration, all pages
are transferred from A to B. Subsequent iterations copy only
those pages dirtied during the previous transfer phase.
Stage 3 Stop-and-Copy: We suspend the running OS instance at
A and redirect its network traffic A to B. As described earlier,
CPU state and any remaining inconsistent memory pages are
then transferred. At the end of this stage there is a consistent
suspended copy of the VM at both A and B. The copy at A is still
considered to be primary and is resumed in case of failure.
Stage 4 Commitment Host B indicates to A that it has
successfully received a consistent OS image. Host A
acknowledges this message as commitment of the migration
transaction: host A may now discard the original VM, and host B
becomes the primary host.
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Stage 5 Activation: The migrated VM on B is now activated.
Post-migration code runs to reattach device drivers to the new
machine and advertise moved IP addresses.
Figure 3: Migration Timeline
This approach to failure management ensures that at least one
host has a consistent VM image at all times during migration. It
depends on the assumption that the original host remains stable
until the migration commits, and that the VM may be suspended
and resumed on that host with no risk of failure. Based on these
assumptions, a migration request essentially attempts to move the
VM to a new host, and on any sort of failure execution is
resumed locally, aborting the migration.
To solve the problem of load balancing amongst the physical
hosts in cloud by adaptive live migration of virtual machine,
there exists a model in which the load is balanced among the
servers according to their processor usage or their IO usage and
keeping virtual machines zero downtime. To increase the
throughput of the system, it is necessary that the virtual machines
are load balanced statically, i.e. the load is distributed to each
part of the system in proportion to their computing IO capacity.
The System Architecture of such a model is given in next
chapter.
IV. SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
By the use of EUCALYPTUS [4] one or more VLAN can be
created, each VLAN may be across many physical hosts and may
include many virtual machines, so when a virtual machine is
migrated from one physical host to another, an inclusion
relationship can be kept between VLAN and virtual machine.
Following diagram represents the system architecture of an
adaptive intra-cloud load balancing model.
Lblog: The program lblog is a small cronjob which runs
regularly on each host to monitor predefined resources, such as
CPU and IO load, and log their usage to the log directory on the
shared storage.
DLBA (Distributed load balancing algorithm): It runs on each
physical host separately and dynamically migrates virtual
machines of local host to other physical hosts according to
resource uses.
Dump: When virtual machines are migrated, their memory
contents are dumped to the dump directory of shared storage.
Conf: This directory contains the configuration files.
Private: This directory contains the file system.
Figure 4: System Architecture
To migrate a virtual machine from one physical host to
another, the control of virtual machines is converted to the
management of services in Red Hat Cluster Suite[5]. This
creates a high availability and load balancing cluster services, to
migrate a virtual machine from one physical host to another. The
cluster suite forcibly terminates a cluster node's access to
services or resources to ensure the node and data is in a known
state. The node is terminated by removing power or access to the
shared storage. The detailed explanation of the working of Red
Hat Cluster Suite is given in next chapter.
V. RED HAT CLUSTER SUITE
Introduction
High-availability Service Management
High-availability[7] service management provides the ability
to create and manage high-availability cluster services in a Red
Hat cluster. The key component for high-availability service
management in a Red Hat cluster, rgmanager, implements cold
failover for off-the-shelf applications. In a Red Hat cluster, an
application is configured with other cluster resources to form a
high-availability cluster service. A high-availability cluster
service can fail over from one cluster node to another with no
apparent interruption to cluster clients. Cluster-service failover
can occur if a cluster node fails or if a cluster system
administrator moves the service from one cluster node to another
(for example, for a planned outage of a cluster node). A cluster
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service can run on only one cluster node at a time to maintain
data integrity. Failover priority can be specified in a failover
domain. Specifying failover priority consists of assigning a
priority level to each node in failover domain. The priority level
determines the failover order — determining which node that a
cluster service should fail over to. If you do not specify failover
priority, a cluster service can fail over to any node in its failover
domain. Also, if a cluster service is restricted to run only on
nodes of its associated failover domain. (When associated with
an unrestricted failover domain, a cluster service can start on any
cluster node in the event no member of the failover domain is
available.)
VDE (Virtual Distributed Ethernet)
Introduction
The acronym VDE [6] is self explaining: it is a Virtual
network because it is built completely in software, it is
Distributed as parts of the same network can run on different
physical (real) computers and it is an Ethernet as the entire
virtual software structure is able to forward, dispatch and route
plain Ethernet packets. The main features of VDE are the
following:
VDE is Ethernet compliant.
VDE is general; it is a virtual infrastructure that gives
connectivity to several kinds of software components:
emulators/virtual machines, real operating systems and
other connectivity tools.
VDE is distributed.
VDE does not need specifically administration
privileges to run.
With VDE it is also possible to integrate real computers in the
emulated network. When a real computer is connected to a VDE
a virtual interface (based on tuntap) is visible from the operating
system. This virtual interface appears exactly as it were a
hardware interface and behaves as a physical ethernet interface.
This operation however changes the network behavior of the host
computer and thus need administrative privileges to be
completed.
Currently VDE supports User-Mode Linux virtual machines,
qemu, Bochs and MPS.
Network Connection for Zero-Downtime Migrated Virtual
Machine
EUCALYPTUS provides support for VLAN across multi
physical hosts via VDE virtual switches. There is a VDE switch
on each physical host. Ports of VDE switch are classified into
two categories: tagged port and untagged port. Tagged ports
transmit packages belonging to multi VLAN, for example the
port 3 on Host0 and untagged ports transmit packages belonging
to a VLAN, for example the port 1 and 2 on Host0. On single
physical host there may be multi VLAN, and each VLAN binds
to an untagged port of VDE switch on the host dynamically, or
example VLAN0 and VLAN1 on Host0 respectively bind to
untagged port 1 and 2,. Bridge device connects to untagged port
of VDE switch via virtual network card tap. VDE switches on
different physical hosts connect to each other via vde plug which
is part of VDE switch software suite and implements package
transmission, encryption and authentication functions.
In figure 10 below, when vm2 belonging to VLAN1 migrates
from Host0 to Host1, we need to delete virtual network device
veth2.0 from bridge br1 on Host0. If there were no other network
devices in bridge br1 except tap1 and veth2.0, we also would
needed to unbind VLAN1 to untagged port 2, thus port 2 could
be used by other VLAN in the future. On the target Host1,
because VLAN1 has existed, before Red Hat Cluster Suite starts
vm2, we only need create a pair of virtual network devices on
Host1 for vm2: eth0 and veth2.0 (eth0 in virtual machine vm2
and veth2.0 on the Host1), then add veth2.0 into the bridge br0.
If there were not VLAN1 on
Host1, we would need to find an untagged port in VDE switch
and bind it to VLAN1, also create the corresponding bridge br0.
Figure 8: Virtual Machine Migration
Advantages of Live Migration
1. Reduce IT costs and improve flexibility with server
consolidation.
2. Decrease downtime and improve reliability with
business continuity and disaster recovery.
3. Increase energy efficiency by running fewer servers and
dynamically powering down unused servers with our
green IT solutions
4. Accessing more processing power (in the sense of load
balancing),
5. Exploitation of resource locality (for performance),
resource sharing (meaning sharing of expensive or rare.
6. Resources - such as telescopes or medical equipment –
or large amounts o free memory by processes over a
network), fault resilience.
7. Simplified system administration and mobile computing
(for instance as used by commuters from office to
home).
VI. CONCLUSION
Thus, Live Migration is the movement of a virtual
machine from one physical host to another while continuously
powered-up. This helps in decreasing downtime and improves
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reliability with business continuity and disaster recovery. To
migrate a virtual machine from one physical host to another, the
control of virtual machines is configured to the management of
services in Red Hat Cluster Suite. VDE (virtual distributed
Ethernet) virtual switches are used which are connected between
the physical machines. Using VDE, users can create VLAN for
each virtual machine instance. Hence, the motive of zero
downtime of virtual machines is achieved by live migration.
REFERENCES
[1] http://www.vmware.com/virtualization/virtual-machine.html
[2] http://searchservervirtualization.techtarget.com/definition/virtual-machine
[3] C Clark, KFraser, S Hand, J Hansen, and E Jul., ―Live migration of virtual
machines‖, Proceedings of the 2nd ACM/USENIX Symposium on
Networked Systems Design and Implementation (NSDI), pages: 273-286,
2005
[4] Daniel Nurmi, Rich Wolski, Chris Grzegorczyk., ―The EUCALYPTUS
Open-source Cloud computing System‖, in Proceedings of Cloud
Computing and Its Applications [online], Chicago, Illinois, October 2008
[5] Yi Zhao, Wenlong Huang ― Adaptive Distributed Load Balancing
Algorithm based on Live Migration of Virtual Machines in Cloud‖
[6] Davoli,R., ―VDE: virtual distributed Ethernet‖, Test beds and Research
Infrastructures for the Development of Networks and Communities, pages
213-220, February 2005
[7] http://www.centos.org/docs/5/html/5.1/Cluster_Suite_Overview/s1-servicemanagement-overview-CSO.html
AUTHORS
First Author – Ashima Agarwal, Third year, computer
engineering, MIT College of Engineering, Pune, Email:
ashimaagarwal30@gmail.com
Second Author – Shangruff Raina, Third year,computer
engineering, MIT College of Engineering, Pune, Email:
shangruff@gmail.com
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Regulation and Accounting Treatment of Future and
Option in Indian Derivative Market
Matloob Ullah Khan, Dr. Ambrish Gupta and Dr. Sadaf Siraj
Abstract- The main objectives of this paper are to study the
Regulation of India Derivative market along with the accounting
for Future and Option. In first objective we discuss about the
Regulation of Indian Derivative Market as per Dr. L.C. Gupta
committee report and in second objective we describe accounting
adjustment procedure of Future and Option at the time of
payment or receipt of mark-to-market margin, initial margin,
open interest as on balance sheet date, final settlement or squareup,
daily settlement, at the time of default, discloser requirement
and method for determination of profit or loss in multiple option
situations.
Index Terms- Accounting for Future & Option and Regulation
of Derivative Market
T
I. INTRODUCTION
he trading in derivative market comes under provision
contained in the SC(R)A (Security Contract Regulation Act).
The Security Exchange Board of India (SEBI) created rules and
regulation related to the trading in derivative market segment.
According to the need of time, SEBI changed or revised the rules
and regulation of financial market to keep the investor secure or
try to put the investor on safer side of the investment by reducing
the level of risk with the help of different polices of regulatory
frame work of derivative market.
Derivative market is basically a subset of capital market due
to that reason controlling body of both the markets is same. To
run this segment various expert group of people developed
various derivative market products which run or executed under
SEBI guideline, which are followed by every members who
come under the agreement of derivative trade weather it is a
client, banker, dealer, stock exchange, mutual funds companies
and Foreign Institutional Investor (FII) etc.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
The regulatory frame work of Indian derivative market is a
critical or complicated part of overall capital market of India.
Derivative market products itself contain the property of
complicated structure in tem of working mechanism and
valuation of price. This true fact will be clear when it discussed
later on how the regulation, control, development and settlement
of derivative market trading are take place by the suitable
amendment to the bye-lows of stock exchange where derivative
trading was permitted.
[1] Sahoo (1997), analysis the securities market reform in a
development countries and he found that the role of state
involvement in the functioning of markets is a matter of
significant debate, it is generally agreed that regulation has a
very important and key role to ensure the efficient functioning of
markets and avoidance of systematic failure. [2] Hathaway
(1998), notice that the major contributory factors for
accomplishment or breakdown of derivative market are market
culture, the underlying market including its depth and liquidity
and financial infrastructure including the regulatory framework.
[3] International Organisation of securities commissions
(IOSCO) 1996a, also observed that the successful regulatory
system can balance the incentives of self-regulation while
reducing the incentives and opportunity for behaviour, which
threatens the success and integrity of market.
[4] Dr. L.C Gupta committee (March 1998) developed
appropriate regulatory framework for derivatives trading in India.
[5] Prof. J.R Verma Committee ( June 1998) study the risk
containment measure for derivatives trading in Indian derivative
market which is not covered by Dr. L.C. Gupta committee before
implementation of derivative trading in India. [6] SEBI Advisory
committee ( September 2002) work on the development and
regulation of derivative market in India after seeing powerful
growth in this sector from 11 crores to 410 crores during the
financial year 2000-01 to 2001-02, this committee cover some
important issues such as: Physical settlement of stock option and
stock future contract; Review of the eligibility criteria of stocks
on which derivative products are permitted; Use of sub-brokers
in the derivative market; and Norms for use of derivatives by
mutual funds.[7]Shri K.R Ramamoorthy committee (February
2003) was appointed by SEBI to look on the participation of
security brokers in commodity future market and his committee
was examine the various aspects related to participation of
securities market brokers in commodity market and it give
specific focus on following issues: Weather securities brokers
could participated in commodities market; What would be the
risk containment measure if the risk of one market does not spill
over to other; and whether the existing infrastructure of stock
exchange could be used for the commodities futures market.
[8] The SEBI Group on Secondary Market Risk Management
(March 2003) discussed the introduction of interest rate
derivatives in India, this group basically covered the following
important issues such as: The time table for introduction of
exchange traded interest rate derivatives in India; The
specification of the initial set of interest rate derivative contracts
to be introduced; The road map for introduction of additional
products; The risk containment systems for the initial set of
derivatives; and The road map for research in fixed income
analytics and the resulting refinement of product design and fine
tuning of the margining system. The conclusion of these issues is
put for public comments by this group and developed
consultative document. [9] In 2006 RBI draft comprehensive
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guidelines on derivatives instrument under which it cover most
of terms and policy of derivative markets.
[10][11]The RBI-SEBI Standing Technical committee (2008 and
2009) draft policy and trading guideline for exchange traded
currency future and interest rate future under which it covers
various aspects under headings Product Design, Risk
Management Measures, Surveillance & Disclosures, Eligibility
criteria for setting up a currency and interest rate futures
segment, Eligibility criteria for members of the currency and
interest rate future segments and finally Design Regulatory &
Legal Aspects.
III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research methodology used in this paper is based on
‗Qualitative Research‟. In which, we study various government
policies and regulation of Indian derivative market related to
accounting treatments of Future and Option. On the basis of our
understanding we define different type of accounting treatments,
which take place during the life of Future and Option contract.
Explanation of accounting treatments are done in such a manner
while keeping in mind that it will be useful to all main kind who
are interested to know about accounting for F&O.
IV. OBJECTIVES
Regulation for derivative trading according to Dr. L.C
Gupta committee;
Accounting for Future; and
Accounting for Option;
V. REGULATION FOR DERIVATIVES TRADING IN
INDIA
SEBI create a 24 member committee under the supervision of
Dr. L.C. Gupta. To developed a well organized regulatory
framework for derivatives trading in India. SEBI accept the
recommendation of this committee on 11 May 1998 and
approved the phase introduction of derivatives trading in India
beginning with stock index future. The requirements in the
SC(R)A and the regulatory frame work developed there under
preside over trading in securities. The modification of the
SC(R)A to include derivatives within the frame work of that Act.
Summary of derivative regulation are given blow on the basis of
Dr. L.C Gupta committee recommendation.
1. Any exchange in India, who are interested to start
derivative trading so they have to fulfil the eligible
criteria as per Dr. L.C. Gupta committee report and
apply SEBI for the purpose of approval for derivative
trading under section 4 of SC(R)A 1956.
2. Derivative trading or clearing member should have a
limit to maximum of 40% of total member council and
the particular exchange should have separate governing
council.
3. The exchange should have to obtain prior approval of
SEBI before starting of trading in any derivative
contract or product and would have to regulate the sales
practices of its members.
4. The exchange has a limit up to 50 members.
5. The member of an alive segment would not become the
member of derivative segment automatically. Every
existing segment member should take permeation of
SEBI and also fulfil L.C Gupta committee criteria to
start derivative trading.
6. Clearing and any settlement of derivative contract or
trade should be done through a SEBI approved clearing
corporation or houses and every clearing corporation or
houses should be came under the criteria of L. C. Gupta
committee and also take approval for SEBI to start
clearing and settlement process.
7. Every brokers, dealers and clearing members of
derivative market should take approval along with
registration in SEBI to start new derivative product.
8. least amount of net-worth of clearing member of
derivative clearing corporation or houses shall be Rs. 3
Cr. and net-worth should be computed on the basis of
given function:
Where
Networth;
Capital;
Free Reserve; and
Non-Allowable assets;
Non-Allowable assets included the following items:
I. Fixed assets;
II. Intangible assets;
III. Prepaid expenses;
IV. Bad deliveries;
V. Unlisted security;
VI. Member‘s card;
VII. Pledged security;
VIII. Doubtful debts and advances; and
IX. 30% marketable securities;
…(1)
9. The maximum contract value shall not be less than Rs 2
lakh;
10. Exchange should have submitted details of the futures
contract they intend to introduce.
11. The initial margins obligation and introduction limit
should be correlated to capital adequacy and marginal
demands related to the risk of loss on the position will
be approved by SEBI time to time.
12. L.C Gupta committee give more emphasis on ‗know
your customer‘ rule and prerequisite that every client
shall be registered with the derivatives broker.
13. The member of derivative segment are also required to
aware their client about the risk participation of
derivative contract and risk awareness document are
also attached with customer document, which generate
alertness to customer or client about derivatives losses.
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14. Every person of trading member should be qualified as
per SEBI requirement and he or she also passed
certification program approved by SEBI.
VI. ACCOUNTING FOR FUTURES
The Institute of chartered Accountant of India (ICAI) has issued
guideline on accounting of Equity Index Future and Equity Stock
Future. Accounting of future is based on regulation of exchange
and typical trading mechanism of derivative contract. Before
that, there were many issues relating to accrual of income,
booking of losses, calculation of profit and disclosures. Now a
day‘s most of the issues are solved or dealt with in guidance note
issued by the institute. Equity derivative instrument are the type
of instrument in which other parties are also involved in the
trading process same as cash market or simple share market.
These parties are brokers, trading members, clearing members,
clearing corporations and client, so for that reasons proper
accounting are also required to minimize the losses and to
maintain proper working mechanism. Some of the technical
terms are used in this section list are given blow:
Clearing member;
Clearing corporation and houses;
Client;
Contract month;
Daily settlement price;
Derivative exchange or segment;
Final settlement;
Long position;
Open position;
Settlement date;
Short position; and
Trading member;
Most of the above term itself define its meaning but few terms
are not understandable such as Long position, Open position and
Short position, which may be define as follow:
Long Position: Long position in an equity index future contract
means outstanding purchase obligations in respect of the equity
index futures contract at any point of time;
Open position: Open position means the total number of equity
index future contracts that have not yet been offset and closed by
an opposite position; and
Short Position: Short position in an equity index future contract
means outstanding sell obligations in respect of the equity index
futures contract at any point of time;
Accounting for Equity Index Future and Equity Stock Future
include the following treatments
Figure 1.1
Accounting for the Payment or Receipt of Mark-to-Market
Margin: Payment mode or received on account Mark-to-Market
margin by the client would be credited or debited to the bank
account and the subsequent debit or credit for the same should be
made to an appropriate account, state, ‗Mark-to-Market Margin
in Equity Index Future account and Mark-to-Mark Margin in
Equity Stock Future account as the case might be. The amount of
Mark-to-Market Margin received into or paid from
approximately deposit with the clearing or trading member
should be debited or credited to the deposit for margin money
account with the consequent credit or debit to the Mark-to-
Market margin in Equity Future account or the Mark-to-Market
margin in Equity Stock Future account as the case might be.
Accounting for Initial margin: When Futures Contract is
entered into for purchase or sale of Equity Index or Equity Stock
Future, then no payment is required to be prepared except for the
initial margin. Clearing Corporation or Houses determines this
margin from time to time and it serve as security deposit for the
exchange. The margin can be paid either in cash or in the form of
collaterals like bank guarantees, securities and fixed deposits.
Basically Initial margin paid in cash shall be debited to ‗Initial
Margin Index or Stock Future account‘ and supplementary
margin paid if any shall be accounted in the same manner. As the
Balance Sheet date the balance in initial margin account shall be
shown individually in respect of each progression under the head
‗Current Assets‘. The acknowledgment or receipt of initial
margin in the form of collaterals shall be recorded in
memorandum records and no entry is required to be made in the
financial book. If any collateral is returned back the
memorandum records shall be updated in view of that.
Accounting for Open Interests in Futures Contract as on the
Balance Sheet Date: ‗Mark-to-Market margin in Equity Index
Future account or the Mark-to-Market margin in Equity stock
Future account‘ are the debit or credit balance, which represent
the net amount paid to or received from the clearing or trading
member on the basis of the movement of in the prices of Equity
Index Futures or Equity Stock Futures till the balance sheet date
in esteem of open future contract. In another case the given
accounts have a debit balance as the balance sheet date and the
same should be shown as current assets or on the other case if
given accounts have a credit balance on the balance sheet date,
the same should be shown as a current liability. You should keep
in mind that ‗Prudence‘ as a consideration for the preparation of
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financial statements, the provision for the anticipated loss in
respect of open futures contract should be made. For this purpose
the net amount paid or received on account of Mark-to-Market
margin on open future contracts on the balance sheet date should
be shown index wise or script wise. In this process the index
wise or script wise balance is a debit balance representing the net
amount paid and this condition should be made for the given
amount. In another case where the index wise or script wise
balance is a credit balance represent the net amount received and
the same should be ignored keeping in view the consideration of
‗Prudence‘. To smooth the progress of these computations, the
Mark-to-Market margin accounts may be maintained index wise
or script wise. The provision which should be discussed on above
lines should be credited to an appropriate amount under the
heading ‗Provision of loss on Equity Index Future Account‘ or
‗Provision on loss on Equity Stock Future account‘ as the case
might be. If in case of any opening balance in the ‗Provision for
loss on Equity Stock or Equity Index Future Account‘, the same
balance should be adjusted against the provision required in the
current year and the profit and loss account should be debited or
credited with the balance provision required to be made or excess
provision written back. The ‗Provision for loss on Equity Index
or Equity Stock Future Account‘ should be shown as a deduction
from the balance of Mark-to-Market Margin of Equity Index or
Equity Stock Future Account, if it disclosed as a current asset.
On the other hand, if the above given treatment of margin
accounts are disclosed as a current liability then the
abovementioned provision accounts should be shown as a
provision on the liabilities side of the balance sheet.
Accounting at the time of Final Settlement or Squaring up of
the contract: At the time of expiry of the contract or squaring up
the contract, the profit or loss is computed and acknowledged in
the profit or loss account. The profit or losses in such cases is the
difference between final account price and contract price. The
entries describing to profit and loss shall be approved by
consequent debit to credit to the Mark-to-Market margin account
and the balance in Market-to-Market account for a particular
progression of contract this will be documented as income or
expenses on final settlement. Basically if balance exists in the
provision accounts, which may have been created at the yearend
for predictable loss and if any losses arising on such settlement
shell be first charged to such provision account and the balance if
any should be charged to profit and loss account.
Account at the time of daily settlement of the contract: This
involves the accounting of payment or receipt of Mark-to-Mark
margin money. Payment finished or received on account of daily
arrangement by the client would be credited or debited to the
bank and the subsequent debit or credit for the equivalent should
be made to an account titled as ‗Mark-to-Market margin Equity
Index or Stock Futures contract account‘. For a moment or
sometime the client may deposit a approximate amount to the
brokers or trading member in esteem of Mark-to-Market margin
money as an alternative of receiving or paying mark-to-market
margin money on every day basis. The amount should be paid is
in the form of a deposit and it also debited to a suitable account,
called: ‗Deposit for Mark-to-Market margin account‘. On that
basis the amount of Mark-to-Market margin should be received
or paid from such account and this account was credited or
debited to Mark-to-Market margin of Equity Index or Stock
Future account contract with a corresponding debit or credit to
Deposit for Mark-to-Market margin account. At the financial
year ending, any balance in the Deposit for Mark-to-Market
margin account must be shown as deposit under the head
‗Current Assets‘.
Accounting at the time of default: When a client makes default
in making payment in esteem of Mark-to-Market margin, then
account should be closed out and the amount not paid by the
client is adjusted against the initial margin already paid by the
client. In the accounting book or ledger of the client, the amount
of Mark-to-Market margin so adjusted should be debited to the
Mark-to-Market margin of Equity Index or Stock Future account
as the case may be , with a related credited to the initial margin
of equity derivative instrument account. In case if amount paid
on Mark-to-Market margin account will exceed to initial margin
then this exceed amount is a liability and should be shown as
such under the head ‗Current Liability and Provisions and it also
coded same on the balance sheet date. The amount of profit or
loss in the given contract should be calculated and predictable
under profit and loss account by corresponding debit or credit to
the Mark-to-Market margin of Equity Index or Stock Future
account as the case may be.
Disclosure requirement for Future Account: The amount of
bank assurance and book value as also the market value of
securities wedged should be disclosed in respect of contract
having open positions at the year end. In this case initial margin
money has been paid by way of bank assurance or wedged of
securitises. The total number of valuable or non-valuable
contracts entered and gross number of units of Equity Index or
Stock future traded individually for purchase or sell of contract
should be disclosed in esteem of each progression of Equity
Index or Stock future contract. The numbers of Equity Index or
Stock future contract have to maintain open position and number
of unit of Equity Index or Stock future have to connect with
those contracts which are traded. The daily arrangement or
settlement price as of balance sheet date should be represented
independently for long and short situation, in respect of each
progression of Equity Derivative future market.
VII. ACCOUNTING FOR OPTIONS
The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) issued
guidance note on accounting for Index Option or Stock Option
for the view point of the parties who enter into such contract as
buyers or holder and sellers or writer. Most of the technical terms
used in this section are same as future accounting which are
discussed above but the accounting process of option contract is
little bit different from future contract due to its nature.
Following are the guideline for accounting treatment in case of
cash settled Index Option and Stock Option.
Accounting for Equity Index Option and Equity Stock Option
include the following treatments
Figure 1.2
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Accounting for payment or receipt of the premium: If client or
any investor entering into an option contract, the buyer of the
option is essential to pay the premium amount to the option
exchange for placing the option contract. In this process the
premium should be debited to an suitable account of buyer or
holder, say, Equity Stock or Index Option Premium Account, as
the case may be. In the ledger of seller or writer, such premium
amount should be credited to an appropriate account, say, Equity
Index or Stock Option Premium Account as the case may be.
Accounting for open interests in option contract as on the
balance sheet date: In accounting process the ‗Equity Index
Option Premium Account‘ and ‗Equity Stock Option premium
Account‘ should be placed under the head ‗Current Assets‘ or
‗Current Liability‘ as the case may be. In the book of the buyer
or holder, the provision should be made for the amount by which
the premium paid for the option exceed the premium customary
on the balance sheet date since the buyer or holder can reduce his
loss to the extent of the premium traditional in the market, by
squaring up the transaction. The provision so created should be
so credited to an appropriate account, we say, ‗Provision for loss
on Equity Stock or Index Option Account‘ as the case may be.
The provision made as above should be shown as deduction from
the balance of the ‗Equity Index or Stock Option Account‘ which
is shown in the book of buyer or holder under the head ‗Current
Assets‘. The excess of premium customary in the market on the
balance sheet date over the premium paid is not predictable and
keeping in view that the deliberation of carefulness. In the
accounting book of the seller or writer, the provision should be
made for the amount by which premium customary or prevailing
on the balance sheet date exceed the premium amount get from
the option. According to that this provision should be credited to
‗Provision for loss on Equity Index or Stock Option Account‘ as
the case may be, with a consequent or equivalent debit to profit
and loss account. Equity Index or Stock Premium Account‘ and
‗Provision for loss on Equity Index or Stock Option Account‘
should be or will be shown under ‗Current Liability and
Provisions‘. If in case of multiple open options at the yearend, a
index wise or script wise provision should be making an
allowance for all the open options of any Strike Price and any
expiry date under the script taking together. The amount of
provision required in esteem of each script or index should be
aggregated and a amalgamated ‗Provision for loss on Equity
Stock or Index Option Account‘ should be credited by debiting
the profit or loss account. In case of any opening balance in the
‗Provision for loss on Equity Stock or Index Option Account‘,
the same should be suitable against the provision required in the
current year and the profit and loss account be debited or credited
with the balance provision obligatory to be made or excess
provision written back. If we consider the case of multiple open
options at the year ended, the ‗Provision for loss on Equity Stock
or Index Option Account as the case may be, should be shown as
subtraction from the ‗Equity Stock or Index Option Premium
Account‘ respectively, if these have a debit balance and are
disclosed under the head ‗Current Assets‘ On the other hand if
‗Equity Index or Stock Option Premium Account‘ have a credit
balance and are disclosed under the book of account under the
head ‗Current Liabilities‘, due to that reason particular provision
account should be shown ‗Provision‘ under the head ‗Current
Liabilities and Provisions‘
Accounting at the time of final settlement: In this section we
have study the accounting process of Equity Index Option or
Equity Stock Option in the final settlement of cash-settled stock
options contracts and delivery-settled stock options contracts for
buyer or holder and seller or writer.
In the process of cash settled stock option contract, two
accounting books are deals:
1. In the books of buyer and holder; and
2. In the books of the seller and writer;
In the books of buyer and holder on the implement of the Option,
the buyer and holder will identify premium as an outflow and
debit the profit and loss account by crediting the ‗Equity Index or
Stock Option Premium Account‘. Apart from the higher
arrangement in the above discussed segment, the buyer or holder
will receive favourable difference, if any, between the final
settlement price as on the exercise or expiry date and the strike
price, which will be acknowledged as income.
In the books of the seller or writer on the exercise of the option,
the seller or writer will be acquainted with premium as an
income and credit the profit and loss account by the debiting the
‗Equity Index or Stock Option Premium Account‘ Apart from the
higher arrangement in the above discussed segment, the seller or
writer will pay the adverse difference, if any, between the final
settlement price as on the exercise or expiry date and the strike
price. Such kind of payment will be acknowledged as a loss.
In the process of Delivery settled stock option contract, two
accounting books are deals:
If an option is not exercise and also expires, then accounting
entries will be the same as those in case of cash settled options. If
the option is exercised, securities will be transferred in
deliberation for cash at the strike price. In such a case, the
accounting treatment should be as suggested in the subsequent
ways which are given blow:
1. In case of buyer or holder; and
2. In case of seller or holder;
In case of buyer or holder for a call option, the buyer or holder
will receive the security for which the call option was entered
into. The buyer or holder should debit the appropriate security
account and credit cash or bank. For a put option, the buyer or
holder will deliver the security for which the put option was
entered into. The buyer or holder should credit the appropriate
security account and debit into cash or bank. In additional to this
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entry, the premium paid should be transferred to the profit and
loss account, the accounting entries for which should be the
equivalent as those in case of cash settled option.
In case of seller or writer for a call option, the seller or writer
will deliver the security for which the call option was entered
into. The seller or writer should credit the relevant security
account and debit cash or bank. For a put option, the seller or
writer will obtain the security for which the put option was
entered into. The seller or writer should debit the relative security
account and credit cash or bank. In addition to this entry, the
premium received should be transferred to the profit and loss
account, the accounting entries for which should be the same as
those in case of cash settled option.
Accounting at the time of square up of an option contact: At
the time when an option contract is square up by entering into a
reverse contract, the difference between the premium paid and
received, after adjusting the commission or brokerage charged,
on the squared up contact should be transferred on the profit and
loss account.
Accounting method for determination of profit or loss in the
multiple option situations: In the case of outstanding multiple
options to work out profit or loss we used the same script or
index with the same strike price and the same expiry date,
weighted average method should be followed on squaring-up of
transactions. Similarly for working out profit or loss in case of
remaining left multiple equity stock option of the same script
with the same strike price and the same expiry date, weighted
average method should be used where such options are executed
prior to the running out date.
VIII. CONCLUSION
This paper discusses the Regulation of Indian Derivative
market as per Dr. L.C. Gupta committee and also cover
accounting for Future and Option. On the basis of our analysis
we found that accounting for future and option are complicated
in nature due to its adjustment process for ‗Equity Index Future
& Option‘ and ‗Equity Stock Future & Option‘ in various books
of account during the life of derivative contract from one point to
another point and it also requires more transparency and financial
stability in derivative transaction.
REFERENCES
[1] Sahoo M.S. (November 1997), ―Securities market reform in a developing
country‖, Chartered Secretary, Volume XXVII, Number: 11, Pp. 1261-
1269.
[2] Hathaway, Kate (October 1988), ―Regulatory parameters associated with
successful derivatives‖, Chartered Secretary, Volume XXVII, Number: 10,
Pp. 981-988.
[3] IOSCO Report (June 1996(a)), ―Legal and regulatory framework for
exchange traded derivatives‖, International Organisation of Securities
Commission.
[4] Gupta L.C. (March 19980, ―Suggestive bye-lows for regulation and control
of trading and settlement of derivative contract‖, The SEBI Committee on
derivatives trading in India.
[5] Varma J.R (June 1998), ―Risk containment in the derivative market‖,
Varma Committee Report form by SEBI.
[6] SEBI Advisory Committee on Derivative (September 2002), ―Report on
Development and Regulation of Derivative Market in India‖.
[7] Ramamoorthy K.R. (February 2003), ―Report of the Participation of
Security Brokers in Commodity Future market‖ Committee formed by SEBI.
[8] SEBI Group on secondary market risk management (March 2003),
―Exchange traded interest rate derivatives in India‖, Consultative
Document.
[9] Draft Comprehensive guideline on Derivative by RBI (2006).
[10] Report of the RBI-SEBI Standing Technical Committee on Exchange traded
currency future (2008).
[11] Report of the RBI-SEBI Standing Technical Committee on Interest rate
futures (June 2009).
[12] National Stock Exchange of India limited (2001), ―Indian security market:
A review‖, Volume IV, Pp. 270-221.
[13] Report of derivative market review committee form by SEBI (December
2008).
[14] Sahoo M.S. (June 1999), ―Forward trading in securities in India.‖ Chartered
Secretary. Volume XXIX, Number: 06, Pp. 624-629.
[15] Sahoo M.S. (December 20000), ―Taxability of Income arising from
derivative contracts‖, NSE News, Pp. 9-10.
[16] Securities and Exchange Board of India Depositories Act, 1996. Guide line.
[17] The security and exchange board of India Act, 1992. Guide line.
[18] http://www.sebi.gov.in
[19] http://www.nseindia.com
[20] http://www.rediff/money/derivatives
[21] http://www.derivativeindia.com
[22] http://www.icai.org/publications.html
AUTHORS
First Author – Matloob Ullah Khan, Ph.D, Research Scholar,
Department of Management, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India.
Email: matloobullah.khan@gmail.com;
Second Author – Dr. Ambrish Gupta, Senior Professor, FORE
School Of Management, New Delhi, India. Email:
ambrish@fsm.com;
Third Author – Dr. Sadaf Siraj, Assistant Professor, Department
of Management, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India. Email:
sirajsadaf@gmail.com;
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 159
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P-FUZZY SUBALGEBRA AND ITS PROPERTIES
Dr. G. NIRMALA 1 , S.PRIYADARSHINI 2
1 Research Advisor, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli, India
E mail:nirmalamanokar11@yahoo.com
2 Research Scholar, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli, India
E mail:priya002darshini@gmail.com
Abstract- We give definition for fuzzy subalgebras for
partially ordered algebra, Fuzzy subgroup and fuzzy coset. Then
we study their connection of P – fuzzy subalgebras with fuzzy
subgroup and fuzzy coset.
Index Terms- P – fuzzy subalgebras, fuzzy subgroup and
fuzzy coset.
I
I. INTRODUCTION
n 1965, Lotfi. Zadeh introduced the notion of a fuzzy subset of
a set as a method for representing uncertainty. A fuzzy set A is
defined as a map from A to the real unit interval
I = [0, 1]. The set of all fuzzy sets on A is usually denoted by I A .
It is also known that under the natural ordering I A is a complete
lattice. Early Greeks, such as Pythagoras and Euclid, relied on
geometry to express all of their logical proofs. It was about
250CE when the Greek Diophantus began using Greek letters as
numbers and other mathematical symbols. Finally, algebra began
to take on its modern symbolic look when viete used letter for
variables around 1600. Then in 1637, Descartes wrote la
geometrie. Before these mathematicians had thought of
polynomials specially, so X3 actually represented a cube. His
written algebra is the first to look almost exactly like ours.
The definitions given to the concept of P – fuzzy subalgebra,
fuzzy subgroup and fuzzy coset also involve different operations.
Now we unify and generalize these definitions. The theorems
proved also highly generalize the existing ones.
II. PRELIMINARIES
Definition 2.1 If (P,≤ ) is a partially ordered set and X is a
nonempty set, then any mapping
A : X→P is a partially ordered fuzzy set on X.
Definition 2.2 A P – fuzzy set μ Є P A is called a P – fuzzy
algebra or fuzzy subalgebra on the algebra A, if
For any n – ary ( n≥1 ) operation f Є F
μ(f(x1………..xn)) ≥ μ(x1)……………..μ(xn) for all
x1………..xn Є A
For any constant ( nullary operation) C
μ(c) ≥ μ(x) for all x Є A.
Definition 2.3 Let G be a group. A fuzzy subset μ of a group G is
called a fuzzy subgroup of the group if
μ (xy) ≥ min {μ(x) , μ(y)} for every x,y Є G and
μ (x -1 ) = μ (x) for every x Є G.
Definition 2.4 Let μ be a fuzzy subgroup of a group g. For any a
Є G, a μ defined by
(aμ)x = μ(a -1 x) for every x Є G is called the fuzzy coset of the
group G determined by a and μ.
Result: 2.5
A fuzzy subset μ of a group g is a fuzzy subgroup G iff
μ(xy -1 ) ≥ min { μ(x) , μ(y) } for every x,y Є G.
III. RESULTS
Theorem:3.1 P – fuzzy subalgebra is a fuzzy subgroup.
Proof:
Consider a P – fuzzy subalgebra on the algebra A then
there eists a P –fuzzy set
μ Є P A then for
(i) n – ary operation
μ(f(x1………..xn)) ≥ μ(x1)……………..μ(xn) for all
x1………..xn Є A-(1)
from (1) let x2 = y
μ(f(xy)) ≥ μ(x)μ(y)-(2)
since μ(xy) ≥ min {μ(x) , μ(y)}-(3)
from (2) and (3)
μ(x)μ(y) = μ(xy) ≥ min {μ(x) , μ(y)}-(4)
Let μ: X→[0,1]
Here μ is a function defined that X is a set which map it
each and every element between 0 and 1.
Also the set of all elements of X -1 maps the values
between 0 and 1.
Therefore μ: X -1 →[0,1].
This implies μ(x -1 ) = μ(x)-(5)
(ii) nullary operation ( for any constant)
If there exist any constant μ(c) then
μ(c) μ(x) = μ(c x) ≥ min {μ(c) , μ(x)}= μ(x)-(6)
μ(c) ≥ μ(x), for all x Є A.
Since all the element of μ(x) lies between 0 and 1. Also
μ(c) is any constant and it is greater than or equal to 1. Using the
results (4), (5) and (6), it is clear that P – fuzzy subalgebra is a
subgroup.
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Example:
Let P = {1,-1, i,-i} be the P- fuzzy set in P- fuzzy
algebra.
Define
μ: P→[0,1] by
1 if x = 1
μ(x) = 0.5 if x = -1
0 if x = i, -i, 1/i, -1/i
Clearly μ is a fuzzy subgroup of the P. Also P is a group under
operation .
Theorem:3.2 A P – fuzzy subalgebra of a group G is a fuzzy
subgroup of the group G iff
μ(xy -1 ) ≥ min { μ(x) , μ(y) } for every x,y Є G.
Proof:
Real part:
Consider a P – fuzzy subalgebra of a group G is a fuzzy
subgroup on the algebra A then we have to prove that
μ(xy -1 ) ≥ min { μ(x) , μ(y) }
proof:
For P – Fuzzy subalgebra, there exist a P –fuzzy set μ Є P A , then
(i) For n – ary operation
μ(f(x1………..xn)) ≥ μ(x1)……………..μ(xn) for all
x1………..xn Є A
Let x1, x2 Є P where P Є G
Consider x1 = x and x2 = y -1
Since it is a fuzzy subgroup using theorem (1)
Therefore μ(f(x1 x2)) = μ(f(x y -1 ))
≥ μ(x) μ(y -1 )
μ(x) μ(y -1 ) = μ(x y -1 )
since fuzzy algebra satisfies fuzzy relation
so μ(x y -1 ) ≥ μ(x) Λ μ(y -1 ) using equation (5)
≥ μ(x) Λ μ(y)
≥ min{μ(x), μ(y)}
(ii) for nullary operation
μ(c) ≥ μ(x) for all x Є A.
using theorem (1), it is a subgroup
therefore there exist an identity element,let it be μ(e)
we know that μ(c) ≥ μ(x)
μ(c) = μ(c) μ(e -1 ) ≥ μ(c) μ(e) using equation (5)
≥ μ(c) Λ μ(e)
≥ min{μ(c), μ(e)}= μ(e)-(7)
C is any constant it may be greater than or equal to identity
element.
Also
μ(x) = μ(x) μ(e -1 ) ≥ μ(x) μ(e) using equation (5)
≥ μ(x) Λ μ(e)
≥ min {μ(x), μ(e)}= μ(x)-(8)
All the elements of x are less than or equal to identity element.
Converse part:
If μ (xy -1 ) ≥ min {μ(x) , μ(y) } for every x, y Є P and P Є G then
a fuzzy partially ordered subset μ of a group is a fuzzy subgroup
of the group G.
Proof:
μ (xy -1 ) ≥ min { μ(x) , μ(y -1 ) }
≥ min { μ(x) , μ(y) } using (5)
≥ μ(x) Λ μ(y)
μ (xy -1 ) = μ(x y -1 ) using fuzzy algebra relation.
μ(x y -1 ) = μ(x) μ(y -1 ) = μ(x) μ(y)
≤ μ(f(x y)) ( n- ary operation)
This implies μ(f(x y)) ≥ μ(x) μ(y)-(9)
Let μ(c) be any constant and μ(e) be an identity element, then
Assume that
μ(c) = μ(x)
μ(c) μ(e -1 ) = μ(x) μ(e -1 )
using (5)
μ(c) μ(e) = μ(x) μ(e)
μ(c) μ(e) ≥ min { μ(c) , μ(e) } = μ(e)
μ(x) μ(e) ≥ min { μ(x) , μ(e) } = μ(x)
C is any constant it may be greater than or equal to identity
element and x.
Therefore, μ(c) ≥ μ(x)-(10)
Using (9) and (10)
If μ (xy -1 ) ≥ min { μ(x) , μ(y) }then P- fuzzy subalgebra is a
fuzzy subgroup.
Theorem:3.3 P – fuzzy subalgebra is a fuzzy coset of the group.
Proof:
Let μ be a fuzzy subgroup of a group G from fuzzy
algebra A.
To prove that: For any a Є G, a μ is defined by (aμ)x =
μ(a -1 x) for every x Є G, also x Є P.
Consider P – fuzzy subalgebra to prove fuzzy coset,
assume that n = 1
Then we use n – ary operation
μ(f(x)) ≥ μ(x)
Let a Є P and P Є G
a μ(f(x)) ≥ aμ(x)
(aμ)x = (μa)x
Since P – fuzzy algebra satisfy commutative law
(μa)x = μ(ax) using (5)
= μ(a -1 x)
Since P fuzzy subalgebra is afuzzy subgroup
Therefore,
(aμ)x = μ(a -1 x) for every x Є G
IV. CONCLUSION
This paper concludes the connection of P – fuzzy subalgebra
with fuzzy subalgebra and fuzzy coset of a group.
REFERENCES
[1] Laszlo filep.Study of fuzzy algebras and relations from a general viewpoint,
acta Mathematica Academiae Paedagogicae Nyrlregyhaziensis,Tonus
14(1998), 49-55.
[2] W.B.Vasantha kandasamy. Smarandache fuzzy algebra.american research
press, Rehoboth 2003.11-12.
[3] I. M. Anthony and H. Sherwood. Fuzzy groups redefined, Journal Math.
Anal. Appl., 69:124-130,1979
[4] L. Filep. Fundamentals of a general theory of fuzzy relations and algebras.
In Proc. 4 th IFSA World congress, Pages 70-74, Brussels 1991.
[5] J. A. Gougen. L-fuzzy sets. Journal Math. Anal. Appl., 18:145-1741,1967.
[6] A. Rosenfeld. Fuzzy graphs. In Fuzzy sets and their applications to
cognitive and decision process, pages 77-95, Academic Press, 1975.
[7] L. A. Zadeh. Fuzzy sets. Information Control, 8:338-353, 1965.
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[8] Ovchinnikov, S., Similarity Relation, Fuzzy Partitions and Fuzzy Orderings,
Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 40(1991) 107-126.
[9] Seselja, B., Tepavcevic, A., On a construction of codes by P-fuzzy sets,
Univ. u Novom Sadu Zb. Rad. Prirod. – Mat. Fak. Ser. Mat., 20,2(1990),71-
80.
[10] Seselja, B., Tepavcevic, A., Partially Ordered and Relational Valued Fuzzy
Relations I, Fuzzy Sets and Systems.
[11] Fuzzy Set Theory and its Applications, Second edition by H. J.
Zimmermann.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 162
ISSN 2250-3153
Energy Conservation through Roof Surface Evaporative
Cooling for Air Conditioning System
R.B. Lokapure, J.D.Joshi
Dept of Mechanical Engg., Bharti Vidyapeeth College of Engg., Shivaji University Kolhapur, India
Abstract- Day by day the demand of energy is rising
tremendously, but there is lack in supply. So there is no option
for proper and efficient utilization and conservation of energy. In
this paper the main stress is given on energy conservation by
using technique of Roof surface evaporative cooling for Airconditioning
system. The target of saving and conserving energy
up to 15 to 22% but in this case we achieved our goal of energy
saving up to 13% by adopting RSEC technique.
Keywords- Appliance load, Cooling load, DCS Room,
Evaporative cooling, Energy conservation, Thermal
transmittance (U), Vfds
E
I. INTRODUCTION
nergy is a basic requirement for the existence and
development of human life, primarily; the commercial
sources such as fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas),
hydroelectric power and nuclear power provide the energy needs
of a country. The fear of release of radioactivity into the
atmosphere in the event of an accident or from nuclear waste has
forced people to reconsider the use of nuclear power. In view of
these problems associated with conventional energy sources, the
focus is now shifting to conservation of energy.
In a commercial building, the cooling load can be saved by
about 26% in a hot and dry climate (like Jodhpur) by adopting
appropriate design considerations and operation strategies.
Simple design procedures such as orientation, shading,
insulation, etc. can be easily incorporated in any building,
leading to substantial benefits from the point of view of comfort
and energy saving.
In some climates, simple techniques alone may not be
adequate for achieving ideal comfort conditions. In such cases,
advanced features such as wind tower, roof pond, Trombe wall,
etc. may be used. Even in conditioned buildings, where
mechanical devices are used to create a comfortable
environment, the use of passive methods would help reduce the
energy consumption (i.e. [1])
Technique of Roof surface evaporative cooling is used for
reducing cooling load on air-conditioning system ultimately this
technique serves purpose of energy conservation.
I. What is Roof Surface Evaporative Cooling (RSEC)
In a tropical country like India, the solar radiation incident on
roofs is very high in summer, leading to overheating of rooms
below them. Roof surfaces can be effectively and inexpensively
cooled by spraying water over suitable water-retentive materials
(e.g. gunny bags) spread over the roof surface(i.e.[1]).As the
water evaporates, it draws most of the required latent heat from
the surface, thus lowering its temperature and reducing heat gain.
Besides, evaporation also cools the air above the roof. The cool
air slides down and enters the living space through infiltration
and ventilation, providing additional cooling. This is an example
of the passive indirect evaporative cooling technique. (i.e. [1])
II. Procedure for Installing a Roof Surface Evaporative
Cooling System:
Suitable waterproofing treatment of the roof should be done.
The roof must be covered with water absorptive and retentive
materials such as gunny bags, brick ballast, sintered fly-ash,
coconut husk or coir matting. On account of their porosity, these
materials when wet, behave like a free water surface for
evaporation. The durability of such materials is rather good, but
they have to be treated for fire safety.
During peak summer, the quantity of water needed is
approximately 10 kg / day / m 2 of roof area. (i.e. [1])
The roof must be kept wet throughout the day using a water
sprayer. The sprayer can be manually operated or controlled by
an automatic moisture-sensing device. The sprayer usually works
at low water pressure which can be achieved either by a water
head of the storage tank on the roof, or by a small water pump.
III. Effectiveness of RSEC Depends on Ambient air
temperature and humidity. Intensity of solar radiation.
Wetness of the roof surface Roof type.
The effect of evaporation increases when the air humidity is
low and the air temperature as well as the intensity of solar
radiation falling on the roof surface is high. A uniform and
constant wetting of the roof surface is essential for continuous
evaporation. It should be noted that the roof needs to be
adequately treated with water proofing material.
The evaporation of water causes cooling of the roof surface.
This sets up a temperature gradient between the inside air and
outside roof surface, resulting in loss of heat from the inside to
outside. Thus, heat transfer through the roof is the dominant
aspect in the overall performance of RSEC, Higher the rate of
heat transfer, more effective is the RSEC. Consequently the
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RSEC system is most effective when the roof has a high thermal
transmittance (U). (i.e. [1]).
A Case Study of-Shree Renuka Energy Ltd
(30MW Co –Generation Project at Ichalkaranji.)
Here, RSCE technique is used to reduce cooling load of DCS
room (Distributed control system). In this Co-gen.Plant we have
DCS room of 19.8 Mtr.Long x 7.8Mtr.Width and 3.06Mtr Ht.
having Terrace area-151Sq.Mtr. (e.g.Fig.1)
For this size room heat load calculations done as follows:
Under the steady state approach the heat balance for room air can
be written as (i.e. [2]).
Q total = Qc + Qs+Qi+Qv – (1)
Now, Total heat conduction through each side wall +door
+Glazing +Roof + Hard Board.
Qc Total =17.475 W
Total solar heat gain through wall
Qs = 10.422 W
Internal heat gain due to -Artificial light + Occupants +
Appliance load.
In this case considering appliance load the major heat emitting
source is VFD‘s (Variable Frequency Drive) used for various
drives such as ID,FD,SA fan and Boiler feed pump.
Qi Total = 82,219 W
Now Heat flow rate due to Ventilation
Qv = 12,096 W
Now putting all calculated values in above eq‘. - (1)
We get Q Total =1, 22,212 W = 122 kW.
For this DC‘s Room we have terrace area Total = 151 Sq.Mtr
For using RSEC technique for this area.
Total Gunny Bag Req. = 196 Nos
Also during peak summer the quantity of water required for
sprinkling on terrace is Q water =1510 Ltr/ Day (Theoretical)
Q water = 800 Ltr/ Day (Actual).
Table I: List of Equipment’s and Material Required for
RSEC.
Item Name Qty. Cost in Rs.
Monoblock pump 01 Nos 1575.00
Drip Irrigation pipe
with clips
Four – Arm Sprinkler
with stand
1 ph Energy meter
Range - 10-40 amp
3 ph CT Meter
Range – 200/5
Gunny Bags (1100 x
700 mm)
Ø 1‖ M.S. Pipe
+Fabrication
Soft Pipes for water
connections
Plastic Barrel
65 mtr 730.00
01 Nos 230.00
01 Nos 1400.00
01 Nos 3378.00
196 Nos 3920.00
06 Mtr. 590.00
13 mtr.
223.00
01 Nos. 500.00
Miscellaneous Item 150.00
Total = Rs. - 12,696.00
II. EXPERIMENTAL SET UP
Selection Criterion for Water Spray System
During our project work on Roof Surface evaporative cooling,
the system adopted for this project such as sprinkler & drip pipe
system. While selecting this it become a problem some, since
total Area where we going to carry out experiments divided into
two parts.
Part One – Plain Area of 51M 2 (out of 151 M 2 )
Such area is open; there is no any restriction for using a water
sprinkler system. There is no any steam line. So use of water
sprinkler proved efficient way of spraying water on Gunny Bags.
(e.g.Fig.3)
Part Two – Area of 100M 2 (Under steam pressure reducing
station.)
This area is creating a headache to choose a water sprinkling
system. Since near to this area main live steam line of 510 0 c
leading to main T.G. set so use of water sprinkler create a
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 164
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horrible problem of steam joint leakage, so use of water sprinkler
is out of use.
To overcome this problem we use here irrigation drip pipe
systems for providing better wetness to Gunny bags.
The use of drip system proved a highly efficient & better way to
overcome this problem. (e.g.Fig.2)
Necessary Measurements Recorded
During project – important parameters measured and recorded on
hourly basis.
I) During - with R.S.E.C. effect.
Measurement of Ambient temperature both dry and wet.
Measurement of relative humidity.
Measurement of DCS room temperature.
Measurement of terrace slab temperature.
Measurement of DCS room ceiling temperature.
Water evaporation rate during day hours.
Electrical Measurements
Energy consumption by air conditioning
Energy machine – for 24 hrs and day hrs. (8 hrs)
Consumption by monobloc pump set during day hrs.
II) During - without R.S.E.C. effect
.
Measurement of Ambient temperature both dry and wet.
Measurement of relative humidity.
Measurement of DCS room temperature.
Measurement of terrace slab temperature.
Measurement of DCS room ceiling temperature.
Electrical Measurements -Energy consumption by air
conditioning machine – for 24 hrs and day hrs. (8 hrs)
For this Measurement, we used 3 Phase Energy Meter
(CT Meter, Range-200/5)
Energy Consumption by monoblock pump- For this
Measurement, we used 1 Phase Energy Meter
(1Ph.Meter, Range-10-40Amp)
Fig 1: Entire view of DCS Room.
Fig 2: Drip irrigation pipes placed on roof top
Fig 3: Water Sprinkler used for plain area.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 165
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Following graph shows temperature behaviour with and without
RSEC effct.(Temp.recorded during Day time from 8.0 AM to 05
PM)
(Temp 0 C Vs Time Hr.)
Fig 4: Shows temperature behavior with RSEC effect
Fig. 5: Shows temperature behavior without RSEC effect.
III. RECORDS OF TEMPERATURES
Temperature parameters were recorded carefully as per time
schedule. The following observations were recorded.
Table II
Details With RSEC Without RSEC
Ambient temp. effect 44˚C effect 44˚C
Terrace slab temp 35˚C 42˚C
DCS Room
23˚C 31˚C
ceiling temp.
DCS Room temp. 24˚C 25˚C
Energy consumed 2,303 kWh 2.649 kWh
by A/C Machine (08 hrs.)
(08 hrs.)
IV. ENERGY SAVING CALCULATION
From observation sheets, we have following readings of energy
consumption by A/C Machine &small pump.
Table III
Power Consumption (in kWh)
With RSEC Effect Without RSEC
Day Power
Consump
tion by
A/C
8Hrs.
Power
Consumption
by
Monoblock
Pump
Effect
Day Power
Consum
ption by
A/C 8Hr
7/5/10 2,360 0.7 19/5/10 2,740
8/5/10 2,250 0.7 20/5/10 2,680
9/5/10 2,200 0.7 21/5/10 2,770
13/5/10 2,280 0.7 22/5/10 2,650
14/5/10 2,300 0.9 23/5/10 2,590
15/5/10 2,360 0.7 28/5/10 2,580
17/5/10 2,370 0.7 29/5/10 2,530
Avg. 2,303 0.72 Avg. 2,649
(Above Data collected from observation sheets.)
Energy consumed by A/C machine with RSEC effect =2,303
kWh /Day (08 Hrs.)
Also, Energy consumed by A/C machine without RSEC effect
=2,649 kWh /Day (08 Hrs.)
Difference =2,649-2303
=346 kWh /08 Hrs.
Therefore, Net saving of Energy =346 kWh /08 Hrs. i.e. per day
% of saving of energy = 13.06 % per day
Assuming 150 Days of working Season (The RSEC system is
more effective in the month of March, April, May& June.)
Then, Total Saving =346x150
Total Saving = 51,900 kWh /Season
Now such an energy consumed may be purchased from State
Electricity Board at a Rate of Rs.8.10 per kWh
Total Saving =51,900 x 8.10
Total Saving =Rs. 4, 20,390 per Season
Now, investment done for achieving RSEC effect are shown in
table no. I
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1. It is presumed that gunny bags will be required fresh
every year. Rests of the items are assumed to have a life
of 3 years.
Hence cost of items from table I per year = Rs. 6845/-
2. Cost of Electricity consumed by small pump
(i.e. [4]) =1kWh/Day x8.10x150 =Rs.1215
3. Sprinkling water required-800 lit. /Day
(Water charges as per Jeevan Pradhikaran Agency-
Rs.10.20/1000 Ltr.)
Hence, Cost of Sprinkling Water (i.e. [3]) =8.16x150=
Rs.1224
Hence, after deducting the expenses incurred for implementing
RSEC effect, the above costs from 1), 2), and 3) are deducted
from total saving.
Net saving = Total saving – (expenses 1+2+3)
= Rs. 4, 20,390 – (Rs. 6845 +1215 +1224)
= Rs. 4, 11, 106/- per season
Net saving = Rs. 4, 11, 106/- per season
V. CONCLUSION
Historically sugar industry has been slow in its development
and in adopting technology. However, in the recent past power
shortage & other economical issues have forced technocrats and
industry to use more efficient energy conservation system and
cost reduction systems. The above paper highlights some efforts
towards this direction.
REFERENCES
[1] J.K.Nayak,J.A.Prajapati,HANDBOOK ON - ‗ENERGY CONSCIOUS
BUILDINGS‘ By IIT Bombay and solar energy center, Ministry of Non
Conventional Energy Sources. Page no.2, 89, 90,164 .2006.
[2] S.C. Arora & S. Domkundwar, Text Book on A COURCE IN –
‗REFRIGERATION AND AIR-CONDITIONING‘. Page no.19.2, 19.6,
19.7.2000.
[3] http://www.maha mjp.com/news site/water_Tariff.aspx
[4] www.forumofregulatory.gov.in/TOD_tariff_in_india.pdf
[5] www.bee.india.nic.in.
AUTHORS
First Author – R.B. Lokapure, M.Tech (Energy Tech.), Bharti
Vidyapeeth College of Engineering. Kolhapur. (India).
E. Mail- lokapureraju@gmail.com, Cell No: 09860259513
Second Author – J. D. Joshi, M.E., (Mechanical - Design),
M.I.E., C. Engg. From Bharti Vidyapeeth College of
Engineering. Kolhapur. (India)
E. Mail- jawaharlalj@gmail.com
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 167
ISSN 2250-3153
A Carrier Based Compact Model for Long Channel
Undoped and Doped Body Symmetric Double Gate
MOSFETS
Abstract- Double gate MOSFET is widely used for sub-50nm
technology of transistor design .They have immunity to short
channel effects, reduced leakage current and high scaling
potential. The single gate Silicon–on-insulator (SOI) devices give
improved circuit speed and power consumption .But as the
transistor size is reduced the close proximity between source and
drain reduces the ability of the gate electrode to control the flow
of current and potential distribution in the channel. To reduce
SCE we need increase gate to channel coupling with respect to
source/drain to channel coupling. This paper deals with the
compact modeling of long channel undoped and doped
symmetric double-gate MOSFET. The formulation starts with the
solution of Poisson‘s equation which is then coupled to the Pao-
Sah current equation to obtain the analytical drain-current model
in terms of carrier concentration. The performance analysis will
be done by using the model.
Index Terms- Symmetric DGMOS, Doped body, undoped
body, Compact model, Volume inversion.
D
I. INTRODUCTION
ouble gate MOSFET is widely used for sub-45nm
technology of transistor design .They have immunity to
short channel effects, reduced leakage current, nearly ideal subthreshold
swing and high scaling potential. The single gate
Silicon–on-insulator (SOI) devices give improved circuit speed
and power consumption .But as the transistor size is reduced the
close proximity between source and drain reduces the ability of
the gate electrode to control the flow of current and potential
distribution in the channel. To reduce SCE we need to increase
the gate to channel coupling with respect to source/drain to
channel coupling. Several technological approaches can be
followed to design multiple gate MOSFETs. The various
proposed architectures differ mainly by the number of gates and
by the orientation of the conduction channel. We can define three
main types of multiple gate devices: planar transistors, in which
the gates and the channel are horizontal, FinFETs, in which the
channel is vertical and the conduction is parallel to the wafer
surface and the vertical transistors, in which the conduction
direction is vertical.
This paper deals with the compact modeling of long channel
undoped and doped symmetric double-gate MOSFET. While
modeling DG MOSFETs, we have to take a different approach
Neha Goel, Dr.Vandana Nath
Electronics and Communication Engineering, USIT,
Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, India
from that of CMOS Technology as it has unique physical effects
such as the two conducting interface coupling, volume inversion
and carrier energy level quantization. Highly accurate physics
based compact models are required which are computationally
efficient. These requirements are easier to meet in the case of
undoped body MOSFETs because of the absence of fixed charge
in the channel.
Recently, extensive study has been performed on the DG
MOSFETs device physics.
Some researchers have solved 1-D Poisson‘s equation for
DGMOS to derive the analytical solution for surface potential
and inversion layer charge density. But due to the complexity
and need to solve a number of transcendental equations and
auxiliary functions, these models needs more efforts to be
implemented in the circuit simulator. Other groups used the
charge based approach and focused on analytical charge and
current expressions. These models provide simplified derivation
of I-V characteristic but require special assumptions and
approximations that compromise the physical detail in describing
the device behavior.
A fundamental complication of DG MOS‘s is the existence of
multiple interfaces that coupled to each other. As a result, the
drain current can‘t be fully described by an equation with respect
to only source and drain surface potential but it requires the
potential at the center of the Si film at the source and drain each.
This carrier based method avoids the difficulties in calculating
the surface and Si-film centric potential as long as the carrier
concentrations at the boundaries are known. The calculations of
the carrier concentrations are obtained directly by using
Poisson‘s equation and thus we use minimum approximations.
The model is formulated from the solution of the Poisson‘s
equation and Pao-Sah drift-diffusion current expression and
covers all three operating regions of a DG MOSFET: linear,
active and saturation. Also in this model, we are ignoring some
second order physical effects such as Short Channel Effects,
Drain induced barrier lowering and quantum effects for the sake
of simplicity.
The paper is arranged as follows:
6) Abstract
7) Introduction
8) Model Discussion for undoped body DGMOS
9) Model Formulation for undoped body DGMOS
10) Results and Discussions
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 168
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11) Conclusion
II. MODEL DISCUSSION FOR UNDOPED BODY
DGMOS
Fig. 1 shows the energy level distribution diagrams of a
symmetric double-gate MOSFET. The same voltage is applied to
the two gates with the same work function to make them work as
symmetric DGMOS. The voltage levels are referred to the
electron quasi - fermi level of the source as there is no contact to
the silicon body. Assuming that the quasi-fermi level is constant
across the silicon film direction so that the device current flows
only along the channel (y direction). The formulation starts with
1-D Poisson‘s equation along the vertical direction considering
the gradual channel approximation.
Where, n and are the mobile electron concentration and
spatial electrostatics respectively, is the permittivity of the
silicon material. The transport due to holes is minimum in the nchannel
and hence can be ignored.
According to Boltzmann statistics, the mobile electron
concentration is expressed by the potential
And
(1)
(2a)
(2b)
Where and are the intrinsic carrier concentration and the
induced carrier concentration respectively at the reference point
in x-direction.
The spatial derivative of the electron concentration from (2a) is
written as
Again differentiating the above equation we get
Substituting (4) into (1)gives the equation for the electron
concentration as
There is a geometry symmetric point in the silicon film center
due to the symmetric characteristic of double-gate MOSFETs.
The symmetry boundary condition of a symmetric double gate
MOSFET sets the electric field in the center of the silicon film to
be zero. Thus, the reference coordinate takes the center of the
silicon film as the coordinate point of x = 0. For consistency the
value of the n(x) at x=0 is taken as .
Substituting (6) into (2a) we get
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
The electric field distribution is obtained by differentiating
equation (7)
E(x)= (8)
Fig.1 Structure and Energy Level Diagram of undoped DGMOS
The symmetry of the boundary condition of the DGMOS
allows the surface potential and the surface electric field to be
calculated from equation (7) and (8) respectively.
] (9)
E(x)= (10)
Defining we can calculate half of the total
inversion charge.
(11)
The surface potential, concentration and field need to obey the
Gauss‘s law for the applied gate to source voltage. So, we have
= + (12)
Substituting the expressions for surface potential and inversion
charge in (12) we get
= ] +
(13)
Using (13) is first solved for a given value of Vgs.along the
channel direction the quasi –Fermi potential varies from
This expression is useful because of its exactness, solid physics
background, and the analytical characteristics in compact model
construction.
The current continuity principle requires the current to be
constant and independent of the quasi –Fermi potential,
following which we can determine the functional dependence
between (y) and .
Following the Pao- Sah current formulation which assumes that
the drift-diffusion transport is valid for the long channel DGMOS
, the drain current is obtained by integrating from the
source to the drain ,expressed as (
(14)
Where are the solutions of (13) corresponding to
=0 to respectively, is the effective mobility and W and L
are the channel width and length of the DGMOS respectively.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 169
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Calculating from equation (13) and substituting it in (14)
We get
2* +
(15)
As the charge formulation accounts for only half of the channel,
so the final current for symmetric DGMOS is doubled in (15).
III. MODEL FORMULATION FOR DOPED BODY
DGMOS
In the doped body DGMOS there are significant mobile
charges and fixed charges so the Gauss‘s law changes to
= + (16)
Where is fixed charge and its value is:
(17)
So the value of Vgs is increased which leads to an increase in the
threshold voltage.
= ]+
+ (18)
We‘ll calculate the value of using the previous
considerations and using the Pao-Sah drift- diffusion current
equation the value of the drain current is:
2* +
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS.
(19)
We use this model to simulate an undoped double-gate
MOSFET with the channel length of 2µm and gate oxide
thickness of 2nm. Fig.2 show the DG MOSFET current voltage
characteristics predicted by the derived analytical model with the
constant mobility of 300 cm2 /V.s.
Fig.2 I-V Characteristics of undoped body Symmetric DGMOSFET
Fig.3: I-V Characteristics of doped body Symmetric DGMOSFET
A.Transconductance curve:
The transconductance curves of the two types of symmetric
DGMOS clearly shows that as the concentration of the channel
increases the threshold voltage also increases. So the threshold
voltage for undoped body DGMOS is lower than the doped body
DGMOS.
Also as we can see from fig.4 as the silicon film thickness tsi
increases the subthreshold current also increases so the value of
tsi should be kept low but more than 2nm.
Fig.4: Transconductance characteristics of undoped body Symmetric
DGMOSFET
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 170
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Fig.5: Transconductance characteristics of doped body Symmetric DGMOSFET
B. Volume inversion
Fig.5 demonstrates the inversion charge versus gate voltage
characteristics. The silicon film thickness affects the amount of
sub-threshold inversion charge but has no effect on the strong
inversion charge density. This verified the existence of the
volume inversion and implies that decrease of the silicon
thickness can effectively control the sub-threshold region leakage
current. It illustrates a potential weakness in the used of undoped
symmetric double MOSFETs for nano-CMOS application. To
optimize the device performance, the silicon film thickness
should be reduced to suppress the off-current.
Fig.6: Inversion charge density per unit area is plotted at different values of Vgs
and studied at tsi=10nm and tsi=50nm
V. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper a carrier based analytical
model for long channel undoped body
symmetric DGMOS is studied using carrier
based approach. The drain is described by a
single explicit equation with respect to
the carrier concentration at the boundaries
that is valid for all region of operation.
This model is further extended to develop
the model for doped symmetric DGMOS. Also
we can check the performance of this model
and compare it with the 2-D numerical
simulation so as to check for the validity
of the model. We can also derive the
capacitance model for both the devices and
study the radio-frequency characteristics
of the two devices.
REFERENCES
[1] Zhang L.;J.He;Liu F.;Zhang J.;Song Y., ―A unified charge based model for
symmetric DGMOSFETs valid for both heavily doped body and undoped
body‖,in MIXDES 2008 Poland 19-21 June 2008 ,pp-367-372,2008.
[2] Yadav K.Vinay;Rana K.Ashwani, ―Impact of Channel Doping on DG-
MOSFET Parameters in Nano Regime-TCAD Simulation‖, in International
Journal of Computer Applications (0975 – 8887) Vol. 37– No.11, January
2012,pp-36-40,2012.
[3] Gupta, R.S.; Sharma, N.; Bansal, J.; Chaujar, R.; Gupta, M.;, ―Two
dimensional analytical modeling of multi-layered dielectric G4 MOSFET-A
novel design‖, in Recent Advances in Microwave Theory and Applications,
2008. MICROWAVE 2008., pp47 – 49,2008.
[4] Yuan Taur; Jooyoung Song; Bo Yu, ―Compact modeling of multiple-gate
MOSFETs‖, in Custom Integrated Circuits Conference, 2008. CICC 2008.
IEEE, pp. 257 – 264,2008.
[5] Kasturi, P.; Saxena, M.; Gupta, M.; Gupta, R.S., ―Dual Material Double-
Layer Gate Stack SON MOSFET: A Novel Architecture for Enhanced
Analog Performance—Part I: Impact of Gate Metal Work function
Engineering ‖ in Electron Devices, IEEE , vol.55 Issue 1, pp372 – 381.
[6] Jin He,Feng Liu, Jian Zhang, Jinhua Hu, Shengqi Yang and Mansun Chan,
― A Carrier based Approach for compact modeling of the long channel
undoped symmetric Double-gate MOSFETs‖,IEEE transactions on
Electronic Devices,vol.54,pp-1203- 1209,2007.
AUTHORS
First Author – Neha Goel, Pursuing M.Tech in ECE, Indira
Gandhi Institute of Technology, GGSIP University and e-mail –
neha.agarwal12@gmail.com.
Second Author – Dr. Vandana Nath, Electronics and
Communication Dept. U.S.I.T., GGSIP University and e-mail –
vandana.usit@gmail.com
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Removal of Multiple Access Interference in DS-CDMA
System
And
1 (Lecturer, Department of E & TC, G.H.Raisoni College of Engineering & Management, Amravati)
2 (Principal, G.H.Raisoni College of Engineering & Management, Amravati)
Abstract- Multiple access interference (MAI) is a factor which
limits the capacity and performance of DS-CDMA systems. MAI
refers to the interference between direct-sequence users. This
interference is the result of the random time offsets between
signals, which make it impossible to design the code waveforms
to be completely orthogonal. While the MAI caused by any one
user is generally small, as the number of interferers or their
power increases, MAI becomes substantial. The conventional
detector does not take into account the existence of MAI. It
follows a single-user detection strategy in which each user is
detected separately without regard for other users. Because of the
interference among users, however, a better detection strategy is
one of multi-user detection (also referred to as joint detection or
Interference cancelation). Here, information about multiple users
is used jointly to better detect each individual user.
Index Terms- Multiple Access Interference, Parallel
Interference Canceller, Successive Interference Canceller, Code
Division Multiple Access, Time Division Multiple Access,
Frequency Division Multiple Access, Direct Sequence Code
Division Multiple Access, Multiuser Detection, Base Station,
Decision Feedback Equalizer, Maximum Likelihood detection,
Maximum A posteriori Probability, Linear Minimum Mean
Square Error, Turbo Multiuser Detection.
I. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Commercial CDMA System
The Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) offers many
advantages over TDMA and FDMA. IS-95 CDMA allows each
user within a cell to use the same radio channel, and users in
adjacent cells also use the same radio channel, since this is a
direct sequence spread spectrum CDMA system.
CDMA completely eliminates the need for frequency within a
market.
Unlike other cellular standards, the user data rate (but not the
channel chip rate) changes in real-time, depending on the voice
activity and requirements in the network. Also,IS-95 uses a
different modulation and spreading technique for the forward and
reverse links. On the forward link, the base station
simultaneously transmits the user data all mobiles in the cell by
using a different spreading sequence for each mobile. A pilot
code is also transmitted simultaneously and at a higher power
level, thereby allowing all mobiles to use coherent carrier
detection while estimating the channel conditions. On the reverse
link, all mobiles respond in an asynchronous fashion and have
ideally a constant level due to power control applied by the base
station.
The speech coder used in the IS-95 system is the Qualcomm
9600 bps Code Excited Predictive (QCELP) coder. The original
implementation of this vocoder detects activity, and reduces the
data rate to 1200 bps during silent periods.
IS-95 is specified for reverse link operation in the 824-849 MHz
band and 869-894 for the forward link. A PCS version of IS-95
has also been designed for international use in the 1800-2000
MHz bands. A forward and reverse channel pair is separated by
45 MHz for cellular band operation. Many users share a common
channel transmission. The maximum user data rate is 9.6 kb/s.
User data in IS-95 is spread to channel chip rate of 1.2288
Mchip/s (a total spreading factor of 128) using a combination of
techniques. The spreading process is different for the forward
and reverse in the original CDMA specification. On the forward
link, the user data stream is led using a rate 1/2 convolution code,
interleaved, and spread by four orthogonal ling sequences (Walsh
functions). Each mobile in a given cell is assigned different link
sequence, providing perfect separation among the signals from
different users, at least for the case where multipath does not
exist. To reduce interference between mobiles that use the same
spreading sequence in different cells, and to provide the desired
wideband spectral characteristics (not all of the Walsh functions
yield a wideband power spectrum), all signals in a particular cell
are scrambled using a pseudorandom sequence of length 2 15
chips.
On the reverse link, a different spreading strategy is used
since each received signal arrives at the base station via a
different propagation path. The reverse channel user data stream
is first convolutionally encoded with a rate 1/3 code. After
interleaving, each block of six encoded symbols is mapped to
one of the 64 orthogonal Walsh functions, providing sixty-fourary
orthogonal signaling. A final fourfold spreading, giving a rate
of 1.2288 Mchip/s, is achieved by spreading the resulting 307.2
kchip/s stream by user-specific and base-station specific codes
having periods of 2 42 - 1 chips and 2 15 chips, respectively. The
rate 1/3 coding and the mapping onto Walsh functions result in a
greater tolerance for interference than would be realized from
traditional repetition spreading codes. This added robustness is
important on the reverse link, due to the non-coherent detection
and the in-cell interference received at the base station.
Another essential element of the reverse link is tight control of
each subscriber's transmitter power, to avoid the "near-far"
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problem that arises from varying received powers of the users. A
combination of open-loop and fast, closed-loop power control is
used to adjust the transmit power of each in-cell subscriber so
that the base station receives each user with the same received
power. The commands for the closed-loop power control are sent
at a rate of 800 bits/s, and these bits are stolen from the speech
frames. Without fast power control, the rapid power changes due
to fading would degrade the performance of all users in the
system.
At both the base station and the subscriber, RAKE receivers
are used to resolve and combine multipath components, thereby
1.2 PROBLEMS IN CDMA SYSTEMS
• A conventional DS/CDMA system treats each user separately
as a signal, with other users considered as noise or MAI -
multiple access interference
• Capacity is interference-limited.
• Near/far effect: users near the BS are received at higher
powers than those far away.
• suffer degradation in performance.
• Need tight power control?
1.3 MULTIUSER DETECTION
• Multiuser detection considers all users as signals for each
other for joint detection.
• Reduced interference leads to capacity increase.
• Alleviates the near/far problem.
• MUD can be implemented in the BS or mobile, or both
• In a cellular system, base station (BS) has knowledge of all the
chip sequences
FIGURE 1.1: IS-95 FORWARD CHANNEL BLOCK DIAGRAM
reducing the degree of fading. RAKE receiver exploits the
multipath time delays in a channel and combines the delayed
replicas of the transmitted signal in order to improve link quality.
In IS-95, a three finger RAKE is used at the base station. The IS-
95 architecture also provides base station diversity during "soft"
handoffs, whereby a mobile making the transition between cells
maintains links with both base stations during the transition. The
mobile receiver combines the signals from the two base stations
in the same manner as it would combine signals associated with
different multipath components.
• Size and weight requirement for BS is not stringent
Therefore MUD is currently being envisioned for the uplink
(mobile to BS)
1.4 SUCCESSIVE INTERFERENCE CANCELLERS
• Successively subtracting off the strongest remaining signal
• Cancelling the strongest signal has the most benefit
• Cancelling the strongest signal is the most reliable
cancellation
• An alternative called the Parallel Interference Cancellers
simultaneously subtract off all of the users' signals from all of the
others
• Works better than SIC when all of the users are received with
equal strength (e.g. under power control).
2.1 CDMA
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
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One important property of the air interface of a cellular telephone
system is the multiple access method. Each user of the cellular
system is given a channel, and all users get different channels.
The way in which these channels are different is determined by
the multiple access method. .
FIGURE 2.1: CDMA
In a cellular system employing Direct Sequence Code
Division Multiple Access, all users use the same frequency at the
same time. Before transmission, the signal from each user is
multiplied by a distinct signature waveform. The signature
waveform is a signal which has a much larger bandwidth than the
information bearing signal from the user. The CDMA system is
thus a spread spectrum Technique. All users use different
signatures waveforms to expand their signal bandwidth. The
procedure is depicted in fig. 2.1 for a two-user case. Notice the
phase shifts in the transmitted signal is due to the negative pulses
in the data stream.
2.2 The conventional receiver
At the base station, the sum of all the broadband signals is
received. To demodulate signals from a specific user, the
received signal is correlated with the signature waveform of that
user. The procedure is illustrated in fig. 2.2 by correlating the
sum of all the above signals with the respective signature
waveforms. Under ideal conditions, the correlation between
different signature waveforms is zero; in that case, the output of
the correlator will be the transmitted signal of the desired user as
depicted in fig. 2.2. This correlation receiver is known as the
conventional receiver.
FIGURE 2.2: CONVENTIONAL RECEIVER
2.3 Disadvantages with the conventional receiver
The conventional receiver has some serious drawbacks. The
underlying assumption is that the signals from different users are
uncorrelated. In this case the conventional receiver is optimum.
In practice the signals from different users will be correlated,
which means the conventional receiver will be suboptimum. Still
the conventional receiver will still work rather well under these
two conditions:
• The correlation between the signature sequences is small.
• The signals from different users are received with
approximately the same power.
The first condition can be fulfilled by careful design of the
code sequences that determine the signature waveforms. The
second condition can be fulfilled by accurate power control. The
base station measures the received power of all the transmitting
signals. By sending power control commands to all the mobiles
telling them to increase their transmit power, the received power
levels of all the users can be kept at approximately the same
level. Without power control, the received power levels may by
60 dB or more. If the power of the received signals differs
significantly, it suffers from the near-far problem.
Code sequence design also has problems. It turns out that the
correlation between signals from different users is critically
dependent on the relative delays of the signals from different
users. It is possible to design codes that are orthogonal, i.e. have
zero cross correlation if the signals arrive at the base station
synchronously. It is however impossible to design code
sequences (with finite length) that have very low cross
correlation for all relative delays.
2.4 A Multiuser Detection Problem
Due to the problems with the conventional receiver mentioned
above, a different type of detector has been derived. These
detectors, which do not treat other users as noise, but as digital
signals are called multiuser detectors.
Different Types of Multiuser Detectors: Most multiuser
detectors are used in conjunction with the conventional receiver.
This means that the received signal is first correlated with each
of the signature waveforms. The output from this bank of
correlators is treated as a vector. The multiuser receiver then
performs some linear or non-linear transformation on this vector.
Several multiuser detectors of this kind have been proposed.
Usually, some letters need not be known, whereas others must be
estimated. Unfortunately, some of: necessary parameter
estimation may be difficult in a situation where there is a nearproblem.
This is true in particular for estimation of the
propagation delay, which is necessary for most of the multiuser
detectors in this category.
Other multiuser detectors do not operate on the output from
the bank of correlators. Instead the demodulated wideband signal
is sampled at a high rate and fed an adaptive discrete time filter.
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The coefficients of the filter are adjusted so that the put of the
filter resembles some known training sequence, which is
transmitted before transmission of the actual message. These
coefficients are then used during the remainder of the
transmission.
Amazingly enough, these detectors need no side information
except the training sequence. Still, they have some problems. The
use of these detectors place severe restrictions on the choice of
spreading codes. Also the detectors may not be able to adapt to
changing transmission conditions due to fading.
2.4.1 A Multi-variable Decision Feedback Equalizer operating
on the correlator outputs:
As an example of a multiuser detector that operates on the
output from the bank of correlators, a multivariable decision
feedback equalizer (DFE) is studied. Decision feedback
equalizers were first derived in the 1960's. They were then used
to mitigate inter-symbol interference, which was a major
problem for construction of high speed telephone line modems.
For application as a multiuser detector in an asynchronous
DS-CDMA system, the DFE has to be extended to have multiple
inputs as well as multiple outputs. For this purpose the vector of
sampled correlator outputs as the output of a discrete time
variable channel model was used. Also the transmitted symbols
of all users at a certain time instant in a vector were collected.
The situation is depicted in the figure2.3.
FIGURE 2.3: DS-CDMA TRANSMITTER
Note that both input and output of the filter are vectors.
By using the information about the transmission and reception in
a DS-CDMA it is possible to relate the output to the input. This
relation will be a discrete time multivariable FIR-filter with the
number of inputs and the number of outputs equal to
the number of users.
FIGURE 2.4: MULTIVARIABLE DFE
The vector of correlator outputs are used as input to the feed
forward filter, which suppresses most of the inter-symbol
interference and cross-couplings in the channel. From outputs of
the feed forward filter, the outputs from the feedback filter
remove the act of symbols that have been previously detected.
Author observed that if graphically multivariable DFE in a
CDMA scenario with two users is tried, the received powers of
the two users will differ by 20 dB. and the codes used were Gold
codes, which is a common choice in CDMA systems. The signal
to noise ratio is varied between 5 and 20 dB, and counted the
number of errors in the symbol decisions. The performance of
the multivariable DFE was compared to the performance of the
conventional receiver, and also to the performance of the
decorrelating detector, a linear multiuser detector.
The performance of the DFE is superior to the performance of
the conventional detector. This is natural, since the performance
of the conventional detector is limited by interference from the
other user. This is in contrast to both the DFE and the relating
detector, which strangely enough have the same performance. It
should be however that the decorrelating detector cannot be
implemented without modification in a real system, since it is a
block detector. In a block detector, an entire sequence is received
and demodulated simultaneously. It is then implicitly assumed
that the transmission begins and ends at specified instances,
which are not separated too far apart, will not be the situation in a
real system: in a CDMA system, transmission takes place
continuously.
The performance of a practical implementation of the
decorrelating detector is then over bounded by the performance
indicated in the graph. Also, the correlating detector has been
shown to perform very badly in a situation where the propagation
delay has been estimated inaccurately. Thirdly, the complexity of
the DFE is lower than the complexity of the decorrelating
detector.
2.4.2 A Multiuser Detector operating directly on the wideband
signal:
As previously stated, multiuser detector operating on the
output of the correlator rely on accurate estimation of among
other things the propagation delay. To circumvent the problem of
propagation delay estimation, also multiuser detector operating
directly on the wideband signal is devised. But the disadvantages
associated such a detector: lack of flexibility in the code selection
part and inability to cope fast fading were avoided. A multiuser
detector for application in mobile radio must be able to adapt to
rapid changes in transmission conditions. A multiuser detector
fulfilling these conditions would be an ideal candidate for
practical implementation. Such a detector can in fact be devised.
By rewriting the system for transmission reception in a CDMA
system, it becomes clear that the author is dealing with a pie
equalization problem rather than a complex detection problem.
There are only two differences from the equalization problems
considered since the 1960's:
The channel has several inputs, one for each user and
The output of the channel must be sampled much more
rapidly than once per symbol.
The situation considered is as depicted in figure 2.5.
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These equivalent channels are discrete time FIR filters. The
coefficients of these filters will depend on two things
• The codes that are used and
• The physical channel.
The former is known at the receiver, while the latter must be
estimated using a training sequence. This estimation problem is
relatively simple and does not suffer from the near-far problem.
Based on knowledge of the channels, a number of different
detectors can be designed. All of them have counterparts among
equalizers used to combat inter-symbol interference. Examples of
such detectors are
• Fractionally spaced linear equalizers,
• Fractionally spaced decision feedback equalizers (DFE‘s) and
• Detector based on the Viterbi algorithm.
The performance of the DFE to the performance of a single-user
under the same conditions is compared. Graphically it can be
proved that the performance of the system will be satisfactory,
despite the heavy load and the severe near-far situation. The
difference between the DFE and the single user case is rather
large, but the system in which the DFE operates is very heavily
loaded.
Direct sequence code division multiple-access (DS-CDMA) has
been selected as the fundamental signalling technique for third
generation (3G) wireless communication system, due to its
advantages of soft user capacity limit and inherent frequency
diversity. However, it suffers from multiple-access interference
(MAI) caused by the non-orthogonality of spreading codes,
particularly for heavily loaded systems. Therefore, techniques for
mitigating the MAI, namely multiuser detection, have been the
subject of intensive research effort over the past two decades. It
is well known that multiuser detection can substantially
suppress MAI, thus improving system performance.
Maximum likelihood (ML) multiuser detection was proposed in
the early 1980s, and achieves the optimal performance at the cost
of prohibitive computational cost when the number of users is
large.
In recent years, the turbo principle, namely the
iterative exchange of soft lion among different blocks in a
FIGURE 2.5: CDMA TRANSMITTER-RECEIVER
communication system to improve the system performance, has
been applied to combine multiuser detection with channel
decoding. In such turbo multiuser detectors, the outputs of
channel decoders are fed back to the multiuser detector, thus
enhancing the performance iteratively. Turbo multiuser detection
based on the maximum Aposterior probability (MAP) detection
and decoding criterion has been proposed in together with a
lower complexity technique based on interference cancellation
and LMMSE filtering. Further simplification is obtained by
applying parallel interference cancellation (PIC) for multiuser
detection, where the decisions of the decoders are directly
subtracted from the original signal to cancel the MAI.
Practical wireless communication systems usually experience
fading channels, whose state information is unknown to the
receiver. Thus practical systems need to detection and decoding
with uncertain channel state information. In the context short
code CDMA systems, blind multiuser detection can be
accomplished without explicit channel estimation by using
subspace and other techniques.
III. DESIGN METHODOLOGY
Let us consider channel-coded CDMA systems operating over
multipath fading channels whose channel state information is
unknown to the receiver. To demodulate and decode such
systems, we will apply the turbo principle to both channel
estimation and multiuser detection. Consider a receiver that feeds
back decisions from channel decoders to both an ML channel
estimator and a PIC multiuser detector. The iteration will be
initialized with training symbol based channel estimation and a
non-iterative multiuser detection. The dissertation will be
focused mainly on the performance analysis of such structures
using semi-analytic methods. Here the contributions to the
variance of the channel estimation error due to noise and
decision feedback error, and the variance of the residual MAI
after PIC will be analysed. Then this analysis will be used to
describe the decoding process as an iterative mapping. Here
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conditions assuring convergence of this iterative mapping to a
unique fixed point is proposed. Computation of the asymptotic
multiuser efficiency (AME) of this overall system, under some
mild assumptions on the channel decoders will be done. The
analysis in this dissertation will be carried on large samples and
large system analysis.
IV. EXPECTED RESULTS
Fig4.2: BER performance comparison between the turbo
multiuser receiver with five inner iterations and one inner
iteration, K = 6, processing gain N = 16, vehicle speed = 120
km/h, data rate = 9.6 kb/s, carrier frequency = 2.0 GHz.
V. CONCLUSION
Multiuser detection holds much promise for improving Direct
Sequence CDMA performance and capacity. Although multiuser
detection is currently in the research stage, efforts to
commercialize multi-user detectors are expected in the coming
years as DS-CDMA systems are more widely deployed. The
success of these efforts will depend on the outcome of careful
performance and cost analysis for the realistic environment.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author sincerely thanks to Prof. R.D.Ghongade, Prof. Dr.
G.G.Sarate, Prof. S.R. Hirekhan, Prof. N.N.Mandaogade for their
valuable suggestion, criticism and time to time encouragement.
The author also expresses his warm appreciation to his
Brother, Amol, for his help in editing this article.
REFERENCES
[1] P. Alexander, A. Grant and M. C. Reed, ―Iterative detection of codedivision
multiple-access with error control coding,‖ European Trans.
Telecomm., Vol. 9, pp. 419–426, Aug. 1998.
[2] P. Alexander and A. Grant, ―Iterative channel and information sequence
estimation in CDMA,‖ Proceedings of IEEE Sixth International Symposium
on Spread Spectrum Techniques and Applications, pp. 593–597,
Parsippany, NJ, Sept. 2000.
[3] X. Wang and H. V. Poor, Wireless Communication Systems: Advanced
Techniques for Signal Reception. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ,
2004.
[4] X. Wang and H. V. Poor, ―Iterative (turbo) soft interference cancellation
and decoding for coded CDMA,‖ IEEE Trans. Commun., Vol. 47, no.7, pp.
1046–1061, July 1999.
[5] T. C. Yang and W.-B Yang. "Interference Suppression for code division
multiple-access Communications in an underwater acoustic channel,".J.
Acoustic. Soc. Am 126(1), 220-228, July 2009.
[6] S. Moshavi, ―Multi-User detection for DS-CDMA Communications,‖ IEEE
Commun. Mag., Oct. 1996.
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Modeling of Liquid-Liquid Extraction in Spray Column
Using Artificial Neural Network
S.L. Pandharipande, Aashish Nagdive, Yogesh Moharkar
Department of Chemical Engineering, Laxminarayan Institute of Technology,
Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur, India
Abstract- Liquid-liquid extraction is a process for separating
the components of a liquid feed mixture by contacting with a
liquid solvent phase. The operation is carried out in spray
columns, packed beds, rotating disc contactors & plate columns.
The effective rate of mass transfer is dependent upon several
factors such as mass transfer coefficient, transfer area and
magnitude of driving force applied. Multi Layer Perceptron
(MLP) is a type of feed forward neural network applied to
chemical engineering operations. Present work is aimed at
developing ANN models with different topologies for liquidliquid
extraction carried in spray column for a system of acetic
acid-water-benzene. The accuracy of the ANN model is
dependent upon the number of hidden layers & number of
neurons in each hidden layer. Artificial neural network models 1
& 2 are developed for modeling liquid-liquid extraction spray
column, correlating mass transfer coefficient & mass transfer rate
with flow-rate of extract phase , equilibrium concentration of
acetic acid in aqueous phase & height of organic phase in
column. The topology of the architecture was different for both
the models. Based on results & discussions it can be concluded
that both the models are successful in estimating the parameters
but because of higher accuracy of estimation for both the training
& test data sets ANN model 2 is more suitable. The work is
demonstrative and the accuracy of estimation can be improved
by altering the topology.
Index Terms- liquid-liquid extraction, spray column,
modeling, artificial neural network, mass transfer coefficient
L
I. INTRODUCTION
iquid-liquid extraction is a process for separating the
components of a liquid feed mixture by contacting with a
liquid solvent phase. The process takes advantage of differences
in the chemical properties of the feed components, such as
differences in polarity and hydrophobic or hydrophilic character,
to separate them. The transfer of components from one phase to
the other is driven by a deviation from thermodynamic
equilibrium and the equilibrium state depends on the nature of
the interactions between the feed components and the solvent
phase. The potential for separating the feed components is
determined by the differences in this interaction. The operation is
carried out in spray columns, packed beds, rotating disc
contactors & plate columns. The effective rate of mass transfer is
dependent upon several factors such as mass transfer coefficient,
transfer area and magnitude of driving force applied. The mass
transfer coefficient for a spray column is a function of a number
of parameters that include velocity of raffinate & extract phases,
sparger specifications, drop size, contact height of column &
column dimensions.
II. LITERATURE SURVEY
Artificial Neural Network
An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is an information
processing paradigm that is inspired by the way the biological
nervous system, such as brain processes information. It is
composed of large number of highly interconnected processing
elements (neurons) working in unison to solve specific problem
(1) .
Multi Layer Perceptron (MLP) is a type of feed forward
neural network applied to chemical engineering operations. It
consists of multilayer hierarchical structure with input & output
layers & has at least one hidden layer of processing units in
between them. The layers between the input and output layers are
termed ―hidden‖ since they do not converse with the outside
world directly. The nodes between the two successive layers are
fully connected by means of constants called as weights. The
outputs from nodes of input layer are fed to hidden layer nodes,
which in turn, feed their outputs to the next hidden nodes. The
hidden nodes pass the net activation through a nonlinear
transformation of a linear function, such as the logistic sigmoidal
or hyperbolic tangent to compute the outputs. For the training of
MLP, error back propagation algorithm suggested by
Rumelhart (2) is popular. This is based on a nonlinear version of
the Windro-Hoff rule known as Generalized Delta Rule (GDR).
The schematic of the typical MLP network used in developing
ANN model in the present work is shown in fig 1.
Figure no 1: Simple feed forward neural network with two
hidden layer
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Various applications of ANN are, an approach to fault
diagnosis in chemical processes (3) , fault diagnosis in complex
chemical plants (4) , incipient fault diagnosis of chemical
process (5) , leak detection in liquefied gas pipeline (6),(7) , for
estimation of mass transfer coefficient for fast fluidized bed
solids (8) , modeling of distillation column (9) , detergent
formulation (10) , modeling of unsteady heat conduction in semi
infinite solid (11) , prediction of mass transfer coefficient in
downflow jet loop reactor (12) and modeling of packed column (13)
and similar other (14,15,16) were also reported.
Modeling of liquid-liquid extraction is a topic of interest
among researchers & several papers have been reported in
literature related to various aspects like modeling , simulation &
control of liquid-liquid extraction columns (19) , modeling mass
transfer coefficient for liquid-liquid extraction with the interface
adsorption of hydroxyl ions (17) , a bivariate population balance
simulation tool for liquid-liquid extraction columns (20) , use of
neural network for modeling of liquid-liquid extraction process
in the rotating disc columns (21) , multivariable control of a pulsed
liquid-liquid extraction column by neural network (18) . The
present work is aimed at modeling liquid-liquid extraction spray
column using artificial neural network. The experimental data
generated for acetic acid-water-benzene system has been used.
Mass transfer coefficient is estimated for variation in volumetric
flow rate of extract phase, height of organic phase in the column
and equilibrium concentration of acetic acid. It is also aimed to
develop Artificial Neural Network model for correlating these
sets of parameters for liquid-liquid spray extraction column.
III. MATERIALS AND METHODS
A. Generation of equilibrium data experimentally for the
liquid-liquid extraction in spray column for a system of
acetic acid-water-benzene.
B. Experimental set up for spray column
The schematic for the experimental set-up liquid-liquid
extraction is as shown in figure no 2 .It consists of a glass tube
of diameter & height 70 & 88 cm respectively. The sparger
having diameter of50 mm is placed inside the column.
Centrifugal pump is provided to supply the extract phase to the
column. Three ball valves are provided for monitoring flow
rates. Rota meter is provided for measuring the inlet flow rate of
extract phase to spray column. A tank is mounted at the top of
the assembly for steady supply of mixture of acetic acid and
benzene to the spray column. A tank is provided for storage of
extract phase at the bottom section of column.
Figure no. 2: schematic for the experimental set-up of liquid-liquid extraction of spray column
Observations: The experimental data generated for various runs
along with the calculated values of mass transfer coefficient and
rate are given in table 1.
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Sr no.
Equilibrium
concentration of acetic
acid (gmol/lit)
Height of feed
in column (cm)
Table no 1: Experimental data
Flow rate
(m 3 / sec)
1×10 -5
Mass transfer
coefficient 1×10 -4
(sec -1 )
Mass transfer rate
1×10 -4 (gmole/sec)
1 0.4901 50 3.33 1.78 1.66
2 0.4901 50 5 3.2 3
3 0.4901 50 6.66 5.13 4.8
4 0.4901 50 7.5 6.43 6
5 0.4901 55 3.33 1.68 1.73
6 0.4901 55 5 3.11 3.2
7 0.4901 55 6.66 4.8 4.93
8
0.4901 55 7.5 6.14 6.3
9 0.4901 60 3.33 1.6 1.8
10 0.4901 60 5 299 3.3
11 0.4901 60 6.66 4.51 5.06
12 0.4901 60 7.5 5.76 6.45
13
0.4901 65 3.33 1.58 1.93
14 0.4901 65 5 2.79 3.4
15 0.4901 65 6.66 4.28 5.2
16 0.4901 65 7.5 5.57 6.75
17 0.5769 50 3.33 1.56 1.73
18 0.5769 50 5 2.54 2.8
19 0.5769 50 6.66 3.74 4.13
20 0.5769 50 7.5 4.49 4.95
21 0.5769 55 3.33 1.48 1.8
22 0.5769 55 5 2.39 2.9
23 0.5769 55 6.66 3.63 4.4
24 0.5769 55 7.5 4.46 5.4
25 0.5769 60 3.33 1.46 1.93
26 0.5769 60 5 2.26 3
27 0.5769 60 6.66 3.52 4.66
28 0.5769 60 7.5 4.31 5.7
29 0.5769 65 3.33 1.39 2
30 0.5769 65 5 2.22 3.2
31 0.5769 65 6.66 3.44 4.93
32 0.5769 65 7.5 4.29 6.15
33 0.6035 50 3.33 1.61 1.86
34 0.6035 50 5 2.6 3
35 0.6035 50 6.66 3.93 4.53
36 0.6035 50 7.5 5.21 6
37 0.6035 55 3.33 1.52 1.93
38 0.6035 55 5 2.44 3.1
39 0.6035 55 6.66 3.78 4.8
40 0.6035 55 7.5 4.97 6.3
41 0.6035 60 3.33 1.48 2.06
42 0.6035 60 5 2.38 3.3
43 0.6035 60 6.66 3.66 5.06
44 0.6035 60 7.5 4.78 6.6
45
0.6035 65 3.33 1.46 2.2
46 0.6035 65 5 2.33 3.5
47 0.6035 65 6.66 3.56 5.33
48 0.6035 65 7.5 4.61 6.9
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IV. DEVELOPING ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK
MODELS 1 AND 2
This part of present work is devoted for developing
artificial neural network model for the liquid-liquid extraction
data generated experimentally.
The accuracy of the ANN model is dependent upon the
number of hidden layers & number of neurons in each hidden
ANN model
ANN
model-1
ANN
model-2
Input layer
layer. Artificial neural network models 1 & 2 having different
topology are developed in the present work using elite-
ANN (C) .The details of architecture of topology of ANN models 1
& 2 is given in table 2. The total data set of 48 points is divided
into two parts; training & test data set having 36 & 12 data points
respectively as shown in table-2.
Table no. 2 Details of architecture of topology for ANN models 1 & 2
1 st Hidden
layer
The details of the output values of parameters mass
transfer rate & coefficient for training & test data sets obtained
by using ANN model -1 & model -2 are given in table -3 & 4.the
iteration and the corresponding error during the training mode for
developing ANN model 1 & 2 are plotted as shown in figure
numbers 3 & 4.
Figure no. 3: Iterations and the corresponding RMSE error for
ANN model 1
No. of neurons Data points
2 nd Hidden
layer
3 rd Hidden
layer
Output layer
3 0 5 5 2
3 0 10 10 2
Training
data
Test data
36 12
RMSE error
0.01443
RMSE error
0.02933
36 12
RMSE Error
0.00704
RMSE Error
0.07008
Figure no.4: Iterations and the corresponding RMSE error for
ANN model2
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Sr no
Table no 3: Output values of parameters mass transfer rate & coefficient for training data sets predicted by using ANN model - 1 &
model - 2
Equilibrium
concentration
Height of
column
Flow
rate
Mass transfer
coefficient
Mass transfer
rate
Predicted output
mass transfer
coefficient for
ANN
model 1
Predicted
output mass
transfer
coefficient for
ANN
model 2
Predicted
output mass
transfer rate
for ANN
model 1
Predicted
output mass
transfer rate
for ANN
model 2
1 0.4901 50 5 3.2 3 3.225 3.177 3.019 3.057
2 0.4901 50 6.66 5.13 4.8 5.219 5.176 4.775 4.779
3 0.4901 50 7.5 6.43 6 6.285 6.291 6.074 6.029
4 0.4901 55 3.33 1.68 1.73 1.583 1.612 1.823 1.837
5 0.4901 55 6.66 4.8 4.93 4.734 4.795 4.993 4.937
6 0.4901 55 7.5 6.14 6.3 6.076 6.122 6.218 6.254
7 0.4901 60 3.33 1.6 1.8 1.565 1.574 1.833 1.833
8 0.4901 60 5 2.99 3.3 2.965 2.926 3.221 3.237
9 0.4901 60 7.5 5.76 6.45 5.775 5.792 6.432 6.491
10 0.4901 65 3.33 1.58 1.93 1.547 1.553 1.850 1.839
11 0.4901 65 5 2.79 3.4 2.821 2.833 3.428 3.430
12 0.4901 65 7.5 5.57 6.75 5.641 5.547 6.671 6.717
13 0.5769 50 3.33 1.56 1.73 1.548 1.565 1.870 1.824
14 0.5769 50 6.66 3.74 4.13 3.810 3.739 4.020 4.095
15 0.5769 50 7.5 4.49 4.95 4.672 4.573 4.875 4.933
16 0.5769 55 3.33 1.48 1.8 1.547 1.544 1.895 1.842
17 0.5769 55 5 2.39 2.9 2.414 2.420 2.866 2.824
18 0.5769 55 7.5 4.46 5.4 4.497 4.411 5.391 5.359
19 0.5769 60 3.33 1.46 1.93 1.542 1.539 1.924 1.880
20 0.5769 60 5 2.26 3 2.358 2.312 3.019 2.987
21 0.5769 60 7.5 4.31 5.7 4.332 4.284 5.819 5.771
22 0.5769 65 5 2.22 3.2 2.276 2.221 3.192 3.185
23 0.5769 65 6.66 3.44 4.93 3.401 3.510 4.935 4.869
24 0.5769 65 7.5 4.29 6.15 4.277 4.231 6.235 6.184
25 0.6035 50 3.33 1.61 1.86 1.557 1.570 1.931 1.864
26 0.6035 50 5 2.6 3 2.529 2.611 3.046 2.986
27 0.6035 50 7.5 5.21 6 5.049 5.157 6.107 6.001
28 0.6035 55 3.33 1.52 1.93 1.553 1.554 1.956 1.912
29 0.6035 55 5 2.44 3.1 2.465 2.442 3.139 3.132
30 0.6035 55 7.5 4.97 6.3 4.947 4.977 6.336 6.323
31 0.6035 60 5 2.38 3.3 2.393 2.276 3.238 3.314
32 0.6035 60 6.66 3.66 5.06 3.689 3.707 5.104 5.087
33 0.6035 60 7.5 4.78 6.6 4.808 4.800 6.478 6.540
34 0.6035 65 3.33 1.46 2.2 1.538 1.569 2.008 2.151
35 0.6035 65 6.66 3.56 5.33 3.604 3.496 5.382 5.347
36 0.6035 65 7.5 4.61 6.9 4.737 4.682 6.621 6.699
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 182
ISSN 2250-3153
Figure no 5: Comparison of actual and predicted mass transfer
coefficient obtained by ANN model 1 & model 2 for training
data
Figure no 6: Comparison of actual and predicted mass transfer
rate by ANN model 1 & model 2 for training data
Table no. 4: Output values of parameters mass transfer rate & coefficient for test data sets predicted by using ANN model 1 & model
2
Equilibrium
concentration
Height of
column
Flow
rate
Mass transfer
coefficient
Mass
transfer rate
Predicted
output mass
transfer
coefficient for
ANN
model 1
Predicted
output mass
transfer
coefficient for
ANN
model 2
Predicted
output mass
transfer rate
for ANN
model 1
Predicted
output mass
transfer rate
for ANN
model 2
1 0.4901 50 3.33 1.78 1.66 1.601 1.676 1.818 1.850
2 0.4901 55 5 3.11 3.2 3.094 3.043 3.091 3.111
3 0.4901 60 6.66 4.51 5.06 4.510 4.447 5.296 5.166
4 0.4901 65 6.66 4.28 5.2 4.482 4.221 5.752 5.481
5 0.5769 50 5 2.54 2.8 2.458 2.535 2.725 2.720
6 0.5769 55 6.66 3.63 4.4 3.606 3.703 4.238 4.343
7 0.5769 60 6.66 3.52 4.66 3.465 3.617 4.508 4.603
8 0.5769 65 3.33 1.39 2 1.534 1.544 1.958 1.951
9 0.6035 50 6.66 3.93 4.53 4.145 4.011 5.077 4.593
10 0.6035 55 6.66 3.78 4.8 3.884 3.898 5.046 4.838
11 0.6035 60 3.33 1.48 2.06 1.547 1.556 1.981 2.002
12 0.6035 65 5 2.33 3.5 2.298 2.139 3.355 3.498
V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Graphs are plotted between the actual and predicted values
of output parameters mass transfer coefficient and mass transfer
rate obtained by using ANN model 1 & 2, for training data set as
shown in figure no. 5 & 6 respectively. It can be said that the
actual & predicted values are close to each other. Both the ANN
models 1 & 2 have high accuracy levels of prediction.
Similarly graphs are plotted between the actual and
predicted values of output parameters, mass transfer coefficient
and mass transfer rate respectively for test data set for ANN
model 1 & 2 as shown in figures 7 & 8 respectively. It can be
said that the actual & predicted values are close to each other.
Figure no 7: Comparison of actual and predicted mass transfer
coefficient obtained by ANN mode -1 & model -2 for test data
set
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 183
ISSN 2250-3153
Figure no 8: comparison of actual and predicted mass transfer
rate by ANN model 1 and model 2 for test data set
The criterion for selection of suitable ANN model is based on
comparison between the relative error values for all the output
data points estimated by using ANN model 1& 2 and is given in
Table no. 5.
Table no.5: Relative error of predicted output values for mass transfer coefficient and mass transfer rate using ANN model 1 and ANN
model-2 for training data.
Actual
mass
transfer
coefficient
Predicted
mass
transfer
coefficient
Model1
Predicted
mass
transfer
coefficient
Model2
Mass
transfer
coefficient
Relative
Error
model 1
Mass
transfer
coefficient
Relative
Error
model 2
Actual
mass
transfer
rate
Predicted
mass
transfer
rate for
Model 1
Predicted
mass
transfer rate
for Model 2
Mass
transfer rate
for Relative
Error for
model 1
Mass
transfer
rate for
Relative
Error for
model 2
3.2 3.225 3.177 -0.782 0.690 3 3.019 3.057 -0.647 -1.936
5.13 5.219 5.176 -1.745 -0.901 4.8 4.775 4.779 0.505 0.421
6.43 6.285 6.291 2.251 2.149 6 6.074 6.029 -1.247 -0.491
1.68 1.583 1.612 5.729 4.027 1.73 1.823 1.837 -5.398 -6.207
4.8 4.734 4.795 1.362 0.101 4.93 4.994 4.937 -1.306 -0.148
6.14 6.076 6.122 1.034 0.287 6.3 6.218 6.254 1.290 0.715
1.6 1.565 1.574 2.136 1.571 1.8 1.833 1.833 -1.835 -1.875
2.99 2.965 2.926 0.816 2.109 3.3 3.221 3.237 2.365 1.887
5.76 5.775 5.792 -0.261 -0.568 6.45 6.432 6.491 0.278 -0.636
1.58 1.547 1.556 2.0473 1.690 1.93 1.850 1.839 4.117 4.685
2.79 2.829 2.833 -1.130 -1.571 3.4 3.428 3.430 -0.827 -0.897
5.57 5.641 5.5478 -1.289 0.395 6.75 6.671 6.717 1.160 0.475
1.56 1.548 1.565 0.713 -0.347 1.73 1.870 1.824 -8.101 -5.437
3.74 3.810 3.739 -1.896 0.0037 4.13 4.020 4.095 2.645 0.824
4.49 4.672 4.573 -4.074 -1.850 4.95 4.875 4.933 1.510 0.332
1.48 1.547 1.544 -4.532 -4.346 1.8 1.895 1.842 -5.326 -2.339
2.39 2.414 2.420 -1.032 -1.289 2.9 2.866 2.824 1.146 2.598
4.46 4.497 4.411 -0.838 1.087 5.4 5.391 5.359 0.157 0.759
1.46 1.542 1.539 -5.648 -5.445 1.93 1.924 1.880 0.263 2.574
2.26 2.358 2.312 -4.338 -2.339 3 3.019 2.987 -0.663 0.411
4.31 4.332 4.284 -0.526 0.593 5.7 5.819 5.771 -2.089 -1.257
2.22 2.276 2.221 -2.524 -0.059 3.2 3.192 3.185 0.245 0.464
3.44 3.401 3.510 1.107 -2.058 4.93 4.935 4.869 -0.106 1.222
4.29 4.277 4.231 0.287 1.371 6.15 6.235 6.184 -1.386 -0.557
1.61 1.557 1.570 3.279 2.479 1.86 1.931 1.864 -3.843 -0.241
2.6 2.529 2.611 2.719 -0.438 3 3.046 2.986 -1.536 0.4379
5.21 5.049 5.157 3.081 0.999 6 6.107 6.001 -1.789 -0.018
1.52 1.553 1.554 -2.221 -2.291 1.93 1.956 1.912 -1.353 0.897
2.44 2.465 2.442 -1.050 -0.092 3.1 3.139 3.132 -1.264 -1.062
4.97 4.947 4.977 0.445 -0.142 6.3 6.336 6.323 -0.574 -0.375
2.38 2.393 2.276 -0.546 4.338 3.3 3.238 3.314 1.866 -0.453
3.66 3.689 3.707 -0.817 -1.309 5.06 5.104 5.087 -0.872 -0.548
4.78 4.808 4.800 -0.598 -0.427 6.6 6.478 6.540 1.839 0.899
1.46 1.538 1.569 -5.369 -7.482 2.2 2.008 2.151 8.701 2.182
3.56 3.604 3.494 -1.239 1.776 5.33 5.382 5.347 -0.980 -0.332
4.61 4.737 4.682 -2.765 -1.577 6.9 6.621 6.699 4.036 2.901
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 184
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Fig no.9 & 10 show the graphs plotted between the relative error
for the output parameters, mass transfer coefficient and mass
transfer rate, estimated using ANN model 1 & ANN model 2
respectively for training data set. It is seen that there are
deviations of the relative error from the mean value for the ANN
models, 1 & 2. The range of relative error for the output
parameter, mass transfer coefficient for ANN model 1 & ANN
model 2 is 0-6 & 0-4 respectively. Similarly the range for the
second output parameter, mass transfer rate for ANN model 1 &
ANN model 2 is 0-8% & 0-4% respectively. As the relative
error for ANN model 2 is lower for both the output parameters
than estimated by ANN model 1, hence it can be said that the
ANN model 2 is superior to the ANN model 1.
Figure no.9: Relative error of actual output and predicted output
values for the mass transfer coefficient for training data
Figure no.10: Relative error of actual output and predicted output
values for the mass transfer rate for training data
Similarly the relative error for all test data set points
using models 1& 2 is calculated as given in Table 6.
Table no.6: Relative error of predicted output values of mass transfer coefficient and mass transfer rate for ANN model 1 and ANN
model-2 for test data.
Actual
mass
transfer
coefficient
Predicted
mass
transfer
coefficient
Model1
Predicted
mass
transfer
coefficient
Model2
Mass
transfer
coefficient
Relative
Error
model 1
Mass
transfer
coefficient
Relative
Error
model 2
Actual
mass
transfer
rate
Predicte
d mass
transfer
rate for
Model 1
Predicted
mass
transfer
rate for
Model 2
Mass
transfer
rate for
Relative
Error for
model 1
Mass
transfer
rate for
Relative
Error for
model 2
1.78 1.601 1.676 10.013 5.792 1.66 1.818 1.850 -9.569 -11.501
3.11 3.094 3.043 0.489 2.135 3.2 3.091 3.111 3.376 2.756
4.51 4.510 4.447 -0.010 1.385 5.06 5.296 5.166 -4.664 -2.105
4.28 4.482 4.229 -4.732 1.365 5.2 5.752 5.481 -10.62 -5.41
2.54 2.412 2.535 3.227 0.167 2.8 2.725 2.720 2.676 2.828
3.63 3.606 3.703 0.643 -2.020 4.4 4.238 4.343 3.673 1.290
3.52 3.467 3.617 1.554 -2.758 4.66 4.508 4.603 3.250 1.214
1.39 1.534 1.544 -10.400 -11.14 2 1.958 1.951 2.064 2.413
3.93 4.145 4.011 -5.488 -2.071 4.53 5.077 4.593 -12.09 -1.4
3.78 3.884 3.898 -2.756 -3.131 4.8 5.046 4.838 -5.142 -0.81
1.48 1.547 1.556 -4.569 -5.188 2.06 1.981 2.002 3.825 2.802
2.33 2.298 2.139 1.341 8.182 3.5 3.355 3.498 4.126 0.041
Fig no.11 & 12 show the graphs plotted between the
relative error for the output parameters, mass transfer coefficient
and mass transfer rate, for ANN model 1 & ANN model 2
respectively. It is seen that there are deviations of the percentage
relative errors from the mean path of the ANN model 1 & 2. The
range of relative errors for the output parameter, mass transfer
coefficient for ANN model 1 & ANN model 2 is 0-10 & 0-6
respectively. Similarly the range for the second output parameter,
mass transfer rate for ANN model 1 & ANN model 2 is 0-12 &
0-6 respectively. As the relative error for ANN model 2 is lower
for both the output parameters than estimated by ANN model 1
for the training as well as test data set, hence it can be conclude
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 185
ISSN 2250-3153
that the ANN model 2 is superior to the ANN model 1 baring one
point.
Figure no.11: Relative error of experimental output and predicted
output values for the mass transfer coefficient.
Figure no.12: Relative error of experimental output and predicted
output values for the mass transfer rate.
VI. CONCLUSION
Artificial neural network models 1 & 2 are developed for
modeling liquid-liquid extraction spray column, correlating mass
transfer coefficient & mass transfer rate with flow-rate of extract
phase , equilibrium concentration of acetic acid in aqueous phase
& height of organic phase in column. The topology of the
architecture was different for both the models. Based on results
& discussions it can be concluded that both the models are
successful in estimating the parameters but because of higher
accuracy of estimation for both the training & test data sets ANN
model 2 is more suitable. The work is demonstrative and the
accuracy of estimation can be improved by altering the topology.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors are thankful to Director, LIT Nagpur for the
facilities and the encouragement provided.
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[21] Normah Maan, Jamalludin Talib & Khairil Annuar Arshad, ―Use of neural
network for modeling of liquid-liquid extraction process in The RDC
Column,‖ Matematika, 2003, pp. 15–27
AUTHORS
First Author – S.L. Pandharipande, M. Tech, Associate
Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, Laxminarayan
Institute of Technology, Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur
University, Nagpur, India.
E-mail id: slpandharipande@gmail.com
Second Author – Aashish Nagdive, M.Tech, Department of
Chemical Engineering, Laxminarayan Institute of Technology,
Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur, India.
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Third Author – Yogesh Moharkar, M.Tech, Department of
Chemical Engineering, Laxminarayan Institute of Technology,
Rashtrasant Tukadoji Maharaj Nagpur University, Nagpur, India.
E-mail id: ymoharkar@gmail.com
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Testing Market Efficiency of Indian Stock Market
Abstract- As long as financial markets are concerned, people
tried to forecast the future movement of it. The purpose of
forecast is to expect great fortunes. In reality it is an important
question that ―is it possible to forecast market with the historical
data?‖ If it is possible than excess returns can be made by
picking up lottery stock. This situation is called ―Inefficient
Market‖. On the other hand if market is efficient, it is west of
time to predict stock market. The main intention of this paper is
to study the efficiency level in Indian Stock market and the
random walk nature of the stock market by using RUN test for
the period from 1st January 2001 to 31st December 2010. In this
paper, 6 major indices [BSE 30, BSE 100,200,500, BSE SMALL
CAP and BSE MIDCAP] are studied.
Keywords- Market efficiency, Random walk, Run test, ACF.
―M
I. INTRODUCTION
y interest is in the future because I am going to spend
the rest of my life there‖ - Charles F. Kettering
(American engineer, inventor of the electric starter, 1876-1958).
This quote explains the investors‘ attitude when they try to
estimate future. The same efforts put by academicians to explore
whether there is certain dependence in successive price changes
that could profitably be exploited by various kinds of trading
techniques.
The Random Walk Hypothesis is concerned with the question
of whether one can predict future prices from past prices. It
assumed that successive price change is independent from the
historical closings. There is no meaning to study past trend or
patterns of prices to predict future movement. In its simple form,
it states that price changes cannot be predicted from earlier
changes in any meaningful manner (Weak form of hypothesis) 1 .
The main purpose of this paper is to test the weak-from of
efficiency of the Indian stock market by using daily data from the
1 st January 2001 to 31 st December 2010. There are 2 major stock
exchanges in India, Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) and National
Stock Exchange (NSE). There are various indices are available
but for the study purpose only 6 indices of BSE is considered.
Literature Review:
In support of pattern finding, Lo, Mamaysky and Wang
(2000) conclude that human judgment is superior to most
computational algorithms. But recent advanced statistical model
had successful applications in fingerprint identification,
handwriting analysis, and face recognition which can be useful to
identify pattern or trend in technical analysis 2 .
In paper titled ―Quasi-Maximum Likelihood Estimation and
Inference in Dynamic Models with Time Varying Covariance‖
Mr. Divyang J Joshi
Late. Smt. S. G. Patel Institute of Management, Dharmaj, India
Brock, Lakonishok and LeBaron (1992) tested 26 simple
technical trading rules on daily data of the Dow-Jones Industrial
Average for the period 1897-1986. They conclude that buy
signals generates higher returns during buy days compare to sell
signals during sell signals 3 .
The first researcher who linked the random walk process to
economic processes was French mathematician Louis Bachelier
in his Ph.D. dissertation titled "The Theory of Speculation" who
noticed that changes of prices of French government papers are
unpredictable what forced him to conclude that "The
mathematical expectation of the speculator is zero" 4 .
In against of Random walk theory, Alexander (1961) applies
several filters to the DJIA in the period 1897 − 1929 and the S&P
Industrials in the period 1929 − 1959. He developed a filter
strategy. According to it buy the stock when price increases by x
percent from a recent low and sell when price declines by x
percent from a recent high. He concludes in support of technical
analysis. He concludes that in speculative markets if price of a
stock initiate one trend then it is going to persist for long time 5 .
In the paper titled "A Comparative Analysis of Stock Price
Behaviour on the Bombay, London and New York Stock
Exchanges" Sharma and Kennedy (1977) compared the behavior
of stock indices of the Bombay, London and New York Stock
Exchanges for the period of 1963-73. He used run test and
spectral analysis. He concludes that all 3 stock exchanges follow
the random walk movement 6 ".
MadhuriMalhotra, M. Thenmozhi, G Arun Kumar (2007), in
their paper titled ―Stock Market Reaction and Liquidity Changes
around Bonus Issue Announcement: Evidence from India‖ by
(2007), examines share price reaction to the announcement of
bonus issue for a sample of Indian companies. Standard event
study methodology has been used for the purpose of studying the
Bonus issue announcement reaction. Bonus issue announcement
yields negative abnormal returns around the announcement date.
There is a negative reaction after the bonus issue announcement
conveying that the market under reacts after the announcement. It
is also observed that there is no information leakage prior to the
announcement 19 .
II. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to test the random walk theory in
Bombay Stock Exchange (6 Indices). The 10 years daily closing
data for 4 indices and 8 years data for Small-Cap and Midcap
index is used to know whether past stock price movements
follow a trend or not, so they can or cannot be used to predict
their future movement. The results of the study are aimed to
validate or not to validate the perceptions that stock prices in
BSE do follow the random walk theory.
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Hypothesis:
1. Ho: BSE 30 Follows Random pattern.
2. Ho: BSE 100 follows Random pattern.
3. Ho: BSE 200 follows Random pattern.
4. Ho: BSE 500 follows Random pattern.
5. Ho: BSE Mid-Cap follows Random pattern.
6. Ho: BSE Small-Cap follows Random pattern.
III. METHODOLOGY
For testing random walk of BSE indices, daily closing values
used for the period of 1 st January 2001 to 31 st December 2010.
The reason for selecting this period is that during this 10 years
market seem too volatile. It touched the life time high in 2008
and low in 2010. The total 2498 number of observations for BSE
30, BSE 100, BSE 200 and BSE 500 each and 1938 for BSE
Small-cap and Mid-cap each. The data are collected from BSE
website only.
Research methodology:
After having 1 lag difference (t1 – t0), total runs are calculated
with the help of Excel. The MINITAB software is used for
applying run test.
To check the Randomness among the data Run test is used.
Run test is a non-parametric test. ―A Run test may be defined as
a sequence of price changes of the same sign preceded and
followed by price changes of different sign A ." It depends only on
the sign of the price changes but not on the magnitude of the
price. It does not require the specification of the probability
distribution. It depends only on the sign of the price. They are
essentially concerned with the direction of changes in the time
series 1 .
In a given time series of stock prices there are three possible
types of price changes, namely positive, negative and no change.
This gives three types of runs. A positive (negative) run is a
sequence of positive (negative) price changes preceded and
succeeded by either negative (positive) or zero price change.
Similarly, a zero run is sequence of zero price changes preceded
and succeeded by either negative or positive price change B . The
assumption of Run test is that the successive price changes are
independent and the sample proportion of positive, negative and
zero price changes are unbiased estimates of the population
proportions
IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION:-
Table: 1 BSE Indices Run test output for 2001 to 2010
Indices
Run
above &
Below K
Observed
No. of
Run
Expected
No. of Run
Observation
above K
Observation
below K
P Value
BSE 30 0.547676 1149 1237.65 1367 1129 0.000
BSE 100 0.559696 1117 1231.21 1397 1099 0.000
BSE 200 0.570513 1107 1224.18 1424 1072 0.000
BSE 500 0.568510 1101 1225.57 1419 1077 0.000
BSE MIDCAP
(2003-10)
BSE Small-Cap
(2003-10)
0.601240 773 929.314 1164 772 0.000
0.598657 737 931.313 1159 777 0.000
From the Table 1 it can observed that, the resulting p-value of all indices (0.0000) are smaller than the alpha level of 0.05, there is
sufficient evidence to conclude that the data are not in random order and market is inefficient. It means with the help of past prices and
trend we can predict the market. The above test was run on total observed runs of 10 years. And it can be interpret that market is not
random.
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But, if the run test applied on year wise data of BSE 30 and BSE 100, the result is different than the above.
Table 2:- BSE 30 Run test output for 2001 to 2010
BSE 30
Run above
& Below K
Observed
No. of Run
Expected No.
of Run
Observation
above K
Observation
below K
P Value
2001 0.506073 105 124.482 125 122 0.013
2002 0.517928 112 126.339 130 121 0.069*
2003 0.588933 105 123.498 149 104 0.016
2004 0.562992 125 125.984 143 111 0.900*
2005 0.573705 107 123.773 144 107 0.030
2006 0.6 113 121 150 100 0.291*
2007 0.574297 117 122.751 143 106 0.455*
2008 0.451220 114 122.829 111 135 0.255*
2009 0.555556 125 121 135 108 0.603*
2010 0.543651 131 126.040 137 115 0.528*
In table 2, it can observed that in the year 2001, 2003 and 2005 the P value is smaller than 0.05. It means market is non random. But
in the year 2002, 2004, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010 the P value is greater than alpha value. It means in all 7 years, market follow
the random pattern.
Table 3:- BSE 100 Run test output for 2001 to 2010
BSE
100
Run above
& Below K
Observed
No. of Run
Expected No.
of Run
Observation
above K
Observation
below K
P
Value
2001 0.477733 105 124.255 118 129 0.014
2002 0.521912 112 126.259 131 120 0.071*
2003 0.616601 99 120.621 156 97 0.004
2004 0.574803 127 125.157 146 108 0.813*
2005 0.581673 101 123.151 146 105 0.004
2006 0.612 109 119.728 153 97 0.152*
2007 0.606426 113 119.859 151 98 0.361*
2008 0.459350 110 123.187 113 133 0.090*
2009 0.588477 117 118.695 143 100 0.822*
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2010 0.555556 129 125.444 140 112 0.649*
In table 3, it follows the same pattern of BSE 30. In the year 2001, 2003 and 2005 the P value is smaller than 0.05. It means market is
non random. But in the year 2002, 2004, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010 the P value is greater than alpha value. It means in all 7
years, market follow the random pattern.
V. SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study is limited to 10 years and 6 indices only. The
broader study is possible by increasing number of years and
indices.
The study is also limited to BSE, It can be expand by
including NSE or other Nation‘s indices to prove randomness of
the capital market.
Here autoregression, ARIMA, GARCH tests are not applied.
The detailed study is possible by knowing stationarity of the
data.
VI. CONCLUSION
The results show the evidence of the inefficient form of the
Indian Stock Market in long run but efficient form in short term.
So, the findings support the Random-walk hypothesis in short
duration but in long term doesn‘t. All indices of BSE do not
support the weak form of market efficiency. The information
regarding yesterday's and today‘s indices can be used to predict
tomorrow‘s indices. The stocks in the index don‘t absorb the
price information effectively. It means investors can identify
available undervalued securities in the market make excess
returns by correctly picking them.
REFERENCES
[1] Anand Pandeyy. [ October 2003] ―Efficiency of Indian Market‖. The paper
was part of project for the Time Series Course by Dr. Susan Thomas.
[2] Lo, A.W., Mamaysky, H., Wang, J. (2000), ―Foundations of technical
analysis: computational algorithms, statistical inference and empirical
implementation‖. Journal of Finance 55, 1705-1722.
[3] Bollerslev, T., Wooldridge, J.M. (1992). ‖Quasi-Maximum Likelihood
Estimation and Inference in Dynamic Models with Time Varying
Covariances‖. Econometric Reviews 11,143-172.
[4] Courtault, J.M., Kabanov, Y., Bru, B., Crepel, P., Lebon, I., Marchand, A.L.
(2000). Louis Bachelier on the Centenary of Theorie De La speculation.
Mathematical Finance, 10, 341- 353.
[5] Alexander, S.S. (1961), Price Movements in Speculative Markets: Trends or
Random Walks, Industrial Management Review 2, 7-26.
[6] Sharma J. L. and Robert E. Kennedy [1977] "A Comparative Analysis of
Stock Price Behaviour on the Bombay, London and New York Stock
Exchanges", Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis Sep 1977.
[7] D.B. Johnson and T. Mizoguchi (1978). "Selecting the Kth Element in X +
Y and X1 + X2 + ... + Xm," SIAM Journal of Computing 7, pp.147-153.
[8] Malkiel, B. (1995). Returns from Investing in Equity Mutual Funds 1971 to
1991. Journal of Finance, 549-572.
[9] McQueen, G., Pinegar M., & Thorley S. (1996). Delayed Reaction to Good
News and the Cross-Autocorrelation of Portfolio Returns. Journal of
Finance, 889-920.
[10] Moore, A. (1964). Some Characteristics of Changes in Common Stock
Prices Ed.: The Random Character of Stock Market Prices, Cambridge:
Mass.
[11] Guneratne, P.S.M., & Fernando, K.G.K., (2007) Market Response to Bonus
Issues with Special Reference to Impact of Bonus Issue Ratio and Ex-day
Price Adjustments; Evidence from Colombo Stock Exchange(2007)
International Research Conference on Knowledge for Growth and
Development Faculty of Management &Finance, University of Colombo,
Sri Lanka.
[12] Hirst, D.E., K.E. Jackson, and L. Koonce. 2003. ―Improving Financial
Reports by Revealing the Prior Accuracy of Estimates‖, Contemporary
Accounting Research, 20(spring): 1–31.
[13] HumeraShahid, Xia Xinping, FaiqMahmood, Muhammad Usman (2010),
Announcement Effects of Seasoned Equity Offerings in China, International
Journal of Economics and Finance Vol. 2, No. 3; August 2010, Pages 163 –
169
[14] International Accounting Standards Board, IFRS 2: Share-Based Payment,
IASB, London, 2004.
[15] John Handly.C (1995) ―The pricing of Underwriting Risk in Relation to
Australian Rights Issues‖ Australian Journal of Management, Vol.20, No.1,
pp.43-58.
[16] Kakati, M (2001), "price performance of Bonus issue", Finance India, Vol.
XV, Nov-Dec, PP 1183-1190.
[17] KaurKaramjeet and Singh Balwinder, Bonus Share Announcements and
Market Efficiency: A Study of BSE Listed Companies, Advances in
Management, 2010, vol. 3, issue 11.
[18] Long, John B., Jr. 1978. "The Market Valuation of Cash Dividends: A Case
to Consider." Journal of Financial Economics 6, no. 2/3: pp 235-264.
[19] Malhotra, Madhuri; Thenmozhi, M.; Arun Kumar: Effect of bonus issue
announcement on stock returns using market model, Journal of International
Finance and Economics January 1, 2007.
BOOKS
[1] Richard I. Levin and David S. Rubin ―Statistics for Management‖, 7th
edition. PP. 813, 839,840.
[2] Donald R. Cooper and Pamela S. Schindler ―Business Research Methods‖,
9th edition. PP. 660 to 665.
AUTHORS
Mr. Divyang J Joshi, Assistant Professor, Late. Smt. S. G. Patel
Institute of Management, Dharmaj, India Email:
divyang316ncm@yahoo.co.in, Phone: 094273 86078
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Online Shopping and the Transaction Protection in E-
Commerce: A case Of Online Purchasing in Libya.
Abdulghader.A.Ahmed, Hadya.S.Hawedi
School of Computer Science, Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Malaysia
Center of System Science, Faculty of Computer and Mathematical Science, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Malaysia
E-mail: alyake2004@yahoo.com, hadia20008@yahoo.com
Abstract- E-commerce is a successful business-based
innovation via internet. This form of business transaction
strategy offers many opportunities for growth in business and
marketing services in various aspects. Online shopping is an
intermediary mode between marketers or sellers to the end user
or the consumers. Nature of online transaction in Libya is
constrained by instability resulting from insecurity, unprotected
transaction as well as trust. Online shopping could become
predominant source of shopping method, if the barriers
associated with insecurity, trust and customer‘s protection are
tackled. Owing to the significance of e-commerce towards
Libyan economic growth, this paper highlights the limitations
associated with e-commerce transaction in Libya and proposes
relevant steps towards overcoming these constrains. Relevance of
integrating e-commerce in Libyan economic system is discussed
with.
Index Terms- E-commerce, online shopping, security,
protection, trust
E
I. INTRODUCTION
-commerce encompasses buying and selling of products and
services through electronic systems
Such as internet and other computer related networks. Recently,
rapid global growth in e-commerce has increasingly become
necessary component of business strategy for efficient
transaction. E-commerce technology in business could
revolutionize relationships within organizations and individual
transaction settings [1].
The Internet has improved traditional brick and mortar stores
through the development of e-commerce web sites. Nowadays,
many e-commerce especially online shopping had widened the
access to their products through new methods of marketing via
electronically mediated e-commerce. Good understanding of the
requirements, expectations and the operational concept of
internet shopping could an advantage to effective online retailing
and as well help the manufacturers in developing more effective
and targeted online retailer operations. E-stores can be operated
by either a pure or a traditional retailer [4]. However, there is
concern over online shopping especially when customer‘s
personal information and financial transactions is required to
facilitate transaction through internet medium. A lack of trust is
likely to discourage online consumers‘ intentions from
purchasing via online stores. However, with the existence ecommerce,
Harridge-March [2] reported that e-commerce serves
as cost-reducing strategy for customers through distribution
network of goods and services from the provider to the
consumer.
Unlike conventional shopping which involves face-to-face
transaction; online shopping uses internet, network and webbased
technologies in creating interactive medium between
sellers and consumers. In addition, the existence of online
shopping yield benefits such as easy to business transaction
network; saves times and reduces search costs compared to
conventional shopping process. Because of these benefits,
businesses and companies are widening their access to business
transaction through fascinating method of delivery via
electronically mediated shopping. With the recent growth of
online shopping, it has become an attractive option for expanding
the business opportunity available for sellers. By incorporating
online shopping, into business transaction in companies can
eliminate the need to construct new building to support services
in other to accommodate the increase of consumers. E-commerce
is potential tool for successful business innovation [3] with
promising advantages over current Libyan online transaction
which are noted to have been jeopardized by insecurity.
However, this paper highlights the potential limitations
associated with E-commerce transaction in Libya and proposes
relevant steps to overcoming them. Relevance of integrating ecommerce
into Libyan trade system is discussed with respect to
their positive impact.
II. THE CHALLENGES OF SECURITY, PROTECTION
AND TRUST
The problems associated with online shopping are more
to consumer‘s protection in transaction that requires privacy and
trust between different geographical locations or countries [5].
There is increasing concern over online shopping because of
insecurity, lack of customer‘s protection and trust which are vital
elements for a successful online transaction between countries,
organization as well as individual.
Udo [6], report that the major problem faced by consumers in
an online transaction is security. From survey report, it is obvious
the most reports acknowledged that transaction base on ecommerce
have been constrained by security. In addition,
consumers are concern about their privacy especially when their
personal information are required to facilitate transaction besides,
potential risks are also posed to those using credit cards to make
purchase online. Secured system is needed enhance online
shopping since consumers cares for their privacy and security.
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Furthermore, [6] online shopping paves way to fraudulent act and
unworthy credit orders which is also attributed to unsecured
services. Trust also plays an essential role on consumer‘s choice
for online purchase. Roca et.al. [7] reported that trust in online
businesses determines consumers‘ willingness to engage in
online business.
In another study [8], it was pointed out that security,
protection policy and as well as reliabilities of companies are
major barriers to online shopping. However, consumer‘s
behavior towards online shopping includes and not limited to [9];
concern over unauthorized sharing of personal information,
unsolicited contacts from the online retailer, and undisclosed
tracking of shopping behavior. Besides, system securityconsumers
who are concern about illegal bridging technological
protected devices to acquire consumer‘s personal, financial or
transaction-related information. Concern over online retailer
fraud cause by purposeful misrepresentation or non-delivery of
goods paid for are among the potential threat over online
purchase.
Security such as the use of digital signature and certificates
could be helpful in controlling risk of fraud for online-based
transactions [7]. Improved security system for online shopping
could reduce unworthy behavior of consumers‘ with increase
intention for online transaction [10].
Improved security in online shopping could tremendously
encourage consumers to engage in e-commerce deal as well as its
awareness and role among Libyan economic units. Consumers
feel relaxed to use online medium when their capital and
information are properly protected [11]. Disposing of the
customer‘s personal detail and credit card information during and
after online transaction should be avoided as it gives more room
for illegal use of customer‘s information. Trust in online
transaction could be enhanced through policies that incorporate
legal, technical, rigorous standards for security, data protection
and as well as certificates of independent trusted third parties
[10]. In addition, online sellers should encourage trustworthy
relationship in order to increase and attract consumers to online
transaction by ensuring that every transaction is kept within the
scope of agreement [12]. Owing to the need to facilitate ecommerce
transaction in Libya we hereby proposed that efficient
measures for effective implementation of e-commerce
transaction in Libya economic developments should integrate
web-based infrastructures so as to;
a. Reduce high costs associated with internet access, such as
pronounced in service connection charges, tariff on subscription
and hosting charges for websites with sufficient bandwidth.
b. Credit cards issuance should be regulated to monitor and
control fraud through predetermined security code and features.
c. Transportation infrastructure through which goods and
services are delivered should be enhanced through adapting good
maintenance and change of outdated facilities.
d. Transaction should be carried out only through secured
network besides; parties embarking on online transaction should
be acquainted on security-related issues to ensure reliability.
III. THE ISSUES OF SECURITY, PROECTION AND
TRUST RAISED IN LIBYA ONLINE SHOPPING
Last decade witnessed rapid accumulation of numerous studies
on technology-oriented e-commerce weakness. As innovative
approach of e-commerce spreads across various sectors, online
marketers could benefit from the opportunities attached to online
shopping by using taking into consideration the measure capable
of reducing crime-prone shopping.
E-commerce transaction in Libya is rapidly improving as
industries and individual business unit faces increasing
competition. Most companies in Libyan prefer online shopping
however; creating globally-base competitive marketing will
encourage the production of high value-added goods and
services. However, Hunaiti et al. [13] recognizes that ecommerce
in Libya are confronted with many challenges such as
banking system services, postal system suitability, internet safety
as well as customer‘s attitude towards the growth of e-commerce.
With reference to blog at Face book website pertaining to online
shopping in Libya, [14] many bloggers pointed out their thought
and views on online shopping in Libya. Here are the listed
bloggers‘ perceptions and most of them have pointed out that the
issues that may rise if online shopping is introduced in Libya.
The challenges of online shopping in Libya are;
Anonymous Blogger 1:
―There will be two main problems…the address and trust in the
buyer and ways of payment.‖
Anonymous Blogger 2:
―…Libya is still fresh new to this kind of business‖
Anonymous Blogger 3:
―I personally think that Libya need to start having post codes and
proper addresses because when you order something how are
you going to receive it? You can't always rely on express
couriers because they're expensive...”
Anonymous Blogger 4:
―I know online shopping in Libya isn't goanna be done and
processed the same way its done in the U.S. etc. I guess the idea
that I have is what Ahmed mentioned which is for people to go
online. See something they like then they come to the warehouse
and purchase it there. Not with a credit card. but just cash.”
Anonymous Blogger 5:
―Three things: Reliability (trust), payment methods, reachable
addresses. E-commerce is a huge project and is an activity that
needs to be coordinated by different entities including banks,
suppliers, couriers and also and more importantly a willing
buyer...”
Based on these 5 different opinions from 5 different bloggers;
frankly speaking from my opinion although e-commerce is not
something new in this 21st century, however, e-commerce in
Libya is at its early stage. Libyan consumers are ignorant about
online shopping due to doubtful factors towards online shopping
such as security, trust, privacy and when dealing with online
sellers and consumers in and outside Libyan. Trust as an
important factor affecting consumer behavior determines the
success of online shopping in Libyan. In the other hand, lack of
confidence and trust in online shopping are part of the
determinant factor to mass acceptance of e-commerce as an
efficient business transaction strategy in Libya. In addition,
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proper delivery address could raise concern among consumers
embarking on online shopping in Libya.
Libyan government and business organizations could lift the
limitations by effectively planning and implementing quality ecommerce
shopping strategy for consumers with accepted
required. E-commerce remains a potential strategy to boost
business transaction in Libya however, trust, security and
protection offered in online transaction in Libya should be
looked into.
IV. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE OF E-COMMERCE TO
LIBYAN ECONOMY
Internet provides wider access for effective business
transaction beside its inexpensive and reliability, transaction can
be carried out faster and efficiently [15]. Libyan‘s developing
economy could be effectively enhanced through integrating ecommerce
technology into business related sectors. As a vast
network of people and information, [16] the internet enables ecommerce
transaction in Libya by showcasing product and
services for sell to potential customers as well providing business
access and information to interested partners. Electronic data
interchanged to transact business among business parties in
online should be kept private.
Since the intranet allows instantaneous flow of goods and
services as well as internal information, vital information could
be processed simultaneously and matched with data flow from
external e-commerce transactions which could allow for efficient
and effective integration of organizational processes. Proper
implementation of e-commerce in Libya will facilitate small and
medium-sized enterprises to reach the global market since its
operation is base on open standard [17].
E-commerce implementation in Libya will facilitate mass
customization through ordering systems that allow customers to
make choice and order products with respect to their personal
and unique specifications. For instance, a car manufacturing
company with an e-commerce strategy allows for online order of
newly built cars within few days based on the customer‘s desired
specifications. However, the effectiveness of e-commerce
integration into company‘s manufacturing process and ordering
is profitable [17]. In addition, the integration of e-commerce
could lead to reduction in costs, strategic targeted marketing, and
the facilitation of selling add-on products, services, and new
systems when needed.
V. CONCLUSION
E-commerce is a revolutionary tool with the potential to
transform Libyan present business transaction. Integration of its
benefits to Libyan economy will facilitate business services
around the globe. The actual information of the security,
protection and trust among consumers in Libya need to be
investigated owing to consumers‘ perspective on the online
shopping.
The effect of security, protection and trust towards consumers
as well as attitudes plays a key role in e-commerce
implementation however, if well implemented, instantaneous
flow of goods and services internally and externally. Besides,
vital information could also be simultaneously processed to
matched with data flowing from external e-commerce
transactions which could allows for efficient and effective
integration into organizational processes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We appreciate the financial support from The Higher
Education, Seventh of October University, Bane waleed and Al
Mirqab University Libya.
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[1] Lee G-C., Lin H-F., ―Customer Perceptions of E-service Quality in Online
Shopping,‖ International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, vol.
33, no. 2, pp. 161-176, 2005.
[2] Harridge-March S., ―Electronic Marketing, the New Kid on the Block,‖
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[3] Yen C-H., Lu H-P., ―Factors Influencing Online Auction Repurchase
Intention,‖ Internet Research, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 7-25, 2008.
[4] Lim H., Dubinsky A.J., ―Consumers‘ Perceptions of E-shopping
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[5] Patton M.A., Josang A., ―Technologies for Trust in vol. 4, pp. 9-21, 2004.
[6] Udo G.J., ―Privacy and Security Concerns As Major Barriers for Ecommerce:
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[7] Roca J.C., Garcia JJ., de la Vega JJ., ―The Importance of Perceived Trust,
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[8] Chen Y-H., Barnes S., ―Initial Trust and Online buyer behavior,‖ Industrial
Management & Data Systems, vol. 107, no. 1, pp. 21-36, 2007.
[9] Roman S., Cuestas P.J., ―The Perceptions of Consumers Regarding Online
Retailers‟ Ethics and Their Relationship with Consumers‘General Internet
Expertise and Word of Mouth: A Preliminary Analysis,‖ Journal of
Business Ethics, vol. 83, pp. 641–656, 2008.
[10] Grabner-Kraeuter S., ―The Role of Consumers‟ Trust in Online-Shopping‖
Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 39, pp. 43-50, 2002.
[11] Salo J., Karjaluoto H., ―A Conceptual Model of Trust in the Online
Environment‖ Online Information Review, vol. 31, no.5, pp. 604-621, 2007.
[12] Mukherjee A., Nath P., ―Role of Electronic Trust in Online Retailing‖
European Journal of Marketing, vol. 41, no. 9/10, pp. 1173-1202, 2007.
[13] Hunaiti Z., Masa‘deh R.M.T., ―Electronic Commerce Adoption Barriers in
Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs) in Developing Countries: The
Case of Libya‖ Ibima Business Review, no. 2, pp. 37-43, 2009.
[14] Facebook, ―Online Shopping-Libya,”
http://www.facebook.com/topic.php?uid=10594232095&topic=5234, 2010.
[15] Mann, Catherine with Sue E. Eckert a Sarah Cleeland Knight. 2000. Global
Electronic Commerce: A Policy Primer. Washington DC: Institute for
International Economics.
[16] Rosen, Anita. 2000. The E-commerce Question and Answer Book: A
Survival Guide for Business Managers. American Management
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[17] Smith, Dayle. 2001. The E-business Book: A Step-by-Step Guide to Ecommerce
BIOGRAPHY
Abdulghader.A.Ahmed.Moftah:
He completed his undergraduate
degree in computer science at 7th
October University Bane wiled,
Libya in 2001. He is a master
candidate in computer science at
Faculty of Computer Science &
Information Technology.
University Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM),
Malaysia.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 194
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Hadya.S.Hawedi :
He received the degree in Computer Science
from Al Mirqab University Libya in 1998.
In 2007 He received the master degree of
Information Technology and Communications
From the Academy of Graduate Studies,
Tripoli/Libya.
He is a Ph.D candidate in IT Management at of
Computer and Mathematical Science ,Universiti
Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Malaysia .
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 195
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Potential Risk Comparison of Formaldehyde and
Acetaldehyde Exposures in Office and Gasoline Station
Workers
Tanasorn Tunsaringkarn*, Wattasit Siriwong *, Tassanee Prueksasit**
Saowanee Sematong *, Kalaya Zapuang*, Anusorn Rungsiyothin*
*College of Public Health Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand.
** Department of General Science, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330 Thailand
Abstract- Assessment of exposures of formaldehyde and
acetaldehyde that related to urinary biomarkers among office and
gasoline station workers was conducted. Our results revealed that
the evaluation of ambient air formaldehyde and acetaldehyde in
official were significantly higher than in gasoline stations; 28.72
to 11.31 µg m -3 and 7.85 to 3.34 µg m -3 respectively
(independence t-test, p

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D. Urinary Analyses
The urinary analyses of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and
formic acid were analyzed by GC/FID [13]. The determinations
of urinary creatinine (Cr) were performed by spectrophotometry
method [14]. All urinary analyses performed at a standard
laboratory (Special Laboratory, Bangkok, Thailand). All
measured values were corrected by urinary Cr concentrations for
clinical chemistry analysis.
E. Cancer and Non-cancer Risk Calculation
The cancer risk was calculated by multiplying chronic Daily
Intake (CDI) by inhalation cancer slope factor (CSFi) and Hazard
quotient (HQ) for non-cancer calculated by dividing exposure
concentration (EC) by inhalation reference concentration (RfC)
as followed equations:
Cancer risk = CDIxCSFi;
Where; CDI = (CAxIRxETxEFxED)/(BWxAT)
CDI (mg kg -1 day -1 ) = Chronic Daily Intake; CSFi (mg kg -1 day -
1 ) -1 = Inhalation cancer slope factor; CA (mg m -3 ) = Contaminant
concentration in air; IR (m 3 hr -1 ) = Inhalation rate (0.875 m 3 hr -1
assumed for adult); BW (kg) = Body weight (60.0 kg, average
body weight of workers); ET (hrs day -1 ) = Exposure time (8 hr
day -1 for workers); EF (days year -1 ) = Exposure frequency (350 d
yr -1 for gasoline workers and 269 d yr -1 for official workers); ED
(years) = Exposure duration (30 years for workers); AT (days) =
Averaging time (70 yrs x 365 days)
Cancer risk 1.00x10 -6 means Carcinogenic effects of concern;
Cancer risk 1.00x10 -6 means Acceptable level
For non-cancer risk assessment
HQ = EC/RfCx1000; where; EC = (CAxETxEFxED)/AT
EC (µg m -3 ) = Exposure concentration ; RfC (mgm 3 ) = Inhalation
reference concentration
HQ 1 means Adverse non-carcinogenic effects of concern; HQ
1 means Acceptable level
F. Statistical analyses
All statistical analyses were carried out with SPSS 17.0
statistical software package. Normal distribution was assessed by
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. The mean values of comparative
variables were computed by descriptive statistics. The
correlations between ambient air and urinary biomarkers were
computed by Spearman‘s rho correlation. A statistically
significant difference was accepted at a p-value of

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 197
ISSN 2250-3153
They also suggested that indoor sources are more important
contributors to the indoor levels than outdoor sources such as
infiltration of oxygenated gasoline and vehicle exhaust.
Moreover, formaldehyde levels can be higher in indoor air than
in outdoor air. Important determinants of indoor air levels
include the sources of the formaldehyde, the age of the source
materials, temperature, humidity, and ventilation rates [27].
The averages lifetime cancer risk of office workers exposed to
indoor air formaldehyde and acetaldehyde could be simply
translated as 2.5 cancerous cases per 100,000 and 1.3 cancerous
cases per 100,000 for the gasoline station workers over lifetime
70-year [28]. It was possible that other environmental exposures
during the remaining part of the day may aggravate both the
actual cancer and non-cancer risk. The risk estimates assumed
that the workers spend their life time (70 years) exposed to
various hazardous air pollutants in their working areas [29]. The
risk values estimated only inhalation dose with absolute
absorption into the body, which means that the cumulative risk
estimates for cancer and non cancer health effects may be under
estimated [30].
However, the HI for non-cancer risk, of formaldehyde and
acetaldehyde were bellowed the reference levels (HI < 1). Thus,
all workers did not have adverse health effects from
formaldehyde and acetaldehyde exposures.
Averages urinary formaldehyde and acetaldehyde
concentrations of office workers were higher than those found in
the gasoline workers but the urinary acetaldehyde showed
significant higher in office workers. In addition, urinary
formaldehyde was not correlated to ambient air formaldehyde but
urinary acetaldehyde was significantly correlated to ambient air
acetaldehyde while urinary acetaldehyde was significantly
correlated to ambient air formaldehyde and urinary
formaldehyde. However, formaldehyde can undergo rapid
chemical changes immediately after absorption and is much more
rapidly dialyzed by the kidneys and excreted through the urinary
bladder than by respiration [31] but it reacts rapidly with serum
protein and few protein in urine [32]. There were significantly
and strongly correlated between ambient air formaldehyde and
acetaldehyde as well as urinary formaldehyde was correlated to
urinary acetaldehyde. In addition, urinary acetaldehyde was
correlated to urinary formaldehyde. Thus, urinary formaldehyde
may be correlated to ambient air formaldehyde in higher
exposure concentration. Similar finding was done by Taranenko
and Efimova studied [33] urinary formaldehyde from the
pediatric population in the town of Shelekhov, of the Irkutsk
Region and found significant correlation to air concentration of
living rooms. Mautempo et al. [34] investigated the potential of
using the formic acid for the biological monitoring of aldehyde
exposure and report that the formaldehyde is metabolized in the
body to formic acid and may be excreted in the urine which
formic acid, which have a potential use as a biomarker of
formaldehyde exposure in work environments. However, the
amount of formaldehyde exposure had to be considered since if
the formaldehyde exposure was less than 500 µg m -3 it did not
significantly affect upon formic acid shift [35]. Our data
exhibited the same results that ambient air formaldehyde and
acetaldehyde levels in both groups investigated were not
correlated to urinary formic acid level. However, the urinary
formic acid in female gasoline workers was significantly higher
than male. These high formic excretion and acidosis might be
signaled the potential of inducing nephrotoxicity [36-37] so,
female gasoline worker may had higher potential of this effect.
V. CONCLUSION
We concluded that the office workers had higher risk of
formaldehyde and acetaldehyde exposures than gasoline workers.
The urinary aldehyde may be used as non-invasive biomarkers
for human exposures by inhalation.
Table 1: Characteristic and biological measurements in
formaldehyde and acetaldehyde exposed workers
Parameter Official
Workers
(N=33)
Gasoline
Workers
(N=41)
pvalue*
MeanSE MeanSE
Age (year) 35.81.5 32.31.8 NS
Male N(%) 16(48.5) 23(56.1) -
Female N(%) 17(51.5) 18(43.9) -
Ambient air
formaldehyde
(µg m -3 )
28.721.15 11.310.20

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 198
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Total Risk 2.51E-05 - 0.40
Gasoline station Workers
Formaldehyde 5.42E-04 1.14E-05 1.55 0.16
Acetaldehyde 1.60E-04 1.60E-06 0.46 0.05
Total Risk 1.30E-05 - 0.21
Table 3: Spearman‘s rho correlations between parameters
Parameter
Am. F Am. A U. F U. A U. FA
Am.F 1 0.907 0.097 0.424 -0.139
(p

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 199
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Environmental Assessment, Environment Protection Agency, Washington
DC, 1997, 20460.
[30] L. Mckenzie, R. Witter, J. Adgate, Human health risk assessment for
Battlement Mesa health impact assessment, University of Colorado Denver,
Colorado School of Public Health, Denver, Colorado, 2010. Available from
URL:
http://www.tcgasmap.org/media/Health%20Risk%20Assessment%20Garfie
ld%20Ritter%209-10.pdf. [Cited on 2011 June 1].
[31] P. Spanel, D. Smith, T.A. Holland, W.A. Singary, J.B. Elder, ―Analysis of
formaldehyde in the headspace of urine from bladder and prostate cancer
patients using selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry,‖ Rapid Commun.
Mass Spectrom. 1999, 13, 1354–1359.
[32] Z. Tong, J. Zhang, W. Luo, W. Wang, F. Li, H. Li, H. Luo, J. Lu, J. Zhou,
Y. Wan, R. He, ―Urine formaldehyde level is inversely correlated to mini
mental state examination scores in senile dementia,‖ Neurobiol. of Aging.
2011, 32(1), 31-41.
[33] N. A. Taranenko, N. V. Efimova,. ―Biomonitoring of formaldehyde in the
urinary samples from the pediatric population in the Irkutsk Region,‖ Gig.
Sanit. 2009, 4 ,73-75.
[34] C. Mautempo, M. D. L. Bastos, F. Carvalho, F. Remião, H. Carmo, P.
Guedes-De-Pinho, ―Determination of formic acid in urine of workers
occupationally exposed to formaldehyde,‖ Toxicol. Lett. 2010,
196(Supplement 1), 74.
[35] L. M. Gottschling, H. J. Beaulieu, W. W. Melvin, ―Monitoring of formic
acid in urine of humans exposed to low levels of formaldehyde,‖ Am. Ind.
Hyg. Assoc. J. 1984, 45, 19–23.
[36] T. Green, J. Dow, J. Foster, ―Increased formic acid excretion and the
development of kidney toxicity in rats following chronic dosing with
trichloroethanol, a major metabolite of trichloroethylene,‖ Toxicology.
2003, 191(2-3), 109-119.
[37] G. Triebig, K.H. Schaller, ―A simple and reliable enzymatic assay for the
determination of formic acid in urine,‖ Clinica. Chimica. Acta. 1980, 108
(3), 355-360.
AUTHORS
First Author – Tanasorn Tunsaringkarn (M.Sc, Biochemistry):
Corresponding author, she worked as researcher, assistant dean
and an executive board member at College of Public Health
Sciences (CPHS), Chulalongkorn University. She is a member
of the Asia Pacific Academic Consortium of Public Health
(APACPH). Her research interests include environmental health
and toxicology. Her research interests include environmental
health and toxicology. She has more than 50 papers in scientific
journals as well as presentations in seminar and conference
proceedings. College of Public Health Sciences, Chulalongkorn
University, Institute Building 2-3, Soi Chulalongkorn 62
Phyathai Rd., Bangkok 10330, Thailand.
E-mail: tkalayan@chula.ac.th
Second Author – Wattasit Siriwong (Ph.D., Environmental
Management): He is a faculty member, Assistant Dean, and an
executive board member of the College of Public Health
Sciences (CPHS), Chulalongkorn University. He is an active
researcher in the field of environmental health and also a member
of the editorial board of International Journal of Occupational
and Environmental Health and Journal of Health Research.
College of Public Health Sciences, Chulalongkorn University,
Institute Building 2-3, Soi Chulalongkorn 62 Phyathai Rd.,
Bangkok 10330, Thailand.
E-mail: Wattasit.S@chula.ac.th
Third Author - Tassanee Prueksasit (Ph.D., Urban Engineering;
Environmental Engineering): She is a lecturer and her research
interests are the air pollution of some organic compounds
including VOCs (BTEX, carbonyl compounds) and polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and of particulate matters, and
health risk assessment of the exposure to such air pollutants.
Department of General Science, Faculty of Science,
Chulalongkorn University, Phyathai Rd., Bangkok 10330,
Thailand
E-mail: Tassanee.C@chula.ac.th
Fourth Author - Saowanee Sematong (M.Sc., Ecology): She
worked as researcher for College of Public Health Science,
Chulalongkorn University. Her research interests include
breastfeeding, environmental impact assessment and toxicology.
College of Public Health Sciences, Chulalongkorn University
Institute Building 2-3, Soi Chulalongkorn 62 Phyathai Rd.,
Bangkok 10330, Thailand
E-mail: Saowanee.Se@chula.ac.th
Fifth Author - Kalaya Zapuang (B.Ed): She is a research-staff at
College of Public Health Sciences (CPHS), Chulalongkorn
University. College of Public Health Sciences, Chulalongkorn
University Institute Building 2-3, Soi Chulalongkorn 62 Phyathai
Rd., Bangkok 10330 Thailand
E-mail: Zkalaya@chula.ac.th
Sixth Author - Anusorn Rungsiyothin (B.Ed): He is a researchstaff
in laboratory of College of Public Health Sciences (CPHS),
Chulalongkorn University. College of Public Health Sciences,
Chulalongkorn University Institute Building2-3, Soi Chulalon
gkorn 62 Phyathai Rd., Bangkok 10330 Thailand
E-mail:ranusorn@chula.ac.th
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 200
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An Approach to Increase Customer Retention and
Loyalty in B2C World
Abstract- Customers are always been important for the
business. With the high rate of competition in every market, it is
critical to retain the customer/ loyal customers. The purpose of
the paper is to highlight how short term actions with bit
compromise with the profit will turn into long term customer
loyalty and hence long term benefit. In this paper we will be
focusing on understanding the customer retention and customer
loyalty, their importance to the business. After analyzing the
importance of benefits, we will understand the approach of how
to increase customer retention and customer loyalty towards your
business. Though there will be many strategies for each of them,
we will also understand what considerations should be done
while deciding the best strategy for the business as different
business has different scope and also their limitations too.
Index Terms- Business-To-Customers (B2C), Return On
Investment (ROI), Gift Certificate (GC), Equated Monthly
Installment (EMI)
I. INTRODUCTION
With the increase in the options the customer have today, be it in
online or at store, it has become a cumbersome job to get the
customers back to you. Today, the use of loyalty programs as a
technique for companies to enlarge customer loyalty is extremely
popular as it is believed that both consumers and companies can
reap benefits from it. [4] For many products, there has been the
tendency to shift from mass marketing of a homogenous product
to anonymous buyers towards customization of product to meet
the needs of known individuals whose needs have become
observable through some form of dialogue based relationship.[5]
Customers also appear to prefer certain styles of marketing from
suppliers. When customers enter into a relationship with a firm,
they are often eager to forego other options and to limit their
choice. Some of the motivations to do so result from greater
efficiency in decision making, reduction in information
processing, achievement of greater cognitive consistency in
decisions, and reduction of perceived risks associated with future
decisions. Customer loyalty is being seen as important to the
success of any retail organization, because it is known that
drawing new customers is more expensive than keeping existing
one. [6]
In this paper, we will discuss the strategies to increase the
customer retention/loyalty which helps the business to make
profit. We will first understand the importance of how they are
important to the business, what could be the benefit while have
the same customers to their business and then how to get them
repeatedly.
Roopa Singh, Imran Akhtar Khan
Department of Computer Engg & IT, Shri JJT University, Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan, India
II. WHAT IS CUSTOMER RETENTION/ LOYALTY?
Customer loyalty can be loosely defined as the predisposition
of any given customer to purchase your goods or services over
comparable ones available in the marketplace. [1] Many
companies have customer retention programs, incentives to
motivate customers to remain customers. Think of supermarkets
that recognize your patronage by giving you a percentage
discount on your next purchase. [7]
Customer Retention is the activity that a selling organization
undertakes in order to reduce customer defections. Successful
customer retention starts with the first contact an organization
has with a customer and continues throughout the entire lifetime
of a relationship. A company‘s ability to attract and retain new
customers, is not only related to its product or services, but
strongly related to the way it services its existing customers and
the reputation it creates within and across the marketplace. [8]
III. WHY CUSTOMER RETENTION AND LOYALTY IS
IMPORTANT?
On average, online retailers lose 25% of their customers every
year. It has been published that a small increase in customer
retention can increase profits by more than 25%. The calculation
to prove this is actually very simple. Suppose that 100,000
customers buy from you every year and you expect 20% to never
buy from you again. If it costs you say $100 to acquire a new
customer, then replacing the lost customers is costing you $2
million dollars. In this scenario, for every percentage point that
you decrease, you save $100,000. [2]
Customer “satisfaction” isn’t enough anymore. Less than
half of your satisfied customers will come back. You need to
cross the bridge from customer satisfaction over to customer
loyalty.[10] Customer retention is perhaps the most important
influencer of profit growth, and a key motivator for executives to
buy from you. It's so important because it costs so much to
influence customers to buy and so little to induce a repurchase.
[13]
Customer retention in turn earns the business a good reputation
and goodwill in the open market. It also generates a healthy
competition with the opponents. The record of retention of the
customer is the best proof regarding the quality of the products
and the services provided to them. It also paves the way for more
research and development to happen in their products and
services. The business also hears the voice of its existing and
potential customers and adopts a methodology to offer the best
customer satisfaction products and services in the open market. If
a business is able to add new clientele and retain customers then
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 201
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it is a good sign for the overall business and those associated
with it. [13]
It has been said and written many times – it‘s important to keep
loyal customers happy and make them at least feel pampered as
they repeat purchase, spend more and refer to your business,
products and services to their peers [14]
Figure 1: Why Customer Loyalty is Important?
IV. WHAT IS THE BENEFIT?
Customer Retention and Loyalty programs have very deep
impact on the business which leads to a huge profit over a period
of time. Fifty per cent consumer brands are taking their loyalty
programs more seriously, said Florian Wolfframm, Head of
Marketing and Rewards, PAYBACK India, while presenting the
opening inaugural session of India‘s largest Loyalty summit. [18]
A. Benefits of Customer Retention
The benefits are innumerous but some of them are discussed
below
i. Customer Acquisition cost is negligible: We all know that
hiring new customers require time. We need to itch out a
strategy then create an acquisition plan, implement it, and
wait for the data to flow in, so that we can analyze what is
working and what is not. Meanwhile, it is also our job to
keep an eye on the number of customers that come as an
effect of new strategy. This will give us a lot of free time to
create value by doing what we know best, and from what
customers come to us.
The cost of getting new customer is 5-12 times greater than
the cost of retaining the old customer
ii. Business knows who the existing customers are: Not just
acquisition takes time, but building a relationship also takes
time. After we have successfully wooed new customers, we
need to spend time and energy on building a relationship
with the new customers. We need time to understand their
desires, aspirations, expectations, spending pattern, and their
price sensitivity. And while we do that, the profit from new
customers remain on the lower side
iii. Helps to serve better: You are not in the business to have
fun in hiring and firing your customers. We are here to make
some money and that too without much effort — well, there
are may be some people who love hiring and firing game
iv. More profit: it takes time, energy, man power, and money
to acquire a new customer, and all this add on to the cost,
which means diminished profit. It is only after the customers
are with us for some time that we recover the cost incurred
during the acquisition process. With existing customers, we
already have recovered the cost, so they are already
profitable. This cannot be said about the new customers, as
they are yet to prove their worth. And at the onset, we even
do not know if they will stay with us or not. So why take
chances? With existing customers, we already have
recovered the cost, so they are already profitable. This
cannot be said about the new customers, as they are yet to
prove their worth. And at the onset, we even do not know if
they will stay with us or not. So why take chances?
The ROI is up to 10 times higher for investments in
customer retention than for acquisition of new customers
B. Benefits of Customer Loyalty
While expanding your business' customer base is a crucial
undertaking which you must work towards with clearly
defined goals, the importance of retaining existing customers
mustn't be overlooked. Working toward promoting customer
loyalty (or brand loyalty) is critical to your goal for many
reasons. [1] Some of the benefits obtained are:
i. Increasing loyalty and customer retention by just 5% can
increase profits by 75% [17]
Figure 2: Retention Profit
ii. Most dissatisfied customers will eventually tell nine other
people about their problem [17]
iii. Only 4% of dissatisfied customers actually complain to the
company [17]
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iv. Satisfied customers, on the other hand, tell 5-6 other
people about their positive experience [17]
v. Repeat business: Loyal customers will offer you more
business as these are the customers who tend to have
approach and buy from you more than the new customers.
In a year, you will end up in selling more to loyal
customers as compared to the new customers coming in.
vi. More Quantity: As you have built good and reliable
relationship with the customers, it will lead to the selling
of more number of goods. This comes naturally as they
rely on you and your products more than anybody else. In
any case, higher volumes means, greater sales resulting
into higher profits
vii. Cross Selling Opportunities: Customers who are loyal
have faith in the quality and varieties you sell for the
products. This creates a great opportunity to fulfill more of
your customers' needs than the traditional ones you
currently meet. What does this mean? You can make sales
to loyal customers across product lines and thus increase
your overall sales volume without needing to focus so
much on attracting new customers
viii. Less Competition: The more loyal customers you have in
your business, the safer you are with the competition
world around. [1] It works as immunity toward the
competitive forces around you.
V. CUSTOMER RETENTION ANALYSIS
Customer Retention analysis helps us to answer the below
queries
i. What is my loyalty/retention rate?
ii. What brands and product types did our customers defect to
most often?
iii. Why did they choose a competitor brand instead of ours?
iv. Of those that repurchased us, what motivated them to stick
with our brand?
v. And, if you choose to include competitor brand owners in
the analysis, you can also determine how your retention rate
stacks up to the competition and why some competitor
owners switch to your brand
Customer Retention is calculated from the Churn Rate. Churn
rate, when applied to a customer base, refers to the proportion of
contractual customers or subscribers who leave a supplier during
a given time period. It is a possible indicator of customer
dissatisfaction, cheaper and/or better offers from the competition,
more successful sales and/or marketing by the competition, or
reasons having to do with the customer life cycle. The churn rate
can be minimized by creating barriers which discourage
customers to change suppliers (contractual binding periods, use
of proprietary technology, unique business models, etc.), or
through retention activities such as loyalty programs. It is
possible to overstate the churn rate, as when a consumer drops
the service but then restarts it within the same year. Thus, a clear
distinction needs to be made between 'gross churn', the total
number of absolute disconnections, and 'net churn', the overall
loss of subscribers or members. The difference between the two
measures is the number of new subscribers or members that have
joined during the same period. [21]
Retention Rate = 1 – (Churn Rate)
VI. STRATEGY FOR CUSTOMER RETENTION AND LOYALTY
With the innumerous benefits we have discussed with the
Customer Retention and loyalty, it is important to know what
should be the strategy in order to achieve them. It is a very
cumbersome and important to understand the impact and
implement them in our business
A. Strategy for Customer Retention
Though business implements some strategy to get the benefit
out of the repeated customers, we need to understand the various
strategies which they implement. Let us discuss some of the
important ones below
i. Proper Email Communication/Marketing: Avoid sending
the emails to the huge list of customers with a high
frequency. When the customer gets many mails which are
not of their interest, then this leads to disengagement of
customers rather than retention. Try to differentiate the
customers with proper demographics and purchase
information, and send the right mails with personalized
information to the right customers.
ii. Understand the value of lifetime: You should know how
much business and profit you are going to gain with a
customer over the lifetime. Once the analysis for a customer
is done, it is easy to understand the importance of the
customer retention in the business. Share of wallet combined
with lifetime value help us to understand which customer
has more potential for growth which allows to focus on the
customers that is critical to the business
iii. Analyze and sell: Retailers perform the research to find the
frequency of customer visit and purchase of good. They
focus on converting the site into the sale. You should know
which products sell well together and which ones is an
obvious after sale. You should also know how long it takes
the customers to purchase again so you can strike when the
customer is thinking of another purchase. [2] So, what you
need to do is- sell and then analyze.
iv. Customer Feedback and Solicit Complaints Regularly:
There are a lot issues faced by the customers when they
make a purchase of goods/services. But they feel hurt when
there is nobody to help or resolve their issues – customer
care representative did not answer your query, queue is long
and unmanageable, no helper to describe the product. It
takes less time to hear the customer‘s problem and resolve.
When you do so immediately, customer feel they are being
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heard and valued. This may lead to forget the bad feedback
he had and make him happier.
v. Give Surprises To Customers: Loyalty programs will keep
on adding the points when they make any purchase. There
are several retailers who gift their customer when a threshold
spent amount is reached. Consider that you are booking your
flights with yatra.com by being registered user. Once you
have reached to a reward point of 500, you will get the free
Reebok wrist watch free. This would be a surprise for the
customers as they were unaware of this.
B. Strategy for Customer Loyalty
Understanding the strategies for the customer loyalty is very
important to the business as this provides them a huge profit over
a period of time. The more better strategy, the more loyal
customers and hence more benefit from them. Below we will
discuss the different strategies:
i. PAYBACK: PAYBACK is India‘s first and one of Europe‘s
largest multi-partner loyalty programs. PAYBACK has 30
partners in the network, namely ICICI bank, HPCL, BIG
Bazaar, Make my trip, Megamart, UniverCell, Hometown,
Food bazaar, Ezone, Central, Brand factory, book my
show.com, Letsbuy.com. The largest partner portfolio and
widest range of redemption points in India assure that
members can not only collect points for everyday shopping
quickly from many outlets using just one card but also easily
convert them into attractive rewards. Companies benefit
from PAYBACK‘s state-of-the art direct marketing and
couponing services. [18]
ii. Discount over time/volume of goods: The seller offers a
low price of goods or services in return of the buyer
purchasing the good at an extended period of time. Say, if
you buy laptop from Croma and pay some amount then you
may get extended warranty on your laptop. Also, there are
offers from the retailer/seller that they provide the buyers
with some percentage of the amount paid if you buy the
premium for a period of time. This attracts many buyers and
also makes the customer dedicated to the buyer for over the
period of time.
iii. Bundle goods: The seller sells ancillary goods or services
with the main item at no extra cost. Personal computer
manufacturers such as HP or Sony bundle printers, monitors
and even 24-hrs service at the price of computer. But the
seller needs to make sure that they do not compromise with
the overall benefit with the bundles they create and sell
iv. EMI option: With the price hikes over a period of time, it
has become difficult for the middle class buyers to afford
expensive products/services. In this case, EMI option is a
boon to the sellers and the buyers. Buyers are attracted to the
retailers which provide this facility which provide a term
relationship and confidence with the sellers.
v. Prepurchase/Buy Forward: The seller offers a discounted
price to a buyer who pays in advance for an amount of goods
or services to be delivered at some future date or over a
certain time period, with the discount rate being greater than
the interest rate paid on money placed in a low-risk
investment. The benefit of this technique to the seller is that
it locks in the buyer‘s business over a certain period. The
benefit to the buyer is that it eliminates any price increases
during the contracted period.[19]
vi. Membership/Loyalty Program: Loyalty programs or
memberships are structured marketing efforts that reward,
and therefore encourage, loyal buying behavior - behavior
which is potentially beneficial to the firm. In marketing
generally and in retailing more specifically, a loyalty card,
rewards card, points card, advantage card, or club card is a
plastic or paper card, visually similar to a credit card or debit
card, that identifies the card holder as a member in a loyalty
program [20] Consider that a retailer sponsors a membership
card which will add on the points to the purchases you do.
Also the members of the loyalty program will get the special
benefit (20% additional off on the current sales value). This
will help the customers coming back to the retailer/seller
repeatedly
vii. Frequent Buyer Program: With the increase in
competition in the retail world, retailers offer the rebate/low
or free cost/service to the customers if the number of
purchases or the total purchase amount reaches the limit.
This creates the tendency in the customers to make those
counts of purchases or the total purchase value in order to
get the offer. It increases the sale of product leading to
customer loyalty over that period of time
viii. Issue Gift Card/Certificates: Retailers have introduced the
concept of Gift vouchers (with some amount and validity) of
their company known as Gift Certificates/cards (GC). With
the variety of choices and different tastes of everybody, it is
difficult to gift our dear ones with the things that they would
love. So GC demand has increased a lot. With the GCs, it
binds the buyer to go to the retailer who has issued the GCs
and spend the amount. With the available amount of GC,
customer will end up in buying the goods more than the cost
and hence increase in selling of goods. If one likes the
concept and the availability of goods, then customers
become regular one. Also, issue some amount of gift
certificate to the customer when the transaction amount
reaches the offer limit (say make a purchase of Rs.2500, get
the gift certificate of Rs200)
ix. Return Policy for Privileged/Loyal Customer: The
retailer/seller offers the extended return policy to the
member of their shop (i.e. Loyal Customers). Consider that
if you are member, you can return the goods within 45 days
rather than 15 days for the regular customers who are not
member. This provides confidence to the customers as return
is always a major concern of many.
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VII. HOW TO CHOOSE BEST LOYALTY PROGRAM?
As we have discussed innumerous Loyalty Programs, it is
important to understand which will suit your business. In order to
come to a conclusion, it is good to consider the below
i. Choose a web-based (cloud) solution that does not require
local software
ii. Choose a program that separates your business from the
crowd and allows customized rewards
iii. Keep it simple and focus on your business operations, not
your loyalty program
iv. Make sure you have the ability to quantify the use of your
loyalty program
v. Choose a loyalty program that gives you the ability to easily
change rewards at any time
vi. Choose a loyalty program that can also be used for direct
email, mail, or social media marketing
vii. A loyalty program that allows your business to provide
nonprofits a fundraising program using your merchandise,
food, or services is a bonus [16]
VIII. CONCLUSION
With the understanding of the behavior of the customers and
satisfying them provides the benefit to the business in the long
term. Establishing good relationship with them by providing
better services will create customer loyalty and hence more visits
over time. This will bring more profit to the business in longterm
and will reduce the competition.
We have identified the strategies which attract the customers to
the retailer and also understood the considerations to be done
while implementing them. With this, it will help the business to
gain customer retention and loyalty towards their business if they
implement them diligently. And also, we have scope to
understand when the business has to re-visit their strategies so
that they do not lag behind in this competitive world.
REFERENCES
[1] http://ezinearticles.com/?Why-is-Customer-Loyalty-Important-to-Your-
Business?&id=2170553
[2] http://www.imarkinteractive.com/general/tips-tricks/5-things-onlineretailers-can-do-to-improve-customer-retention/
[3] http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/customer-loyalty-importantto-increase-retail-sales-emphasises-payback/463630/
[4] Wulf K. D. Schroder G. O. Cannier M. H. and Oppen C. V. (2003) ‗What
Drives Consumer Participation to Loyalty Programs? A Conjoint
Analytical Approach‟, Journal of Relationship Marketing Vol.2 (1/2)
[5] Palmer A. Bejou D. (2005) ‗The Future of Relationship Marketing‟, Journal
of Relationship Marketing Vol.4 No. ¾
[6] Sullivan, Malcolm and Adcock, Dennis. Retail Marketing. 1. Edition.
Padstow: Thomson, 2002
[7] http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-505125_162-31544189/dont-confusecustomer-retention-with-customer-loyalty/
[8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer_retention
[9] http://www.customerloyalty.org/
[10] http://www.returnonhappiness.com/
[11] http://www.va4business.com/business/472/why-customer-retention-ismore-important-than-customer-acquisition/
[12] http://helpthembuy.com/articles/customer_retention.php
[13] http://www.softsolutionsindia.net/softsolutionsindia.net/blog/default.aspx?i
d=80&t=Why-Customer-Retention-is-so-important-f
[14] http://www.business2community.com/loyalty-marketing/customer-loyaltyand-why-its-important-infographic-0131553
[15] http://www.viralblog.com/social-media/why-is-customer-loyalty-important/
[16] http://customerloyaltyprograms101.blogspot.in/
[17] http://www.cvent.com/en/resources/customer-retention.shtml
[18] http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/customer-loyalty-importantto-increase-retail-sales-emphasises-payback/463630/
[19] Gitomer, Jeffrey. Customer Satisfaction is Worthless, Customer Loyalty is
Priceless: How to Make Them Love You, Keep You Coming Back, and Tell
Everyone They Know. Austin, TX: Bard Press, 1998.
[20] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loyalty_program
[21] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churn_rate
AUTHOR
First Author: Roopa Singh, MCA, Research Scholar in Shri JJT
University, Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan, India.
Email: roopas1983@gmail.com
Second Author: Imran Akhtar Khan, MCA, Research Scholar in
Shri JJT University, Jhunjhunu, Rajasthan, India.
Email: imran4bc@gmail.com
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 205
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DIEL Variations of Physico-Chemical Factors and
Planktonpopulation in a Swamp Of Harda, Purnia, Bihar
(India)
R.SIDDHARTHA, RANJANA KUMARI, K.D.TANTI* AND B.N.PANDEY
P. G. DEPTT. OF ZOOLOGY, PURNIA COLLEGE PURNIA (854301) INDIA
*DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,
M.L.ARYA COLLEGE, KASBA, PURNIA (854301) INDIA
E mail- b.n.pandey@hotmail.com
Abstract- Diel variations of physic- chemical factors and
plankton population were investigated in the swamps of Purnia
district, Bihar on a seasonal basis, Air and water temperature,
pH, DO2 and bicarbonate alkalinity were found to increase
during day time which decreased during night hours. The amount
of free CO2 was also observed higher during the night period.
Water temperature showed a positive correlation with air
temperature, pH, DO2 bicarbonate alkalinity and a negative one
with free CO2 in most cases. Phytoplankton also showed
increased number during day time. Not a very clear-cut pattern of
diel variation was observed and this fluctuation was mostly due
to photosynthetic activity of producers, respiratory activity of
biota and fluctuation in water temperature. A complex interaction
of various environmental factors e g., seasons, climate, nutrients,
pollution, light hours etc. also play an important role to decide
the fate of diel variation of abiotic factors and biotic population.
Index Terms- Diel variations, Swamps, Physico-chemical
factors, plankton population, Purnia
C
I. INTRODUCTION
onsiderable investigations have been made on the diel
variation in physico-chemical of various freshwater
ecosystems, i.e., lakes, ponds, streams, reservoirs and rivers
(Ganpati, 1955; George, 1961, Michael, 1970; Verma, 1967;
Nasar and Datta Munshi; 1975; Saha and Bose, 1986; Saha and
Pandit, 1986 b; Choudhary, et al., (1991). Saha (1981) even
worked out the diel cycle of abiotic factors of the thermal stream
of Bhimbandh, Munger. No such work has so far been done on
any swamps in Purnia district (Bihar)).The present work was
undertaken to study the diurnal changes of some abiotic factors
and their relations with plankton population.
II. TERRAIN
The study site is located at a distance of 7 km. from Purnia
district headquarters in the southward direction by NH 31 near
Harda, a local halt. It is situated on 25º41‘ North Latitude and
87º28‘ East longitude and at an altitude of 35 m. above sea level.
It is a wide water body spread on either side of Saura river
III. MATERIALS AND METHODS
For the study of diel variations, the spot was selected keeping
in mind its accessible position at night. For the investigation of
fluctuation in physico-chemical parameters and plankton
population, water samples were collected at 4 hour internal for a
period of 24 hours and most of the analyses were made on the
spot. Investigations were made on different dates to observe the
results in different seasons i.e., on 20th March (Spring), 15th
June (Summer), 21st September (Monsoon) and 18th December
(Winter) during 2006. pH Temperature was measured by
mercury –filled Celsius thermometer while p recovered with the
help of a portable pH meter. Other chemical parameters e.g.,
dissolved oxygen (DO2), free CO2, bicarbonate (HCO3‾)
alkalinity and chloride were analysed at the spot adopting the
standard methods (APHA, 1989, Trivedy and Goel,1984). Each
sample of plankton was collected by filtering of water from
different places, through a plankton net (made of bolting silk no.
21 having 77 meshes/cm2). The concentrated planktons were
then preserved in 4% formalin for subsequent qualitative and
quantitative determination (Lackey, 1938; Ward and Whipple,
1959; Desikachary, 1959; Fritsch, 1959). Counts were expressed
in organisms per litre. Correlation coefficient among the physicochemical
parameters and biological parameters were statistically
calculated and analysed whether they follow any diel seasonal
variations or not.
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The diel cycle of abiotic factors and plankton population in
different seasons has been presented in Table-1. The atmospheric
temperature varied between 10.5ºC and 37.4ºC, maximum in
summer and minimum in winter. Generally air temperature was
observed lower in the morning hour and higher in noon periods.
Temperature of water varied between 15.2ºC and 31.0ºC and
observed to follow the same diel fluctuation pattern in all
seasons. Similar results were observed by Michael (1970) and
Datta et al. (1983). A significant positive correlation between the
water temperature and atmospheric temperature was observed
(Table-2) in almost all seasons while during winter, it was found
insignificant. The lowest range of atmospheric temperature
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probably could not invade and affect the temperature provided by
the bottom.
Water temperature showed a direct relationship with
DO2 and inverse relationship with free CO2 in spring and
monsoon seasons. The increase in temperature increases DO2 by
enhancing photosynthesis rate of phytoplanktons and
macrophytes during day time. On the other hand, free CO2 in
water decreased during day time and increased during night
hours, as CO2 was utilized in the light periods while the amount
of free CO2 increased in dark period due to biotic respiration and
ceasing of photosynthesis. The number of phytoplanktons was
also observed higher during day hours in almost all seasons.
Similar observations were found by Itazawa(1957), Srivastava
and Desai(1980), Saha (1981), Bhattacharya et al., (1988),
Pandey et al., (1989), and Choudhary et al.,(1991).
Inverse result was found in summer season during
which water temperature showed a negative correction with
dissolved oxygen and positive correction with free CO2. The high
water temperature during summer season accelerated the
decomposition of submerged vegetation causing increased value
of free CO2 and decreased amount of dissolved O2. Pandey et al,
(1989) also observed the hypoxic and hypercarbion condition of
water due to decomposition of accumulated organic matters in
the bottom sediments of the ponds. During the monsoon season,
the amount of DO2 in the day hours was not found well due to
the clouded weather decreasing the photosynthesis activity of the
aquatic flora.
Almost a significant negative correlationship was
observed between DO2 and free CO2. Such inverse relationship is
typical of a pond which is photo synthetically controlled
(Goldman and Horne, 1983). The diel variations of free CO2 was
noted between 9.2 mgl‾ 1 (16 hr of winter) and 40.4 mgl‾ 1 (16 hr.
of summer) while the value of HCO3‾ was recorded maximum
(148 mgl‾ 1 ) during 16 hr of spring and minimum (96 mgl‾ 1 )
during 16 hr of summer. A positive and mostly significant
correlation between HCO3‾ and pH was observed during almost
all seasons while a negative correlation existed between free CO2
and pH. Automatically free CO2 and HCO3 - were inversely
correlated. The pH value was observed below 7 in summer while
it was found almost above 7 in other seasons particularly during
day hours. The low value of pH was due to high amount of free
CO2 in water resulted from the decomposition of submerged
vegetation. The graded decrease in pH value was observed from
day to night hour (clearly) observed in spring and winter seasons)
Such nocturnal decrease in pH was probably due to high level of
free CO2, accumulated as a result of community respiration and
absence of photosynthesis at night. According to Zafar (1966) the
pH of water is controlled by the relative quantity of bicarbonate
and CO2. Higher value of HCO3‾ and lower value of free CO2
cause the higher value of pH. The changes in pH during day and
night may be due to the conversion of carbon dioxide into
carbonate and vice versa (Srivastava and Desai, 1980). The
buffer system of most natural water involves the reversible
transformation of carbon dioxide to bicarbonate to carbonate.
Carbon dioxide recorded was in half bound state (HCO3‾) and
free- state (CO2). As free CO2 and CO3 (Carbonate) cannot
coexist, since they would neutralize each other to form
bicarbonate (HCO3‾). The surplus CO2 was channelized into
alkalinity system and retained in the form of HCO3‾ (Verma,
1981).
Thus it may be concluded that some physico-chemical
factors of the swamps water, under investigation, such as
temperature, pH, DO2, free CO2, bicarbonate alkalinity exhibit
diel pattern of fluctuation to some extent which are controlled by
complex interaction of various environmental factors operating
in the system e.g., light hour, photosynthetic activity, community
respiration of biota, seasons, climate, and nutrients present in
water. All these physico-chemical factors also control each other
and all these factors in turn influence the diel pattern of plankton.
Table1 -Diel variations of some physico-chemical parameters and plankton population in swamps of Purnia
Spring
Summer
Some interval
Parameters
4.00 8.00 12.00 16.00 20.00 24.00
Atm.temp.(ºC) 19.5 22.2 26.0 29.2 24.0 22.5
Wat.temp.(ºC) 18.0 19.3 22.2 25.5 22.1 21.0
pH 7.3 7.2 7.4 7.4 7.1 7.1
DO2(mgl‾ 1 ) 7.0 7. 8.0 8.2 6.9 6.8
Free CO2(mgl‾ 1 ) 18.4 20.4 15.2 16.6 22.4 20.4
HCO3‾(mgl‾ 1 ) 135 125 140 148 130 130
Cl‾(mgl‾ 1 ) 20 19 22 22 20 22
Phytoplank.(no/l) 11076 10030 11275 12817 7192 8225
Zooplank.(no/l) 483 1025 795 924 371 324
Atm.temp.(ºC) 26 28.2 36.6 37.4 31.5 30.0
Wat.temp.(ºC) 24.6 26.0 30.2 31.0 28.1 26.5
pH 6.8 6.7 6.2 6.0 6.4 6.8
DO2(mgl‾ 1 ) 5.8 6.0 5.6 5.8 6.0 5.8
Free CO2(mgl‾ 1 ) 28.2 30.6 38.2 40.4 32.2 26.0
HCO3‾(mgl‾ 1 ) 122 110 102 96 115 120
Cl‾(mgl‾ 1 ) 18 20 24 26 20 18
Phytoplank(no/l) 6694 10112 8126 9845 7112 8814
Zooplank(no/l) 70 62 96 106 92 68
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Monsoon
Winter
Atm.temp.(ºC) 24.7 26.2 34.5 32.4 28.0 26.2
Wat.temp.(ºC) 18.5 20.6 27.2 26.0 20.8 20.0
pH 7.2 7.1 7.0 7.0 7.2 7.3
DO2(mgl‾ 1 ) 5.4 6.0 5.8 6.0 5.6 5.8
Free CO2(mgl‾ 1 ) 28.2 20.6 18.4 20.2 22.2 26.0
HCO3‾(mgl‾ 1 ) 144 140 130 135 140 142
Cl‾(mgl‾ 1 ) 22 24 26 28 20 20
Phytoplank(no/l) 2815 3008 3440 3612 3140 3208
Zooplank(no/l) 322 255 338 294 235 208
Atm.temp.(ºC) 11.5 12.2 15.6 14.4 13.5 10.0
Wat.temp.(ºC) 17.2 15.6 18.0 16.0 15.2 16.5
pH 6.9 7.0 7.3 7.4 7.0 6.9
DO2(mgl‾ 1 ) 6.0 6.5 7.8 8.0 6.8 6.7
Free CO2(mgl‾ 1 ) 16.2 12.8 10.2 9.2 12.0 14.4
HCO3‾(mgl‾ 1 ) 128 130 140 144 138 130
Cl‾(mgl‾ 1 ) 16 18 20 20 18 17
Phytoplank(no/l) 12018 16522 14872 15522 12216 10143
Zooplank(no/l) 33 45 61 50 36 45
Table2 - Coefficient of Correlation (r) computed among various physico-chemical factors during their diel cycle in different seasons,
of the swamps of Purnia
AT = Atmospheric temperature
WT = Water temperature
Relationship Spring Summer Monsoon Winter
r Prob. R Prob r Prob. r Prob.
Water temp.vs. pH 0.342 Ins. -0.96 P>0.001 -0.538 Ins. 0.025 Ins.
DO2 0.759 P0.05 -0.822 P

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 208
ISSN 2250-3153
[16] Srivastava, N.P. and Desai, V.R. (1980) Seasonal and diurnal variation in
physico-chemicals of water and plankton in lotic sector of Rihand reservoir
(U.P.). J. Inland Fish Soc. India, 12(1): 100-111.
[17] Saha, S.K. (1981) The diel cycle of abiotic factors in a thermal stream:
Comp. Physiol. Ecol. 6(3): 193-196.
[18] Trivedy, R. K. and Goel, P.K. (1984) Chemical and Biological Methods for
Water Pollution Studies. Environmental Publications, Karad
[19] Verma, N. (1967): Diurnal variation in a fish pond in Seomi, India.
Hydrobiol., 30: 129-137.
[20] Verma, P.K. (1981) The limnological survey of Badua reservoir, Bhagalpur
(Bihar). Doctoral thesis, Bhagalpur Univ., Bhagalpur, India.
[21] Welch, P.S. (1948) Limnological Methods. McGraw Hill Book Co. New
York.
[22] Ward, H.B. and Whipple, G.C(1959) Fresh water Biology. Edited by W.T.
Edmondson. John. Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York. 1248pp.
[23] Zafar, A.R. (1966) Limnology of the Hussainsagar Lake, Hyderabad, India.
Phykos, 5(1&2): 115 – 126.
AUTHORS
Editorial Correspondence: Acta Biologica Hungarica
P.O. Box 35
H-8237 Tihany, Hungary
Phone: (36 87) 448 244 ext. 103
Fax: (36 87) 448 006
E-mail: elekes@tres.blki.hu
SINET Editorial Office
Faculty of Science, Addis Ababa University
Freshman Building Last Floor (Room No. 403)
Tel +251-111-232668 Fax +251-111-552350 PO Box
31226
E-mail: sinet-aau@ethionet.et
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 209
ISSN 2250-3153
Effect of Various Concentration of Octacosane,
Pentacosane and Tricosane on Foraging Behavior of
Trichogrammatids
Shipra Mathur, Asfiya Zayeem, Srikanth Kanameni, Monica Tibrewal, Nitish Wadhwa, Priti Arora and Archna
Kumar
Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Sector -125, Expressway, Noida, U. P., 201303, India.
Abstract- Semiochemicals especially their alkane constituents
play vital role in governing the foraging behavior of egg
parasitoids. Thus in the present study various concentrations of
the three straight chain alkanes were prepared to determine the
specific concentration(s) optimizing the foraging behavior of
Trichogramma brasiliensis Ashmead and Trichogramma chilonis
Ishii. Laboratory bioassays were carried out to assess the impact
of various concentrations of octacosane, pentacosane and
tricosane on the parasitic efficiency of targeted
trichogrammatids. T. chilonis was found to exhibit enhanced
parasitism for concentrations ranging from 7 000mg/L to 15
000mg/L with maximum at 11 000mg/L for Pentacosane
(17.23±0.56) whereas T. brasiliensis exhibited favorable
response towards almost all the concentrations of tricosane and
pentacosane showing more efficiency at 11 000mg/l
(19.44±2.00) and 14 000mg/l(18.89±0.70) respectively. These
studies indicate that alkanes can act as semiochemical source and
can be exploited to enhance foraging efficiency of egg
parasitoids in integrated pest management programs.
Index Terms- Alkanes, Integrated Pest Management,
Semiochemicals, Trichogramma.
I
I. INTRODUCTION
n nature, tritrophic interactions of host plant, host insects and
their natural enemies are mediated by a complex array of
stimuli, of which the role of semiochemicals is commendable
(Loughrin et al., 1994, Paul et al., 2008). The central role played
by semiochemicals emanating from plants and host insects,
during different phases of the natural enemies‘ searching
behavior is well established (Hilker et al., 2002; Borges et al.,
2003; Lou et al., 2005; Manrique et al., 2005; Yong et al., 2007;
Tabone et al., 2010). Stimulus in form of infochemicals guide
parasitoids to their host leading eventually to oviposition in or on
the host (Moraes et al., 2005; Fatouros et al., 2008). Parasitoids
exhibit varied foraging behavior in response to sensitization by
semiochemical stimulus. The ability of infochemicals to enhance
the orientation efficiency of parasitoids, culminating in control of
the pest infestation forms the basis of IPM strategies (Powell,
1991; Dicke and Vet, 1999; Romeis et al., 2005). Due to heavy
reliance of natural enemies on infochemicals for optimal
performance as biological control agents in IPM strategies
identification of the chemical nature of these cues is vital.
Various studies have reported these cues to be mainly
hydrocarbons in nature (Yadav et al., 2002; Paul et al., 2008).
Several follow-up studies have found saturated, straight chain
hydrocarbons like tricosane, pentacosane, hexacosane,
pentadecane, hexatriacontane, docosane, to act as biologically
active cues and enhance the foraging efficiency of
Trichogrammatids. Polyphagous nature of Trichogrammatids
against many lepidopterous pests of economically high valued
crops like rice, cotton tomato, and cole crops makes them one of
the most promising biological control agents during field releases
(Stinner, 1977; Bobendreier et al., 2003; Fatouros et al., 2008).
Hence in present study various concentrations of straight chain
saturated hydrocarbons viz., octacosane, pentacosane and
tricosane were prepared to determine specific concentration(s)
optimizing the foraging behavior of two Trichogrammatids viz.,
Trichogramma brasiliensis Ashmead and Trichogramma chilonis
Ishii.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Insect rearing protocols
The host, rice meal moth Corcyra cephalonica Stainton
(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), and isofemale lines of
Trichogrammatids, T. brasiliensis and T. chilonis were obtained
from a stock culture maintained at the Biological Control
Laboratory, Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University,
Sec-125, Noida, U.P. Culture of C. cephalonica was established
in rearing cages as described by Sreekumar and Paul (2000).
Eggs of C. cephalonica were collected, cleaned and sterilized
using UV; glued on paper egg cards in a single layer using
Arabic gum and placed in glass vials (diameter = 2.5 cm, length
= 10 cm). The 0-24-h-old C. cephalonica eggs were offered to T.
brasiliensis for oviposition and the vials kept at 26±2 °C and
65±5% RH for emergence (Bharti et al., 1994, Archna et al.,
2009).
Preparation of saturated hydrocarbon concentrations
Three straight chain saturated hydrocarbons viz., tricosane,
pentacosane, and octacosane- obtained from sigma-Aldrich were
used for the preparation of test samples. Five different
concentrations viz., 7 000 mg/L; 11 000 mg/L; 14 000 mg/L; 15
000 mg/L and 25 000 mg/L, were prepared for each targeted
hydrocarbon by adding appropriate quantity of distilled HPLC
grade hexane. All concentrations of targeted hydrocarbons were
tested for their activity with T. brasiliensis and T. chilonis.
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Bioassay Protocol
Petridish bioassays were carried out by placing egg cards (30
eggs per card) sprayed with the respective hydrocarbon
concentrations (@50 µl /egg card) in 150 x 15 mm petri dishes.
In each petri dish, 10, 0-24h old Trichogrammatid females were
released in the center. The petri dishes were replicated six times
for each treatment. The parasitoids were observed at five minutes
interval for 45 minutes and the total number of parasitoids that
visited the egg card referred as ‗parasitoid activity index
(PAI)‘was counted. Thereafter, the parasitoids were removed
carefully from each egg card. The cards were kept individually in
homeopathic vials (1 dram size) and number of blackened eggs
was counted to estimate the parasitism (Singh et al., 1998).
Laboratory conditions for the experiment were 26 ± 2°C, 65 ±
5% RH and light intensity 160 LUX (Padamavathi and Paul,
1998, Kumar et al., 2012).
Statistical analysis
The data was tabulated and percent parasitism was calculated
using the following formula:
Percent parasitism = (Number of blackened eggs per card /
Total number of eggs per card) X100.
Data obtained for percent parasitism and PAI was analyzed
by 2 way ANOVA, using applied indostat software version 8.5
developed by Windostat Hyderabad, India. The difference
between the means of various treatments was compared by LSD
test at 5% significance level. Comparison of PAI and parasitism
for different concentrations of crude hydrocarbon extracts with
pure hexane (control) were carried out using paired T test.
III. RESULT
Effect on foraging efficiency of T. chilonis
Highest parasitoid activity index was registered for
15000mg/L concentration of tricosane for egg parasitoid T.
chilonis, which was significantly different from control at 5%
level of significance (14.00±1.16) (P=0.0001; t=10.6279).
Parasitoid activity index was found to be significantly high for
25000mg/L concentration of octacosane (3.50± 0.22) (P=0.0422;
t=2.71) and 11000 mg/L and 14000 mg/L concentrations of
Pentacosane (7.50± 0.22, 6.17± 0.83) (P=0.0001; t=12.47 and
P=0.0422; t=2.71) respectively (Table 1).
For egg parasitoid T. chilonis, 11000 mg/L concentration of
pentacosane (17.23± 0.56) (P=0.0009; t=7.06) was found to
register the highest mean percent parasitism. 7000mg/L and
11000mg/L concentrations of octacosane (12.78± 1.03; 9.45±
0.56) (P=0.0009; t=7.06 and P=0.002; t=5.97) respectively
recorded significantly higher parasitism as compared to control at
5% level of significance. Parasitization was recorded to be
significantly high for 11000mg/L, 14000mg/L and 15000 mg/L
concentrations of Pentacosane. 15000mg/L concentration of
Tricosane registered significantly higher parasitism as compared
to control (15.00± 3.19) (P=0.008; t=4.23) (Table 2).
Effect on foraging efficiency of T. brasiliensis
Highest parasitoid activity index was registered for
25000mg/L concentration of tricosane (10.00±0.68) (P=0.01;
t=4.10).. For pentacosane, 14000mg/L concentration reported
significant level of response (8.00±0.37) (P=0.0001; t=19.03)
whereas for octacosane 25000mg/L concentration shows
significant level of parasitoid activity (4.17±0.17) (P=0.0001;
t=13.00) (Table 3).
11000mg/L concentration of tricosane elicited the highest
mean percent parasitism (19.44+2.00) (P=0.0006, t=7.68) for T.
brasiliensis, followed by 14000mg/L concentration of
pentacosane (18.89+0.70) (P=0.0002, t=10.27) which were
significantly different from control at 5% level of significance.
All concentrations of pentacosane, except 15000 mg/L, were
found to register a significantly high percent parasitism.
Parasitism was recorded to be significant for all concentrations of
Tricosane (Table 4).
IV. DISCUSSION
Foraging behavior of egg parasitoids is guided by a wide
array of semiochemicals (Hilker and Meiners, 2006). Hendry et
al., (1976) analyzed five host plants of Heliothis zea Boddie to
determine the presence of hydrocarbons acting as synomones for
Trichogramma evanescens Westwood. They identified series of
hydrocarbons present in host plants ranging from C21 to C25 in
varying quantities. Dutton et al. (2000) Yonggen et al. (2006)
and Rani et al. (2008) revealed that variation in the quantity and
concentration of saturated hydrocarbons influenced the
parasitization efficiency of Trichogrammatids. Yadav et al.
(2001) also reported the presence of pentacosane in potato
(Solanum tuberosum) and soybean (Glycine max) and classified
pentacosane as favourable saturated hydrocarbon for T. exiguum.
Similarly in hexane extracts of ten different varieties of tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) obtained in the vegetative and
flowering phase of growth, the synomonal response of the
prominent egg parasitoid .T. chilonis was observed (Paul et al.,
2008) which seemed to be associated mainly with tricosane (C23),
heneicosane (C21), pentacosane (C25) and hexacosane (C26)
during the vegetative period and heneicosane (C21), hexacosane
(C26) during the flowering period. In present study, saturated
hydrocarbons, tricosane, pentacosane and octacosane were found
to elicit significant parasitism for T. chilonis. Among the eleven
saturated hydrocarbons tested by Padmavathi and Paul (1998),
tricosane, octacosane and docosane have been reported to
enhance the activity and parasitic efficiency of T. chilonis. In
another study, Trichogramma exiguum Pinto and Platner was
found to respond positively to pentacosane, hexacosane,
pentadecane, hexatriacontane, tricosane and docosane (Paul et
al., 2002). This is in accordance with the current findings where
tricosane and pentacosane were found to register a significant
parasitization for T. brasiliensis whereas no significant
parasitism was reported for octacosane. T. chilonis was found to
exhibit enhanced parasitization at concentrations ranging from
7000mg/L to 15000mg/L whereas T. brasiliensis exhibited
favorable response towards almost all the concentrations of
tricosane and pentacosane. Less response towards high
concentrations of octacosane could be due to bulkiness of
octacosane that led to deposition of flakes of this hydrocarbon on
egg cards hindering the parasitization of eggs by the parasitoids.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 211
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V. CONCLUSION
Present study results indicate that bulkiness and hence mass of
hydrocarbons can influence their semiochemical activity and
lesser the concentration of heavier hydrocarbons, more is their
semiochemical activity. Utilization of optimal concentrations of
favorable hydrocarbons can be exploited to enhance the foraging
efficiency of Trichogrammatids in integrated pest management
programs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We are extremely grateful to Department of Science and
Technology for granting financial support for this study. The
authors are also thankful to the Director General, AIB, Amity
University for providing the required facilities.
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AUTHORS
Correspondence Author –Archna Kumar, Amity Institute of
Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Sector -125,
Expressway, Noida, U. P., 201303, India,
archnaaashi@yahoo.com.
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Table 1: Effect of three saturated hydrocarbons on mean parasitoid activity index of T. chilonis:
C1
(7000 mg/L)
C2
(11000
mg/L)
C3
(14000
mg/L)
C4
(15000 mg/L)
C5
(25000
mg/L)
C6
Hexane
(control)
Octacosane 1.83±0.31 0.67±0.21 1.50±0.22 2.50±0.22 3.50±0.22 1.50±0.21 2.00±0.20 c
Pentacosane 5.50±0.81 7.50±0.22 6.17±0.83 3.50±1.15 1.67±0.33 3.67±0.21 4.87±0.49 b
Tricosane 5.00±0.82 5.33±0.42 2.83±0.66 14.00±1.16 4.00±0.45 1.50±0.67 6.23±0.80 a
*Value within column marked with different letters are significantly (P < 0.05) different.
SE Cd
hydrocarbon x hydrocarbon 0.35 0.69
Concentration x concentration 0.42 0.84
hydrocarbon x concentration 0.85 1.68
Table 2: Effect of three saturated hydrocarbons on mean percent parasitism of T. chilonis:
C1
(7000 mg/L)
C2
(11000
mg/L)
C3
(14000
mg/L)
C4
(15000 mg/L)
C5
(25000
mg/L)
C6
Hexane
(control)
Octacosane 12.78±1.03 9.45±0.56 2.78±0.56 2.22±0.70 2.78±0.55 3.33±0.86 6.00±0.85 b
Pentacosane 8.33±2.95 17.23±0.56 16.11±2.00 16.11±1.59 8.88±1.11 7.78±1.41 13.33±1.19 a
Tricosane 7.22±3.38 7.22±1.81 5.00±2.40 15.00±3.19 6.67±2.11 4.45±1.41 8.22±1.28 b
*Value within column marked with different letters are significantly (P < 0.05) different.
SE Cd
Concentration x concentration 1.09 2.15
hydrocarbon x hydrocarbon 1.33 2.64
Mean
Mean
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Octacosa
ne
Pentacos
ane
Tricosan
e
hydrocarbon x concentration 2.66 5.27
Table 3: Effect of three saturated hydrocarbons on mean parasitoid activity index of T. brasiliensis:
C1
(7000 mg/L)
C2
(11000 mg/L)
C3
(14000 mg/L)
C4
(15000 mg/L)
C5
(25000 mg/L)
C6
Hexane
(control)
2.50±0.22 2.67±0.21 1.50±0.22 4.00±0.26 4.17±0.17 2.00±0.00 2.97±0.21 c
2.00±0.45 4.33±0.42 8.00±0.37 0.83±0.17 5.67±0.21 1.50±0.22 4.17±0.50 b
6.00±0.45 6.67±0.42 9.67±0.92 9.83±1.60 10.00±0.68 3.33±1.17 8.43±0.81 a
*Value within column marked with different letters are significantly (P < 0.05) different.
SE Cd
hydrocarbon x hydrocarbon 0.25 0.50
Concentration x concentration 0.31 0.61
hydrocarbon x concentration 0.62 1.22
Table 4: Effect of three saturated hydrocarbons on mean percent parasitism of T. brasiliensis:
C1
(7000 mg/L)
C2
(11000 mg/L)
C3
(14000 mg/L)
C4
(15000 mg/L)
C5
(25000 mg/L)
C6
Hexane
(control)
Octacosane 7.22±0.56 0.56±0.56 3.33±0.00 6.12±0.56 1.67±0.75 6.67±0.86 3.78±0.45
b
Pentacosane 12.22±0.70 12.22±0.70 18.89±0.70 4.44±0.70 11.67±0.75 4.44±0.70 11.89±0.9
0 a
Tricosane 10.00±1.49 19.44±2.00 17.22±3.38 11.11±0.70 16.11±1.59 5.56±0.70 14.78±1.8
3 a
*Value within column marked with different letters are significantly (P < 0.05) different.
SE Cd
hydrocarbon x hydrocarbon 0.51 1.01
Concentration x concentration 0.63 1.24
hydrocarbon x concentration 1.25 2.48
Mean
Mean
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Awareness of Health Insurance in Andhra Pradesh
Jangati Yellaiah
Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Economics, Osmania University, ICSSR Doctoral Fellow from (CESS), Hyderabad,
Andhra Pradesh, India
Abstract- This paper identifies the determinants of awareness
of health insurance in Andhra Pradesh. The present study was
carried out in Hyderabad city of Andhra Pradesh. Since the main
objective of the study was to analyze determinants of awareness
of the health insurance, we concentrated on the variables like the
Age, Education, Gender, Occupation, Income, type of the family,
and Health expenditure etc. Using pretested structured
questionnaire, the primary data have been collected purposively,
by covering the wide range of demographic, economic and social
factors, from the randomly chosen two hundred respondents from
the study area. We have applied simple statistical tools such as
descriptive statistics, and along with logistic regression to
identify the factors determining the awareness of the health
insurance. We found that 33.5 percent of the respondents had
aware of health insurance and 66.5 percent of the respondents
had unaware of health insurance. The present paper concludes
that the determinants of awareness of health insurance were
religion, type of the family, education, occupation, annual
income, when considered except type of the family, the other
determinants had a statistically significant. The higher education
and higher income had positive relation to the awareness of
health insurance.
Index Terms- Health Insurance, Awareness of Health
insurance, Determinants of Health insurance
W
I. INTRODUCTION
ealth is an important constituent of human resource
development. Good health is real wealth of society. It not
only increases human efficiency but also decreases private and
public expenditure on sickness and diseases. Health has been
declared as a fundamental human right. The present concern in
both developed and developing countries is not only to reach the
whole population with adequate healthcare services but also to
secure an acceptable level of health for all though the application
of primary healthcare programmes. Healthcare services help to
reduce infant mortality rate, check crud death rate, keep diseases
under control and raise life expectancy. Health insurance is fast
emerging as an important mechanism to finance health care
needs of the people. The need for an insurance system that works
on the basic principle of pooling of risks of unexpected costs of
persons falling ill and needing hospitalization by charging
premium from a wider population base of the same community.
There is growing evidence that the level of health care spending
in India – currently at over 6 per cent of its total GDP – is
considerably higher than that in many other developing
countries. This evidence also suggests that more than threequarters
of this spending includes private out-of-pocket expenses.
1.1 Health Insurance
Health insurance is a method to finance healthcare. The ILO
defines health insurance as ―the reduction or elimination of the
uncertain risk of loss for the individual or household by
combining a larger number of similarly exposed individuals or
households who are included in a common fund that makes good
the loss caused to any one member‖ (ILO, 1996). To put it more
simply, in a health insurance programme, people who have the
risk of a certain event contribute a small amount (premium)
towards a health insurance fund. This fund is then used to treat
patients who experience that particular event (e.g.
hospitalisation).
1.2 Health Insurance in India
Today many countries are shifting over to health insurance
as a mechanism of financing their healthcare programme. In
India, we need to shift from the current predominance of out-ofpocket
payments to a health insurance programme. The reasons
are very clear:
Direct out-of-pocket payments are a financial barrier to
accessing health services. On the other hand, an insured
patient can walk into a health facility without the fear of
financial burden;
Direct out-of-pocket payments can push families into
indebtedness or poverty. Health insurance protects the
patient from the burden of raising funds at the time of
illness;
Direct out-of-pocket payments are inequitable as they
place the burden on the vulnerable. Insurance through
its risk pooling mechanism is more equitable; and
Direct out-of-pocket payments do not permit patient‘s
participation in his/her treatment. On the other hand, by
its collective nature, a health insurance programme can
negotiate for better quality care.
Most health insurance schemes can be classified into three
broad categories, social health insurance, private health insurance
and community (or micro) health insurance. In India, we have a
fourth category called government initiated health insurance
schemes that do not fit into any of the above three categories.
Each has its own specificities. However, there are some features
that overlap among the three.
A. Social Health Insurance (SHI)
Social health insurance schemes are statutory programmes
financed mainly through wage-based contributions and related to
level of income. SHI schemes are mandatory for defined
categories of workers and their employers. It is based on a
combination of insurance and solidarity. The classical example
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of an SHI is the German or Belgian health insurance system.
Here, employees and employers contribute to a ‗mutual fund(s)‘
that is then used to finance the healthcare for the entire
population. Citizens have to enroll compulsorily in one of these
mutual funds. The government also provides significant funding
to cover those who are not able to contribute.
In many low-income countries, SHI has been
implemented mainly for the civil servants and the formal sector.
This can lead to gross inequities. For instance in India, 18 per
cent of the central government budget is used to finance an SHI
for the civil servants who constitute only 0.4 per cent of the
population.
In India, there are three well-known SHI schemes - the
Employees‘ State insurance Scheme (ESIS), the Central
Government Health Scheme (CGHS) and the ECHS (Ex-
Servicemen‘s Contributory Health Scheme).
B. Private Health Insurance (PHI)
Private health insurance refers to insurance schemes that
are financed through individual private health premiums, which
are often voluntary, and risk rated. ‗For-profit‘ insurance
companies manage the funds.
In low-income countries like India, they provide
primary insurance cover, i.e. they insure hospitalisations. On the
other hand, in high-income countries, they usually provide
supplementary secondary insurance cover.
C. Community Health Insurance (CHI)
Community health insurance is ―any not-for-profit
insurance scheme aimed primarily at the informal sector and
formed on the basis of a collective pooling of health risks, and in
which the members participate in its management‖.
The important point to note is that in CHI, the local
community takes the initiative in establishing a health insurance
scheme, usually to improve access to healthcare as well as
protect against high medical expenses. The solidarity element is
strongest in CHIs as most of the members know each other.
Community health insurance as a movement is quite active
in sub-Saharan Africa. Even in Asia, we have examples from
India, the Philippines, Indonesia, Cambodia, Bangladesh, etc.
D. Government-initiated Health Insurance Schemes (GHI)
As stated earlier, India has a fourth category that is not
usually seen in other countries. This is the ‗GHI‘. The specificity
of this is that the government introduces a health insurance
programme, usually for the poorest and vulnerable sections of the
community. In many of the schemes, the premium is totally
subsidised by the government (from tax-based revenues) and is
paid directly to the insurance company. Rarely, the community
may be expected to pay a token amount. The insurance company
or an independent body is the organiser of the scheme. These
schemes last for a couple of years, depending on the political will
and longevity of the government. These are seen more as
populist welfare schemes rather than a long-lasting intervention.
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The review of literature of this study selected recent studies
relating to awareness and determinants of health insurance India.
B. Reshmi et al. (2007), they found that the awareness of health
insurance was found to be 64.0 per cent. Around 45.0 per cent of
the respondents came to know about health insurance from the
media which played an important role in the dissemination of
information. The middle and low socio-economic groups
favoured government health insurance compared to private
health insurance. They suggested that government should come
out with a policy, where the public can be made to contribute to a
health insurance scheme to ensure unnecessary out-of-pocket
expenditures and also better utilization of health care facilities.
Ahuja (2004) the study explained that health insurance was
emerging as an important financing tool in meeting the health
care needs of the poor. Households which have higher health
expenditure and income have higher probability of renewing
health insurance policy. Mudgal (2005) this study examined that
whether consumption expenditure of households in rural India
was insured against medical ailments. This study found that the
villagers were not able to perfectly share the risk of all shocks.
Indirani Gupta (2002) the study found a wide disparity across
selections on willingness to participate. The challenges for the
new system would be to pool individuals across risk and
economic status categories, setup a multi-tier system to meet
objectives of equity and efficiency in health care delivery and for
planners and regulators, to keep health insurance separate from
other non-health insurance. Gumber and kulkarani (2000), they
found that there was strongly expressed need for health insurance
among low income households in both rural and urban areas.
This need has arisen primarily because of heavy burden of outof-pocket
expenditure on them while seeking health care. The
need for education for rural and urban populations alike on the
concept of insurance and information on health insurance is a
crucial aspect in extending health insurance coverage on large
scale.
III. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1. To examine the socio- economic and demographic
characteristics of the selected samples.
2. To analyze the determinants of awareness of health
insurance of selected samples.
IV. DATA COLLECTION AND METHODS OF THE
STUDY
The present study was carried out in Hyderabad city of Andhra
Pradesh. Since the main objective of the study was to analyze
determinants of awareness of the health insurance, we
concentrated on the variables like the Age, Education, Gender,
Occupation, Income, type of the family, Premium of health
insurance, and Health expenditure etc. Using pretested structured
questionnaire, the primary data have been collected purposively,
by covering the wide range of demographic, economic and social
factors, from the randomly chosen two hundred respondents from
the study area. The period of collection of the data was 2010-11.
We have applied simple statistical tools such as descriptive
statistics, percentages, mean and standard deviation along with
logistic regression to identify the factors determining the
awareness of the health insurance.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 216
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V. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 Socio- Demographic Characteristics of the
Respondents
Characteristics
respondents
Age (years)
of the
Numbers Percentage
20-30 68 34
31-40 77 38.5
41-50 34 17
51-60 12 6
Above 61
Gender
8 4
Male 144 72
Female
Religion
56 28
Hindu 131 65.5
Christian 25 12.5
Muslim
Type of family
44 22
Joint 50 25
Nuclear
Education
150 75
Illiterate 13 6.5
Primary 33 16.5
Secondary 44 22
Higher secondary 36 18
Graduate 58 29
Post-graduate
Annual Income
16 8
Up to 25000 19 9.5
25001-50000 129 64.5
50001-75000 20 10
75001-100000 11 5.5
100001-125000 7 3.5
125001-150000 5 2.5
Above 150001 9 4.5
The above table shows that socio demographic characteristics
of the respondents. Most of the respondents were in the age
group of 31-40 years of age (38.7 %) followed by 20-30 years of
age (34 %). Only 8 percent of respondents were in the age group
of above 61 years of age. Males constituted 72 per cent and
females 28 per cent of the respondents. 65.5 per cent of
respondents were Hindus while Christians and Muslims were
12.5 per cent and 22 per cent respectively. 75 per cent of the
respondents stayed in nuclear family and 25 per cent in the joint
family, 29percent of the respondents were graduates, 22percent
of the respondents were secondary education level, 18percent of
the respondents were higher secondary level, 16.5percent of the
respondents were primary level, 8percent of the respondents
were post-graduates and only 6.5percent of the respondents were
illiteracy. 64.5 per cent of the respondents had annual income
between Rs. 25001 to 50000 and 4.5 per cent respondents had an
income of above Rs. 150001.
Table 2 Awareness and Source of information about Health
insurance among the Respondents
Awareness of the
total respondents
Number Percentage
Awareness
Yes
No
67
133
33.5
66.5
Total 200 100
Source of
Information
Television 13 6.5
Radio 2 1
Newspaper 26 13
Family/ friends 18 9
Internet 2 1
Insurance agents 6 3
Total 67 33.5
The whole study was based on the awareness of the
respondents. 33.5 per cent of the respondents were aware of
health insurance. Of the total 200 respondents, 33.5 per cent of
the respondents were aware of health insurance whereas 66.5 per
cent of them had no idea about it (Table 2). The present study
found that the respondents have low awareness of the health
insurance.
Table 2 depicts the source of information and awareness of
health insurance. 13 per cent of the respondents said that
newspaper was the source of information followed by from
family/friends (9 %), television (6.5 %), insurance agents (3 %)
radio (1 %) and internet (1 %).
Sl. No
1 Male
Table 3 Gender of the Respondents
Gender of the
Respondents
Awareness on Health
Insurance Scheme Total
Yes No
44 100 144
(22%) (50%) (72%)
23 33 56
2 Female
(11.5%) (16.5%)
Total
67
(33.5%)
133
(66.5%)
Note: Figures in the percentiles are percentage
(28%)
200
(100.0%)
The above table shows that 22 percent of the male respondents
and 11.5 percent of the female respondents were aware of health
insurance. Compare the male respondents, female respondents
had less aware of the health insurance.
Table 4 Religion wise awareness of the respondents
Awareness on Health
Sl. No Religion
Insurance Scheme
Total
Yes No
1 Hindu
40
(20 %)
91
(45.5 %)
131
(65.5 %)
2 Christian
12
(6 %)
13
(6.5 %)
25
(12.5 %)
3 Muslim 15 29 44
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 217
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(7.5%) (14.5 %) (22 %)
Total
67
(33.5%)
133
(66.5%)
200
(100.0%)
Note: Figures in the percentiles are percentage
The above table shows that religion wise awareness of the
respondents. 20 percent Hindu religion respondents, 6 percent
Christian and 7.5 percent Muslim responds were had aware of
health insurance. Compare to these three groups Hindu religion
respondents had high rate of aware of health insurance.
Table 5 Type of Family of the Respondents
Awareness
Health
on
Sl. No Type of Family Insurance Scheme Total
Yes No
1 Joint
23
(11.5%)
27
(13.5%)
2 Nuclear
44
(22%)
106
(53%)
Total
67
(33.5%)
133
(66.5%)
Note: Figures in the percentiles are percentage
50
(25%)
150
(75%)
200
(100.0%)
The above table 5 represents the type of family. Here joint
family respondents were less aware of health insurance (11.5
percent), 22 percent of the nuclear respondents were aware about
health insurance.
Sl.
No
Table 6 Educational levels of the Respondents
Educational
levels of the
Respondents
1 Illiterate
2 Primary
4 Secondary
5
6
Higher
secondary
Graduate/
Diploma
Awareness on
Health
Insurance Scheme Total
Yes No
2 11 13
(1%) (5.5%) (6.5%)
4 29 33
(2%) (14.5%) (16.5%)
18 52 70
(9%) (26 %) (35 %)
4 19 23
(2%) (9.5%) (11.5%)
32 26 58
(16%) (13%) (29%)
13 3 16
7 Post-Graduate
(6.5%) (1.5%)
Total
67
(33.5%)
133
(66.5%)
Note: Figures in the percentiles are percentage
(8%)
200
(100.0%)
The above table 6 represents the education levels of the
respondents. It is shown that there is less awareness about health
insurance among the respondents who are less educated (primary
2%). As the education qualification increases (graduates 16 %
and post-graduates 6.5 %), it is clearly seen that the awareness
among the respondents is being increased.
Hence we can say from the above analysis that there is
positive relationship between education and awareness of the
health insurance.
Sl.
No
Table 6 Occupations of the Respondents
Occupation
of the
Respondents
Awareness on
Health
Insurance Scheme Total
Yes No
1
Self
employment
9
(4.5%)
60
(30%)
2
Private
employ
31
(15.5%)
38
(19%)
3
Government
employ
13
(6.5%)
0
(.0%)
4 Business
14
(7%)
35
(17.5%)
Total
67
(33.5%)
133
(66.5%)
Note: Figures in the percentiles are percentage
69
(34.5%)
69
(34.5%)
13
(6.5%)
49
(24.5%)
200
(100.0%)
In the following table it was shows that the private employees
(15.5 %) and government employees (6.5 %) were more aware of
the health insurance, when compare to those respondents who are
self employed (9 %) and business (7 %).
Determinants of Awareness of Health insurance
To analyze the determinants of awareness of health insurance,
a logit model will be used in the analysis of individual
household's choice between awareness of health insurance and
un aware of health insurance. The model uses awareness of
health insurance among the households as the dichotomous
dependent variable. The model uses various households as the
factors influencing determinants of awareness of health
insurance.
Pi = E
Y
1
X
i
1
b
1 1
b X
e
k ik
. ( 1)
Pi = Probability that awareness of health insurance
b1 = constant term
bk = coefficients
Xk = for K = 1....5, are the independent variables and subscript i
denotes i th observation.
K1 = Religion
K2 = Type of the Family
K3 = Education
K4 = Occupation
K5 = Income
Let
Zi = b1 + ∑bk Xik ….. (2)
Then
Pi =
e
Z
1
1
…… (3)
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 218
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As Zi ranges from -∞ to + ∞, Pi ranges from 0 to 1 and Pi is nonlinearly
related to Zi.
In estimable form, the model is,
Pi
Z b b
X
Li = Ln 1
Pi i 1 k ik
..(4)
Where L is the logit. It shows how the log odds in favor of
awareness of health insurance change as the respective
independent variable changes.
Table 7
Sl. No. Variables Coefficient P>|z|
1 Religion -0.476 0.28**
2
Type of the
Family
0.203 0.619
3 Education 0.402 0.002*
4 Occupation -0.276 0.80***
5 Income 0.012 0.000*
6 Constant 5.103 0.000*
R 2 0.277
-2 Log likelihood 190.144
Prob > chi 2 = 4.324
* indicates significant at 1 % level, ** significant at 5 % and ***
significant at 10 %.
The above table shows that R Square 0.277, -2 Log likelihood
is -190.144 and chi 2 4.324. The determinants of awareness were
religion, type of the family, education, occupation, annual
income, when considered except type of the family; the other
determinants had a statistically significant association.
Education and annual income had 1 percent level of significant,
religion factor had 5 percent level of significant and occupation
had 10 percent level of significant.
VI. CONCLUSION
From our study we conclude that the determinants of
awareness of health insurance were: religion, type of the family,
education, occupation, annual income. Education, annual
income, occupation of the respondent and religion plays vital role
of the Determinants of awareness of the health insurance. Higher
education and higher annual income increase awareness of health
insurance also will increase. Gumber and Kulkarni in their study
found out that the need for education for rural and urban
population was alike on the concept of health information which
is a crucial aspect on extending awareness about health insurance
on a large-scale. This calls for an effective information,
education and communication activities which will improve the
understanding of the people about insurance. The health
insurance companies should come out with clear cut policy
details, as many of the respondents had vague ideas about the
various benefits and risks involved in a policy. And also health
insurance companies to develop a viable health insurance
scheme, it is important to understand people‘s perceptions and
develop a package that is accessible, available, affordable and
acceptable to all sections of the society.
REFERENCES
[1] Ahuja Rajeev, (2004), ―Health Insurance for the poor‖, Economic and
Political Weekly, july 10, pp.3171-78.
[2] Ahuja, R and A Narang (2005), ―Emerging Trends in Health Insurance for
Low-income Groups‖, Economic and Political Weekly, September 17.
[3] Anil Gumber and Veena Kulkarni, (2000). ―Health Insurance in Informal
Sector: Case Study of Gujarat‖. Economic and Political Weekly, September
30, PP.3607-13.
[4] B. Reshmi et al. (2007), Awareness of health insurance in a south Indian
population – a community-based study, Health and Population-
Perspectives and Issues 30 (3): 177-188.
[5] Berman (1996). Health Care Expenditure in India in Monica Dasgupta et al
(eds), Health, Poverty and Development in India, Oxford University Press,
Delhi, p.331-58.
[6] Devadasan.N, et at (2004a), ―Accord Community Health Insurance
Increasing Access to Hospital Care‖, Economic and Political Weekly, July
10, PP.3189-3193.
[7] Indrani Gupta, (2002) ―private Health Insurance and Health Costs Results
from a Delhi Study‖, Economic and Political Weekly, July 6, PP.2795-2801.
[8] Kirigia, et al. (2005), ―Determinants of health insurance ownership among
South African women‖, BMC Health Services Research 2005,
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6963/5/17.
[9] Mahal Ajay,(2002), ”Assessing private health insurance in India: Potential
impact and regulatory issues‖, Economic and Political Weekly, February 9,
pp. 559-71.
[10] Mudgal Jyothi, Subrata Sarkar, et.al (2005), ―Health insurance in Rural
India‖, Economic and Political Weekly, October 22, pp 460-469.
[11] Reddy et al, 2011, A Critical Assessment of the Existing Health Insurance
Models in India, Report submitted by Public Health Foundation of India.
[12] Rao Sujatha, (2004), ―Health Insurance Concepts, Issues and Challenges‖,
Economic and Political Weekly, August 21, PP.3835-44.
[13] Sethi Jyotsna and Nisswa Bhatia, ―Elements of Banking and Insurance‖ PHI
Publication, Learning Private Limited‖, New Delhi, (2009).
[14] Srinivasan.J. and P.Ponmuthusaravanan, (2009). ―Detrminanats of Health
Insurance In Pondicherry Region: An Econometric Analysis‖, International
Research journal of Social Sciences Puducherry, Vol.2, No.2, PP.215-227.
AUTHORS
J.YELLAIAH, M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D Scholar, Department of
Economics, Osmania University, ICSSR Doctoral Fellow from
Centre for Economic and Social Studies (CESS), Hyderabad,
Andhra Pradesh -500007. Mobile No: +91 9533118847, Email:
yellaiah.ja@gmail.com.
Correspondence Author
J. Yellaiah, Email: yellaiah.ja@gmail.com, Contact Number: +91
9533118847.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 219
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Comparative Study of Sign Language Recognition
Systems
Abstract- Sign Language (SL) is the communication method
for deaf people. But these sign languages are not standard &
universal. The grammar differs from country to country. As the
sign language is the only method for deaf community to
communicate with normal people, we need Sign Language
Translators (SLT).
The basic automatic SLT uses two approaches. First one is
using the electronic data gloves. These gloves have inbuilt
sensors & it is worn by the signer to detect hand posture. But
these gloves are having high cost. So, visual approach is most
suitable & widely used. Here a camera is used to capture images
of signer & then image processing is carried out to perform
recognition. For the vision based Sign Language Recognition
(SLR), various methods are available. Three such methods are
discussed & compared in this paper.
Index Terms- Sign Language Recognition (SLR)
Ms. Rashmi D. Kyatanavar, Prof. P. R. Futane
Department of Computer Engineering, Sinhgad College of Engineering,
Pune, India
I. INTRODUCTION
Deaf people interfacing is a very challenging issue due to its
cardinal social interest and its inherent complexity like,
(1) Nature of information is multi-channel.
(2) Signing vary from person to person.
(3) Presence of disturbances (surrounding furniture,
cloths)
(4) Sign languages from different region differ
significantly.
There are two main directions in sign language recognition. One
is using data gloves & other is visual approach. Instrumented
glove approach simplifies the recognition but complicates the
hardware. Also it is expensive & less user friendly. On the other
hand, vision-based approach is most suitable, user-friendly &
affordable. So, it is widely used.
II. VISION BASED METHODS FOR SIGN LANGUAGE
RECOGNITION
A. SLR Based on Skin Color [2]
This is an intelligent & simple system for converting sign
language into voice signal by tracking head & hand gestures.
This system proposes a simple gesture extraction algorithm for
extracting features from the images of a video stream.
Figure 1: System block diagram for SLR using skin color [2]
This system is very simple & subject is not required to wear
any glove. But the subject must wear a dark color, long sleeve
shirt. Then the gesture signs are recorded. Each image frame is
segmented into three regions- head, left hand and right hand.
Then these segmented images are converted into binary images.
In feature extraction stage, for each frame the area of objects in
segmented binary image is calculated. So, each frame has 3
segmented areas- head area, left hand area and right hand area.
There is a different segmented area for each gesture type. Each
segmented area is treated as a discrete event & DCT is applied to
it. First 15 DCT coefficients are considered as features. They
correspond to each segmented area. Combination of DCT
coefficients from 3 segmented image areas are used as feature
vector for Neural Network (NN). Here, a simple NN model is
developed for sign recognition. The features computed from
video stream are given as an input to this NN. To classify the
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 220
ISSN 2250-3153
gesture, a NN model uses error back propagation. So we get the
classified signs at the end of gesture classification phase. Finally,
an audio system is used to play words corresponding to gesture.
B. SLR Using Custom Made Color Gloves [1]
This is an automatic vision based SLT system. It uses custom
made color gloves. These are ordinary gloves with specific color
on palm & each fingertip. Initially, image acquisition is done
using a camera & custom made color gloves. Then the frames of
images are collected. Then, motion of hand is tracked using color
segmentation & image processing. Finally, Artificial Neural
Network (ANN) is used to classify gestures & to translate them.
Figure 2: Vision-based automatic SLT using custom made color
gloves [1]
In image acquisition stage, camera is used to obtain images &
video of signer. Signer uses color coded gloves. The color helps
in extraction of data from sign images through color
segmentation. In image acquisition, we collect frames of images
at suitable interval so that frames are sufficient to detect the
movement of hand. In motion tracking phase, color segmentation
is performed to remove influence of moving objects in
background. Then, centroid of color segmented region is found.
Motion tracking phase consists of two steps:
A. Hand posture extraction
B. Tracking of hand movement
In Hand Posture Extraction, location of each finger is determined
& finally, NN classifier is used. Here we use two layered feed
forward NN.
C. SLR Using Finger Detection [3]
This method introduces an efficient & fast algorithm for
identifying the number of fingers opened in gesture. Here the
finger detection is performed using the concept of boundary
tracing & finger tip detection. This system does not have
limitations like hand should be perfectly aligned to camera, use
of special markers, use of input gloves on the hand etc.
According to this method, it is possible to identify the gesture of
an alphabet if we know the number of fingers opened. The aim of
this method is to design a system that should automatically
capture, recognize & translate sign language to the speech for
blind people. Also it should analyze & convert the speech to
either sign or textual display on screen for deaf people.
This method has three main steps of processing – edge
detection, clipping and boundary tracing.
Figure 3: SLT using Finger Detection [3]
The first phase of this method is edge detection. It is the process
of identifying points in the digital image at which image
brightness changes sharply or has discontinuities. For this phase
Canny edge operator is used. The output of this step is an edge
detected image. The next phase is clipping. It clips or removes
the undesirable portion of edge detected image for further
processing. The final step is boundary tracing. It is the phase
which actually detects the finger tips n the number of fingers
open.
III. COMPARISON OF RESULTS
A. SLR Based on Skin Color [2]
This gesture recognition method based on skin color is an
intelligent & simple system for converting sign language into
voice signal using head & hand gesture. This system is very
simple & subject is not required to wear any glove. But the
subject must wear a dark color, long sleeve shirt. This system has
minimum and maximum classification rates as 88.47 and 95.69
respectively.
B. SLR Using Custom Made Color Gloves [1]
This method is an automatic visual based sign language
translator system. This automatic visual-based sign language
translator can achieve the recognition rate of over 90%.
C. SLR Using Finger Detection [3]
The finger detection algorithm designed for sign language
recognition is a simple, fast, efficient and robust method to locate
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 221
ISSN 2250-3153
finger tips and enables us to identify a class of hand gestures.
This system does not have limitations like hand should be
perfectly aligned to camera, use of special markers and use of
input gloves on the hand etc. Finger recognition works accurately
for 95% of the cases.
IV. CONCLUSION
There are various methods for sign language recognition.
Some use electronic glove while other use vision based approach.
But, as the electronic glove approach is the costlier one, vision
based approach is widely used. Three such methods are discussed
and compared. The skin color based method is simple & does not
require the signer to wear any glove. The accuracy of this method
is also good. The custom made color glove method requires the
color segmentation to be performed. But the accuracy is less. The
SLR using finger detection is simple, fast and efficient. But it can
detect only those gestures that have fingers open. Also, two
different gestures having same number of fingers open will be
recognized ambiguously. Each of these three methods has its
own pros and cons. So, depending on the type of application,
appropriate method should be chosen.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The research in this paper was carried out at Sinhgad College
of Engineering, Pune. So, special thanks to Head of Computer
Department, Principal and Management of Sinhgad College of
Engineering.
REFERENCES
[1] Rini Akmeliawati, Melanie Po-Leen Ooi and Ye Chow Kuang, “Real-Time
Malaysian Sign Language Translation using Colour Segmentation and
Neural Network”, IMTC 2007 - Instrumentation and Measurement
Technology Conference Warsaw, Poland, 1-3, May 2007.
[2] Paulraj M P, Sazali Yaacob, Hazry Desa, Hema C.R., “ Extraction of Head
& Hand Gesture Feature for Recognition of sign language”, International
Conference on Electronic Design, Penang, Malaysia, December 1-3, 2008.
[3] Ravikiran J, Kavi Mahesh, Suhas Mahishi, Dheeraj R, Sudheender S, Nitin
V Pujari, “Finger Detection for Sign Language Recognition” , Proceedings
of the International MultiConference of Engineers and Computer Scientists
2009 Vol I IMECS 2009, Hong Kong, March 18 - 20, 2009.
[4] Wu jiangqin Gao wen Song yibo Liu wei Pang bo, “A Simple Sign
Language Recognition System Based On Data Glove”, firneedings of IiXP ,
1998.
[5] Tan Tian Swee, Sh-Hussain Salleh, A.K. Ariff, Chee-Ming Ting, Siew
Kean Seng and Leong Seng Huat, “Malay Sign Language Gesture
Recognition System”, International Conference on Intelligent and Advanced
Systems, 2007.
[6] Pham The Bao, Nguyen Thanh Binh, Tu Duy Khoa, “A New Approach To
Hand Tracking And Gesture Recognition By A New Feature Type And
Hmm”, Sixth International Conference on Fuzzy Systems and Knowledge
Discovery, 2009.
AUTHORS
First Author – Ms. Rashmi Kyatanavar, ME Computer
Networks, Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune,
r.d.kyatanavar@gmail.com
Second Author – Prof. P. R. Futane, Head o Computer
Department, Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune,
prfutane.scoe@sihngad.edu
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 222
ISSN 2250-3153
Age Related Changes in the Parasympathetic Control of
the Heart
Vinutha Shankar MS, Shivakumar Veeraiah
Dept of Physiology, Sri Devaraj Urs Medical College, Sri Devaraj Urs Academy of Higher Education & Research,
Kolar, Karnataka, India.
Abstract- Age related impairment in the parasympathetic
control of the heart is a causal component for increased risk of
cardiovascular diseases like arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death
in the elderly. Abnormal heart rate responses as a result of
parasympathetic dysfunction have demonstrated altered
sympatho vagal modulation of the heart in the elderly. Simple,
bedside, non invasive ECG based tests designed by Ewing &
Clarke assess parasympathetic function. These are heart rate
responses to Deep breathing, Valsalva maneuver and to standing.
Parasympathetic function was assessed by the above mentioned
cardiovascular autonomic function tests in 60 elderly subjects
above 60 years who were further grouped as young old (60-74
yrs) and old old (75-90 yrs). The results thus obtained were
compared with young healthy subjects (18-33 yrs) who served as
controls to study the effect of aging on the parasympathetic
control of heart rate. There was a significant reduction in heat
rate responses to Deep breathing, Valsalva maneuver and to
standing indicating reduction in parasympathetic function in the
elderly above 60 years. There was no significant difference in all
the tests of parasympathetic function between the young old and
the old old suggesting no further decline in parasympathetic
function after 75 years.
Index Terms- parasympathetic, dysfunction, elderly, valsalva,
aging.
M
I. INTRODUCTION
ajority of deaths in the older population stem from
cardiovascular disorders accounting for a third of the
elderly mortality. Approximately 50% of these occur suddenly.
Lethal ventricular arrhythmias are responsible for 80% of sudden
cardiac deaths (1). Age related autonomic dysfunction in the
cardio vascular regulatory control is a contributing factor for the
increased incidence of arrhythmias in the elderly. Autonomic
changes with aging include reduction in parasympathetic
function and these changes are associated with high rates of
cardiovascular disease and mortality (2). Aging is known to alter
the neurohormonal mechanisms that control the cardiovascular
system. Published reports have demonstrated a decline in
sinoatrial node parasympathetic activity(3). Previous studies
have demonstrated that there is parasympathetic decline in
elderly leading to impaired parasympathetic control of heart
rate.(4) Cardio vascular disturbances due to impaired
parasympathetic control are usually subclinical and precede
symptoms. So it goes unnoticed unless carefully scrutinized.
Effects of aging on parasympathetic nervous system have been
much studied. The impetus for continuing interest in this topic
have come in part from the recognition that in a range of
cardiovascular disorders including sudden cardiac death and
ventricular arrhythmia, for all of which incidence rises with age,
parasympathetic nervous system pathophysiology may be an
important causal component. The Autonomic Nervous System
mechanisms involved in the aging process are extremely
complex and many questions concerning the neurologic effects
of aging have yet to be answered. Some of the mechanisms
associated with aging are pathologically induced but the
distinction between these mechanisms and those that are part of
the normal aging process remains somewhat cloudy (5). The
importance to be able to differentiate between autonomic
abnormalities which are associated with systemic diseases and
those which are purely the consequence of the natural processes
of aging is thus obvious.
Cardiac Autonomic Neuropathy is grossly under diagnosed
due in part to its frequently asymptomatic presentation and in
part to the non utilization of tests for its diagnosis. Ewing and
Clark have designed a battery of standardized quantitative
autonomic function tests to test parasympathetic function that
have been widely used to assess parasympathetic control of heart
(6).These tests are performed since the procedures are straight
forward, reproducible, non invasive and performed bedside.
This study was conducted to evaluate the association between
aging and parasympathetic function by assessing the
parasympathetic function in the elderly and comparing it with
young healthy subjects.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Subjects.
The study comprised of 90 subjects. 60 elderly subjects
residing in old age homes / attending medical OPDs/ patients‘
attendants between the age 60-90 yrs with a normal 12 lead ECG
were included in the study. Informed consent was obtained from
each subject. The 60 elderly subjects above 60 yrs were further
grouped as young old aged between 60 – 74 yrs(n=30) and old
old aged between 75 and 90 yrs(n=30). The study was approved
by the Institutional ethical Committee. The control group
consisted of 30 healthy subjects who were between the age 18 –
33 yrs and with a normal 12 lead ECG. Subjects with history of
hypotensive drug intake, heart or lung disease, Diabetes Mellitus,
hypertension, alcohol consumption , smoking and any inter
current illness like pyrexia and diarrhea were excluded from the
study.
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Methods:
Autonomic function tests that evaluate the parasympathetic
function were conducted on all the subjects. These are ECG
based heart rate response tests to deep breathing, Valsalva
maneuver and to change in posture. All of the tests were
conducted between 11.30 and 13.30 hours. The temperature of
the examination room was typically between 22 - 24°C. The
subjects were also instructed not to have coffee, tea, cola 12
hours before the tests and were asked to have light breakfast two
hours before the tests. The subject was asked to relax in supine
position for 30 minutes in the laboratory prior to conducting the
tests. The resting heart rate was recorded on a standard ECG
from lead II, at a paper speed of 25mm/sec. The cardiovascular
tests that test parasympathetic function were performed after
demonstrating these tests to the subjects.
1. Deep breathing test:
The subject was trained to breathe deeply at a rate of 6
breaths/minute while sitting. The subject was asked to breathe
deeply, steadily and slowly for I mm at the rate of 6 breaths/mm
(5 sec inspiration and 5 sec expiration) while ECG was being
continuously recorded. The heart rate change with deep breathing
(deep breathing difference) was then expressed as the mean of
the differences between the maximal and minimal heart rate in 6
respiratory cycles.
Deep Breathing Difference (DBD) = mean of heart rate
differences in 6 breath cycles.
2. Heart rate response to Valsalva maneuver:
The subject was trained to maintain an expiratory pressure of
40 mm Hg for 10 sec. Valsalva maneuver was performed by
asking the subject to blow through a mouthpiece attached to a
mercury manometer and maintain a pressure of 40 mm Hg up to
15 sec (straining period not less than 7sec). A nose clip was
applied and small air leakage (through a needle) incorporated in
the mouthpiece to ensure that the expiratory pressure comes from
the chest and that the subject does not blow with his cheeks.
Cardiovascular Indices
Heart rate response tests
Table 1: Scoring of Cardiovascular autonomic function tests.
Throughout the Maneuver, ECG was recorded continuously and
for 30 sec after release of pressure. The heart rate changes
induced by the Valsalva maneuver were expressed as the ratio of
the maximal tachycardia during the maneuver to the maximal
bradycardia after the maneuver. This ratio was defined as the
Valsalva ratio and was calculated as the ratio of maximum R-R
interval after the maneuver to minimum R-R interval during the
maneuver.
3. Heart rate response to standing (Postural tachycardia index,
PTI):
The subject was asked to rest in a supine position for at least two
minutes and to stand unaided and remain standing for about a
minute. While ECG was being recorded continuously. The heart
rate response to standing (postural tachycardia index) is defined
as the ratio between the heart rate at beat 15 after rising to the
vertical position and the heart rate at beat 30.
PTI = RR interval at 30 th beat / RR interval at 15 th beat.
Autonomic Score:
Each individual test was given a score of 0, 1, or 2 depending
on whether they were normal, borderline or abnormal
respectively(Table 1). The scores of individual tests are added
and an overall autonomic score of 0-6 can then be obtained. This
scoring by Bellavere et al provides a simple and efficient
―staging‖ of autonomic involvement in subjects with autonomic
neuropathy(7). Autonomic score of 4 – 6 is suggestive of definite
cardiac autonomic neuropathy with involvement parasympathetic
pathways (8).
Normal
(score 0)
Borderline
(score 1)
Abnormal
(score 2)
Heart rate response to Valsalva Maneuver(VR) ≥1.21 1.11 -1.20 ≤1.10
Heart rate response during deep breathing.
(Deep Breathing Difference or DBD in bpm)
≥15
11-14
beats/min
Heart rate response to standing(PTI) ≥1.04 1.01-1.03 ≤1.00
≤10
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III. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
Statistical Treatment of the data:
Chi-square test was carried out to evaluate the significance of sex distribution between the 3 study groups. One way ANOVA was
done to compare the cardiovascular indices and autonomic score between the 3 study groups. When difference was found Bonferroni
test was used. The mean difference was defined as significant at p0.05).
Table 3: DBD, VR, PTI and the total autonomic score in the 3 study groups with ANOVA results.
Controls(18-
33 yrs)
Young old
(60-74 yrs)
Old old(75-
90 yrs)
ANOVA( F
value)
Heart rate
response to
Deep
breathing
DBD
Heart rate
response to
Valsalva
Maneuver
VR
Heart rate
response to
standing PTI
# significant at p

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Table 4: post hoc (Bonferroni test) to compare means of DBD, VR, PTI and autonomic score between the 3 study groups
Control
vs young
old
Control
vs old old
Young
old vs old
old
IV. DISCUSSION
The mean age in years of the subjects was 24.77 ± 4.38, 67.13
± 4.32 and 81.17 ± 4.06 in the control, young old and old old
groups respectively. Cardiovascular indices (DBD, VR and PTI)
obtained by performing the tests of parasympathetic function and
the autonomic score are expressed as mean ± SD (Table 3)
ANOVA shows significant difference between the 3 study
groups. Results of post hoc test (Bonferroni test) done to
compare DBD, VR, PTI and Autonomic score between the
control, young old and old old is shown in table 4.There was a
significant difference in the young old and old old as compared
to controls in all the tests of parasympathetic function. There was
no significant reduction in the heart rate response to deep
breathing, Valsalva maneuver and to standing in the old old
above 75 yrs as compared to young old between 60 and 75 years.
Heart rate response to Deep breathing:
There was a significant reduction in DBD in both young old
and old old as compared to young subjects who served as
controls .Heart rate response to breathing is a normal
phenomenon and is due primarily due to fluctuations in
parasympathetic output to heart. Cardiac vagal innervation
decreases with age as clearly shown by a reduction in DBD that
reflects respiratory sinus arrhythmia. During inspiration impulses
in vagi from stretch receptors in the lungs inhibit the cardioinhibitory
area in the medulla oblangata. The tonic vagal
discharge that keeps the heart rate slow decreases and heart rate
rises (9). Depression of respiratory sinus arrhythmia with age
also suggests a decrease in parasympathetic influence on sinus
node function (10).
DBD VR PTI Autonomic
score
p=0.000* p=0.000* p=0.000* p= .000*
p=0.000* p=0.000* p=0.000* p=0.000**
p = 0.123 ns
p=0.84 ns
p=0.46 ns
* significant at p75 years(21).
Heart rate response to Valsalva Maneuver:
There was a significant reduction in VR in both young old
and old old as compared to the controls.
It can thus be concluded that there is a decrease in VR in the
healthy elderly above 60 years thus demonstrating involvement
of parasympathetic nervous system. Heart rate response to
Valsalva maneuver relies to some extent on the integrity of
sympathetic as well as parasympathetic pathways. Many factors,
including blood volume, antecedent period of rest, cardiac
sympathetic as well as peripheral sympathetic functions and NE
response affect the Valsalva maneuver. Age may affect different
components of Valsalva maneuver in different directions.
This study is in conformity with the earlier studies done by
Albert.B.Levin (22) & SJ. Piha (23)
The present study is not in agreement with earlier studies
like Ewing et al (15), Braune S et al(19) & C Neumann and
Schnmid(20). It may be due to higher upper limit of age range of
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subjects (up to 90 years) in our study. The less consistent effect
of age on VR likely relates to the smaller change and greater
complexity of the maneuver. C Neumann (20) was of the opinion
that results of the test proposed by Ewing and Clarke, however
might differ between researchers because of differences in the
maneuvers and equipment (they are not commercially available),
and because some techniques are completely computerized
whereas others are not. Previous studies have demonstrated that
age related reduction in Heart Rate Variability in response to
Valsalva maneuver suggested that aging is associated with
impaired parasympathetic control of heart rate. There was no
significant difference in VR between young old and old old
suggesting that there is no further decline after 75 years. This is
similar to the observation made by Phyllis et al(21) and Islam et
al (24) suggesting that parasympathetic impairment seen after 60
years is not dependent on age with further advancement of age.
Heart response to standing (PTI):
Old group did not differ significantly from young-old with
respect to heart rate response to standing.
It can be concluded that heart rate response to standing, a
measure of cardiac parasympathetic function is significantly
reduced in healthy elderly subjects above 60 years comprising of
both the young old and old-old groups. In elderly the immediate
postural reflexes are controlled neurally by sympathetic and
parasympathetic nerves whereas the later neural regulation of the
postural adaptation is controlled via sympathetic nerves. Since
the parasympathetic nervous system is more prone to the effect
of aging (9) than sympathetic function, it is likely that the
transient dysregulation of postural reflexes in older subjects at
the beginning of standing is due to decrease in parasympathetic
activity (23). This study is in conformity with earlier studies
done by G.Vita (25), J.Gert van Dijk (26), S.J.Piha (14)and C.
Neumann (20). This study differs from the study of Ewing D.J et
al (27) who initially promoted PTI as an age-independent test of
parasympathetic function, may be due to smaller sample size of
older control( 10 subjects) and younger age of the older
group(48-67 years).
As seen with heart rate responses to deep breathing and
valsalva maneuver, heart rate response to standing (PTI) is not
different between the young old and old subjects. This
strengthens the possible explanation that parasympathetic
dysfunction seen after 60 years does not continue to decline with
further advancing age. This observation is similar to that of
Phyllis et al (21) and Islam et al(24).
Autonomic score: Mean and SD of autonomic score are 1.77±
1.30, 4.62± 1.27 and 5.03±1.03 respectively. Autonomic score
differed significantly between the control, young old and old old
groups.
Autonomic score was significantly high in the young-old and
old old (p = 0.000) when compared to controls suggesting the
presence of severe cardiac autonomic neuropathy in the elderly.
There was no difference in autonomic score between young old
and old old (p = 0.17). Our study demonstrates reduction in
parasympathetic function as suggested by significant decline in
autonomic score after 60 with no further decline after 75 years.
Phyllis et al(24) characterized the association between age, aging
and HRV in 585 adults aged above 65 years and showed that
cardiac autonomic function based on parasympathetic nervous
system declines mostly at 60 – 75 years and levels off at age > 75
years.
Heart rate response to deep breathing:
Valsalva maneuver and standing that reflect integrity of
parasympathetic nervous system showed a significant decline in
deep breathing difference, VR and PTI in both the young-old (60
- 74 years) and old-old (75 years – 90 years) when compared to
control (18 - 33) suggesting impairment of parasympathetic
function in the elderly aged > 60 years. The basis for this finding
is multifactorial and may be at multiple levels of neuraxis
including peripheral and central mechanisms. Dysfunction in the
activity of the neural portion (afferent, central or efferent) of the
vagal system and the cardiac muscarinic receptor may be
involved in the parasympathetic changes associated with aging
(2).
The underlying mechanisms of aging are complex and
uncertain. Aging is a, multifactorial process that clearly affects
the Autonomic Nervous System. Its impact on the autonomic
neuraxis is at multiple levels and heterogeneous. The altered
autonomic function at the transition from adulthood to old age is
continuation of process of modulation of autonomic function
from fetal to postnatal and postnatal to adulthood. Age related
changes in cardiovascular Structure and function increase the
probability of disease modify the threshold at which symptoms
and signs arise and affect the clinical course and prognosis.
The altered autonomic function of long term heart rate
behavior with advancing age may arise from age related changes
in various organs and body systems, which may interact with
each other and thereby impair the function of cardiovascular
autonomic regulatory systems. Altered autonomic regulation of
cardiac function may contribute to the onset of cardiovascular
disease and provide a substrate for malignant ventricular
arrhythmia.
Additional changes in the heart with aging are structural
changes in the SA node, with reduction in cell no‘s of such a
degree (28) that the capacity for chronotropic responses might be
impaired. Factors such as these could blunt cardiac
responsiveness in the elderly. Cardiac electrophysiologic studies
have demonstrated a progressive decline in sinoatrial conduction
and sinus node recovery time with age (29).
V. CONCLUSION
According to available literature and the findings of present
study, heart rate response to deep breathing, Valsalva maneuver
and to standing which reflect integrity of parasympathetic
function is reduced after the sixth decade even in normal healthy
subjects. There was no significant difference in all the tests of
parasympathetic function between the young old and old old
indicating no further decline in parasympathetic function after 75
years. Physicians have to bear in mind the age related
impairment of autonomic function while evaluating
cardiovascular diseases in elderly.
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AUTHORS
First Author –Dr Vinutha Shankar MS, Professor, Dept Of
Physiology, Sri Devaraj Urs Medical college, Sri Devaraj Ur
Academy of Higher Education & Research, Kolar, Karnataka,
India, E mail: vinutha.shankar@gmail.com
Second Author –Dr. Shivakumar Veeraiah, Professor & HOD,
Dept of Physiology, Bangalore Medical College & Research
Institute, Bangalore, Karnataka, India.
Correspondence Author – Dr vinutha Shankar MS, Professor,
Dept Of Physiology, Sri Devaraj Urs Medical college, Sri
Devaraj Urs Academy of Higher Education & Research, Kolar,
Karnataka, India, E mail: vinutha.shankar@gmail.com
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 228
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The Folk Medicinal Plants of the Mao Naga in Manipur,
North East India
Abstract- The present paper exclusively deals with the Mao
Naga Folk medicinal plants which are used for treating various
ailments and diseases in their day today life. They are settled
agriculturist and have a very rich knowledge on plant based
resources utilization for their survival since time immemorial.
They practices folk medicines to take care of their health and
related problems primarily from the plant resources available
within and the vicinity of their environment. During the
investigation it has recorded 61 species belonging to 39 families
and 57 genera which are widely used as medicines by this ethnic
community. The most common part of the plant utilized by the
indigenous people as the source of medicine is the leaves with 32
species. Flower and inflorescence are the least part of the plant
with only two species viz. Crassocephalum crepidiodes and
Hibiscus subdariffa which used for treating cuts, wounds and
appetizer during sickness. The most dominant family is
Asteraceae with 10 species that are used for several diseases.
Index Terms- Mao Naga, Ethno-medicinal plants,
Agriculturalist, Makhel.
T
I. INTRODUCTION
he Northeast India comprises of eight states viz., Assam,
Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura and they are physiographically
categorized into the Eastern Himalayas, Northeast hills (Patkai-
Naga Hills and Lushai Hills) and Brahmaputra and the plains of
Barak valley. There are approximately 225 tribes hailing from
the Northeast region, out of the total 450 tribes that are found in
the country (Chatterjee et al., 2006). Besides ethnic and cultural
diversity, it is one of the mega biodiversity regions in the world
which falls under the Himalaya and the Indo-Burma biodiversity
hotspots forming a unique biogeographic province harbouring
major biomes recognized in the world. It has the richest reservoir
of plant diversity and supporting about 50% of India‘s
biodiversity (Mao, Hyniewta & Sanjappa, 2009). Majority of the
tribal communities resides in the hills and some parts of the
plains and valleys in different parts of the region. Ethnic-cultural
diversity and rich biodiversity in the region are one of the charms
that attract the attention of the tourists and equally the
academicians or researchers for various reasons. There is a huge
potential to do ethnobotanical research in the region, primarily,
because, half of the total Indian tribal communities lives and
practices their cultures in its own unique way. Several works has
been done on Ethnomedicinal plants used by the different tribal
communities from Northeast India, the north Cachar hills
Adani Lokho
Department of Botany, Siksha Bhavan, Visva Bharati, Santiniketan
West Bengal-731235, India
(Sanjem, Rout and Nath, 2008); Tai-Khamyangs of Assam (
Sonowal and Barua, 2011); Mizoram (Rai & Lalramnhinglova,
2010); Sikkim (Singh, Birkumar and Rai, 2007); Tinsukia,
Assam (Buragoham, 2011); Apatani, Arunachal Pradesh (Kala,
2005); Khasi and Garos, Meghalaya (Neogi, Prasad and Rao,
1989); Reang, Tripura (Sil and Choudhury, 2009); Angami-a,
Nagaland (Megoneitso and Rao, 1983); Lotha, Nagaland (Jamir,
Takatemjen and Limasengla, 2008) etc. However this is the first
report on the Mao Naga Folk medicinal plants.
The Naga tribes belong to the Mongolian stock and speak a
Tibeto-Burmese language, and have socio-cultural affinities with
the Southeast Asia (Ao Alemchiba, 1970). They have a very rich
culture and traditional practices which is unique from one tribe to
the other. The Nagas have a great heritage of oral traditions
which involves beliefs and practices associated with nature,
plants and animals. The diversity of the ethnic tribes among the
Nagas presents a vast scope of ethnobotanical researches. There
are 31 different tribes- Angami, Chakeshang, Ao, Sema,
Rengma, Lotha, Chang, Konyak, Sangtam, Phom, Zeliang, Mao,
Maram, Tangkhul, Maring, Anal, Mayan-Monsang, Lamkang,
Nockte, Haimi, Htangun, Ranpan, Kolyo, Kenyu, Kacha,
Yachimi, Kabui, Uchongpok, Makaoro, Jeru and Somra (Horam,
1975). However, only a few accounts on ethnobotany mainly
emphasized on medicinal and wild edible plants used by the
Angami-a (Megoneitso and Rao, 1983); Ao (Rao and Jamir,
1990); Nagaland (Rao and Jamir, 1982a, 1982b); Zeliang (Jamir
and Rao, 1990); Zeme (Rout et al., 2010); Lotha (Jamir et al.,
2008); Mao (Mao and Hyneiwta, 2009; Mao, 1993, 1998, 1999);
Nagaland (Chankija, 1975), has been reported by few
researchers. The Nagas people live and spread out in the state of
Nagaland, Naga hills in Manipur, North Cachar and Mikir hills,
Lakhimppur, Sibsagar and Nowgong in Assam, north-east of
Arunachal Pradesh, Somrat tract and across the border into
Burma.
The Mao Naga tribe inhabits the northern most part of the
hills of Manipur, under Senapati district in the Northeast region
of India. The termed ‗Mao‘ has two connotations which refer the
name of the place as well as the people living in the area. The
vernacular name for the people is „Ememie‟ and the place is
„Ememiechiijii‟. Historically, ‗Makhel‘ a village from Mao is the
place of origin for settlement for most of the Naga tribes and has
a significant mark in the pages of Naga history and civilization.
A symbolic „wild Pear tree‟ which was protected and guarded
for several hundred years by the Naga ancestors signified as the
evidence and revered by everyone, stands tall in the midst of the
Mao Naga till today. They are settled agriculturalist and practices
both terrace and wet paddy field cultivation. Apart from the two
major forms of cultivation (terrace & wet paddy) kitchen
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gardening for vegetables and fruits for the family is a common
practice amongst the tribe. In general the agricultural practices of
the Mao tribe are considered to be the most advance form
amongst the various Naga tribes in North-east India (Mao, 1993).
The most common cash crops are Potato, Maize, Millet, Soya
bean, Cabbage both leafy and ball, Tomato, Chilli, Paddy,
Pumkin, Brinjal, Beans, Peas, Raddish, Leafy mustard, Summer
onion, Tamarillo, Squash, Ginger, Garlic etc. The common fruits
that are grown are Peach, Plums of several varieties, Pears,
Passion fruit, Banana, Lemon, Guava, Mango, Cucumber,
Avocado, Kiwi fruit, Strawberry and Cherry etc. There are
several works done on ethnobotany, medicinal plants and
traditional techniques from the northeast region by various
workers for different ethnic tribal communities. However, very
few works has been done on the ‗Mao‘ and ethnic Naga groups
in general. Thus, the present work is an attempt to assess and
study the folk medicinal plants of the Mao Naga in Manipur,
India
II. METHODOLOGY
The information was gathered during the study period from
2009-2011 through interviewed conducted to the village elders
and practitioners from the Mao area in Manipur, India. The
details were recorded in the information sheets. The field survey
was conducted in the respective localities and the plant materials
are collected by following the standard method (Rao and Jain,
1977). All the informations presented in the paper are the actual
version of the people interviewed during the study period. The
specimens were identified with the help of adjacent floras, the
Flora of Assam (Kanjilal), Forest Flora of Meghalaya
(Haridasan) and consulted the Botanical Survey of India (BSI)
museum, Shillong. The specimens were submitted to the North
Eastern Biodiversity Research Cell (NEBRC), N.E.H.U. Shillong
for future reference.
Ethnomedicinal Plants and Their Uses:
The vernacular name, botanical name, family and the parts used
and its utilization were presented under its plant species.
Polygonum orientale Linn.
Vernacular name: Obuvii
Family: Polygoncaeae
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Diarrhoea and Dysentry
Mode of Utilization: Fresh leaves are boiled with or without rice
and serve the patient suffering from serious diarrhea and
dysentery for quick relief.
Maesa indica (Roxb) A. DC.
Vernacular name: Kohravii
Family: Myrsinaceae
Parts used: Leaves
Treatment: Throat/Vocal cord
Mode of utilization: Young leaves are boiled with water and
taken for treating hoarse voice.
Paedaria foetida Linn.
Vernacular name: Oboripro
Family: Rubiaceae
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Gastritis and Fungal/Bacteria infection
Mode of utilization: A bunch of fresh leaves are crush and the
squeeze juice is mixed with water in a cup and drink for
gastritis/acidity. The paste of fresh leaves apply for
fungal/bacterial infections between the toes during rainy seasons.
Melia azaderach Linn.
Vernacular name: Siikhasii
Family: Meliaceae
Part used: Barks
Treatment: Blood pressure, Acidity and Ringworm infection
Mode of utilization: A handful of fresh peelings of the endoderm
of the bark is crush or grounded and boiled with water and the
decoction is taken for treating blood pressure and acidity. The
paste of the bark is applied on the skin for ring worm.
Anthogonium gracile Wall.
Vernacular name: Oke
Family: Orchidaceae
Part used: Tuber/Rhizome
Treatment: Cracking heels
Mode of utilization: The tuber/rhizome is crush/grounded into a
paste and applies on the cracking heels for quick relief from pain.
Chenopodium ambrosoides Linn.
Vernacular name: Nopuepro
Family: Chenopodiaceae
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Headache, fever and blood pressure
Mode of utilization: One or two handfuls of leaves are boiled in
water and the decoction is taken for treating headache, fever and
blood pressure.
Morus nigra Linn.
Vernacular name: Khelosii
Family: Urticaceae
Part use: Leaves and Roots
Treatment: Jaundice
Mode of utilization: A hand of fresh young leaves or the
covering of the roots are crush along with water and the
decoction is taken for treating jaundice.
Urtica dioca Linn.
Vernacular name: Shiingho
Family: Urticaceae
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Mumps
Mode of utilization: Five to ten numbers of fresh leaves are crush
or grounded and the paste is apply on the affected part for
treating mumps.
Cannabis sativa Linn.
Vernacular name: Kanjapro
Family: Cannabaceae
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Bone fracture, Sprain and Muscle pain
Mode of utilization: Five to ten leaves are crush and the paste is
apply on the affected part for cuts and wounds for blood clotting.
Two to three handfuls of leaves are boiled in water and the mixer
is use for treating muscle pain, sprain and fracture of the bones.
Ricinus communis Linn.
Vernacular name: Midziipro
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Sprain and Muscle pain
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Mode of utilization: Five to ten numbers of leaves are heated or
boiled in water and apply on the affected part of sprain, tearing
of ligaments and muscle pain to reduce swollen and quick relief
from pain.
Dichrocephala integrifolia (Linn.f.) Kuntze
Vernacular name: Orekoropro
Family: Asteraceae
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Fungal infection
Mode of utilization: Three to five numbers of fresh leaves are
crush and squeeze juice is apply on the affected part on the face
from fungal infection.
Acorus calamus Linn.
Vernaculr name: Donia
Family: Araceae
Part used: Root
Treatment: Stomache
Mode of utilization: Fresh roots extracts are taken for stomache.
Cucurma aromatic Salisb.
Vernaculr name: Kodziipa
Family: Zingiberaceae
Part used: Rhizome
Treatment: Stomache
Mode of utilization: The fresh rhizome/roots extracts is taken for
stomache.
Polytricum juniperinum Hewd.
Vernacular name: Shiipa
Family: Polytricaceae
Part used: Whole plant
Treatment: Cuts and Nose bleeding
Mode of utilization: The whole plant is crush or grounded and
applies on the cuts and wounds for blood clotting and nose
bleeding.
Bidens pilosa Linn.
Vernacular name: Shanghapiti-e
Family: Asteraceae
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Cold and fever, Headache and Blood presssure
Mode of utilization: One or two handful of fresh leaves is boiled
in water and the mixer is taken orally for cold, flu, fever,
headache and blood pressure.
Centella asiatica Linn.
Vernacular name: Korivii
Family: Umbelliflorae
Part used: Whole plant
Treatment: Gastritis, Ulcer and Blood pressure
Mode of utilization: The whole plant is taken raw or boiled with
water and taken for gastritis/acidity, ulcer pain and blood
pressure.
Erythrina variegate Linn.
Vernacular name: Letosii
Family: Papilionaceae
Part used: Bark
Treatment: Poison
Mode of utilization: A handful of the fresh peelings of the bark,
the endodermis layer is crush with water and the decoction is use
as an antidote.
Acacia pruinescens Kurz.
Vernacular name: Motusii
Family: Mimosaceae
Part used: Bark
Treatment: Fish poisoning
Mode of utilization: The fresh peelings of the bark are grounded
along with water and used for stupefying fish in the streams or
river for fishing.
Elsholtzia ciliate Thunb.
Vernacular name: Shipriikholo
Family: Lamiaceae
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Gas formation
Mode of utilization: A handful of fresh leaves extract is taken for
stomached due to gas formation and quick relief from stomach
upset.
Rhus semialata Linn.
Vernacular name: Omoshii
Family: Anacardiaceae
Part used: Fruits
Treatment: Dysentry and Diarrhoea
Mode of utilization: One or two handful of fresh or dried ripens
fruits are boiled with water and the decoction is taken for treating
dysentery and diarrhea. The decoction is also good for stomach
upset and gas formation.
Clerodendron colebrookianum Walp.
Vernacular name: Pijiivii
Family: Verbanaceae
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Blood pressure and Abdominal pain
Mode of utilization: A bundle of leaves consisting of 15 to 20
numbers are boiled with water as vegetables and taken for blood
pressure and abdominal problems.
Gynura bicolor (Roxb. & Willd) DC.
Vernacular name: Tabovii
Family: Asteraceae
Part used: Leaves and young stems
Treatment: Ulcer, Chronic acidity
Mode of utilization: One or two handful of leaves along with the
young stems is boiled with or without rice and is taken for
treating gastritis/chronic acidity and blood pressure. The crush of
the fresh leaves is squeeze and the juice is mixed with water and
taken fresh for ulcer and abdominal cleansing.
Spilanthus paniculata Wall ex DC.
Vernacular name: Cheviivii
Family: Asteraceae
Part used: Whole plant
Treatment: Abdominal pain and Expulsion of worms
Mode of utilization: A handful bundle of whole plant is boiled
with water and taken for treating stomached and abdominal
problem. It is taken for expulsion of worms from the stomach.
Houttuynia cordata Thunb.
Vernacular name: Shakama
Family: Saururaceae
Part used: Whole plant
Treatment: Stomache, Gas formation and Expulsion of worms
Mode of utilization: Fresh whole is either taken raw or boiled
with water or taken for stomached, gas formation and expulsion
of worms from abdomen. The fresh roots are sliced into small
pieces and taken as salad for the same purpose of treatment.
Artemisia vulgaris Buch. Linn.
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Vernacular name: Shiipriiprini
Family: Asteraceae
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Dandruff, Cuts and Wounds
Mode of utilization: Depending on the size of the cuts bruised
and wounds few or a handful of fresh leaves are crush with a few
drops of water or saliva and the juices is squeeze and apply on
the affected part. The paste of the leaves is pasted on the wounds
and cuts. The leaves crush is also use as shampoo for dandruff.
Artemisia nilgarica (CL.) Camp.
Vernacular name: Shupriipriso
Family: Asteraceae
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Dandruff, Cuts and Wounds
Mode of utilization: Depending on the size of the cuts bruised
and wounds few or a handful of fresh leaves are crush with a few
drops of water or saliva and the juice is squeezed and applies on
the affected part. The paste of the leaves is pasted on the wounds
and cuts. The leaves crush is also use as shampoo for dandruff.
Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng
Vernacular name: Japanpro
Family: Asteraceae
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Acidity, Cuts and Wounds
Mode of utilization: A handful of fresh leaves are crush with a
few drops of water or saliva and the juice is squeezed and applies
on the affected part. The paste of the leaves is pasted on the
wounds and cuts. The young tender shoots are taken raw for
chronic acidity for quick relief.
Eleutherococcus cissifolius Griff. ex C. B. Clarke
Vernacular name: Kosa Motsii
Family: Araliaceae Juss.
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Stomache upset
Mode of utilization: One or two handful bundles of fresh leaves
are boiled and taken for stomach disorder.
Berchemia floribunda Wall.
Vernacular name: Tovuni Rei
Family: Rhamnaceae
Part used: Whole plant
Treatment: Dandruff
Mode of utilization: The whole is crush with water and the
extract is use as shampoo for washing hairs and dandruff.
Xanthosoma sagittifolium (Linn.) Schott
Vernacular name: Birovii
Family: Araceae
Part used: Stem
Treatment: Bees sting and Insects bites
Mode of utilization: Freshly cut stems juice is rubbed against on
the skin to prevent swollen and suppress the pain from sting of
bee wasps and insects.
Elsholtzia blanda Bentham
Vernacular name: Shiipriikholo
Family Lamiaceae
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Hypertension, Headache and Blistered lips
Mode of utilization: One or two handful of bundles of fresh
leaves is boiled with water and the decoction is taken for treating
hypertension and headache. Three to five leaves are warm/
heated gently and dabbed against the affected part of the
sore/blistered lips.
Zanthophyllum armatum DC.
Vernacular name: Momo mochu
Family: Rutaceae
Part used: Fruits
Treatment: Gas formation and Stomache
Mode of utilization: The whole fruit is crush and apply on the
abdomen or stomach or three to five seeds fleshy covers are
chewed and taken for stomached, stomach disorder and
expulsion of gas from the stomach.
Butea buteiformis (Voigt) Grierson & D. G. Long
Vernacular name: Chiikhovii
Family: Fabaceae
Part used: Seed
Treatment: Expulsion of worms
Mode of utilization: The seed pop containing a single seed is
roasted and taken for expulsion of tape worms and worm from
the stomach and intestine.
Bombax ceiba Linn.
Vernacular name: Pikriisii
Family: Malvaceae (Bombacaceae)
Part use: Bark
Treatment: Snake bites
Mode of utilization: The fresh peeling of the bark is crush in the
form a paste and stuck on the affected portion of the snake bites
to prevent swellings and quick healing. It is also use on the cattle
for the same purposes.
Viburnum foetidum Wallich.
Vernacular name: Shiikriisii
Family: Adoxaceae
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Ear pain
Mode of utilization: A handful of fresh leaves are boiled with
little water and the concentrated mixture/ decoction or few fresh
leaves are crush and the squeeze juice is used as an ear drops.
Brugmansia sauveolens (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Bercht.
& J. Presl.
Vernacular name: Mikrii Tabopro
Family: Solanaceae
Part used: Leaves and barks
Treatment: Sprain, Muscle pain and Snake bites
Mode of utilization: Several fresh leaves are warm/heat up
gently till the colour changes to dark green and dabbed/ rubbed
on the affected part for reducing the pain and swelling for sprain,
tearing of muscles and ligaments and dislocation of the joints.
Fresh peelings of the bark are crush into a paste and bandage
with a soft cloth on the affected portion for snake bites.
Drymeria cordata (Linn.) Willd. ex Schultes
Vernacular name: Pfiipfiipro
Family: Caryophyllaceae
Part used: Whole plant
Treatment: Sinitis and Sprain of body parts
Mode of utilization: The plant is crush into a paste and stick on
the affected part of the sprain on the body. For sinusitis, a
handful of plant is gently warm or heat up and rolled with a soft
cloth/handkerchief and sniff through the nostril for quick relief.
Thalictrum foliossum D. C.
Vernacular name: Okhruvii
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Family: Ranunculaceae
Part used: Whole plant
Treatment: Diarrhoea and Dysentry
Mode of utilization: The whole plant is boiled or taken raw for
chronic acidity, diarrhea and dysentery,
Oroxylon indicum (Linn.) Benth. ex Kurz.
Vernacular name: Kakidziihe
Family: Bignonaceae
Part used: Bark and Root
Treatment: Cancer, Diarrhoea, Diabetes and Hypertension
Mode of utilization: Decoction of the freshly peelings of the bark
and outer covering of the root is taken for treating cancer,
diabetes and hypertension. Dried peels of the bark grounded and
mixed with water and drink for diabetes.
Achyranthes aspera Hook. F. /Justicia adhota Linn.
Vernacular name: Tohuopa
Family: Acanthaceae
Part used: Leaves and Roots
Treatment: Malarial fever, Abdominal pain, Indigestion and
Urine disorder
Mode of utilization: Decoction of fresh leaves, seeds and fruits is
taken for acidity, abdominal pain, indigestion, appetizers and
preventing reoccurring of malarial fever and promote urine flow.
Hibiscus subdariffa Linn.
Vernacular name: Okhrivii
Family: Malvaceae
Part used: Leaves and Calyx
Treatment: Tonic and Skin allergy
Mode of utilization: Fresh as well as dried leaves and sepals is
boiled and taken as a tonic to improve blood count in the body.
Fresh sepals are crush and apply on the skin for allergy.
Crassocephalum crepidiodes Benth.
Vernacular name: Tabo Khephapha Pro
Family: Asteraceae
Part used: Leaves and inflorescence
Treatment: Cuts and Wounds
Mode of utilization: Fresh leaves and inflorescence are crushed
into a paste and apply on the cuts and wounds to stop blood
oozing.
Physalis perviana Linn.
Vernacular name: Tsiibobopro
Family: Solanaceae
Part used: Leaves and Fruit
Treatment: Dysentry, Diarrhoea, Jaundice and Tonic
Mode of utilization: The leaves are taken raw or boiled and the
decoction is taken for diarrhea and dysentery. Leaves are crushed
along with water in proportion with amount of leaves and taken
for jaundice. The fruit is taken as a tonic and purifier of blood.
Solanum torvum Sw.
Vernacular name: Modoro Shiikhokha
Family: Solanaceae
Part used: Fruits
Treatment: Blood pressure, Headache and fever
Mode of utilization: Both fresh and dried ripe and unripe fruits is
crushed and boiled with water and taken for blood pressure,
headache, cold and fever.
Solanum nigrum Linn.
Vernacular name: Ohomira Kosopro
Family: Solanaceae
Part used: Fruits and leaves
Treatment: Malarial fever and Jaundice
Mode of utilization: The decoction of fresh leaves or with fruits
is taken for jaundice and malarial fever.
Solanum khasianum C. B. Clarke
Vernacular name: Sokheriibvii
Family: Solanaceae
Part used: Seedpod
Treatment: Toothache
Mode of utilization: The dried seedpod as well as the placenta of
the seed are rolled up in a paper and fumigate the affected teeth
for toothache.
Viscum articulatum Burm.
Vernacular name: Otsiibu
Family: Viscaceae
Part used: Root
Treatment: Bone fracture and Sprained
Mode of utilization: The peelings of the epidermal layer of the
root are crushed into a paste and apply to the affected part of the
body from sprain and bone fracture.
Zingiber officinale Rosc.
Vernacular name: Ravo
Family: Zingiberaceae
Part use: Rhizome
Treatment: Cough, Cold and fever, Throat and Witch spelled
Mode of utilization: A thumb size of the rhizome is crush and
boils with water and the decoction is drunk for treating cold and
cough. The decoction is used for clearing the throat so as to
produce a clear voice for singing. Also the rhizome is used for
protection against the spell of evils by the witch or from the evil
spirit.
Momordica charantia Linn.
Vernacular name: Khenavii
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Fever, Headache, Blood pressure and Cold
Mode of utilization: A bundle of fresh leaves or preferably a
pinch or two of dry leaves is boiled and the whole preparation is
taken to treat any type of fever, headache and cold.
Cucurbita maxima Linn.
Vernacular name: Omo
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Part used: Seed
Treatment: Expulsion of Worms
Mode of utilization: The roasted seeds numbering 10-15 are
taken for the expulsion of worms from the stomach of the young
ones.
Passiflora edulis Lindl.
Vernacular name: Kheboshii
Family: Passifloraceae
Part used: Fruit and leaves
Treatment: Dysentry and Diarrhoea
Mode of utilization: A handful or two bunches of fresh leaves are
boiled with water and the decoction as well as the leaves is taken
for treating dysentery, diarrhea and stomach upset. The fruit is
also taken alone or in the form of chutney for the same treatment.
Colocassia esculenta (Linn.) Schott
Vernacular name: Obi
Family: Araceae
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Part used: Rhizome/Tuber
Treatment: Labour pain
Mode of utilization: The rhizome/tubers are cooked in significant
amount and given to the pregnant mother during labour pain for
easy and quick delivery.
Musa paradisica Linn.
Vernacular name: Ovii
Family: Musaceae
Part used: Fruit
Treatment: Diarrhoea
Mode of utilization: One to three ripe bananas is taken at a time
to subdued or stopped loose motion/ diarrhea. Unripe banana is
roasted and taken for serious condition for the same ailment.
Musa velutina Wendl. & Drude
Vernacular name: Ovii Viichu
Family: Musaceae
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Sore Lips
Mode of utilization: One or two fresh leaves are taken and warm
up gently near the fire and dabbed on the affected part of the sore
lips before going to bed for three to four times daily.
Psidium guajava (Linn.) Kuntze
Vernacular name: Pondal
Family: Myrtaceae
Part used: Fruit and young tender Leaves
Treatment: Dysentry and Diarrhoea
Mode of utilization: One or two handful bunches of young tender
leaves are boiled and the decoction is taken for treating diarrhea
and serious dysentery. Also the young leaves are also taken raw
for the same treatment. The fruit is also taken raw for subduing
the effect of loose motion or diarrhea.
Glochidion oblatum J. D. Hooker
Vernacular name: Lokhro todu
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Part used: Stem and Root
Treatment: Dysentry
Mode of utilization: Fresh stem and roots extracts are taken for
dysentery.
Embilica officinalis Gaertn.
Vernacular name: Shiihoshii
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Part used: Fruit
Treatment: Cold and Cough
Mode of utilization: 3-5 numbers of fruits are eaten after every
meal along with warm water for treating cold and cough.
Mentha arvensis Linn.
Vernacular name: Opfokoso pro
Family: Lamiaceae
Part used: Young shoot and Leaves
Treatment: Stomache, Stomach upset and Constipation
Mode of utilization: A bunch of young shoots and the leaves are
either taken raw or boiled with water and the whole content is
consumed for stomache, stomach upset and constipation.
Chrysanthemum morifolium (L) Desmond
Vernacular name: Shiipriipa
Family: Asteraceae
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Cough, diarrhea and dysentery
Mode of utilization: Five to ten young leaves are raw chewed and
taken for cough, diarrhea and dysentery.
Juglans regia Linn.
Vernacular name: Okhoshii
Family: Juglandaceae
Part used: Bark
Treatment: Tooth plague and bleeding gums
Mode of utilization: The peelings of the bark especially the inner
layer are used for tooth plague as well as for gum bleeding by
brushing against the teeth gently.
Prunus persica (Linn.) Batsch.
Vernacular name: Mikriihoshii
Family: Rosaceae
Part used: Leaves
Treatment: Ring worm
Mode of utilization: Five to ten fresh leaves are crushed by hands
and the juice is rubbed on the affected portion for treating ring
worm.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The present study is the first of its kind with reference to Folk
medicinal plants of the Mao Naga in northeast, India, which has
reveals the use of diverse plants consisting of 39 families, 57
genera and 61 species for treating various ailments and diseases
in a traditional method. It is observed that many of the plant
species that are used by them have a broad spectrum for treating
for various diseases with the same plant. The thirty common
diseases that are prevailing amongst the community are treated
with 61 species which are available in their surroundings. The
most common part of the plant utilized by the indigenous people
is leaves with 32 species recorded for various ailments and
treatments. Flower and inflorescence are the least part of the
plant with only two species viz. Crassocephalum crepidiodes and
Hibiscus subdariffa used for treating cuts and wounds and tonic
as an appetizer in the present study. The whole plant, stem, bark,
seeds and fruits are moderately used by the Mao‘s as medicinal
purposes. The most common plant used for fever and headache is
the leaves of Mormodica charantia. The indigenous people
considered this plant as a panacea and heavily depended on the
plant for all purposes for treating the sick persons. The fruit of
Rhus semialata is considered a potent for treating diarrhoea,
dysentery and stomach related problems and the dry fruit is
preserved and kept throughout the year in every home. The fruit
and the seeds of Solanum torvum are dried and preserved and
kept at home throughout the year for any eventuality among the
family for treating several diseases such as cold, fever, headache,
stomache and blood pressure. These are some of the important
medicinal plants for the indigenous people as a home remedy
since time immemorial. The leaves of Maesa indica used by the
Mao Naga from northeast India, as an agent for clearing the
throat/vocal cord for producing a melodious sound is unique and
interesting. The most dominant family of the present study is
Asteraceae with 10 species which is in conformity with study of
Saklani & Jain (1994) in which they have reported the same
family as the most dominant family of medicinal plants across
the North Eastern States of India. The second most important
family with a record of 5 species as medicinal plants during the
present survey is Solanaceae. Despite of the richness of plant
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wealth in the area the numbers are dwindling every passing day
due to deforestation for agricultural practices and various
developmental activities. Therefore there is a dearth need for
conservation of these precious medicinal plants for further
scientific study to harvest its constituents to cater the needs of
vibrant healthcare products in future.
IV. CONCLUSION
The Mao Nagas are settled agriculturalist and heavily
depended upon the cultivated and wild plants for their survival as
they live at the proximity of the hill forest. They practiced
organic farming since time immemorial and consumed the
products which are free from hazardous elements that keep them
healthy. Thorough scientific study is required so as to tap the
plant rich resources with special reference to the Mao folk
medicinal plants, which, there is a probability of discovering new
compounds for developing into a modern medicine. Despite of
the richness of plant wealth in the area the numbers are
dwindling every passing day due to deforestation for agricultural
practices and various developmental activities. Therefore there is
an urgent need for conservation and management of these
precious medicinal plants for sustainable use and scientific study
so as to harvest its constituents to cater the needs of vibrant
healthcare products in future.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author is thankful to all the Folk medicine practitioners,
elders and the people of the Mao Naga tribe for their helped and
sincere co-operation throughout the survey and field trips in their
respective locality. Sincere thanks to BSI, Shillong for
identification and accessed to their herbarium.
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AUTHORS
First Author – Adani Lokho, Department of Botany, Siksha
Bhavan, Visva Bharati, Santiniketan West Bengal-731235,
Email:lokhoabba@gmail.com
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Women and Soap-Operas: Popularity, Portrayal and
Perception
Abstract- In the multi-media world of today, television has
emerged as an important instrument of transmission of
knowledge and information. Working as a complimentary agent
to other sources, television has enhanced the process of change
by providing timely information about education, hygiene,
health, customs and so on. The purpose of television is to inform,
educate and entertain its viewers. Television, because of its
predominance of visual movement has the capacity of bringing
the world into the living room with great authenticity and
efficacy. As a result of this, television has a more profound and
persuasive impact on its viewers, particularly women. Women
are treated as ―special audience groups‖, so that appropriate
measures can be taken to cater to their propensities and
inclinations. In this context, problems and issues pertaining to
women are shown regularly on television in different
programmes. Soap operas are one of the most popular genres on
television and as a cultural produce, this format is extremely
popular among the masses. Soap-operas, inevitably, have
attracted a large and loyal fan base. Soaps enjoy a momentous
and immense popularity among the contemporary society and
they have found a place for themselves and also allow a
multiplicity of interpretations to suit the diverse tastes of the
dominant Indian middle class.
Index Terms- Television, women, soap-operas, popularity,
audience.
T
I. SOAP OPERAS
he term "soap opera" was coined by the American press in
the 1930s to denote the extraordinarily popular genre of
serialized domestic radio dramas, which, by 1940, represented
some 90% of all commercially-sponsored daytime broadcast
hours. The "soap" in soap opera alluded to their sponsorship by
manufacturers of household cleaning products; while "opera"
suggested an ironic incongruity between the domestic narrative
concerns of the daytime serial and the most elevated of dramatic
forms. The defining quality of the soap opera form is its seriality.
Soap operas are of two basic narrative types: "open" soap operas,
in which there is no end point toward which the action of the
narrative moves; and "closed" soap operas, in which, no matter
how attenuated the process, the narrative does eventually close.
(Pingree and Cantor,1983). Examples of the open soap include
(The Guiding Light, etc.), the wave of primetime U.S. soaps in
the 1980s (Dallas, Dynasty, Falcon Crest), such British serials as
Coronation Street, East Enders, and Brook side), most Australian
serials (Neighbours, Home and Away, A Country Practice), and
Indian soaps as Balika Vadhu, Uttaran Pavitra Rishta enjoy
Dr. Aaliya Ahmed
Media Education Research Centre, Kashmir University, India
immense popularity. The closed soap opera is more common in
Latin America, where it dominates primetime programming from
Mexico to Chile. In India, Geet, Dil Mil Gaye fall in this
category. These ‗telenovelas‘ are broadcast nightly and may
stretch over three or four years and hundreds of episodes. They
are, however, designed eventually to end, and it is the
anticipation of closure in both the design and reception of the
closed soap opera that makes it fundamentally different from the
open form. The term itself signals an aesthetic and cultural
incongruity: the events of everyday life elevated to the subject
matter of an operatic form.
II. AUDIENCE AND SOAP OPERAS
Soaps in general have a predominantly female audience,
although prime-time soaps such as Dallas (U.S), Bade Acche
lagte hain (BALH) are aimed at a wider audience, and in fact at
least 30% of the audiences for this soap are male. According to
Ang, in Dallas the main interest for men was in business
relations and problem and the power and wealth shown, whereas
women were more often interested in the family issues and love
affairs. In the case of BALH, it is clear that the programmes
meant something different for female viewers compared with
male viewers.
The audience for soaps does include men sometimes but
some theorists argue that the gender of the viewer is 'inscribed' in
the programmes so the soaps address women in particular. Soaps
appeal to those who value the personal and domestic world.
Dorothy Hobson argues that women typically use soaps as a way
of talking indirectly about their own attitudes and behavior.
There is no doubt that viewing and talking with family and
friends about soap operas is experienced by many women as a
pleasurable experience, and the dismissal of the worth of the
genre by many commentators, including some feminists critical
of gender stereotyping, is open to the charge of cultural elitism.
Some feminist theorists have argued that soap operas spring from
a feminine aesthetic, in contrast to most prime-time television.
Women are stereotyped in soap operas but the image of the
modern women has changed. From being a meek, docile,
subservient housewife, she has grown and evolved into a strong
individual. She not excels in her profession but is also an able
homemaker. This change is partially if not fully perceptible in
the soap operas shown on Indian television.
Soaps create a world dominated by interpersonal relationship,
where characters discuss marital, romantic and family problems.
There is little physical violence or crime. The soap opera world
seems emotionally hazardous-mainly because of the continual
sorting and re-sorting of relationships.
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Soaps undoubtedly have immense potential to present positive
images of contemporary women, a potential similar to that of
other forms of media designed for women‘s service-newspapers,
magazines, radio forums and so on. Soaps focusing on
relationships and family life could easily present more story lines
and characters, discussing social issues and problems central to
their changing roles. Soaps opera writers have contended that
part of their mission is to teach the ―lesson of life‖ to their
viewers (Nixon, 1972, LeMay, 1982). Soaps are an example of
women‘s literature that supports the status quo regarding
women‘s place in the social order. Women‘s concern in soaps are
changing somewhat. Many women leave a family – centered
world to become an integral part of the work world.
III. PORTRAYAL IN SOAP OPERAS
Though not as strongly as in earlier years, the portrayal of
both men and women on television is largely traditional and
stereotypical. This serves to promote a polarization of gender
roles. With femininity are associated traits such as emotionality,
prudence, co-operation, a communal sense, and compliance.
Masculinity tends to be associated with such traits as rationality,
efficiency, competition, individualism and ruthlessness. Meehan
has shown how on TV, 'good' women are presented as
submissive, sensitive and domesticated; 'bad' women are
rebellious, independent and selfish. The 'dream-girl' stereotype is
gentle, demure, sensitive, submissive, non-competitive, sweetnatured
and dependent. The male hero tends to be physically
strong, aggressive, and assertive, takes the initiative, is
independent, competitive and ambitious. TV and film heroes
represent goodness, power, control, confidence, competence and
success. They are geared, in other words, to succeed in a
competitive economic system. There is no shortage of aggressive
male role-models in Westerns war films and in contemporary
Indian soap-operas. Soaps have no beginning or end, no
structural closure. (Pingree and Cantor,1983). They do not build
up towards an ending or closure of meaning. Viewers can join a
soap opera at any point. There are built-in devices to recap on
aspects of the plot. There is no single narrative line. In this sense,
the plots of soaps are not linear. Narrative lines are interwoven
over time. The structure of soaps is complex and involves
multiple perspectives and no consensus. Ambivalence and
contradiction is characteristic of the genre. This leaves soaps
particularly open to individual interpretations. .
Television offers a wide range of potential role-models, both
positive and negative. Many people find these models of some
use to them. It is not inevitable that viewers accept television
gender images without question, but many popular commentators
tend to assume that they are more discriminating than ordinary
mortals. Not all women, children - or even men - are passive
victims of patriarchal stereotyping. Though there is little doubt
that television presents largely traditional gender images, there is
mixed evidence about the impact of such images on gender
attitudes and behavior. It is difficult to isolate the role of
television, since people are influenced by their whole
environment, although there is fairly widespread agreement that
over time television seems likely to influence people's ideas
about gender roles.
Most significantly though, soap opera's concern with the
everyday lives of everyday people and their problems, big and
small, appears to be one of the main reasons why this genre is so
popular .’Hum Log’, the first soap on Indian television also
represented the values, thinking and beliefs of the middle-class
Indians and was tremendously popular among all sections of
society.(Singhal and Rogers, 2001). The soaps that followed
dealt with different issues prevalent at that time. Soaps that
gained immense popularity were „Humrahi‟, „Bunyaad‟, „Yeh jo
hai Zindagi‟ „Tamas‟, „Mahabharata‟, „Ramayana‟. Telecast at
the national level, they were watched by a large section of
society across the country. The surveys conducted by various
agencies revealed that the viewers rotated their work and leisure
patterns around the timing of these soaps so as to avoid missing
of any of the episodes. These soaps were telecast from
Doordarshan which is available throughout the country.
However, soaps gained momentum in Indian history of
broadcasting when cable television came to India and soaps
became a regular fare in television programming. They soon
captured the attention of the viewers and these soaps took the top
position in the rating scales. For a majority of viewers, soaps are
a major attraction for them to watch television for 2-3 hours
every day and without any breaks. Each satellite channel
approximately telecasts 10-12 soaps everyday of half hour
duration and run into 100s of episodes for 3-4 years
continuously.
IV. TELEVISION AND SOAP OPERAS IN INDIA
Television, in recent times, has emerged as the most powerful
and all pervading force throughout the world. It can disseminate
information with lightning speed and impact, as well as infuse
viewers with images and values in subtle and imperceptible
manner. Because of its very inherent nature, television not only
reflects the values of our society but also influence them.
Indications from research suggests that TV has had a significant
impact on the personal reality structure of its viewers.(Seiter,
Borchers, Kreutzner and Warth, 1989). Television programmes
lead to awareness, provide information which creates curiosity in
the minds of its viewers. Communication is not only an essential
element to the persistence of social order but to look at it more
positively, communication can be an effective means to
developmental change. There is no denying the fact that
television is a major force to be dealt with in our society.
Television in India today has acquired newer dimensions, greater
popularity and a much wider reach. The satellite invasion of
India in 1993 has contributed the most to the multi-lateral, multilingual,
and multi-channel television system, operating on an
elaborate schedule. The moving images of television demand
attention and eventually influence the thoughts and behavior of
the viewers Television has entered our life and become an
inseparable part of our daily lives
The phenomenal expansion of Indian television in recent
years has influenced people in two ways. First, those living in
remote corners have been pulled and merged into the national
mainstream. Secondly television has contributed to an
unprecedented explosion of information in our times. (Gopal
Saxsena, 1996) An awareness of the socio-economic
developmental plans can be ascribed to the wide-reach of
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television. The breaking down of social-barriers can reasonably
be attributed to the presence of television in our lives
Waves of dynamic changes have flashed across the canvas of
Indian television during the last decade. Earlier Indian television
was restricted to Government-controlled Doordarshan only. But
currently there are more than 400 channels available on the
Indian television diaspora offering round the clock services and
multifarious programming to a huge, heterogeneous television
audience. STAR TV, ZEE TV, Sony, have been offering
variegated programmes of various dimensions and perspectives.
Invariably, Doordarshan projected some interesting programmes.
They not only included programmes like ―Patrika‖ or
―Spectrum‖ but also number of serials were telecast. These
included well known works of literature like ―Raag
Darbari‖,―Nirmala‖ (Premchand), ―Pratham Pratishruti‖
(Ashapoorna Devi)‖Charitraheen‖ and ―Shrikant‖(Sharat
Chandra). Epics like ―Mahabharata‖ , ‖Ramayana‖ and ―The
Bible‖ have been among the very popular telecasts. Equally
noteworthy has been: Gul Gulshan Gulfam: bearing on the life in
a Shikara in Kashmir and other aspects of its social life. (Gopal
Saxsena,1996).
―Hum Log‖ however, was successful in setting a trail for the
soap-opera to assert itself with an identity in this country. Along
with ―Yeh Jo Hai Zindagi‖ which was packed with fun and
frolic, made a substantial contribution to Doordarshan's software
programming in those years. Both were immensely popular and
became the measuring yardsticks for other serials that followed.
―Khandaan‖ was yet another popular soap-opera which was
telecast in 1985. It portrayed the day-to-day wranglings,
intrigues, conspiracies and rivalries of high-class industrialists.
Those identifying with the various characters found their own
moods and moorings reflected in the soap-opera. ―Nukkad‖ was
another sponsored serial on the soap-operatic style, which made
its presence felt in India. It portrayed common man‘s actions and
reactions, caused by different incidents taking place in the life of
different characters.
However, it was ―Buniyaad‖ which was presented in the true
tradition of a soap-opera. Running into 104 episodes, it was
woven round the life of a family of pre-partition Punjab. The
sufferings and acts of fortitude of those affected were shown in
this soap-opera. This was followed by ‖Humraahi‖ which was
conceived and designed as a purposive serial from Doordarshan.
The important aspect of the serial was the emphasis it laid on the
status of women in India. Their various problems from early
marriage to higher education and other problems were taken up
in different episodes of this serial. Clashes between tradition and
modernity were depicted. It was a success story and even
garnered international acclaim as an effort to motivate people to
reinforce the power of social communication. America‘s ―The
Soap Opera Digest‖ attributed it as ―Soap in the Service of
Society.‖
There are clear indications that soap-operas are a format
which carry great appeal for a large audience. Popularity of soaps
like from ―Parvarish‖(Sony), ‗Kya Hua Tera
Wada‖(Sony),‖Afsar Bitiya,‖ ―Punar Vivaah―(ZeeTV) ―Iss Pyaar
Ko Kya Naam Doon‖ (STAR),‖Kucch To Log Kahenge‖(Sony)
confirm that soaps have come to stay in India.
Watching these soaps has become a way of life. The
engagements, both indoors and outdoors are once again
conditioned by the telecast schedule of these soaps. According to
Anand Mitra:
―Television and all that encompasses it now implicates
popular culture, social, political practices. It is this mature
medium that can now reshape Indian popular Culture.‖(Gopal
Saxsena,1996)
Frank and Gerbner (1980), in their study combined market
segmentation and need and gratification research in their survey.
They present explanation for why people watch that vary from
one audience segment to another. Members of the soap opera
audience are intellectually limited and watch soap because they
are socially isolated, lonely and emotionally deprived. Herta
Herzog (1944) reported three reasons for listening to radio soaps.
a. Emotional release – a chance to know that others
have a problem too.
b. Wishful thinking -they fill in gaps in the listeners
own lives or compensate for families.
c. Advice -practical explanations of appropriate
patterns of behavior, useful when confronted with
various life situations.
One important area of mass media research is the extent to
which television influences viewers concepts of social reality,
Gerbner and Gross (1976) argue that television is the central
cultural arm of American society serving to socialize people into
standardized roles and behaviors. Television accomplishes this
through a presentation of basic assumption about the way life is
and what values are important. They suggest that television
cultivates people‘s beliefs, about how the world works more
through the sum total of interactions, behaviors and values
present in television content. Buerkle-Rothfuss and Maryes
argue.
―There appears to be an important relationship between what
a person watches on soap operas and what he or she believes to
be true about those aspects of the ‗real world‘ which tends to be
portrayed with exaggerated frequency on soap operas‖.
While reviewing soap opera audience, less attention has
been paid to how soap operas affect consciousness, especially
feminist consciousness. Feminist have argued that although soaps
are women‘s fiction, they present a conservative view of the
world. Many of the interactions that occur on soaps are family
centered / spouses, parent, child and so forth. Viewers may tend
to believe that families are centrally important.
Soap operas are a unique form of entertainment, different
from other television drama, although both are broadcast over the
same networks. There are suitable differences among the soaps
themselves-differences in format, content / expressive elements
and audience. As the audiences have changed over the years, so
has the content of soap operas, more so by the production mode,
which has extended glamour and glitz to this T.V. format.
V. SOAP OPERAS AND THEIR POPULARITY
Soap-opera is the most popular form of television
programming in the world. A large proportion of television
viewers watch and enjoy soap-operas. Soap-operas dominate the
national audience ratings over other programmes that are
telecast. The popularity of soap-opera appears to rest on its
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undemanding nature and its preoccupation with everyday
concerns. (Pingree and Cantor, 1983) .This undemanding nature
has been seen as one of the contributory factors to the genres
popularity. Most significantly, soap operas concern with the
everyday lives of everyday people and their problems, big and
small, appears to be the other reason for this genre being so
popular. Some soaps, like Balika Vadhu ( Colors) are referred to
as being 'realistic' in that they focus on the domestic and
personal, and on everyday concern and problematic issues such
as death, friendship, marriage, romance and divorce, personal
relationship and the role of the female in the marital home. Soap
operas which contain these 'social realist conventions' attract the
attention of the soap viewer, who enjoys watching the portrayal
of many things that are happening today, including the problems
that we face in day to day lives. It can, however, be argued that
soap opera owes a part of its popularity to the fact that the viewer
even enjoys forming a kind of participatory 'relationship' with the
character, and also like to identify themselves with the plots and
character. At the same time, they experience the gratification of
forming para - social relation with the character. It is due to this
formation of para - social relations that enables the soap- opera
viewers to gain pleasure from being able to understand how a
certain character feels or behaves in particular circumstances,
due to themselves having been in a similar situation. This para
social relationship can be recognized in its extreme form when a
viewer puts himself deeply into a character, so that he can feel
the same emotion and experience, the same events as the
character is supposed to feel. (Pingree and Cantor,1983).
Another point of identification which the viewer enjoys
forming with the characters is that of personal identity. Based on
personal experience, it is evident that viewers often use the
behavior of a character in order to justify their behavior in a
similar situation. In this context, the popularity of soap- opera
stems from the pleasures offered by the points of identification
presented by the characters. Viewers want to watch what happens
to those specific characters locked into specific network of
relationships. (Pingree and Cantor,1983).
Soap-opera is also popular due to its continuity, regularity and
familiarity. It has been labeled as a' ritual pleasure ' which offers
reassurance in its familiarity and longevity, its predictable
familiarity being the main force which pulls us in. (Mary Ellen
Brown,1994) .Also due to the soap being solely based in one
place geographical and portraying the lives of same characters in
each episode, the viewer can be assured of familiarity and
continuity. This familiarity, however does not cause it to become
boring because as Geraghty argues, ―the presence of' well
established characters leads to value familiarity and predictability
in the audience who relish change and disruption (Mary E.
Brown,1994).
The distinct popularity of soap-opera can also be attributed to
its ―openness―in that it is an open text with no start, middle or
end. It is continuous, consistent and open-ended following into
the next episode. ―The viewer is presented with a range of
conflicting viewpoints- interest rests on the juxtaposition of'
them, in that there‘s no single answer, and he has to resolve the
issue himself"' (Mary E. Brown, 1994). The implication is
evident that the viewer is actively involved as he predicts and
speculates the future events. The resolutions are left open to
viewer‘s interpretation (Mary E. Brown,1994) and he enjoys it,
thus adding to the popularity of the genre.
Talking about television program‘s and what has happened in
them is essential to making a program popular (Seiter, Borchers,
Kreutzner and Warth, 1989). It has been argued that discussing
soaps can seem to be very therapeutic, as there is some evidence
to prove that viewers talk about certain issues in the soaps as a
way of discussing their own problems, "with some of the serious
issues we have dealt with, they were carefully researched and
they have had positive results in the community". (Seiters,
Borchers, Kreutzner and Warth, 1989)
We cannot escape from the fact that soap operas are one of
the most popular genres on television. An increasing amount of
research has been carried out as to why this is the case, one
important field of study being associated with the uses and
gratifications of the viewers. The presence of suspense, where
viewers are kept guessing about the characters and their fate also
seems to be a major factor relating to the soaps' popularity. Many
viewers also like to predict future events, and gain pleasure from
doing so.
Remarkably, there are a large number of different characters
who all take an equal role in the soaps, although during one
episode one may find particular focus on one or two specific
characters: it is not usually for too long, before the camera
focuses on another character. In this way, the viewer cannot
become bored with certain characters and their problems.‖ The
popularity of soap opera appears to rest on its undemanding
nature and its preoccupation with everyday concerns"
(Livingstone 1990). Indeed, it has been argued that the
undemanding nature of soap opera can be seen as a contributory
factor to the genre's popularity. For example, a regular viewer of
a particular soap opera may find viewing an undemanding
activity due to his or her familiarity with the plots and characters.
This could, therefore, mean that soaps are easy viewing for their
fans due to the low level of concentration needed in
comprehending each episode, as illustrated here: a person who
has been a fan of a particular show hasn't seen the show for
years, only to catch up for the missed years by watching only one
or two episodes" (Brown 1994).
Soap opera as a genre has been successful in creating a style
that fits well with women‘s discourse and problems. Women in
the relationship established through discussion about the soap
and in the affective pleasure of watching practice can establish
solidarity among themselves that they may operate as a threat to
dominant ideological system.
VI. SOAP OPERAS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Soap- operas are proving to be especially influential in
developing countries. They can improve marital communication,
advise people on HIV and AIDS prevention, and counsel
children about how to get along with their parents. Researchers
in Ohio University, in their study of a radio soap-opera broadcast
in India suggest the programs can carry effective educational
messages and change mass behavior. According to Arvind
Singhal, ―if the message is appropriate and the problem is
common, you reach a large number of people with this
communication‖. Soaps -operas needn't be perceived as a
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mindless genre. Viewers have an ongoing relationship with
characters so they become an important part of their daily life.
His studies have also drawn from the social learning theory,
which suggests that human beings don't always learn directly
from the humans, but learn from observing characters in mass
media .Evidence was seen where a radio soap -opera was used in
Northern India-where .population problems were increasing and
soap operas changed the perspectives of people on a number of
issues. Researchers at University of Mexico and Ohio University
analyzed feedback to the themes in "Tinka Tinka Sukh "
.(Happiness lies in Small Things ).It was a 104 episode program
broadcast in 1996 over 27 radio stations to an estimated tens of
millions of listeners in the Hindi speaking region. Topics
included community pride, equal treatment of boys and girls,
marital issues, empowerment of women, educating women and
many other gender themes. Nearly 150,000 letters were received;
including a letter signed by an entire village that noted the soap-
opera encouraged better treatment of women and increased
school attendance among children in the village.
VII. CONCLUSION
Media are very effective, powerful and influential in
disseminating new knowledge, useful for behavior change among
women, thus influencing women‘s empowerment variables as
well. Hum Log in 1987, which reached an audience of 80 million
promoted smaller families and equal status for women. Humraahi
focused on the rights of women to equal education and
employment, to choose their own marriage partners, and to
determine whether and when to have children. The exposure of
woman to media, media portrayal of women in the media, are
some of the important dimensions to be analyzed to examine the
role of media in women‘s empowerment. Exposure to media,
particularly television because of its visual aspect causes
knowledge accumulation and behavior change among women
reflecting the participation of women in decision – making, inter
family communication and role-negotiation of women at home
which can help in achieving better quality of life. The Beijing
Platform of Action (BPFA) outlines two strategic objectives in
regard to women and media that are aimed at promoting
women‘s empowerment and development-1) increase the
participation and access of women to expression and decision –
making through the media and new – technologies of
communication ; 2) promote a balanced portrayal of women in
the media.
Television is a cultural commodity. At the same time, it is a
two vision mirror-reflecting society and in turn being modified
by society. McLuhans medium is the message holds true even in
the new millennium. Genre of soap –opera has over the years
made rapid development in terms of content, presentation and
production. Issues like rape, extra marital relationship, murder
which were considered taboo even to be talked have earned
acceptance in the social setup of our country. People no-longer
switch off their TV sets when a situation of this type arises. They
are curious to see how the issue is resolved. But soaps portraying
interpersonal problems, crisis in the family, balance between
career and home, modern yet traditional in beliefs and values
have gained immense popularity among the masses.
It can be said that soap operas in some ways have given
women their voice. Discussions about soap-operas provide an
outlet for a kind of discourse in which problems about women
can be heard. Paradoxically, soap operas are still spoken of as
trash. If women‘s lives and women‘s stories are to be taken
seriously, then women genres need a serious look.
Women feel connected to the soap operas since they can
relate their own personal and business life to the show. The
viewers sustain a steady relationship with the characters that
relate to themselves and these characters help the viewers find
their own inner self. Watching soap-operas is more meaningful to
women. They are a reflection of the viewer‘s life. It helps the
viewers deal with their own problems and it motivates them to do
what normally women consider the impossible to achieve and do.
Femininity is also shown by the way ―the viewer is positioned by
the narrative‖, who analyses the character he is watching. This
makes the viewer utilize the skills she is watching being enacted.
Also lot of beauty and glamour is attached to the different roles
of women. This offers another ―textual contribution of possible
modes of femininity on which women can draw when
constructing and reconstructing their feminine identities‖.
Consequently, women can relate their life and themselves to
soap-operas.
Television has transformed our social and cultural
environment. It has transformed the relationships between public
and private spheres and between physical and social spaces. It
has made the world visible and accessible in new ways. What is
it there in television that makes it such a potential object for
ushering in change? It is a reasonable question because television
is neither malleable nor neutral object. Television comes prepacked
– a combination of complex communication of sound and
image with powerful reality and emotional claims. Television is
constantly available in almost all homes. It can and it does
occupy a potential space throughout an individual‘s life, though
with varying degrees of intensity and significance. Television has
become the most persuasive and pervasive means of information
diffusion in society. The medium of television plays a very
significant role in bringing about change among people.
Television has the potential and strength to act as a ‗modern
information multiplier‘ which can help people in smoothening
the process of national development, economic growth and social
development. The part played by television, through its varied
content, as a galvanizer in the spectrum of change cannot be
overlooked or ignored. The need of the hour is to harness its
potential in the right direction or rather than let it be a trite
reflection of society‘s lowest common denominator.
Indian soap opera emphasize the process of decision making
showing the plethora of details and nuances in the articulation of
problems that advance the plot lines. If one is reading from a
dominant perspective, one could say that women are only
interested in the trivial details of everyday life, and soap operas,
therefore, reinforce already problematic aspects of women‘s
lives. Another way of reading is that soaps value the fabric of
women‘s lives. Women in contemporary soap operas are given
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powerful positions in different contexts. This genre of television
programming can be an effective tool for creating awareness
about the changing dynamics of society.
REFERENCES
[1] Ang, Ien. ―Dallas‖: Soap Opera and the Melodramatic Imagination.
London.Methuen.1985
[2] Brown, Ellen Mary.(ed). Television and Women‘s Culture: The Politics of
the Popular: London: Sage Publication.1991
[3] Cantor, Muriel G. and Pingree, S. The Soap Opera: California: Sage
Publication.1983
[4] Doordarshan. Doordarshan. New Delhi. Prasar Bharati Corporation of
India. 1998.
[5] Gerbner. G and Gross. Larry. Journal of Communication. 1976
[6] Geraghty. C. Women and Soap Opera. Cambridge. Polity Press. 1991
[7] Livingstone. Sonia M. Making Sense of Television. Oxford. Pergamon
Press.1990
[8] Mitra. Charulata. Women‘s Development Goals: Reshaping Globalization:
Delhi. Authorpress Global Network.2003.
[9] Meehan. D. M. Ladies of the Evening: Women Characters of Prime Time
Television. Metuchen. NJ-Scarecrow. 1983.
[10] Newcomb. Horace. Television: The Critical View. New York. Oxford
University. 1987.
[11] Prasad. Kiran. Women and Media: Challenging Feminist Discourse. Delhi.
The Women Press. 2005.
[12] Saxena. Gopal. . Television in India: Changes and Challenges. New Delhi.
Vikas Publishing House. 1996
[13] Seiter. E. Borchers, H. Kreutzner. G and Warth, Eva-Maria. Remote
Control: Television Audiences and Cultural Power. New York. Routledge.
1989
[14] Singhal, Arvind and Rogers. M. Everett. India‘s Communication
Revolution: From Bullock Carts to Cyber Marts. New Delhi. Sage
Publication. 2001
[15] United Nations. Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women.
Beijing. China.
Zoonen. Van.E. Feminist Media Theory. London. Sage Publications. 1994.
AUTHORS
First Author – Dr. Aaliya Ahmed Ph.D. Sr. Asst. Professor,
Media Education Research Centre, University of Kashmir,
Email:aaliyahmed@gmail.com
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Global and Factor Domination in Fuzzy Graph
G.Nirmala 1 , M.Sheela 2
1
Associate Prof. PG and Research Department of Mathematics, K.N.G.A.College (Women), Autonomous, Thanjavur, Tamilnadu, India
2
Research Scholar, Manonmaniyam Sundharanar University, Thirunelveli, Tamilnadu, India
Abstract- The purpose of this paper is to introduce the concept
of Global Domination number in fuzzy graph .Then we introduce
the concept of Factor Domination number in fuzzy graph and
theorems based on Global and Factor domination in fuzzy graphs
are proved.
Index Terms- Fuzzy Global Domination Number, Fuzzy
Factor Domination Number
T
I. INTRODUCTION
he study of dominating sets in graphs was begun by ore and
berge, the domination number is introduced by cockayne and
Hedetniemi. Rosenfeld introduced the notion of fuzzy graph and
several fuzzy analogs of graph theoretic concepts such as paths,
cycles and connectedness. A Somasundram and S. Somasundram
discussed domination in fuzzy graph. They defined domination
using effective edges in fuzzy graph. Nagoor Gani and
Chandrasekaran discussed domination in fuzzy graph using
strong arc. We also discuss the domination number γ (G) of the
fuzzy graph G, the fuzzy factor domination number of the fuzzy
graph G and the fuzzy global domination number of the fuzzy
graph are discussed in this paper.
Preliminaries1.1
A fuzzy subset of a nonempty set V is a mapping σ: V
→ [0,1]
A fuzzy relation on V is a fuzzy subset of V × V.
A fuzzy graph G = (σ , μ) is a pair of function σ:
V→[0,1] and μ :V×V→[0,1] where μ(u, v )≤σ(u)Λ σ(v)
for u ,v є V.
The underlying crisp graph of G= (σ , μ) is denoted by
G*=(V,E) where V={u є V :σ(u)>0}and E={(u , v) є V
× V : (u ,v )>0}.
The order p and size q of the fuzzy graph G = (σ , μ )
are defined by
p= ∑σ(v) and q= ∑μ ( u ,v ) .
v є V (u, v)є E
Let G be a fuzzy graph on V and S⊆V, then the fuzzy
cardinality of S is defined to be ∑σ(v).
v є S
The strength of the connectedness between two nodes
u , v in a fuzzy graph G is μ ∞ (u , v)=sup{μ k (u
,v):k=1,2,3…..},where μ k (u ,v)=sup{μ(u,u1)Λ
μ(u1,u2)………Λ μ(uk-1,v)}.
An arc (u, v) is said to be a strong arc or strong edge, if
μ (u, v) ≥ μ ∞ ( u ,v) and the node v is said to be a
strong neighbor of u.
A node u is said to be isolated if μ (u , v)=0 for all u ≠ v.
In a fuzzy graph, every arc is a strong arc then the graph
is called strong arc fuzzy graph.
A path in which every arc is a strong arc then the path is
called strong path and the path contains n strong arcs is
denoted by pn
Let u be a node in a fuzzy graph G then N(u)={v: (u ,
v) is a strong arc} is called neighborhood of u and
N[u]=N(u)U{u} is called closed neighborhood of u.
Let G be a fuzzy graph and S be a subset of V.A node v
is said to be fuzzy private neighbor of uє S with respect
to S or S- private neighbor of u, if N[v]∩ S= {u}.
Define a fuzzy private neighborhood of u є S with
respect to S to be P N [u , S] = {v: N[v]∩S={u}} In
other words P N[u,S]=N[u]-N[S-{u}].
If u є P N [u , S], then u is an isolated node in G[S]. It
is also stated that u is its own private neighbor.
II. FUZZY GLOBAL AND FACTOR DOMINATION NUMBER
Definition 2.1:
The complement of a fuzzy graph G=(σ , μ) is a fuzzy
graph G=(σ , μ) where σ=σ and μ(u ,v )=σ(u) Λ σ(v)-μ(u ,v ) for
all u , v in V.
Example2.2
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V 6(0.2)
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ISSN 2250-3153
Figures 2.1, 2.2 be a fuzzy graph and its complement
Definiton2.3
A Fuzzy graph is self complementray if G =G
Definition2.4
Let G=(σ , μ) be a fuzzy graph. A subset D of V is said to be
fuzzy dominating set of G if for every v є V-D there exists u єD
such that (u,v) is a strong arc.
Definition 2.5
A fuzzy graph H=(σ,μ) is said to have a fuzzy t-factoring into
factors F(H)= {G1 G2,G3,......Gt} if each fuzzy graph
Gi=(σi,μi)such that σi=σ and the set{μ1,μ2,μ3……..μt}form a fuzzy
partition of μ.
Definition 2.6
Given A t-factoring F of H, a subset Df⊆V is a fuzzy factor
dominating set if Df is a fuzzy dominating set of Gi, for1≤i≤t.
Example2.7
0.15
V6(0.2)
0.15
0.15
0.15
V1(0.25) 0.2 V2(0.5)
V3(0.3) 0.3
V1(0.25)
Figure2.3: H
0.2
0.2
V3(0.3)
0.15
V5(0.2)
Figure 2.4: G1
V5(0.2)
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.3 0.30.3
V2(0.5)
0.3
V4(1.0)
0.3
V4(1.0)
V1(0.25) 0.2 V2(0.5)
V6(0.2) 0.2 V5(0.2) 0.3
0.15
V3(0.3)
Figure 2.5 G2
V4(1.0)
The fuzzy t-factoring and a fuzzy factor dominating set in
given in figures 2.3,2.4 and 2.5 the set of vertices
{v2(0.5),v6(0.2)} in H dominate each of the fuzzy factor G1 and
G2, while no smaller fuzzy factor dominating set exists, since G1
and G2has two fuzzy components that is at least two vertices are
required to dominate G1 and G2
Definition2.8
The fuzzy factor domination number γft(F(H)) is the
minimum cardinality of a fuzzy factor dominating set of F(H).
The fuzzy factor domination number is that max{γi}≤γft≤Σγi
1≤i≤t i=1 to t
Definition2.9
In a fuzzy graph G=(σ, μ) the minimum cardinality set D of
G which is the fuzzy dominating set of both G and G . is called
a fuzzy global dominating set.
Definiton2.10
The minimum cardinality of a fuzzy global dominating set is
denoted by γg(G) is called the fuzzy global domination number.
Definition2.11
A vertex cover of a fuzzy graph G is a set of vertices that
covers all the edges and an edge cover of a fuzzy graph is a set
of edges that covers all the vertices. The minimum cardinality of
vertex cover is α0(G) and the minimum cardinality of edge
cover isα1(G).
Theorem2.1
If I is the set of vertices in V(H) which are isolated in atleast
one fuzzy graph Gi, then γft≤α0(H)+│I│
Proof.
Let S be a minimum vertex cover for a fuzzy graph H and let
v be a non isolated vertex of Gi with an incident edge μ. since μ
is an edge in H, at least one vertex, say u, covers μ in H, and
therefore this vertex u dominates v in Gi . It follows that the set
SUIis a fuzzy factor dominating set F(H)
Theorem2.2
For any fuzzy graph H, γft≥t if t≤∆(H). γft=n otherwise
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Proof.
Let Df be a minimum fuzzy factor dominating set for F(H).
If t≤∆(H), then any vertex v in V(H)-Df must have in H at least
μt edges to Df so it can be dominated in each Gi. Hence
│Df│≥t.If t>∆(H), no such vertex v can exist and H-Df must be
empty, that is γft=n
Theorem2.3
For any fuzzy graph H,γft≤γ+t-2 if t≤∆(H): γft=n otherwise
Proof.
The proof of theorem 2.2 shows that for t>∆(H),γft=n.
Therefore, assume that t≤∆(H) and let Df be a minimum fuzzy
factor dominating set. If Df=V(H) then γft=n≥γ+∆(H)≥γ+t>γ+t-
2.If Df≠V(H),let vєV(H)-Df. since v must be adjacent to at least t
vertices of Df. let X⊆Df be a set of t-1 vertices contained in
N(v)in H. In H every vertex of V(H)-(DfU{v })is adjacent to at
least one vertex of Df-X. Thus(Df-X)U{v} dominates H.so
γ≤│Df-X│+1=γft-(t-1)+1, or γft≤γ+t-2
Theorem2.4
For any fuzzy graph H and any fuzzy t-factoring
F(H)={G1,G2,G3,….Gt}of H,γft+єft=n
Proof.
If t>∆(H), then γft=n and єft=0 and the equality holds .Assume
therefore, that t≤∆ and γft3, then diam(G)

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 245
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[8] B.Bollabas, E.J.Cockayne, Graph Theoretic Parameters Concerning
Domination, Independence, and Irredundance, Journal of Graph Theory,
Vol-3 (1979) 241-249.
[9] B.R.Allan and R.Laskar on domination and Independent domination
numbers of a graph, Discrete Mathematics, 23, (1978) 73-76.
[10] E.J.Cockayne, O.Favaron, C.Payan, and Thomason, A.G. Contribution to
The Theory of Domination Independence and Irredundance in Graph,
Discrete Mathematics 33 (1981) 249-258.
[11] J.N.Mordeson, and P.S.Nair, Fuzzy Graphs and Fuzzy Hyper Graphs,
Physica-Verlag, Heidelberg, 1998; Second Edition, 2001.
[12] K.R.Bhutani, and A.Rosenfeld, Strong arcs in fuzzy graphs, Information
Sciences, 152 (2003), 319-322.
[13] O.Faravan, Stablity, Domination and Irredundance in Graph, Journal of
Graph Theory, Vol-10 (1986) 429-438.
[14] T.Haynes, S.T.Hedetniemi., P.J.Slater, Fundamentals of Domination in
Graph, Marcel Deckker, New York, 1998.
AUTHORS
First Author –G. Nirmala, Associate Prof. PG and Research
Department of Mathematics, K.N.G.A.College (Women),
Autonomous, Thanjavur, Thanjavur District. Tamilnadu, India.
Second Author – M. Sheela, Research Scholar, Manonmaniyam
Sundharanar University, Thirunelveli, Tamilnadu, India
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Active Device Usage in Filter Design – An Overview
SHEIKH AJAZ BASHIR *
Department of Electronics& Instrumentation Technology,
University of Kashmir, Srinagar-190006
Kashmir, India
Email: iamsheikhajaz@gmail.com
*corresponding author
N.A.SHAH
Department of Electronics& Instrumentation Technology,
University of Kashmir, Srinagar-190006
Kashmir, India
Email: nassgr@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Usage of Inductors as passive components in filter design poses a number of problems in terms of non-linearity, losses,
large physical size , weight and possibility of their integration at very high frequencies only.
Bulky nature of Inductors put a question mark on the foot print of filters designed using them. Microminiaturization of
circuits resulted in desire for replacement of Inductors by active elements like Operational Amplifiers which led to the
introduction of new class of filters called as active filters. Active filter design has evolved over a period of time. Starting
with OP AMPs , we have witnessed phenomenal growth of active component usage in filter design and development
catering to varying requirements. This has contributed greatly in emergence of circuits with minimal limitations and
advantages in terms of wide Bandwidth and High slew rates.
The aim of this paper is to review and compare the functionality of certain novel active blocks .
While doing so it will be amply clear that the development of newer active blocks follows a pattern and one
combination of blocks leads to a new active element design and the process goes on.
KEYWORDS
OA; CDBA ; OTA;CFA ; CC-II ; FTFN ; CDTA; Trade Off : Signal Linearity ; Bandwidth ;
INTRODUCTION
In the development of microelectronic technologies the demand for electronic circuits with extremely low supply voltages and low
power consumption constitute long-term trends [1]. The speed or the accuracy of signal processing are the other requirements
which are needed in case of certain specific applications. While fulfilling one requirement another may have to be
compromised which leads to non fulfillment of all parameters simultaneously. To overcome this impediment a trade-off
solution is used in practice.
Over a period of time , the evolution of modern applications of analog signal processing has followed the trends of so-called
current mode [2], when signals, representing the information being processed, are in the form of electric currents. In contrast to the
conventional voltage mode, which utilizes electric voltages, the current mode circuits can exhibit under certain conditions – among
other things – higher bandwidth and better signal linearity. Since they are designed for lower voltage swings, smaller supply voltages
can be used. Simultaneously with the development of current-mode applications, the mixed-mode circuits are also analyzed because of
the necessity of optimizing the interface between the sub-blocks, which are working in different modes.
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The mixed-mode operation and even the comeback to the conventional voltage mode alsohave another justification: it appears that
some generally accepted statements about the advantages of the current mode probably have no real basis [3]. However, the criticism
of [3] not with standing, the current-mode techniques have given way to a number of important analog signal processing - signal
generating circuits as is evident from a vast amount of literature on current-mode circuits and techniques published in the recent past .
Advancements in integrated circuit (IC) technology during the last two decades, have led circuit designers to exploit the potential of
current-mode analog techniques for evolving elegant and efficient solutions to several circuit design problems. As a consequence, the
current-mode approach to signal processing has often been claimed to provide one or more of the following advantages: higher
frequency range of operation, lower power consumption, higher slew rates, improved linearity, and better accuracy.
Besides classical active filters, the target applications of the blocks include advanced fully-integrated input blocks of modern
communication circuits. With the exception of DC-precise low-pass filters, the requirements on DC precision of the new blocks are
not so relevant in comparison with the requirements on their speed.
In the case of oscillators and other generators, some additional requirements regarding their precision (linearity, offset, etc.) have
appeared. For non-linear circuits such as rectifiers of weak signals, precise comparators and Schmitt triggers, shaping networks, etc.,
the demands for accuracy can be considerable.
The initial set of active elements for analog signal processing is currently proceeding and evolving in following pattern.
The evolution of active blocks is happening by modification of the basic elements such as VFA (Voltage Feedback Amplifier),
CFA (Current Feedback Amplifier), OTA (OperationalTrans conductance Amplifier), and particularly current conveyors (CC). The
important motivations for such modifications consist in the effort to increase the application potential of the element. Simultaneously,
this element should have a simple internal structure in order to retain low power consumption and high-speed operation.
An important urge for new elements is due to electronic control requirements . Evolution of active elements , besides the
modification of current ones , is happening by way of emergence of new elements which extend the original VFA-CFA-OTA-CC
active set.
Now we will evaluate a few active blocks in brief to drive home the point that the process of evolution has been
going on and follows a particular pattern.
Evolution of Current Feedback Amplifier (CFA) from Current Conveyor CC
II
Current Feedback Amplifier (CFA) was developed to improve the finite gain-bandwidth product of the conventional
voltage - feedback operational amplifier[07]. It can provide not only a constant bandwidth independent of closed loop gain but
also a high slew – rate capability[08]. Usage of CFA as a basic building block in active filter design is highly beneficial on
account of these factors.The applications and advantages in realizing active filter transfer functions using current feedback
amplifiers have received great attention because the amplifier enjoys the features of constant bandwidth independent of closed-loop
gain and high slew rate, besides having low output impedance. Thus, it is advantageous to use CFA as a basic building block in the
accomplishment of various analog signal processing tasks.
CFA is an operational transimpedance amplifier and is internally a CCII+ followed by a voltage follower [10].
CFA can be represented symbolically as shown in Fig-1
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FIG-1 Symbolic Representation of CFA
Evolution of Four Terminal Floating Nullor (FTFN) bycascading CFAs
Four Terminal Floating Nullor (FTFN) was introduced after the advent of Current Feedback amplifier .As part of the
process of development of continuous-time circuits FTFN [09] was introduced as more flexible and versatile building block than
an operational amplifier (OP-AMP) or a second-generation current conveyor (CCII) .The circuit symbol of the FTFN is shown in
Figure-2 . The positive FTFN can be implemented by cascading two Current feedback amplifiers (AD844s from analog devices)
as shown in Fig-2(b)
Fig-2 (a) Symbolic representation of FTFN (b) Realization of FTFN using two CFAs
Further the FTFN functionality is subservient to following port relations;
Vx=Vy ; Ix=Iy=0 ; Iw=Iz
Evolution of Current Differencing Buffered Amplifier(CDBA) fromCFACascading.
Current Differencing Buffered Amplifier (CDBA), a current-mode component, has beenintroduced by C. Acar and S. Ozoguz
in 1999 [6]. It offers advantageous features such as high slew rate, absence of parasitic capacitance, wide bandwidth, and simple
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implementation .Since the CDBA consists of a unity-gain current differential amplifier and a unity-gain voltage amplifier, this element
would be suitable for the implementation of voltage and current-mode signal processing applications. As far as the applications of the
CDBA are concerned, various voltage-mode and current-mode filters and oscillators have been reported in literature.
CDBA can be represented symbolically as shown in Fig-3
Fig-3 (a) Symbolic representation of CDBA (b) Cascading of CFAs to build CDBA
Evolution of Current Difference Transconductance Amplifier (CDTA) by adding two Current Conveyors CC II & OTA
Current Difference Transconductance Amplifier being analogous to the CDBA, has difference currentinputs p and n. The
difference of these currents flows from terminal z into an outside load. The voltageacross the z terminal is transferred by a
transconductanceg to a current that is taken out as a current pair to the x terminals. This last element part is the familiar
transconductance operational amplifier (OTA). In general, the transconductance is controllable electronically through an auxiliary port
.The pair of output currents from the x terminals, shown in Fig. 4, may have three combinations of directions:
1. Both currents can flow out.
2. The currents have different directions.
3. Both currents flow inside the CDTA element.
This leads us tothe CDTA configurations of CDTA++, CDTA+-, and CDTA-- elements. It is suitable to mark the current
directions in the circuit symbol by the signs + (outside) and – (inside) as shown in Fig. 4.
Fig- 4 Symbolic representation of CDTA
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Fig-5 Realization of CDTA with CC II & OTA.
The effort is going on to evolve new buiding blocks to address the problem of higher acceptability of a circuit
element. Universality of a circuit element without making it complex is a big challenge for circuit developers. Removal of
parasitic effects , better analog or digital control of parameters and decreasing the footprint by way of usage of lesser
number of components are some of the new challenges that designers will face in future.
OA
CC-II
Four Terminal
Floating Nullor
Voltage
Follower
OTA
CC-II CFA FTFN CDBA CDTA
Current
Feedback
Amplifier
Current
Feedback
Amplifier
Current
Conveyor-II
Current
Differencing
Buffered
Amplifier
Current
Conveyor-II
Current
Differencing
Transconductance
Amplifier
Fig-6 :Evolution of active devices by suitable modifications of basic active blocks.
Operational
Transconductance
Amplifier
Operational
Transconductance
Amplifier
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CCCDT
A
CDTA
MO-
FTFN
OFA
DDOF
A
DC-
CDTA
GCMI
Fig-7 Active Element Tree.
( Not in an order)
DC-
CDBA
TCOA
DDC-
CFA
VFA
OTRA
OC
CCCDB
A
CDBA
DDA
DCCF+
CC-
CFA
BOTA
DV-
CFA
DC-
CCTA
CTTA
OTA
TOA /
CFA
DC-
CCII
+1
FBFTF
N
TFTFN
CCTA
CCCCT
A
OMA
CD-
CTTA
FTFN
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CONCLUSION
The tree of active building blocks is growing and the present family of active blocks as shown by Fig-7 will
have additions as we address the issues of Universality , Smaller Footprint , Digital Control and decreased component
density .
The development of new circuit elements over the last ten years, Viz; CDBA, CDTA, ICCII, FDCCII, MCCIII, CCOA, DDOFA,
FBFTFN, CFA-OTA, CC-CFA, CCTA, CCCDTA,CCCCTA, CTTA, CCCDBA, DC-CDBA, CMI, DCCF, etc. shows that the
procedure of finding new circuit elements is going at a very good pace and we will continue to evolve in right direction
with respect to design of better active elements.
Further as is depicted in Fig-6 , the development and evolution of Active elements used as gain devices in Filter design
is following a pattern and the combination of building blocks gives birth to new elements with better acceptability ,
smaller size with less component usage and better control.
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[5] SEDRA, A.S., SMITH, K.C. A second generation current conveyor and its application.IEEE Trans., 1970, CT-17, p. 132-
134.
[6] C. Acar and S. O¨ zogˇuz, “A new versatile building block: current differencing buffered amplifier suitable for analog signal
processing filters,”Microelectronics Journal, vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 157–160, 1999.
[07] Comlinear Corp., “Designer‘s guide for 200 series Op amp”,Application note 200-1, 4800, wheaton Drive, Ft.collins, CO
80525, Nov.1984.
[08] Analog Devices: “Linear Products Data Book ”Norwood MA, 1990.
[09] ABUELMA‘ATI, M.T., Al-ZAHER, H. A. Universal two-input current-mode active biquad using FTFNs. Int. Journal
ofElectronics, 1999, vol. 86, p. 181-188.
[10] SVOBODA, J.A, Mc GORY, L., WEBB, S. Application of commerciallyavailable current conveyors. International Journal
ofElectronics, 1991, p. 159-164.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 253
ISSN 2250-3153
Tracking of Reference Signals by Advanced Unified
Power Flow Controller
K. Manoz Kumar Reddy
Associate professor, Electrical and Electronics Department, Sri Aditya Engineering College, A.P, India
Abstract- Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) is the most
real time multivariable device among the different FACTS
controllers. Control of power flow in the transmission line is the
most important property of UPFC. Due to importance of power
flow control in transmission lines, the proper controller should be
reliable against uncertainty and faults . For this purpose, an
advanced controller is designed based on the Lyapunov theory .
The main objective of this paper is to design an advanced
controller which enables a power system to reach reference
signals accurately and to be reliable in the presence of
uncertainty of system parameters and faults. The performance of
the proposed controller is simulated on a two bus test system and
compared with a conventional PI controller. Simulations were
carried out using MATLAB software to check the performance
of UPFC.
Index Terms- Multivariable device, Power flow control, Two
bus system, UPFC
G
I. INTRODUCTION
enerally the growth of power systems will rely more on
increasing capability of existing transmission systems,
rather than on building new transmission lines and power
stations, for economical and environmental reasons. Due to
deregulation of electricity markets, the existence for new
controllers capable of increasing transmission capability,
controlling power flows through predefined corridors and
ensuring the security of energy transactions will certainly
increase.
In order to expand or enhance the power transfer capability of
existing transmission network the concepts of FACTS (Flexible
AC transmission system) is developed by the Electric Power
Research Institute (EPRI) in the late 1980s. The main objective
of facts devices is to replace the existing slow acting mechanical
controls required to react to the changing system conditions by
rather fast acting electronic controls. FACTs means alternating
current transmissions systems incorporating power electronic
based and other static controllers to enhance controllability and
increase power transfer capability [1].
The potential benefits with the utilization of flexible ac
transmission system (FACTS) devices include reduction of
operation and transmission investment costs, increasing system
security and reliability, and increasing transfer capabilities in a
deregulated environment. FACTS devices are able to change, in
a fast and effective way, the network parameters to achieve a
better system performance [2].
UPFC is a power electronic based device which can provide a
proper control for impedance, phase angle and reactive power of
a transmission line. Each converter of a UPFC can independently
generate or absorb reactive power. This arrangement enables free
flow of active power in either direction between the ac terminals
of the two converters. In the case of the parallel branch of
UPFC, the active power exchanged with the system, primarily
depends on the phase shift of the converter output voltage with
respect to the system voltage, and the reactive power is
controlled by varying the amplitude of the converter output
voltage. However series branch of UPFC controls active and
reactive power flows in the transmission line by amplitude and
phase angle of series injected voltage. Therefore active power
controller can significantly affect the level of reactive power
flow and vice versa.
In recent years a number of investigations have been carried
out on various capabilities of UPFC such as power flow control,
voltage control, transient stability enhancement, oscillation
damping and control of active and reactive power flows in
transmission lines [3].
The performance of the control scheme deteriorates in the
presence of uncertainties in system parameters. In this paper, a
new controller of UPFC based on Lyapunov theory for power
flow control is designed which is able to reach reference signals
accurately and is reliable in the presence of uncertainty of system
parameters and faults [8]. The proposed controller is considered
as effective controller which always consists of a set of error
terms to provide stability condition in the presence of uncertainty
and faults.
II. UPFC MODEL
The schematic diagram of a UPFC is shown in Figure 1. It
consists of two back-to-back, self-commutated, voltage source
converters connected through a common dc link.
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Figure 1: Schematic diagram of the UPFC system.
As it can be seen Figure 1 converter1 is coupled to the AC
system through a shunt transformer (excitation transformer) and
the converter 2 is coupled through a series transformer (boosting
transformer). Note that, subscripts‗s‘ and ‗r‘ are used to represent
sending and receiving end buses respectively. By regulating the
series injected voltage vse, the complex power flow (Pr + jQr)
through the transmission line can be controlled. The complex
power injected by the converter 2, (Pse + jQse) depends on its
output voltage and transmission line current. The injected active
power Pse of the series converter is taken from the dc link, which
is in turn drawn from the AC system through the converter 1. On
the other hand, both converters are capable of absorbing or
supplying reactive power independently. The reactive power of
the converter 1 can be used to regulate the voltage magnitude of
the bus at which the shunt transformer is connected [4-7].
The single-phase representation of a three-phase UPFC
system is shown in Figure 2. In this figure both converters are
represented by voltage sources vse and vsh, respectively. Also
(R = Rse + RL) and (L = Lse + LL) represent the resistance and
leakage inductance of series transformer and transmission line
respectively, similarly Rsh and Lsh represent the resistance and
leakage inductance of the shunt transformer respectively.
Figure 2: Single phase representation of the UPFC system.
The current through the series and shunt branches of the circuit
of Figure 2 can be expressed by the following differential
equations for one phase of the system. These equations can be
written for other phases similarly.
The three-phase system differential equations can be transformed
into a ―d, q” reference frame using Park‘s transformation as
follows:
where ωb = 2πfb, and fb is the fundamental frequency of the
supply voltage. Since the Park‘s transformation used in finding
(3) and (4) keeps the instantaneous power invariant and the daxis
lies on the space vector of the sending end voltage vs, thus
vs = (vsd + jvsq) = (vsd + j0).
Note that in the above equations, subscripts ‗d‘ and ‗q‘ are
used to represent the direct and quadrature axes components,
respectively (x = xd + jxq).
Since the dynamic equations of converter 1 are identical to
that of converter 2 as described before, both converters should
have identical control strategy. Therefore for the sake of brevity
in this paper only the technique of designing the controller of
converter 2 is described in detail in the form of state space.
where d is the uncertainty vector and x, u and y are respectively
state, control and output variables vector of converter 2 which
are defined as ,X=[ised iseq] T , u =[ vsed vseq] T and
y = [ised iseq] T .Comparing Eqs (3 )and (5), when vs and vr are
kept constant, the system matrices A, B, and C can be written as:
As mentioned previously, the common connection between the
two converters is formed by a dc-voltage bus. When the losses in
the converters are neglected, the active power balance equation at
the dc link can be written as Eq. (8)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Pdc=Pse+Psh (7)
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 255
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where Psh and Pse are active power supplied by the converters 1
and 2, respectively which can be obtained as follows:
(9)
Note that, since the power loss of the shunt transformer can be
ignored, active power of converter 1 Eq.(9) can be written
approximately as:
(10)
Also the active power of the dc link is represented as
equation(11)
Substituting Eq.(11) in (7) , Eq.(12) will be obtained.
(8)
(11)
(12)
It is clear that the above equation is non linear, therefore for
linearizing and simplifying, Eq.(14) is defined by substituting
Eq.(13) into (12).
(13)
(14)
The following section is assigned to introduce the design of a
controller based on the Lyapunovtheory. This analysis is based
on a simplified mathematical model of the converter connected
to a two bus system as shown in Figure 1.
III. CONTROLLER DESIGN BASED ON LYAPUNOV THEORY
Figure 3 shows the schematic of a system state space. As it
was mentioned, the main objective of this paper is to design an
advanced controller which enables the power system to track
reference signals accurately and to be reliable in the presence of
uncertainty of system parameters and faults [8]. To reach this
purpose a new controller is designed based on the Lyapunov
theory in this paper. The controller based on the Lyapunov
method is designed as slope changes of energy function which
always remains negative ( ). This energy function consists
of a set of error terms which provides stability condition of error
terms in the presence of uncertainty and disturbance. Therefore
the tracking error and its derivative are defined as below:
e=Xd - X (15)
where x is the vector of state variables and
is the vector of reference signals. In xd
(16)
equation, and can be obtained similarly by Eq.(8) and (9)
knowing the active and reactive power references of transmission
line Pr * and Qr *
where
.
Figure 3: Schematic of system state space.
(17)
(18)
Substituting Eqs. (15) and (16) in (5), the derivative of tracking
(dynamic error) can be obtained:
(19)
To fulfill stability condition of the system dynamic error,
multiplication of control matrix and control variables vector is
defined as:
(20)
(21)
The control variables vector (21) is calculated by
multiplication of B -1 by Eq.(20). The amounts of variables of row
matrix k at (20) are set such as the whole Eigen values of matrix
(A−Bk) are laid on the left side of imaginary axis. Vector us is
also values of matrix (A−Bk) are laid on the left side of
imaginary axis. Vector us is also described as a robustness signal.
The function of this vector is to accomplish stability condition
based on Lyapunov theory. Therefore by substitution Eq. (20)
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 256
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into (19), the new equation is obtained for dynamic error of the
system.
where in the above equation, A0=A-Bk
(22)
To accomplish stability condition, the robustness signal is
defined as below:
where I ∗ is a positive number I ∗ ≥ 1.
(23)
It is necessary to be noted that (e T P) is not a square matrix
and therefore pseudo inverse matrix is used to calculate us vector
.. The block diagram of the overall UPFCcontrol system is
depicted in Figure 4. This block diagram is implemented for d–q
axis.
Figure 4: Block diagram of the overall UPFC control system.
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
In an ideal system, there is no uncertainty in system
parameters. However, in a practical system, it is considered that
the system parameters are corrupted by some uncertainties. It
should be mentioned that such uncertainties are usually present
in any physical system and will be often limited to achieve the
desired performance. In this paper, the proposed controller is
designed so as the uncertainty in the system is reduced. The
uncertainty is entered to the system equations as a vector. The
performance of the proposed controller, for various disturbances
is evaluated through MATLAB/SIMULINK software in a two
bus test system. The simulation results of proposed controller are
compared with a conventional PI controller. The parameters of
converters 1 and 2 of PI controllers are given in Table 1
TABLE 1
parameters Converter 1 Converter 2
KP 0.27 0.3
KI 62 66
TABLE 2
parameters Value
R( pu) 0.051
wL (pu) 0.25
Rsh (pu) 0.015
wLsh (pu) 0.15
1/ wC (pu) 0.5
According to the parameters of the system and UPFC which
are presented in the Table 2, the system matrices for these
converters are as follow:
In the above matrices, fundamental frequency (fb) is equal to
50 Hz. In this study, as it is shown in Figure 4 the sending and
receiving end bus voltages are maintained constant and the dc
link voltage, active and reactive powers of the transmission line
are controlled.
The initial complex power flow (Pr + jQr) at the receiving
end of the transmission line is found as (1.278−j0.5) p.u. In the
first case study, the active power of the transmission line is
changed from 1.278 to 2.278 p.u at t = 2 s for a system with 10%
uncertainty. The simulation results of this study are depicted in
Figure 5. It is shown that the speed of response of the proposed
controller is much better than that of the conventional controller
approach (PI controller).
In the second case study, both the active and reactive powers
of the transmission line is changed from initial values to
(2.278−j0.8) at t = 2 s. In this case, the uncertainty factor is
considered to be equal to 16%. The simulation results of this
scenario are displayed in Figure 6. As mentioned, the reactive
power of the transmission line is changed too and the uncertainty
factor is changed much more than previous case, but it is seen
that the proposed controller has a good response to this changes.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 257
ISSN 2250-3153
Figure 5: Response of UPFC system with 10% uncertainty.
Blue line, advanced controller; green line, PI controller.
(a) Real power of the transmission line;
(b) Kvar power of transmission line;
(c) D axis current reference of converter 2;
(d) Q axis current reference of converter 2;
(e) D axis voltage reference of converter 2;
(f) Q axis voltage reference of converter 2.
Figure 6: Response of UPFC system with 16% uncertainty.
Blue line, advanced controller; green line, PI controller.
(a) Real power of the transmission line;
(b) Kvar power of transmission line;
(c) D axis current reference of converter 2;
(d) Q axis current reference of converter 2;
(e) D axis voltage reference of converter 2;
(f) Q axis voltage reference of converter 2.
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V. CONCLUSION
This paper presented an advanced design of controller which
enables a power system to reach reference signals accurately and
to be reliable in the presence of uncertainty of system parameters
and faults. The new controller which is designed based on the
Lyapunov theory is successful in reaching the reference signals.
The main advantage of the proposed approach with respect to PI
controller is the stability of the closed loop system under
uncertainties. The proposed approach also has simple structure
and quick performance in comparison with intelligence methods
such as fuzzy theory and neural network. The simulation results
of the proposed controller are compared with a conventional PI
controller and its performance is evaluated in a two bus test
system. In this study, the sending and receiving end bus voltages
were maintained constant and the dc link voltage, active and
reactive powers of the transmission line were controlled. The
obtained results from above case studies describe the power,
accuracy, fast speed and relatively low overshoot response of the
proposed controller.
REFERENCES
[1] N.G.Hingorani and L.Gyugyi, ―Understanding FACTS,‖ Concepts and
Technology of Flexible AC Transmission Systems.IEEE press,2000.
[2] L.gyugi, ―A unified power flow concept for flexible AC transmission
systems,‖ IEEE proc.c 139(4)1992.
[3] S.kannan,S.jayaram and M.salama, ―Real and reactive power coordination
for a unified power flow controller,‖ IEEE transactions on power systems,
vol 19,no 3 ,august 2004.
[4] H.f.wang, ‖Interactions and multi variable design of unified power flow
controller,‖ electrical power and energy systems 24(2002).
[5] I. papic, P. zunko, D. povh, M. Weinhold, ―Basic control of Unified power
flow controller,‖ IEEE transactions on power systems.12 (4) (1997) 1734-
1739.
[6] A.W.Green,J.T.Boys, ―Hysteresis current forced three phase voltage
source reversible rectifiers,‖ IEEEproc.136(1989) 113-120.
[7] K. Manoz kumar reddy, ―simulation of unified power flow controller,‖
proceedings of National conference on recent trends in power systems and
power electronics,( Feb 2012)148-151.
[8] M.I.EI Hawwary, A.L.Elshafei, ―output feedback control of a class of
nonlinear systems using direct adaptive fuzzy controller,‖ IEE proc. On
control theory applications 151 (5) (2004) 615-625.
AUTHORS
K. Manoz kumar reddy, Mtech, Associate professor, SriAditya
Engineering College, India, kmkreddyy@gmail.com.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 259
ISSN 2250-3153
Robust Digital Watermarking Using MDKP
Mr A. Chandra, Ms. T. Kavitha
Department of Computer Science and Systems Engineering, Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering College,
A.Rangampet, Tirupathi, India
Abstract- The growth of digitalization of data creates a need
for protecting digital content against counterfeiting, piracy and
malicious manipulations. Digital water marking is one of the
methods of protecting multimedia data. A robust digital
watermarking method is proposed in this paper, which has
greatest robustness against various attacks and preserves the
image quality after water marking. It embeds a watermark into an
image in DCT domain. The image is divided into blocks and
each block is processed using Multi Dimensional Knapsack
Problem (MDKP) and in turn converts to spatial domain. The
watermark is extracted from the image and compared with the
original image. The measurement of quality of image is also
concerned. The proposed scheme exhibits better performance in
robust digital watermarking. The experiment is carried using
MATLAB 7.x and results are verified.
Index Terms- Copyright protection, Digital Watermarking,
DCT, MDKP
D
I. INTRODUCTION
igital technologies have grown dramatically and widely
used within home computers and open networks. Digital
content is volatile and easily processed. Digital objects may be
modified easily without any control. Digital watermark is a piece
of information embedded into potentially vulnerable images in
such a way it is in separable from the image.
The digital watermarks can be divided into three different
types as visible watermark, Invisible-Robust watermark, and
Invisible-Fragile watermark. Visible watermark is a transparent
object overlaid into the primary image. The watermark will be
visible to a casual viewer on a careful observation. The invisiblerobust
watermark is embedded in such a way that changes made
to the pixel value are not noticed, which can be recovered only
with appropriate decoding mechanism. The invisible-fragile
watermark is embedded in such a way that any alternations of the
image would alter or destroy the watermark [3].
Several applications of watermarking have been considered
by researchers [2]:
Copyright: In this case, the mark is associated with an identity
number. In this way, the mark identifies the owner of the content
and can be used for copyright purposes (prevent illegal copies).
The embedding and the detection of the mark depend on a secret
key. The mark has to be robust and detectable after numerous
processing treatments or attacks that preserve the original
content.
Database Retrieval and Data Hiding: In this case, the mark
permits the identification of the content. The mark contains a
description of the content or a pointer to this description and can
be used for database ―classification.‖ In this application, the
robustness of the mark is not decisive but the mark has to be
detected after basic format conversion.
Authentication: The mark can be a fragile mark that will
disappear after image manipulation. It can be used to authenticate
the content and to prove that its integrity has been preserved. The
function of the mark is to prove that the content has not been
manipulated and consequently the robustness of the marking
algorithm is not a prior achievement.
Original
Image
Watermark
Embedding
Procedure
Watermarked
Image
Figure 1: Block Diagram of Watermarking
Attacks which attempt to destroy or invalidate watermarks
can be classified into two types, noise-like signal processing and
geometric distortions. Noise like signal processing is intended to
remove embedded water marks from the cover image by a signal
processing approach. Geometric distortion makes a detector fail
to detect the existence of watermark even if they are still on the
image. Geometric distortions can be resisted by transform-based,
pilot-based and feature-based schemes [1].
Watermark can be inserted into the image using various
techniques like spread spectrum and feature based techniques.
Insertion and detection of watermark using the above techniques
consumes too much computation time. As a result, we propose a
method of inserting watermark into image using MDKP in DCT
domain to reduce the computation time. The cover image is
divided into blocks and an MDKP is formulated to optimize the
selection of most robust blocks in the image. Watermark is
inserted into the blocks by transforming them to DCT domain.
After insertion of watermark they transformed back to spatial
domain. The experimental results is applied to some images the
proposed method will have better robustness than existing
methods.
The paper is organized as follows. Various watermarking
schemes are described in section II. Proposed watermarking
scheme using MKDP in DCT domain is described in section III
and concluding remarks is made in section IV.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 260
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II. RELATED WATERMARKING SCHEMES
Several previous digital watermarking methods have been
proposed. In [4], the authors propose a scheme for watermarking
images. The method breaks up an image into 8×8 block and
computes a DCT to each of these blocks. A pseudorandom subset
of the blocks is chosen, then, in each such block, a triple of
frequencies is selected from one of 18 predetermined triples and
modified so that their relative strengths encode a one or zero
value. The 18 possible triples are composed by selection of three
out of eight predetermined frequencies within the 8 × 8 DCT
block. The choice of the eight frequencies to be altered within the
DCT block is based on a belief that the ―middle
frequencies...have moderate variance,‖ i.e. they have similar
magnitude. This property is needed in order to allow the relative
strength of the frequency triples to be altered without requiring a
modification that would be perceptually noticeable.
Chih-Wei Tang and Hsuesh-Ming Hang [5] propose a
scheme that takes original image; the feature extraction method
which generates reference centers of disks for watermark
embedding and detection. Then it performs the image
normalization technique on disks in the original image. The
coordinate transformation coefficients between the original
image disks and the normalized ellipse images are generated. The
location of blocks in the original image for watermark
embedding is determined from the normalized image. Then,
coordinates of selected points are transformed from normalized
image back to the original image. Next, a 2-D FFT is applied to
these 32×32 blocks on each qualified disk in an original image.
The watermark is embedded in the transform domain. Last, the
watermarked blocks are 2-D IFFT converted back to the spatial
domain to replace the original image blocks. The drawback of
this scheme is watermark resistance is low for severe geometric
distortions.
Jin S. Seo and Chang D. Yoo [6] propose a procedure that
constructs invariant regions at each scale from the scale space
Harris points of an image; selects invariant regions for
watermarking, considering the spatial positions and the
repeatability measures. Watermark is embedded additively into
the selected regions after geometric normalization according to
the shape of the regions.
Jen-Sheng Tsai, Win-Bin Huang and Yau-Hwang Kuo [1],
in this scheme a region set is obtained by a feature detector. Here
the algorithm works in two phases. During the primary feature
set searching stage, watermark is inserted into the detected
feature regions and secondly simulated attacking is performed.
By analyzing the attack resistance of the regions primary feature
set is identified. On which genetic algorithm based feature set
solution is done to resist undefined attacks. There are several
drawbacks of this scheme. Only predefined attacks can be
simulated and algorithm consumes too much computation time
robustness of feature regions due to simulated attacking.
The existing techniques are generally resistant to various
attacks but consume more computation time. The proposed
method is a secure digital watermarking scheme and is a faster
robustness measurement scheme.
III. WATERMARKING USING MDKP
One of the major difficulties for watermarking is that
watermark embedding and detection should be performed over
the same blocks of an image. The flow diagram of the scheme
shown in fig 2. Watermark is embedded into the original image
in DCT domain using MDKP. Extraction of watermark is also
implemented.
A. Implementation of Work
We propose an algorithm which works in DCT domain
using MDKP. The algorithm uses the DCT block size as 2×2.
The original size of the image considered in the experiment is
64×64. The image is processed into blocks; the blocks are
transformed using DCT.
The symbol is defined to indicate the overall resistance
degree of the block b against attack a. It is determine by
Where , indicates if block b can resist the i th
predefined attack ai and Na is the total number of predefined
attacks. The symbol indicates the property related to corner
response of the block b. It is zero, if it is less than threshold is set
to 1% of the maximum response value. We use binary symbol
to indicate whether region belongs to the middle scale band or
not. This can be formulated into an MDKP as [8]
maximize (2)
subjected to
is defined as
(3)
1, if the block is selected (4)
0, otherwise.
(1)
The variables and represent the composite weights
and constraints of quality distortion and overlapping conditions.
This MDKP is solved for determining the best choice of blocks.
Insert watermark into the block, transform block back into
spatial domain and move on to the next block, and write the
watermarked image out to a file. Finally separate the watermark
from the image using DCT block size. Compare the watermark
extracted image to the file compare it with the original image. If
the change is less than threshold then the image is not distorted.
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T
T
Image Distorted
Start
Set the DCT block size 2x2 size of the image is 64x64
Process the image into block; Transform the block using DCT
Identify the Blocks into which
watermark is to be inserted by
solving MDKP
Insert watermark, transform the
block back to spatial domain
Any block
remaining
Write the watermarked image to a file
Figure 2: Flow diagram of the proposed scheme
F
Remove the watermark from the
above image and compare with
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Figure 3: comparison between block selection and region
selection
Best fitness is for block selection and mean fitness is for
feature region selection [1].
IV. CONCLUSION
In this paper, a method based on DCT domain using MDKP
solving procedure is developed to select image blocks for robust
digital image watermarking under the constraint of preserving
image quality. The robustness of the watermark is significantly
improved and image quality after watermarking is still preserved.
The development of a MDKP techniques leads to numerous
perspectives. The next step of the work can be JPEG
watermarking. The techniques proposed in this paper can help
validate claims of ownership that required for intellectual
property law enforcement.
REFERENCES
[1] Jen-Sheng Tsai, Win-bin Huang and Yau-Hwang Kuo, ―On the Selection of
optimal Feature Region Set for Robust Digital Image Watermarking‖, IEEE
Transactions on Image Processing, Vol.20,No.3,March 2011.
[2] Patrick Bas, Jean-Marc Chassery, and Benoit Macq, ―Geometrically
Invariant Watermar king Using Feature Points‖, IEEE Transactions on
Image Processing, Vol.11,No.9,Sepetember 2002.
[3] Munesh Chandra, Shika Pandey, and Rama Chaudary, ―Digital
Watermarking Technique for Protecting Digital Images‖, IEEE 2010.
[4] Inegar J. Cox , Joe Kilian, F.Thomson Leigthon and Talal Shamoon ,
―Secure Spread Spectrum Watermarking for multimedia‖, IEEE
Transactions on Image Processing, Vol.6,No.12,December 1997.
[5] Chih-Wei Tang and Hsueh-Ming Hang, ―A Feature-Based Robust Digital
Image Watermarking Scheme‖, IEEE Transactions on Image Processing,
Vol.51, No.4, April 2003.
[6] Jin S. Seo and Chang D.Yoo, ―Image Watermarking Based on Invariant
Regions of Scale-Space Representation‖, IEEE Transactions on Image
Processing, Vol.54, No.4, April 2006.
[7] E.Koch , J.Rindfrey and J.Zhao, ―Copyright Protection of Multimedia
Data‖, in proceedings International Conference Digital Media and
Electronic Publishing,1994.
[8] H. Kellerer, U. Pferschy, and D. Pisinger, Knapsack Problems. Berlin:
Springer,2004.
[9] Jen-Sheng Tsai, Win-bin Huang, Chao-Leigh Chen, Yau-Hwang Kuo ―A
Feature-Based Digital Image Watermarking for Copyright Protection and
Content Authentication‖ IEEE, 2007
AUTHORS
First Author – Mr A. Chandra, Department of Computer
Science and Systems Engineering, Sree Vidyanikethan
Engineering College, A.Rangampet, Tirupathi, India
Second Author – Ms. T. Kavitha, Mr A. Chandra, Department
of Computer Science and Systems Engineering, Sree
Vidyanikethan Engineering College, A.Rangampet, Tirupathi,
India
Mr. A.Chandra was born in
Katherapalli, Chittoor(Dt),
A.P.,India. He received his
B.Tech degree in Computer
Science and Engineering in
2004 from JNT University, Hyderabad. He had his
M.Tech student from JNTUA, Anantapur. His research
interests are image processing, computer networks and
network security. Presently he is working as Assistant
professor in the Department of Computer Science and
Systems Engineering, Sree Vidyanikethan Engineering
College, A.Rangampet, Tirupati.
Ms. T.Kavitha was born in
Chittoor, A.P, India.
She received her
B.Tech degree in Computer
Science and Engineering in
2006 from JNT University, Hyderabad. She received her
M.Tech degree from Acharya Nagarjuna University,
Guntur. Her research interests are computer networks
and network security. Presently She is working as
Assistant professor in the Department of Computer
Science and Systems Engineering, Sree Vidyanikethan
Engineering College, A.Rangampet, Tirupati.
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Evaluation of antifungal activities of certain plant against
Fusarium udum Butler causing wilt in pigeonpea (Cajanus
cajan (L.) Millsp.)
Tongbram Ranjana Devi and GKN Chhetry
Department of Life sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur, Imphal – 795003
Abstract- The antifungal effect of aqueous extracts of locally
available plant species have been investigated in vitro conditions
against Fusarum udum , the causal agent of Fusarium wilt of
pigeonpea. The plant extracts were screened against mycelial
growth and spore germination of F. udum at different
concentrations of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% using poisoned food
technique and cavity slide method. Among the tested plants
higher inhibition was noticed in Allium sativum, Azadirachta
indica,Spilanthes acmella and Adhatoda vasica.The remaining
plants produced less inhibitory effect. Among them A. sativum at
20% alone recorded 100% inhibition of mycelial growth and
spore germination. In field experiment, aqueous extract of A.
sativum showed highest percentage of disease control.
Index Terms- Antifungal properties, Fusarium udum,
Pigeonpea, Plant extract, Wilt
P
I. INTRODUCTION
igeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) is an important grain
legume crop of the family Fabaceae. It is the most important
kharif pulse crop with much higher productivity. In Manipur the
crop is cultivated on marginal lands by resource-poor farmers,
who commonly grow traditional medium- and long- duration
landraces. It is cultivated either as sole crop or mixed with
pearlmillet (Pennisetum glaucum L) and maize (Zea mays L) [3].
Diseases are major biological constraints to production. Of these
Fusarium wilt are widespread and causes heavy damage. As the
management of this soil borne disease through conventional
technology such as growing resistant varieties, fungicidal seed
treatment, single treatment of fungicide or bio-agent cannot
provide a remedy for disease control [6], a need was felt to
develop botanical based biofungicides for control of plant
diseases. Because non judicious use of synthetic fungicides since
last four decades led to several problems to human and animal
health besides environmental problems. This scenario, therefore,
calls for alternative approaches which are economically feasible
and ecofriendly to increase yield of pigeonpea. In view of the
hazardous effect of synthetic fungicides, that too for the soil
borne ones the present investigation has been carried out for
evaluating the phytotoxic activity of locally available plants
against wilt disease of pigeonpea.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Ten plants viz., Allium cepa, Allium sativum, Carica papaya,
Citrus limon, Eryngium foetidum, Gynura angulosa, Aloe vera,
Azadirachta indica, Spilanthes acmella, Adhatoda vasica,
locally known for their medicinal values for the treatment of
common human diseases were selected to determine the
antifungal activity against F. udum. Extracts of plant parts such
as leaf, flower, bulb, clove, etc. were prepared by the standard
method used by Gerard Ezhilan et al. [2]. Fresh plant parts were
washed with tap water followed by sterile distilled water,
processed with sterile distilled water @1mlg -1 of plant tissue
(1:1v/w) with pestle and mortar and filtered through a double
layered cheese cloth. The filtrate so obtained formed the
standard plant extract solution. The plant extract so prepared
were screened in vitro against F. udum using poisoned food
technique. Stock solution 5, 10, 15, and 20 ml were mixed
respectively with 95, 90, 85 and 80 ml of sterilized molten
Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) media to obtained 5, 10, 15 and 20
percent concentration of plant extract. The mixed medium was
thoroughly shaken to ensure uniform mixing of extract. 20 ml of
poisoned PDA was poured into sterile petriplates. Five
replications were maintained for each concentration. After
solidification of poisoned media, the plates were inoculated with
mycelium disc (4mm diameter) of vigorously growing pure
culture colony of F. udum. The control petriplates in five
replications were maintained using only sterile water without
any plant extract but with mycelium disc (4mm) for comparison .
The inoculated petriplates were incubated at 25 ± 1 0 C. The radial
growth of F. udum was measured in treated and control
petriplates after seven days of incubation . The percent growth
inhibition was calculated following the formula given by Vincent
[8].
C T
I x100
where, I=percent inhibition
C
C = growth in control
T = growth in treatment
Effect of plant extracts on the spore germination of Fusarium
udum.
Antifungal activity of aqueous extract of the test plants on the
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spore germination of F. udum was assayed by cavity slide
method. One drop( about 0.1ml ) of spore suspension containing
40-50 spores per microscopic field (10×40x) was put over a
concentrations viz. 5,10,15 and 20 percent .The slides were kept
in moist chamber prepared by putting two folds of filter paper in
both sides of petriplates. These plates were incubated at 25± 1 0 C
for 24 hours. Cavity slides with sterilized distilled water serve as
control. Three replications were kept for each treatment. Spore
germination was calculated by observing the number of spores
germinated / microscopic field. Percent inhibition of
germination over control was calculated.
FIELD EXPERIMENT:
The experiments were carried out in Chirang a village located at
the outskirt of Imphal city where pigeonpea was grown regularly
in a randomized block design for two consecutive years (2009
and 2010). A wilt susceptible local variety was shown in third
week of April in each plot (2×2m 2 ).
Plant extracts that produced high percentage of inhibition at
20% concentration viz. A.sativum, A. indica, S.acmella, A. vasica
were tested further to see their effect in vivo conditions. Plant
extracts of test plant were prepared afresh on the day of foliar
application and used for spray immediately after preparation. The
spray treatments were started after 45 days of planting followed
by two subsequent sprays at 15 days interval. A standard check
with untreated control (water spray) was also maintained. Data
on disease incidence were recorded and calculated by using the
formula:
Botanicals Parts
used
Eryngium
foetidum
Carica
papaya
Adhatoda
vasica
IV. TABLES
Percent Disease incidence
(DI%) ×100
III. RESULTS
Result showed significant effect of plant extracts against the
mycelial growth of F. udum causing wilt of pigeonpea (table 1).
Among them, extract of Allium sativum showed complete
inhibition of radial growth of F. udum followed by Azadirachta
indica (79.4%), Spilanthes acmella (68.8%) and Adhatoda
vasica (58.8%), Gynura angulosa (55.9%), Aloe vera (55.9%),
Eryngium foetidum (50%).The other test extracts showed less
than 50% inhibition of mycelial growth. Result presented in table
2 showed that highest inhibition of spore germination was
observed in A. sativum extract followed by A.indica(60.7%),
S.acmella and A. vasica showed more or less similar inhibitory
effect. The other tested plants showed less inhibitory effect. .
Under field conditions, among the four plants, maximum control
of disease was observed with A. sativum(35.3%), followed by A.
indica(25.9%), S acmella(14.2%) and A. vasica(10.2%). The
results proved that application of bulb extract of A. sativum
could be biopesticidal and ecofriendly substitute for chemical
fungicide. However, further studies are needed to standardized
the dose of bulb extract for foliar spray in the field to achieve
better results.
Table1: Effect of plant extracts on the radial growth of mycelium of F. udum
Local name *Mycelial growth (cm) mean Percent inhibition of
mycelium growth over
control
leaf awaphadigo
m
5% 10% 15% 20% 5% 10% 15% 20%
2.9 2.9 1.9 1.7 2.35 14.7 14.7 44.1 50.0
leaf awathabi 2.7 2.6 2.2 1.9 2.35 20.6 23.5 35.3 44.1
leaf Nongmangk
ha
angouba
2.5 2.4 1.8 1.4 2.03 26.5 29.4 47.1 58.8
Allium cepa bulb tilhou 3.0 2.9 2.9 2.7 2.86 11.8 14.7 14.7 20.6
Citrus
limon
leaf champra 2.9 2.7 2.4 2.4 2.60 14.7 20.6 29.4 29.4
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 265
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Spilanthes
acmella
flowe
r
chinlengbi 2.5 2.1 1.3 0.9 1.70 26.5 37.7 61.2 68.8
Gynura
angulosa
leaf terapaibi 2.5 2.5 1.8 1.5 2.08 26.4 29.4 47.1 55.9
Allium
sativum
clove chanam 1.5 0.3 00 00 0.45 55.9 92.1 100 100
Aloe vera leaf ghritakumari 2.5 2.3 1.5 1.5 1.95 26.5 32.4 55.9 55.9
Azadirachta
indica
leaf neem 1.9 1.5 0.9 0.7 1.25 44.1 55.9 73.5 79.4
Control 3.5 3.5 3.2 3.4 3.40
Mean 2.6 2.3 1.8 1.7
CD@5% Between plant extracts : 2.7
Between concentrations:4.4
*mean of five replications
Table2: Effect of plant extrac ts on the spore germination of F. udum
Botanicals *Spore germination (%) Mean * Percent inhibition
5% 10% 15% 20% 5% 10% 15% 20%
E.foetidum 82.6 78.2 72.3 65.6 74.68 10.3 15.1 21.5 28.8
C.papaya 82.8 78.3 72.8 70.2 76.03 10.1 15.0 20.9 23.8
A. vasica 81.1 74.9 71.0 61.3 72.73 11.9 18.7 22.9 33.4
A.cepa 86.5 80.4 75.4 73.5 78.95 6.1 12.7 18.1 20.2
C.limon 85.1 78.6 73.4 72.6 77.43 7.6 14.7 20.3 21.2
S. acmella 75.8 74.1 68.1 60.6 69.65 17.7 19.5 26.1 34.2
G.angulosa 81.7 75.4 71.6 65.5 73.55 11.3 18.1 22.3 28.9
A. sativum 9.2 7.0 4.5 00 5.12 9.0 92.4 95.1 100
A.vera 79.0 74.3 69.1 63.9 70.93 14.2 19.3 25.0 30.6
A. indica 60.5 40.6 45.5 36.2 45.70 34.3 55.9 50.6 60.7
Control 93.0 92.1 92.5 90.8 92.1
Mean 74.3 68.5 65.1 60.0
CD@5% Between plant extracts : 2.6
Between concentrations : 4.4
*mean of three replications
Table 3: Effect of plant extracts on wilt disease of pigeonpea under field condition
Name of plants *DI%
2009 2010
Pooled mean % Disease control
A. sativum 61.1 (51.41) 62.8 (52.42) 62.0 (51.94) 35.3
A. indica 71.1 (57.48) 71.1 (57.48) 71.1 (57.48) 25.9
S. acmella 76.7 (61.14) 87.8 (69.56) 82.3 (65.12) 14.2
A. vasica 82.2 (65.05) 90.0 (71.57) 86.1 (68.11) 10.2
Control 94.5 (76.44) 97.2 (80.37) 95.9 (78.32)
*average value of the occurrence of disease
*figure in parentheses are arcsin transformed values
V. DISCUSSION
The major setback in the control of Fusarium udum has been
low capita per income, with household poverty which has
hindered farmers acquiring synthetic chemicals to control the
disease. Locally available plants have been tested as an
alternative to synthetic chemicals. A. sativum extract completely
inhibited mycelial growth and spore germination.A.indica also
inhibited the growth of the pathogen above 50%.The
effectiveness of garlic and neem extract in micelial growth and
spore germination might be due to the presence of antifungal
compounds like diallyl disulphide and diallyl trisulphide and
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 266
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azadirachtin. Effectivenees of garlic and neem as bio-fungicides
has already been reported by many against different fungi. Garlic
extract at 15% inhibited the growth of the pathogen (88.26%) [1].
Pradeep Kumar Singh et al [5] also reported highest inhibition of
radial growth of F. udum by A. indica(67.8%) at 5%.
Effectiveness of garlic and neem extract in different fungi is also
reported by many workers [4,7].
VI. CONCLUSION
Present investigation suggests that locally available plant
resources such as A. sativum and A. indica may be of use for
possible control of F.udum. However, further work is needed to
explore potential of selected plants at the field level.
REFERENCES
[1] Ankita Shukala and S. K. Dwivedi.(2012). Bioefficacy of plant extracts
against Fusarium species causing wilt in pulses.IOSR Journal of
Engineering. 2(1): 136-144.
[2] Gerard E .Chandrasekar and V. Kurucheve. (1994).Effect of six selected
plant products and oil cakes on the sclerotial production and germination of
Rhizoctonia solani. Indian Phytopath. 47 (2): 183-185.
[3] G.K.N. Chhetry.(2004). Dispersion statistics and sequential sampling plan
for timing fungicides application against Cercospora cajani leaf spot in
pigeonpea. J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol. 34 (2):554-557.
[4] N. Siva, S.Ganesan, N. Banumathy and Muthuchelian.(2008). Antifungal
effect of leaf extract of some medicinal plants against Fusarium oxysporum
causing wilt disease of Solanum melogena L. Ethnobotanical Leaflets 12:
156-163.
[5] Pradeepkumar Singh, Anish Khan, Robin Gogoi and Ritesh Kumar Jaiswal
(2010). Plant leaf extracts and bioagents for eco-friendly management of
wilt of pigeonpea caused byFusarium udum. Indian Phytopath. 63 (3) : 343
– 344.
[6] R. M. Gade , K.K. Zote and C. D. Mayee. (2007). Integrated management
of pigeonpea wilt using fungicide and bio-agent. Indian Phytopath. (60) 1:
24-30.
[7] R. R. Sharma, H.N. Gour and Pankaj Sharma.(2005). Effect of plant
extracts on growth of Rhizoctonia solani and disease development in
maize. J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol. 35(2): 377-379.
[8] Vincent JM. (1947). Distortion of fungal hyphae in the presence of certain
inhibitors. Nature 150:850.
AUTHORS
First Author – Tongbram Ranjana Devi. Ph,D Student,
Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Imphal,
Canchipur,795003
Email address: ranjanatongbram@yahoo.in
Second Author – GKN Chhetry, Professor, Department of Life
Sciences, Manipur University, Imphal, Canchipur,79500
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 267
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Recent Developments in Signal Encryption – A Critical
Survey
S. Rajanarayanan and A. Pushparaghavan
Department of computer science and Engineering, Selvam College of Technology, Namakkal, India
srnarayanan_slm@yahoo.co.in
Abstract- In digitally modern world, the fundamental issue
of multimedia data security (such as digital audio signals,
images, and videos) is becoming a major concern due to the rapid
development of digital communications and networking
technologies. The methods and algorithms which are currently
available for data protection uses cryptographic primitives for
secure data transmission and reception by assuming that both
sides must trust on each other. Nowadays, the range of
cryptography applications have been expanded a lot in the
modern area after the development of communication means;
cryptography is essentially required to ensure that data are
protected against penetrations and to prevent espionage. The
major two conceptual blocks of cryptography is encryption and
decryption. This is achieved by sending encrypted version of the
data to the untrusted computers to process. Once when the
computation process is completed on the encrypted data, the
results will be sent back and the decryption is applied to extract
the original data content. To ensure the decrypted result to be
equal to the intended computed value, a structural method of
encryption should be followed. Encryption is a technique
which maintains confidentiality while sending and receiving data
or storing the information. The principle of Kerckoffs‘ on the
encryption states that the security must not rely on the
obfuscation of code, but only on the secrecy of the decryption
key. In this paper detailed description of symmetric and
asymmetric encryption are given to provide a wider view of
encryption techniques. The field of secure signal processing
poses significant challenges for both signal processing and
cryptography research; only few ready-to-go fully integrated
solutions are available.
Index Terms- Encryption, Cryptography, Kerckoffs‘,
Symmetric, Asymmetric
D
I. INTRODUCTION
igital signal processing field has immensely wide range of
applications including communication systems, multimedia
data production, biological signal processing for health
monitoring etc. Although these applications are widely
developed, protection of information for secure communication
is one of the major requirements. The methods and algorithms
which are currently available for data protection uses
cryptographic primitives for secure data transmission and
reception by assuming that both sides must trust on each other.
Using this technique, data cannot be accessed by third parties,
but just not enough to provide complete security to the
application.
Confidentiality of data should be ensured during
communication and data storage while encryption is taken place.
Recently, some additional features providing ability to delegate
computations for encryption in untrusted computers or devices
are added. This is achieved by sending encrypted version of the
data to the untrusted computers to process. Once when the
computation process is completed on the encrypted data, the
results will be sent back and the decryption is applied to extract
the original data content. To ensure the decrypted result to be
equal to the intended computed value, a structural method of
encryption should be followed.
Rivest et al. in 1978 proposed a homomorphic encryption [1] to
solve this issue. Brickell and Yacobi in [2] pointed out some of
the security weakness in the first proposals of Rivest et al.
Followed the first attempt of Rivest et al, a numerous methods
and algorithms have proposed to solve issues related to the data
encryption on various contexts. These are: secret sharing
schemes, threshold schemes [3], zero-knowledge proofs [4],
oblivious transfer [5], commitment schemes [3], anonymity,
privacy, electronic voting, electronic auctions, lottery protocols
[6], protection of mobile agents[7], multiparty computation [3],
mix-nets [8, 9], watermarking or fingerprinting protocols [10–
11], and so forth.
II. FUNDAMENTALS OF ENCRYPTION
Encryption is a technique which maintains confidentiality
while sending and receiving data or storing the information. The
principle of Kerckoffs‘ on the encryption states that the security
must not rely on the obfuscation of code, but only on the secrecy
of the decryption key. In general, encryption techniques are
classified into two broad categories: symmetric and asymmetric.
The detailed explanation of these two types is given in the
following section.
A. Symmetric Encryption
The term ―Symmetric‖ states that both encryption and
decryption of the data are carried out with the same secret key.
Hence, the key must be known to both sender and the receiver in
order to perform any secure communication. The major
advantage of using symmetric encryption is for its fastness.
However, it is not possible for two people who never met to use
such schemes directly. Block ciphers (AES [14, 15]) and stream
ciphers (One-time pad [16], Snow 2.0 [17]), which are belongs to
this category performs encryption faster.
B. Asymmetric Encryption
In terms of asymmetric encryption, the key used for encryption
is different for it is used in decryption procedure. The encryption
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key is public as the decryption key remains private. Since there is
no need of sender or receiver to agree on the sharing of secret
key, these schemes are more functional than the symmetric
techniques. More number of features are added to asymmetric
schemes. However, asymmetric schemes have two major
disadvantages; they are based on nontrivial mathematical
computations, and much slower than the symmetric ones. RSA
[18] and ElGamal [19] are the prominent algorithms belong to
this category.
C. Issues of Encryption Performance
When compared block cipher against RSA algorithm, like AES
it is typically 100 times faster while encryption and 2000 times
faster while decryption, with about 60MB per second on a
modest platform. Stream ciphers are even faster, some of them
being able to encrypt/decrypt 100MB of data per second or more.
Thus, the whole content of a DVD will take about a minute with
a fast stream cipher encryption/decryption. In practice, it would
require hours, or even days, to encrypt or decrypt for such huge
amount of data when asymmetric encryption/decryption is used.
Hence, the asymmetric cipher is used to encrypt only a short
data, while the symmetric one is used for the longer one. The
sender and the receiver do not need to share anything before
performing the encryption/decryption as the symmetric key is
transmitted with the help of the public key of the receiver. By
combining the advantages of both efficiency of symmetric
schemes and functionalities of the asymmetric schemes,
performance of the encryption can be improved.
D. Encryption Security Issues
In first, Shannon [20] formalized the security of encryption
schemes in his seminal paper. He introduced the notion of perfect
secrecy/unconditional security. According to this, knowledge of
a cipher text does not give any information either about the
corresponding plain text or about the key. Estimation of the
security level is necessary in order to evaluate how secures the
encryption schemes. Different authors addressed this security
level estimation on their papers. This estimation may not be
sufficient for several reasons. First, there may be other ways to
break the system than solving the reference mathematical
problem [21, 22]. Second, most of security proofs are performed
in an idealized model called the random oracle model. In recent,
more realistic model called the standard model is used to perform
proofs ([23], [24]). Usually, to evaluate the attack capacity of the
opponent, we distinguish among several contexts [25]: cipher
text-only attacks where the opponent has access only to some
cipher texts, known-plaintext attacks where the opponent has
access to some pairs of corresponding plaintext-cipher texts,
chosen-plaintext attacks which is same as previous, but the
opponent can choose the plaintexts and get the corresponding
cipher texts, and chosen-cipher text attacks ,the opponent has
access to a decryption oracle, behaving as a black-box, that takes
a cipher text and outputs the corresponding plaintext.
E. Appropriate Encryption Technique Selection
Selection of a right encryption scheme involves consideration
of many constraints such as time, memory, security, and so forth.
The time and memory criteria are very important in highly
constrained architectures, often encountered in very small
devices (PDAs, smart cards, RFID tags, etc.). They are also very
important when a huge amount of data is processed at the same
time. Schemes such as AES or RSA are generally used because
of their reputation, but it is also to be noted that new schemes are
proposed each year. Also, any new encryption proposal should
satisfy the following diversity. First, it is necessary in order to be
able to face new kinds of requirements. Second, should be able to
rely an attack breaks.
III. LITERATURE REVIEW
Cuomo et al. in 2008[26] proposed a feature-based data
embedding framework that synchronizes both embedder and
receiver for error correction. The method employs modification
of pitch for data embedding and uses Davey and Mackay's codes
for insertion, deletion, and substitution (IDS) for synchronization
and error recovery. Also, performance of the presented algorithm
is improved using the expectation-maximization algorithm at the
receiver end by estimating the channel parameters for the IDS
decoding. The proposed method is very robust to the low-bit-rate
speech coding channels.
An algorithm that embeds the data in the phase of non-voiced
speech was presented by Hofbauer et al. in 2009 [27]. The
method replaces the autoregressive excitation signal of speech
signal in a frequency sub-band, which is robust against band pass
filtering channels. Several sets of pulse shapes are derived to
prevent inter-symbol interference for creating pass band
embedding signal by simple filtering. Location of the embedded
data is detected using a marker based scheme without the
insertions or deletions occurrence. Chen et al. in 2007[28]
proposed a Vector quantization (VQ) of linear prediction
coefficients (LPCs) based method for speech encryption. Secret
key is generated using the vector quantization indices of
neighboring frames derived from the natural speech‘s characters.
Chen et al. in 2007[29] presented a Codebook-excited linear
prediction (CELP)-based speech encryption algorithm. This
proposed algorithm utilizes compressed speech data for insertion,
deletion and replacement for data embedding. Initially, speech
data are slatted into multiple speech frames groups. The data
encryption in the current frame is generated using the feature,
line spectrum frequency (LSF) extracted in the current frame, the
extracted pitch from of the succeeding frame, the embedded data
in the preceding frame and the location index of the current
frame. Finally, some of the least significant bits (LSBs)
indicating the excitation pulse positions or excitation vectors are
substituted for the watermark.
Speech encryption based on the time-trajectory model of the
sinusoidal components of voiced speech signals is addressed
Laurent Girin et al. in 2007[30]. This global approach is called
long-term (LT) model, which uses amplitude and phase
parameters of the discrete cosine functions for each entire voiced
section of speech. Stankovic et.al in 2010 [31] proposed a unified
encryption approach that can be used for different types of data
such as audio, image or video based on multidimensional timefrequency
analysis is presented over here. Speech signals utilize
time-frequency analysis while space/spatial-frequency analysis is
used for image encryption. The combination of both methods
used in speech and image encryption is extended for video
encryption. Encryption coefficients are selected by computing
local frequency content of the signal. Also, non-stationary
filtering of the host signal is carried out in order to provide
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imperceptibility of the encryption. A study on the perceptual
watermarking impacts on the stationary audio signals was
presented by Larbi et.al in 2005[32]. The study is based on
stationary indices, which represent a measure of variations in
spectral characteristics of signals, using time-frequency
representations. Separation of multiple source audio signals from
a mixture using the watermarking concept was presented by
Parvaix et.al in 2010[33]. In their approach, a specific two level
encoder-decoder procedure is discussed over here. At the
encoder end, before the mixing of source audio signals, each
signal is encrypted with set of parameters that gives additional
information. Then, these encrypted signals are mixed and
transmitted. At the receiver end, using the prior knowledge of the
encrypted source signals, each signal is separated from the
mixture. This method of separation is called informed source
separation (ISS). Results obtained in this method shows high
performances.
Xiangyang et.al in 2007[34] proposed a novel approach for
adaptive blind digital audio encryption. The method uses support
vector regression algorithm for the extraction of the embedded
information. The signal to be encrypted is first embedded in the
audio signal along the template information. Adaptive
quantization according to the local audio correlation and human
auditory masking is used for embedding the information. At the
decoding, corresponding template feature is selected and SVR is
trained. Then, this trained model is used to predict actual outputs
of the embedded information. The main features of this method
include inaudible, robustness and high practicability. In addition
to these, the algorithm can also extract the embedded information
without original audio help.
Chen et.al in 2008[35] presented an audio encryption method
which solves the tradeoff between robustness and
imperceptibility of the echo hiding method. The method
combines analysis-by-synthesis approach, interlaced kernels, and
frequency hopping in order to achieve high robustness,
perceptual quality and security. During the embedding process,
the algorithm not only considers the characteristics of the host
signal, but also the various attacks of embedded audio signals.
Also, the influence of host signals and various attacks on the
embedded data are minimized by introducing the interlaced
kernels. In addition to these two techniques, frequency hopping
is used to increase the security and robustness of the proposed
algorithm. In frequency hopping, each audio segment for
embedding is established by combining the fractions selected
from all frequency bands based on a pseudo noise sequence as a
secret key. The presented algorithm is superior in terms of
robustness, security, and perceptual quality.
Satti et.al in 2009[36] presented a method for scrambling the
signal for secret data hiding using quasi-group. This is a
multilevel indexed transformation which is very effective in
destroying the structure of the input signal and, therefore, it can
be used as an excellent encryption technique. A novel method
that hides data in digital audio was presented by Malik et.al in
2007[37]. Their algorithm exploits the low sensitivity of the
human auditory system for the distortion of phase. Data hiding is
carried out using set of all pass filters and its pole-zero locations
are chosen as parameters to encode the information. In the
separation procedure, power spectrum of the audio signal is
estimated in the z-plane away from the unit circle. The estimated
power spectrum is used to find the pole locations of the all pass
filters in decoding procedure. The results of the mentioned
algorithm shows effectiveness to withstand data attacks and
provides improved perceptual and robustness to the data hiding.
A wavelet based Patchwork Method (MPM) for audio signal
embedding is presented by Kalantari et.al in 2009[38]. The
embedding process in their method uses two subsets features of
the host signal. One subset is modified multiplicatively according
to the embedding information while another one is not changed.
The approximation coefficients of the wavelet domain are used
to embed data. To achieve error free detection, data embedding is
carried out only in the frames where the energy ratio of the
subsets lies between two predefined values. The quality of the
method is achieved using iterative algorithm and the quality is
evaluated using Perceptual Evaluation of Audio Quality (PEAQ)
method at each iteration level. The algorithm presented in this
paper is high robustness and provides inaudibility of the
watermark insertion.
A binary information hiding system in the audio data was
presented Baras et.al in 2006[39]. Their innovative embedding
method consist various stages. A procedure for controlling
inaudibility of the embedding, robustness of the system is
maximized using informed embedding method and an efficient
synchronization mechanism for low computation cost. The
mentioned algorithm is evaluated on a real time audio signal and
shows improved inaudibility, transmission reliability and
computation cost. A modified Patchwork Algorithm for audio
encoding was presented by In-Kwon Yeo et.al in 2003[40]. This
statistical algorithm uses not only discrete cosine transform, but
also discrete Fourier and wavelet domain. This enhanced
Patchwork algorithm withstands various attacks defined by the
Secure Digital Music Initiative (SDMI).
Sridharan et.al in 1991[41] presented a DFT based speech
encryption system. Coefficients of DCT are modified to achieve
the desired permutation in their method. The presented algorithm
is used in band limited telephone channel for its low residual
intelligibility and good recovered voice quality. Servetti et.al in
2002[42] proposed a speech encryption method based on the low
complexity perception based partial schemes. In their proposed
algorithm, the speech signal which is compressed by ITU-T
G.729 standard is partitioned into two classes. These are: one, to
be encrypted which is most perceptually relevant and another one
is to be left unprotected. A two level partial encryption
techniques are carried out, a low-protection and high-protection
technique. The first one is used to prevent eavesdropping and the
second one is used for performing full encryption of the
compressed bit stream. Goldburg et.al in 1993[43] proposed an
analog speech encryption based on the discrete transform domain
is discussed. In their method, four discrete orthogonal transforms
have been evaluated for their suitability in encryption and found
that DCT is the best transform to use in transform based
encryption. Scrambling of the speech is achieved by modifying
the DCT coefficients in this paper. Dawson et.al in 1991[44]
described a discrete cosine transform based speech-encryption
system suitable for communication over band-limited telephone
channels. An energy modification technique is presented which
dramatically reduces the residual intelligibility of the scrambled
speech. In addition, a method used to reduce the undesirable
effects of band limitation is described. Simulation results are
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included which demonstrate the improved performance of the
scheme.
Goldburg et.al in 1993[45] investigated a technique for the
frequency domain speech encryption. This method investigates
codebook vector which is similar to the vector quantization of
speech that can be used in speech scramblers attacks. The
proposed algorithm shows improved security in the frequency
domain speech encryption. Li et.al in 2003[46] proposed a novel
condition for synchronization and stabilization of Chua's
cryptosystems which is used for multimedia encryption. As per
their concept, a magnifying glass is used to enlarge and observe
any mismatch in the parameter and hence increase the security
level and sensitivity of the Chua‘s cryptosystem.Chung-Ping Wu
et.al in 2005[47] proposed an algorithm which uses two
approaches for combining encryption and compression of
multimedia data. They are selective encryption and modified
entropy coders. First, the limitation of the selective encryption is
examined using cryptanalysis, and, using multiple statistical
models, entropy coders are turned into encryption ciphers. A
high level security is achieved in this technique without affecting
the performance and computational speed of the encoders.
A wavelet based approach for speech encryption was proposed
by Shahreza et.al in 2008[48]. The algorithm utilizes Least
Significant Bits of detail coefficients of the wavelet transform to
achieve encryption in an adaptive manner. Since, the information
is not hidden in the silent parts of the speech signal; there is no
need of silent detection algorithms when using this approach.
When compared to a typical wavelet domain LSB, this method
achieves zero error in hiding/unhiding process. Also, the SNR
measure of the encrypted signal using this method implies that
the imperceptible level of the audio is high than original audio. A
method using augmented identity matrix for the speech
encryption was presented by Tingting Xu et.al in 2009 [49]. By
analyzing the redundancy parameters of the coded speech signal,
enhanced encryption is achieved with low computational
complexity in real time applications using this method.Shirali-
Shahreza et.al in 2010[51] proposed a novel algorithm for speech
signal encryption. In their method, information hiding is
achieved by changing the silent intervals of the speech signal.
The main features of this method are robustness MPEG-1 layer
III (MP3) compression, low computation without scarifying the
quality of the speech.
Aoki in 2010[51] proposed a loss less steganography technique
for G.711 codec which is mainly used in telephony systems such
as VoIP. The LSB of the redundancy parameters of G.711 is
exploited in order to achieve encryption.
Chai Peiqi et.al in 2005[52] proposed a novel blind speech
authentication algorithm which comprises linear predictive
coding (LPC) and least significant bit (LSB) steganography. In
this method of speech authentication, the encryption is carried
out by replacing the LSB with extracted invariable LPC
prediction error feature of the speech signal. Djebbar et.al in
2010[53] addressed a method to limits the impact of large data
embedding on to the wideband speech signal. The maximum
number of bits that can be confined without inducing any
noticeable distortion on the speech is first determined and the
encryption is applied only on selected frequency components.
The algorithm is very robust against noise addition, achieves
high security without affecting the quality of the noise signal.
Yong Feng Huang et.al in 2011[54] presented a data
embedding algorithm using G.723.1 codec mainly used in Voice
over Internet Protocol (VoIP). The algorithm analyzes the
inactive frames of low bit rate audio streams for the embedding
process. The proposed algorithm in this paper achieves high
perfect imperceptibility with a high data embedding capacity.
Another speech encryption on VOIP was presented by Hui Tian
et.al in 2009[55]. Their algorithm uses well known least
significant bits substitution approach for information embedding
with a trade between well security and high hiding capacity. By
distributing the LSBs non-uniformly, the algorithm provides
resistance to the statistical detection of the data with the use of
M-sequence technique. The encrypted information is accurately
retrieved using a RSA key agreement and the synchronized
sequence transmission techniques. The proposed system is
effective and provides good security and transparency.
Zhi-jun Wu et.al in 2003[56] presented an analysis by synthesis
approach for speech information embedding. This approach
provides the ability to embed dynamic secret speech information
onto the host speech signal with good achievement in efficiency
and quality. Rui Miao et.al in 2011[57] presented an effective
speech encryption using least significant bits substitution in
VOIP. Unlike a conventional LSB encryption which uses flat
regions of speech signal for embedding, the presented method
suggests a adaptive steganography scheme that selects lower
embedding bit rate in the flat segments, while the sharp segments
can camouflage more secret message. A study that analysis and
encrypts message on the unused bits of G.723.1 codec audio
frames was presented by Huang et.al in 2011[58]. In this novel
analysis, the authors suggest second detection and regression
analysis in order to achieve encryption over VOIP. A system for
speech information hiding telephone was presented by Wu Zhijun
et.al in 101[59]. The overall system is designed using one
fixed point DSP TMS320C54x and three floating DSPs
TMS320C31, and a single-chip micro-controller for embedding
the information. Hui Tian et.al in 2008[60] proposed another
speech encryption method for VOIP using LSBs. The system
presented by them can not only protect the information, but can
also withstand both extraction attack and deceptive attack
effectively.
Skopin et.al in 2010[61] proposed an analog audio
steganography, which allows embedding human speech signal to
the sound file. The authors presented two approaches for the
speech hiding. In their first approach, unheard places of human
speech in a music spectrum is analyzed and used for speech
encryption using the technology called spectrum shift. In the
second method of their proposal, a technique called spectrum
spreading is used for the purpose of encryption on a new signal
which is obtained by inverse Fourier transform of combined
human voice harmonics and music. A study that addresses
solution for speech quality degradation due to the packet loss in
VOIP using steganography was presented by Aoki in 2007[62].
The authors suggest a technique called packet loss concealment
for the reduction speech quality degradation. Sinha et.al in 2006
[63] attempted a speech signal encryption onto the image using
the concept neuro-genetic speech processing. In this method, null
ciphers are extracted from the voice signal of Bengali speaker
using neuro genetic approach and then veiled with an image.
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COMPARATIVE SECURITY TECHNIQUES
Fig.1 Monte-carlo simulation results illustrating dependence of
synchronization performance on QIM step size.
To further examine the performance of the Monte-Carlo
simulations were performed and the percent of times the
successful synchronization and data recovery was accomplished
was determined. This percentage was computed for different
value of the QIM embedding steps Δ for the case of no
compression. The corresponding result are shown in Fig.1. Note
that the performance degrades with decrease in QIM steps size as
expected. For Δ = 15 no cases of failed synchronization /
recovery were observed and for Δ=10 over 95% of times
synchronization was regained. To evaluate the pitch-modificaton
based speech watermark with synchronization.[26]
CDW (CONTENT DEPENDENT MULTIPURPOSE
WATERMARKING ).Ten varieties of gray-scale cover images
of size 512 X 512 were used. One of them was watermarked,
estimated, and copied to the other 9 unwatermarked images to
form 9 counterfeit stego images. By repeating this procedure,90
counterfeit stego images were obtained. All BERs obtained by
applying IWCA to our method fell within [0.4847 0.5198] (all
were sufficiently larger than T), which indicates the absence of
watermarks. Obviously, the experimental results are consistent
with the analytic result (Eq. (4)) [27].
The implementation target device is the TMS320C5502 digital
signal processor, which is a commercially popular device in lowpower
areas. Under the assumption that the PE algorithms are
implemented on this device using the C language, the execution
cycle counts of the PE algorithms with the different PESs are
compared in Table 3. To quantify the computational complexity
in an actual condition, the cycle counts were measured during a
three-minute period, which is equivalent to the average call
duration. Implementation results show that, compared to the FE
algorithm, the PE algorithm with the class 3 PES only requires
nearly 40% cycle counts.[42]
Table 1. Comparison of computational load of the PESs
PES Encryption
rate(%)
Cycle counts
per
call(3min)
Cycle count
ratio (%)
Class 1 5 3,528,000 26.20
Class 2 10 4,284,000 31.82
Class 3 20 5,292,000 39.30
Class 4, LPS 30 6,480,000 48.13
Class 5 40 7,704,000 57.22
HPS 45 8,388,000 62.30
FE 100 13,464,000 100.00
#cycles
(key,block
length)
Table 2. Number of cycles for the key expansion
AES CD(Ansi C) BrianGladman
(VC++)
Rijndael Rijndael-1 Rijndael Rijndael-1
(128,128) 2100 2900 305 1389
(192,128) 2600 3600 277 1595
(256,128) 2800 3800 374 1960
The cipher and its inverse take the same time. The difference in
performance that is discussed in the section on mplementation,
is only caused by the difference in the key set-up. Table 3 gives
the figures for the raw encryption, when implemented in C,
without counting the overhead caused by the AES API.[14]
Table 3.Cipher (and inverse) performance
(key,block AES CD(Ansi C) BrianGladman
length)
(VC++)
Speed #cycl Speed #cycles/blo
(mbits/s es/blo (mbits/s ck
ec) ck ec)
(128,128) 27.0 950 70.5 363
(192,128) 22.8 1125 59.3 432
(256,128) 1.8 1295 51.2 500
We gratefully accepted the generous offer from Cryptix to
produce the Java implementation. Cryptix provides however no
performance figures. Our estimates are based on the execution
time of the KAT and MCT code on a 200 MHz Pentium, running
Linux. The JDK1.1.1 Java compiler was used. The performance
figures of the Java implementation are given in Table 4.
Table 4.Cipher (and inverse) performance in java
Key/block length Speed #cycles for rijndael
(128,128) 1100 kbit/s 23.0kcycles
(192,128) 930 kbit/s 27.6kcycles
(256,128) 790 kbit/s 32.3kcycles
IV. CONCLUSION
In this paper, we have presented the art encryption and
decryption schemes discussing their performances and security
issues. Different researchers have contributed their work to this
field, and some of the algorithms are been explained here.
Nowadays, such techniques are studied in wide application
contexts, but the research is still challenging in the
encryptographic community to design more powerful/secure
schemes.
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[63] Sinha, T.S.; Sanyal, G.; ―Neuro-Genetic based Speech Processing for
Promoting Global Cyber Security using Steganography technique‖, Annual
IEEE India Conference, pp: 1 – 6.
First Author– S.Rajanarayanan, CA, MPhil, ME, (Ph.D),
Assistant Professor, Selvam College of Technology, Department
of Computer Science and Engineering, Namakkal, Tamil Nadu,
India.E-mail: srnarayanan_slm@yahoo.co.in
Second Author – Dr. A. Pushparaghavan BE, MBA, M.Tech,
Ph.D is the Principal and Professor of Electronics and
Communication Engineering in Selvam College of Technology,
Namakkal from April 2011. He worked in different capacity
from Lecturer to Professor and Dean in various leading
institutions like Bannari Amman Institute of Technology, PB
College of Engineering and PSR Engineering College. He is
having around 20 Years of experience in teaching including
academic research.
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Impact of Seasonal and Habitat variation on composition
of Total Lipid content in Muscle and Liver of Labeo
gonius (Ham)
Abstract- Fish lipid is regarded as quality lipid being rich in
cholesterol, triglyceride and essential fatty acids. The changes in
habitat and seasonal variation have a significant impact on the
quality and quantity of different components of lipid profile. The
present paper reports on the seasonal differences in the
quantitative compositions of total lipid of Labeo gonius in lotic
and lentic habitats. These nutrients were determined in muscle
and liver tissues in four different seasons of the year (premonsoon,
monsoon, retreating monsoon and winter). In lotic
habitat the highest amount of total lipid (301.00 ± 2.73mg/g) was
observed in retreating monsoon in the muscle tissue . Similarly
in liver tissue the highest amount of total lipid was observed in
winter (208.50 ± 1.84mg/g). Though apparently similar trend
was observed in lentic habitat, but some amount of differences
with higher values were observed in muscle tissue. The present
study with comparative analysis of total lipid components reveals
a significant impact of habitat and seasonal variation on the
nutritional quality of lipid in Labeo gonius.
F
Index Terms- Labeo gonius, lotic, lentic, nutrients, lipid
I. INTRODUCTION
ish is one of the main sources of protein and fat and has
become a healthier alternative to meat for the last fifty years.
It stores the lipids in various organs particularly in muscle and
liver. The lipids in fish muscle have received much attention as
source of EPA and DHA fatty acids in human diets. Lipid and
fatty acid composition of many marine fish and shell fish as well
as the effect of different diets and factors on lipid compositions
of various species have been investigated (Ackman and
Takeuchi, 1986 ; Viswanathan and Gopakumar, 1984; Halver,
1980); Suzuki et al. (1986); Viola et al. (1988); Bieniarz et al.
(2000) and observed some of the factors causing changes in the
composition of fatty acids in various species.
The lipid in fish muscle can influence product quality through
interaction with other components. Lipid composition of fish is
of practical importance, particularly in relation to the effects of
lipid components on deterioration during frozen storage and
consumer acceptance. Information about lipid components and
their fatty acid constituents is needed to prevent the oxidative or
hydrolytic factors affecting the quality of fish. Buckley et al.,
(1989) also studied the lipid composition of Heterotis niloticus,
Brycenus nurse, Gnathonemus cyprinoids and Sarotherodon
B.K. Deka*, R. Mahanta* and U.C. Goswami**
*Associate Professor, P.G. Dept. Of Zoology, Cotton College,
** Professor, Dept. of Zoology, Gauhati University, India
galilaeus and reported the common neutral fats as cholesterol,
free fatty acids and cholesterol esters and also diphosphatidyl
glycerol, phosphatidyl glycerol and phosphatidyl ethanolamine
as the most predominant phospholipids.
Takama et al. (1985) reported seasonal variation in fat
deposition in Mackeral and Capelin with tissue variation.
Stansby and Hall (1967) reported approximately 70% of fatty
acids with four, five or six double bonds in lipids from
freshwater fishes which is slightly lower than that of the marine
fish (approximately 88%). Fish oils with polyunsaturated fatty
acids are ―essential‖ to prevent skin diseases and have
neurological benefits in growing children. Recently
Eicosapentaenoic acid has shown great importance because of its
preventive role in arteriosclerosis. Simopoulos et al. (1991)
reported that eicosapen-taenoic acid in the blood is an extremely
potent antithrombotic factor. Some researchers reported the role
of n-3 fatty acids in cancer treatment like breast tumours (El-
Sayed et al., 1994). Lack of these essential fatty acids causes
symptoms of slow growth, deformation of tail fin, faded and fatty
liver, skin pigmentation and stress-shocked (Ackman and Eaton,
1976).
The freshwater fishes provide a great amount of nutrient food
source for human. Presently, a large part of these fish species are
in cultivated forms. Therefore, information about the chemical
composition of various species and their nutritional properties,
biochemical structure and habitat condition is greatly needed.
Impact of seasonal variations on the lipids and the lipid amount
of the fish for its economical importance is of utmost necessary.
However, little is known about the variations in the lipid profile
in local fish fauna. Therefore, the present study was aimed to
investigate the impact of both the seasonal and habitat variations
in the amount of total lipid in muscle and liver of Labeo gonius.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
The fishes were collected in Guwahati (Assam, India) from
river Brahmaputra and nearby Lentic Habitat in different seasons
of the year and were anaesthetised by applying diethyl-ether and
then dissected to collect the muscle and liver tissue. The tissues
were dried over a filter paper and immediately weighed and
recorded. .
PREPARATION OF TISSUE SAMPLE
Little amount of propanol (0.5 ml) was added to the tissue and
macerated to make the homogenate. The mixture was centrifuged
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for 10 minutes. Supernatant was taken and then made the
requisite volume as 10mg/ml.
The total lipid was estimated following the method of Frings and
Dunn‘s modification for determination of tissue-total-lipid based
on sulfophosphovanilline reaction.
TABLE I: Total Lipid (mg/g of tissue) content of Muscle & Liver tissues of Labeo gonius in different seasons under Lotic & Lentic
habitats.
Total
Lipid (mg/g
of tissue)
Premonsoon Monsoon Retreating
Monsoon
Winter
Muscle Lotic Mean 126.77 294.77 301.00 103.17
SD± 20.19 49.69 12.22 5.15
SEM± 4.52 11.12 2.73 1.52
Lentic Mean 97.5 146.3 82.6 43.2
SD± 9.06 20.62 11.04 8.68
SEM± 2.03 4.61 2.47 1.94
Liver Lotic Mean 127.5 74.51 63.23 208.50
SD± 20.12 5.47 13.25 8.21
SEM± 4.50 1.22 2.96 1.84
Lentic Mean 103.01 76.65 81.39 24.82
SD± 11.43 8.10 8.72 3.37
SEM± 2.56 1.81 1.95 0.75
TABLE II: Showing the significance of variation of total lipid in muscle and liver tissues of Labeo gonius in different seasons under
two habitats (Lotic and Lentic).
Significance of
Variation
t-between Premonsoon
and Monsoon
t-between Premonsoon
and Retreating Monsoon
t-between Premonsoon
and Winter
t-between Monsoon and
Retreating Monsoon
t-between Monsoon and
Winter
t-between Retreating
Monsoon and Winter.
TISSUES HABITATS Total Lipid
t p
Muscle Lotic 13.99

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ISSN 2250-3153
Table III: Showing the significance of variation of total lipid between lotic and lentic habitats in muscle and liver tissues of Labeo
gonius in different seasons.
Tissue t
P
df
Premonsoon Monsoon Retreating
monsoon
Winter
Muscle t 5.91 12.34 59.34 24.37
p

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 277
ISSN 2250-3153
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fishes show a marked seasonal variation in chemical
composition. The lipid fraction is the component showing the
greatest variation. West African shad (Ethmalosa dorsalis) shows
a range in fat content of 2-7% (wet weight) over the year with a
maximum in July (Watts, 1957). Corvina (Micropogon furnieri)
and pescada-foguete (Marodon ancylodon) have a fat content
range of 0.2-8.7% and 0.1-5.4% respectively (Ito and Watanabe,
1968). It has also been reported that the oil content of these
species varies with size. Watanabe (1971) examined freshwater
fish from Zambia and found a variation from 0.1-5.0% in oil
content of four species including both pelagics and demersals.
Two to three folds of higher lipid content was reported in some
cultured marine fishes than wild types (Cakli, 1994; Aoki et al.
1991; Funuyama et al. 1991; Nakagawa et al. 1991; Hatae et al.
1989). Kunisaki et al. (1986) showed 10-12 fold higher fat
content in cultured horse mackerel than wild type. Dikel (1999)
showed higher lipid content in fish grown in salt water (1.45%)
than in freshwater (0.96%).
In the present study the amount of total lipid from Labeo
gonius in four different seasons of the year under two habitat
conditions was investigated and it was observed that the values
of all the three components of lipid profile were significantly
higher in the lotic habitat (p

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 278
ISSN 2250-3153
[12] Freeman DW and Heamsberger JO (1993). An instrumental method for
determining rancidity in frozen catfish fillets. J. Aquat. Food Prod.
Technol.2, 35-50.
[13] Funuyama K, Ushio F and Tomomatsu T (1991). Comparison of nutritive
component between cultured and wild striped jack. Ann. Rep. Tokyo Mettr.
Res. Lab. P . H., 42:185-190.
[14] Halver JE (1980). Lipids and FA. In fish Feed Technology United Nation
Development Programs, p41, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the
United Nations, Rome.
[15] Hatae K, Lee KH, Tsuchiya T and Shimada A (1989). Textual properties of
cultured and wild fish meat. Nippon suisan gakk. Published by Japanese
Soc. Fish. Sci., 55 (2): 363-368.
[16] Ito Y and Watanabe K (1968). Variations in chemical composition in fillet
of corvina and ‗pescada-foguete‘. Contrib. Inst. Oceanogr. Univ. Sao Paolo
(Ser. Technol.), 5, 1-6.
[17] Kunisaki N, Takada K. and Matsuura H (1986). On the study of lipid
contents, muscle hardness and fatty acid compositions of wild and cultured
horse mackerel. Bull. Japan. Soci. Sci. Fish., 52 (2): 333-336.
[18] Nakagawa H, Nishino H, Nematipour GH, Ohya S, Sheimizu T, Horikawa
Y and Yamomoto S (1991). Effects of water velocities on lipid rezerves in
ayu. Nippon suisan gakk. Published by Japanese Soc. Fish. Sci., 57 (9):
1737-1741.
[19] Simopoulos AP, Kifer RR, Martin RE and Barlow SW (1991). Health
Effects of w3 polyunsaturatedfatty acids in seafoods. Karger, Basel.
[20] Stansby ME and Hall AS (1967). Chemical composition of commercially
important fish of the USA. Fish. Ind. Res., 3, 29-34.
[21] Suzuki H, Okazaki K, Hayakawa S, Wadw S and Tamura S (1986).
Influence of commercial dietary FA on PUFA of cultured freshwater fish
and comparison with those of wild fish of the same species. J. Agric. Food
Chem 34:58-60.
[22] Takama K, Love RM and Smith GL (1985). Selectivity in mobilisation of
stored fatty acids by maturing cod, Gadus morhua. L. Comp. Biochem.
Physiol. SOB, 713-718.
[23] Viola S, Mokady S, Behar D and Cogan U (1988). Effects of PUFA in feeds
of tilapia and carp I. Body composition and FA profiles at different
environmental temperatures. Aquaculture 75:127-137.
[24] Viswanathan PG and Gopakumar K (1984). Lipid and FA composition of
fish and shell fish. J. Food Sci. Technol. 21:389.
[25] Watanabe KO (1971). Physical characteristics and chemical composition of
fresh bream, mud sucker, tiger fish and barb from Lake Kariba. Fish.
Res.Bull., 5, 153-173.
[26] Watts JCD (1957). The chemical composition of West African fish. 2. The
West African shad (Ethmalosa dorsalis) from the Sierra Leone river
estuary. Bull. Inst. Fondam. Afr. Noire (A Sci. Nat.), 19, 539-547.
AUTHORS
First Author: Binoy Kumar Deka,
Associate Professor, P.G. Dept. Of Zoology,
Cotton College, Guwahati-1
Emai: bk.deka@rediffmail.com
Second Author: Dr. Rita Mahanta
Associate Professor, P.G. Dept. Of Zoology,
Cotton College, Guwahati-1
Email: ritamahanta@yahoo.co.in
Third Author: Umesh C. Goswami
Dept. Of Zoology,
Fish Biology and Fishery Science.
DST-FIST (Govt. of India) & UGC-SAP
Sponsored Department,
Gauhati University,
Assam, India.
Email: ucgoswami@rediffmail.com
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 279
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Retrieving Stream of Video Frames Using Query
Processing
Ramancha Sandhyarani 1 , Shiramshetty Gouthami 2 and Baggani Ratna 3
Abstract- This paper presents a graph transformation and
matching approach to identify the stream of video frames
using query processing. With query processing algorithm to
retrieve similar frames, the mapping relationship between
the query and database video is first represented by a
bipartite graph. The densely matched parts along the long
sequence are then extracted, followed by a filter-andrefine
search strategy to prune some irrelevant subsequences.
During the filtering stage, Maximum Size Matching is
deployed for each sub graph constructed by the query
and candidate subsequence to obtain a smaller set of
candidates. During the refinement stage, Sub-Maximum
Similarity Matching is applied to identify the subsequence
with the highest aggregate score from all candidates,
according to a robust video similarity model that includes
visual content, temporal order, and frame alignment
information. In the filter-and-refine phase, some non similar
segments are first filtered; several relevant segments are then
processed to quickly identify the most suitable segments.
Index Terms- query processing, video frames, network
packets segments.
T
I. INTRODUCTION
he project aims at building an effective video-information
representation and harnessing system. The representation
scheme should be applicable to most videos and be rich
enough to allow for various kind of video information
encoding and access. The system should extract video objects
and other semantic features from video sequences, characterize
object interactions, scene activity and events, with minimum
possible human intervention, using both visual and aural
information. A novel representation modality of the video
sequences in terms of these descriptors will be evolved which
will permit a variety of useful operations like generation of
video summaries, application driven semantic transcoding of
video content and hyper-linking of video segments exhibiting
similarity of content or other semantic relation(s),which are
quintessential to content guided video browsing in a hyperlinked
organization of a video collection. For universal interpretation
and use of the semantic concepts in video information there is a
need for associated domain ontology. This will make possible
integration of the system with the Semantic Web and allow it to
interact with other knowledge based information systems in the
distributed environment. The proposed system will also provide
1 sandhya_guptha_r@yahoo.co.in,
2 gouthami.shiramshetty@gmail.com
3 ratna_075@yahoo.co.in
for ontology driven access mechanism to the video based
information. Many investigations have been made on contentbased
video retrieval. However, despite the importance, video
subsequence identification, which is to find the similar content to
a short query clip from a long video sequence, has not been well
addressed. This paper has presented an effective and efficient
query processing strategy for temporal localization of similar
content from a long un segmented video stream, considering
target subsequence may be approximate occurrence of potentially
different ordering or length with query clip.
II. PREVIOUS WORK
The project aims at building an effective video-information
representation and harnessing system. The representation
scheme should be applicable to most videos and be rich
enough to allow for various kind of video information
encoding and access. The system should extract video objects
and other semantic features from video sequences, characterize
object interactions, scene activity and events, with minimum
possible human intervention, using both visual and aural
information. A novel representation modality of the video
sequences in terms of these descriptors will be evolved which
will permit a variety of useful operations like generation of
video summaries, application driven semantic transcoding of
video content and hyper-linking of video segments exhibiting
similarity of content or other semantic relation(s),which are
quintessential to content guided video browsing in a hyperlinked
organization of a video collection. For universal interpretation
and use of the semantic concepts in video information there is a
need for associated domain ontology. This will make possible
integration of the system with the Semantic Web and allow it to
interact with other knowledge based information systems in the
distributed environment. The proposed system will also provide
for ontology driven access mechanism to the video based
information.
III. PRESENT WORK
With the demand for visual information of rich content,
effective and efficient manipulations of large video databases
are increasingly desired. Many investigations have been made on
content-based video retrieval. However, despite the importance,
video subsequence identification, which is to find the similar
content to a short query clip from a long video sequence, has not
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been well addressed. It is often undesirable to manually check
whether a video is part of a long stream by browsing its entire
length.
IV. MODULES
In this application we have mainly two systems they are
Video Copy Detection
Video Similarity Search
The modules in these two systems are explained briefly.
Video Copy Detection
Target system should have servers like FTP,HTTP,SSH
etc.,
This server software should accept incoming connections
from the remote
Detection System design
Detection System module
User Interface module
Detection System modules
i. Packet Capturing Module
ii. Field Extraction Module
iii. Field Information Storing
iv. PCF for SYN-Flood
v. PCF for Port-Scan
Packet Capturing Module
Packet capture is the act of capturing data packets crossing a
network. Deep packet capture (DPC) is the act of capturing
complete network packets crossing a network. In this module we
capture data packets in the scalable network using packet
capturing tools.
Field Extraction Module
Field Extraction Refers both to the process by which fields are
extracted from event data, and the results of that process, also
referred to as extracted fields. Field extraction can take place
either before events are indexed or after event indexing. In this
module we extract all the fields present in the network.
Field Information Storing
In this module we store all the details of the data fields.
PCF for SYN-Flood
Partial Completion Filter (PCF) consists of parallel stages each
containing hash buckets that are incremented for a SYN and
decremented for a FIN. In this module we use PCF for
identifying the SYN packets in the network.
PCF for Port-Scan
A port scan or port-scan is an attack that sends client requests to
a range of server port addresses on a host, with the goal of
finding an active port and exploiting a known vulnerability of
that service. In this module we use PCF for identifying the portscan
in the network
Main objectives of this project were to develop
A scheme for construction and extraction of semantic
features involving video objects and frame based
characteristics for describing content of the video in
terms of both aural and visual features
An ontological specification for video information for
enabling inter-operable conceptual access
A representational scheme for video documents for
efficient video information browsing, semantic
transcoding, querying and semantics driven delivery.
Fig.1. Home Page
V. EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
The above screen page displays the main features of the
project and also browse option. When we click on browse of the
input video we enter into the login page of the project. In this
project we can view the image of the input video and also the
image of the database video one of the main features. The
Subsequence Identification button helps to compare the video of
the input video to the video of the database video and helps in
retrieving the similar frames of both the image
Figure 2: Login Page
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The above screen page displays the main features of the
project and also the browse option. After clicking on the browse
option first the image on the database video is displayed. The
data base searching for the retrieval of the similar frames go on
the input video the two videos .After comparing two images it
retrieves the similar subsequent frames of the video
Fig.3 Retrieval of Frames
The above screen page displays the main features of the
project and also the browse option. After clicking on the
browse option first the image on the database video is displayed.
The data base searching for the retrieval of the similar frames go
on the input video the two videos. After comparing two images it
retrieves the similar subsequent frames of the video
Fig.4. Log Viewer
The above screen shows the segments of the video
subsequence frames. The segments of the input video is
compared to the segment of database video for identification
of similar frames. the segments identification is done till the
retrieval other similar frames on both the input video and the
database video.
. Figure 5: Log Viewer
The above screen shows the segments of the video
subsequence frames. The segments of the input video is
compared to the database video with the subsequence
identification the segments are mapped until a match is found
between this two videos and the relevant frames are
displayed. The above screen also displays the final execution of
the project.
VI. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
This paper has presented a query processing method for
retrieving stream of video frames. A video query processor
should support video-based operations for search by content and
streaming, new video query types, and the incorporation of video
methods and operators in generating, optimizing and executing
query plans. In the preliminary phase, the similar frames of query
clip are retrieved by a batch query algorithm. Then, a bipartite
graph is constructed to exploit the opportunity of spatial pruning.
The high-dimensional query and database video sequence can be
transformed to two sides of a bipartite graph. Only the dense
segments are roughly obtained as possibly similar subsequences.
In the filter-and-refine phase, some non similar segments are first
filtered; several relevant segments are then processed. During
the filtering stage, Maximum Size Matching is deployed for
each sub graph constructed by the query and candidate
subsequence to obtain a smaller set of candidates. During
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the refinement stage, Sub-Maximum Similarity Matching is
applied to identify the subsequence with the highest aggregate
score from all candidates, according to a robust video
similarity model that includes visual content, temporal order,
and frame alignment information.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We extremely thank our Principal and the management for
their continuous support in Research and Development.
We are also very grateful to our faculty members for their
valuable suggestions and their ever ending support.
Especially, we thank our college Principal and management
for their financial support for receiving the sponsorship.
REFERENCES
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AUTHORS
First Author: Ramancha Sandhyarani Worked in Jayamukhi
Institute of Technological Sciences, Warangal as Assistant
Professor for the year 2006-2011.She received her M.Tech
Degree from JNTU Hyderabad,(A.P,India) .
Second Author: Shiramshetty Gouthami is presently working as
Asst.Prof in Computer Science Engineering Department at
Jayamukhi Institute of Technological Sciences; Warangal for the
past 5 years.She received her M.Tech Degree from JNTU
Hyderabad,( A.P, India).
Third Author: Baggani Ratna Worked in DRK Collage of
Engineering and Techonology as Assistant Professor for the year
2008-2011. She received her M.Tech Degree from JNTU
Hyderabad,(A.P,India)
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Screening of phaseolus vulgaris Cultivars Growing in
Various Areas of Jammu and Kashmir for Anthracnose
Resistance
Balbir Kour, Gurmeet Kour, Sanjana Kaul, Manoj K. Dhar
Abstract- Phaseolus vulgaris is an economically important
crop. The most important disease which hampers its production
is anthracnose which is found in almost every bean growing
region of the world. Anthracnose in beans is caused by a
hemibiotrophic fungus, namely Colletotrichum lindemuthianum.
Use of resistant genotypes will provide a long lasting solution to
the economic losses caused by anthracnose as this method is
biologically safe as well as cost effective. For the present
investigation, nearly ten C. lindemuthianum isolates collected
from Baramulla, Kashmir were used. Inoculum of each isolate
was produced by inoculating bean extract medium with a
monosporic culture of C. lindemuthianum, incubated at 25ºC for
seven days, the spore suspension culture filtered through double
layered muslin cloth and inoculum load was adjusted to 1.2 X
10 6 spores per milliliter with the help of a haemocytometer. Seed
dip method was used for the inoculation of the test plant. The
inoculated seeds were sown in sand and were kept at 25ºC for the
period of one month. The disease reaction was scored after
twelve days of inoculation following 0-5 scale where 0 = no
disease; 1 = pin point lesion; 2 = small lesion; 4 = large deep
lesion and 5 = sunken lesions with rotten apex. Two broad
categories of the accessions emerged; infected (infection rate
high or mild) or non-infected. Based on the presence or absence
of infected plants accessions were labeled as susceptible or
resistant.
A
Plant Genomics Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, University of Jammu,
Jammu (J & K), 180006, India
I. INTRODUCTION
mong grain crops, pulses (food legumes) rank third after
cereals and oilseeds in terms of total world production.
Pulses are rich in proteins and represent an important source of
dietary protein for humans and animals. The proteins are
generally composed of high amount of lysine, while the amount
of methionine and cysteine is less. However, consumption of
legumes and cereals results in a balanced diet of energy and
protein. Legumes are also an important source of some essential
minerals (1) . The legumes have been observed to reduce blood
cholesterol levels (2) . Among major food legumes, common bean
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is third in importance, has broadest
genetic base and is grown and consumed in almost every part of
the world (3,4) . Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is
important food grain legume crop, cultivated in almost every part
of the world. This species is a diploid with 2n=2X=22, it is
predominantly a self crossing species with only exception of
about 3%. (5)
Although, beans are cultivated throughout India, Himalayas
hold the richest diversity of common bean. Common bean
production is influenced by both biotic and abiotic stresses;
biotic factors are responsible for major losses. Six major diseases
(anthracnose, rust, angular leaf spot, common bacterial blight,
Bean Golden Mosaic Virus and Bean Common Mosaic Virus)
are known to hamper common bean production. However, the
most important among these is anthracnose which is found in
almost every bean growing region of the world (6) . It is
considered as one of the most destructive disease (7) . Anthracnose
is caused by a hemibiotrophic fungus, namely Colletotrichum
lindemuthianum. This disease is known to cause total loss of the
crop. Disease generally occurs by contaminated seeds or infected
plant debris (8) . This disease may lead to major or total crop loss,
particularly in case a susceptible variety is sown (9,10) . The
anthracnose genetics has been studied for a long time (11) . This
host-pathogen interaction was the first report of race-cultivar
specificity (12) . The chemical control method has been used to
check the disease, however, it is very expensive and causes
severe threat to the health and environment. Use of resistant
genotypes will provide a long lasting solution, as this method is
biologically safe as well as cost effective. Therefore the present
study was aimed to characterize the Common bean accessions
growing in J&K state for resistance and susceptibility.
II. METHODOLOGY
For the present study forty four common bean accessions
growing in various areas of Jammu and Kashmir were collected.
Screening for disease resistance in these accessions was achieved
by challenging the plants with the pathogen. The inoculums of
Colletotricum lindemuthianum were applied to all the accessions
and disease incidence and infection rate were determined by
visual rating. The plants were classified as susceptible and
resistant. Infected pods of various accessions of beans were
collected from different areas of Baramulla district in Kashmir
valley at regular time intervals. After collection, the infected
pods were placed in between the folds of newspapers for drying.
Efforts were made to remove as much moisture as possible, in
order to avoid cross contamination by other fungi. The samples
were kept in the paper bags marked with different accession
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numbers. The bags were wrapped in polythene and kept at 4ºC to
minimize the degradation and to prevent the contamination.
Potato dextrose agar medium (PDA), the basic medium for
culturing of many fungi, was successfully used for
Colletotrichum isolates collected from various bean accessions.
The antibiotic, chloramphenicol (50μg/ml) was added to the
medium to avoid bacterial contamination. In addition bean pod
extract medium was also used. Infected pods were washed with
distilled water, treated with disinfectant to eliminate the bacterial
and other contaminants from the pod surface. Small pieces of the
infected pods were inoculated on PDA and kept at 25ºC. The
fungus started growing after a week of inoculation and thereafter,
its growth was monitored every week. The fungus isolated from
infected pods was again sub-cultured on PDA to obtain the pure
cultures. For preparing a pure culture, the spores were picked
from the petriplates and sub-cultured on fresh PDA plate until
pure culture was obtained. Using this technique five isolates of
C. lindemuthianum were obtained. Pure cultures of C.
lindemuthianum were stored at 4ºC. These were maintained as
mother cultures for further study. For long term storage, glycerol
cultures were raised. Spores were mixed in 70% glycerol in
storage vials and were stored at -80ºC. In addition to PDA
medium, bean extract medium was also used for the sporulation
of the fungus. For preparation of bean extract medium, young
bean pods were surface sterilized and boiled in water. The extract
was then filtered through double layered muslin cloth, and to the
filtrate 2% dextrose was added. The pH of the medium was
adjusted to 7.0 and 2% agar was added prior to autoclaving. For
the present investigation, three C. lindemuthianum isolates
collected from Baramulla, Kashmir were used. Inoculum of each
isolate was produced by inoculating bean extract medium with a
monosporic culture of C. lindemuthianum. After inoculation, the
plates were incubated at 25ºC for seven days. The surface of the
culture was scraped with a sterilized glass rod, and the spore
suspension was prepared in sterilized water from seven day old
sporulating cultures of all the three isolates. The spore
suspension culture was filtered through double layered muslin
cloth and inoculum load was adjusted to 1.2 X 10 6 spores per
milliliter with the help of a haemocytometer. Seed dip method
was used for the inoculation of the test plant. Five surface
sterilized seeds of each accession were germinated on sterilized
filter paper under aseptic conditions. The seeds were surface
sterilized by dipping in 70% ethanol for 5min, followed by
treatment with 0.1% mercuric chloride for 10min and finally 2X
wash with double distilled water. Five day old germinating seeds
of each accession (5 seeds) were dip inoculated in the spore
suspension for 5min after removal of the seed coat. The
inoculated seeds were sown in sand and were kept at 25ºC for
one month. The disease reaction was scored after twelve days of
inoculation following 0-5 scale (13) , where 0 = no disease; 1 = pin
point lesion; 2 = small lesion; 3 & 4 = large deep lesion and 5 =
sunken lesions with rotten apex.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The present study being first of its kind, for the screening of
resistant common bean accessions growing in Jammu and
Kashmir state, is based upon the forty seven common bean
accessions collected from various areas (Table 1). During present
study the common bean accessions were challenged with C.
lindemuthianum cultures to screen the resistant and susceptible
cultivars. The isolates of C. lindemuthianum were collected from
infected pods of different cultivars growing in various areas of
Kashmir valley. A total of ten fungal isolates were cultured and
maintained while in the present study the results with one C.
lindemuthianum isolate on common bean accessions has been
given. Based on the response, the plants were classified as
susceptible and resistant (Table 2). This method of screening the
bean germplasm for disease resistance is an established one and
has been used by many workers including (14) . The latter workers
reported that after one week of treatment, the susceptible
cultivars showed severe infection on the cotyledons and the
hypocotyls resulting in death. Although, slightly susceptible
cultivars survived, however, these developed distinct stem and
leaf necrosis (Fig 1, 2). On the other hand the resistant cultivars
did not show any symptoms of the disease (Fig. 3, 4). Similar
results were obtained in the present investigation. The
susceptible cultivars showed formation of large lesions with
sunken cankers on cotyledons and dead apex, the mild infected
plants showed slight infection on cotyledons, while resistant
plants were healthy and without any disease symptoms. This
method of screening varieties has been used by many other
workers in common bean and found to be the most suitable one
(15-17) . Therefore, the present study, being the first of its kind to
scan the bean germplasm for resistance to anthracnose from
various areas of Kashmir region, these resistant varieties can be
used for the development of better varieties of beans.
IV. CONCLUSION
From the present study we concluded that the beans
germplasm growing in various areas of Jammu and Kashmir hold
the richest repository of anthracnose resistant cultivars. These
cultivars can be studied in detail to isolate the resistant genes
present in them and can be used for the breeding studies so as to
develop a cultivar which can withstand the threat of this deadly
disease.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors are thankful to the Department of Biotechnology,
Govt. of India for financial support.
REFERENCES
[1] Grusak MA. Enhancing mineral content in plant food products. J Am Coll
Nutr 2002; 21:178S-183S.
[2] Andersen JW, Story L, Sieling B, Chen WJ, Petro MS, Story J.
Hypocholesterolemic effects of oat-bran or bean intake for
hypercholesterolemic men. Am J Clin Nutr 1984; 40:1146-1155.
[3] Singh SP. Integrated genetic improvement. In Common bean improvement
in the twenty-first century. S.P. Singh ed. (Kluwer, Dordrecht, the
Netherlands. 1999 pp. 133-165.
[4] Broughton WI, Hernandez G, Blain M, Beebe S, Gepts P, Vanderleyden J.
Beans (Phaseolus spp.) model food legumes. Plant Soil 2003; 252: 55-128.
[5] Ibarra-Perez F, Ehdaie B, Waines G. Estimation of outcrossing rate in
common bean. Crop Sci 1997; 37:60-65.
[6] [Kelly JD, Afanador L, Cameron LS. New races of Colletotrichum
lindemuthianum in Michigan and implications in dry bean resistance
breeding. Plant Dis 1994; 78:892-894.
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[7] Pastor-Corrales MA Tu JC. Anthracnose. In Bean production problems in
the tropics. H.F. Schwartz and M.A. Pastor-Corrales eds. (CIAT, Cali,
Colombia), 1989 pp. 77-104.
[8] Dillard HR, Cobb AC. Survival of Colletotrichum lindemuthianum in bean
debris in New York State. Plant Dis 1993; 77:1233-1238.
[9] Fernandez MT, Fernandez M, Centeno ML, Canal MJ, Rodriguez R.
Reaction of common bean callus to culture filtrate of Colletotrichum
lindemuthianum: Differences in the composition and toxic activity of fungal
culture filtrates. Plant Cell Tiss Organ cult 2000; 61:41-49.
[10] Sharma PN, Kaur M,Sharma OP, Sharma P, Pathania A. Morphological,
pathological and molecular variability in Colletotrichum capsici, the cause
of fruit rot of chillies in the subtropical region of north-western India.
Phytopathology 2005; 153:232-237.
[11] McRostie GP. Inheritance of anthracnose resistance as indicated by a cross
between a resistant and a susceptible bean. Phytopathology 1919; 9:141-
148.
[12] Barrus MF. Variation of cultivars of beans in their susceptibility to
anthracnose. Phytopathology 1911; 1:190-195.
[13] Drijfhout E, Davis HJC. Selection of a new set of homogeneously reacting
bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) differential to differentiate races of common
bean. Plant Pathol 1986; 38: 391-396.
[14] Kruger J, Hoffmann GM, Hubbling N. The kappa race of Colletotrichum
lindemuthianum and sources of resistance to anthracnose in Phaseolus
beans. Euphytica 1977; 26:23-25.
[15] Pathania A, Sharma PN, Sharma OP, Chahota RK, Bilal Ahmad Sharma P.
Evaluation of resistance sources and inheritance of resistance in kidney
bean to Indian virulences of Colletotrichum lindemuthianum: Evaluation of
resistance in bean to anthracnose. Euphytica 2006; 149:97-103.
[16] Genchev D, Christova P, Kiryakov I, Beleva M, Batchvarova R Breeding of
common bean for resistance to the physiological races of Anthracnose
identified in Bulgaria. Biotechnol Biotechnol Eq 2010; 24:1814-1823.
AUTHORS
First Author – Balbir Kour, Senoir Research Fellow, Plant
Genomics Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, University of
Jammu, Jammu (J & K), 180006, Email:
balbirbalio2@yahoo.co.in
Second Author – Gurmeet Kour, Research Associate, Plant
Genomics Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, University of
Jammu, Jammu (J & K), 180006
Third Author – Sanjana Kaul, Senoor Assistant Professor, Plant
Genomics Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, University of
Jammu, Jammu (J & K), 180006
Fourth Author – Prof. Manoj K. Dhar, Director & Head , Plant
Genomics Laboratory, School of Biotechnology, University of
Jammu, Jammu (J & K), 180006
Correspondence Author – Balbir Kour, Email:
balbirbalio2@yahoo.co.in
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Table 1: Bean germplasm and its characterization
S. No. Accession Number Colour of Seeds Shape of
Seeds
Type of Seeds
1 JUBG50 Pink Small Snap
2 JUBG51 Pink Small Dry
3 JUBG52 Mottled Small Snap
4 JUBG53 Red Small Dry
5 JUBG54 Black Small Dry
6 JUBG55 Mottled Big Dry
7 JUBG56 Brown Big Snap
8 JUBG57 Mottled Big Dry
9 JUBG58 Red Big Snap
10 JUBG59 Brown Small Dry
11 JUBG60 Mottled Small Snap
12 JUBG61 Mottled Small Dry
13 JUBG62 Brown Big Snap
14 JUBG63 Brown Big Snap
15 JUBG64 White Small Snap
16 JUBG65 Light brown Medium Dry
17 JUBG66 White Small Dry
18 JUBG67 Pink Medium Dry
19 JUBG68 Pink Big Snap
20 JUBG69 White Medium Dry
21 JUBG70 Red Small Dry
22 JUBG71 Blackish brown Small Snap
23 JUBG72 Mottled Big Snap
24 JUBG73 Pink Small Dry
25 JUBG74 Pink Small Snap
26 JUBG75 Red Big Dry
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S.
No
27 JUBG76 White Small Dry
28 JUBG77 Mottled Medium Dry
29 JUBG78 Mottled Small Dry
30 JUBG79 Pink Big Dry
31 JUBG80 Pink Small Snap
32 JUBG81 Brown Big Dry
33 JUBG49 Mottled Big Dry
34 JUBG82 Red Medium Dry
35 JUBG83 Mottled Medium Dry
36 JUBG18 Red Small Dry
37 JUBG84 Red Small Dry
38 JUBG85 Red Small Snap
39 JUBG86 Brown Big Snap
40 JUBG87 Brown Big Snap
41 JUBG88 Mottled Medium Snap
42 JUBG89 Mottled Big Snap
43 JUBG90 Red Medium Snap
44 JUBG92 Red Medium Snap
Accession Observations after 1 st
Table 2: Response of different bean accessions to C. lindemuthianum
week
1 JUBG18 Infection on cotyledons,
no germination
2 JUBG49 Infection on cotyledons,
very slow germination
3 JUBG50 Infection on cotyledons,
very slow germination
Observations after 2 nd
week
Highly infected
cotyledons, slow growth
rate
Highly infected
cotyledons, slow growth
rate
Highly infected
cotyledons, slow growth
rate
Observations after 3 rd week resistant Susceptible
Shoot apex dead, infection on
stem and lower side of leaves
Infection on stem and lower
sides of leaves
Infection on stem and leaves.
Plants very slow growing
- +
- +
- +
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4 JUBG51 Slight infection on
cotyledons, fast
germination
Healthy plants, growth
rate high
Healthy plants + -
5 JUBG52 Highly infected cotyledons No germination No plant formation - +
6 JUBG53 Highly infected cotyledons Germination very slow Shoot apex dead - +
7 JUBG54 Slight infection on
cotyledons, fast
germination
8 JUBG55 No infection on
cotyledons, fast
germination
9 JUBG56 No infection on
cotyledons, fast
germination
10 JUBG57 Slight infection on
cotyledons, moderate
germination
11 JUBG58 Slight infection on
cotyledons germination
rate good
12 JUBG59 No infection on
cotyledons, fast
germination
13 JUBG60 Slight infection on
cotyledons, moderate
germination
14 JUBG61 No infection on
cotyledons, fast
germination
15 JUBG62 Slight infection on
cotyledons, moderate
germination
16 JUBG63 Slight infection on
cotyledons, moderate
germination
16 JUBG63 Slight infection on
cotyledons, moderate
germination
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
Infection on cotyledons,
growth rate moderate
No infection on stem and
leaves
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
+ -
17 JUBG64 Highly infected cotyledons Germination very slow Shoot apex dead - +
18 JUBG65 Slight infection on
cotyledons, moderate
germination
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
+ -
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19 JUBG66 Slight infection on
cotyledons germination
rate good
20 JUBG67 No infection on
cotyledons, fast
germination.
21 JUBG68 Highly infected
cotyledons, no
germination
22 JUBG69 No infection on
cotyledons, fast
germination
23 JUBG70 Slight infection on
cotyledons germination
rate good
24 JUBG71 Highly infected
cotyledons, no
germination
25 JUBG72 No infection on
cotyledons, fast
germination
26 JUBG73 No infection on
cotyledons, fast
germination
27 JUBG74 No infection on
cotyledons, fast
germination
28 JUBG75 Infection on cotyledons,
no germination
Infection on cotyledons,
growth rate moderate
No infection on stem and
leaves, but first two leaves
curled.
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
Germination very slow Shoot apex dead, infection on
stem and lower side of leaves
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
Infection on cotyledons,
growth rate moderate
+ -
+ -
- +
+ -
Healthy plants + -
Germination very slow. Shoot apex dead, infection on
stem and lower side of leaves
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
Highly infected
cotyledons, slow growth
rate
Shoot apex dead, infection on
stem and lower side of leaves
29 JUBG76 Highly infected cotyledons Germination very slow Shoot apex dead, infection on
stem and lower side of leaves
30 JUBG77 Slight infection on
cotyledons, seed
germinated
31 JUBG78 Slight infection on
cotyledons germination
rate good
32 JUBG79 No infection on
cotyledons, fast
germination
Infection on cotyledons,
plant formation
Infection on cotyledons,
growth rate moderate
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
- +
+ -
+ -
+ -
- +
- +
Healthy plants. + -
Healthy plants + -
+ -
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33 JUBG80 Highly infected cotyledons Germination very slow Shoot apex dead - +
34 JUBG81 No infection on
cotyledons, fast
germination
35 JUBG82 Slight infection on
cotyledons germination
rate good
36 JUBG83 Slight infection on
cotyledons germination
rate good
37 JUBG84 Highly infected
cotyledons, no
germination
38 JUBG85 No infection on
cotyledons, fast
germination
39 JUBG86 Slight infection on
cotyledons, germination
rate moderate
40 JUBG87 Highly infected
cotyledons, no
germination
41 JUBG88 Slight infection on
cotyledons germination
rate good
42 JUBG89 Slight infection on
cotyledons germination
rate good
43 JUBG90 Slight infection on
cotyledons, moderate
germination
44 JUBG92 No infection on
cotyledons, fast
germination
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptom.
Infection on cotyledons,
growth rate moderate
Infection on cotyledons,
growth rate moderate
+ -
Healthy plants + -
Healthy plants + -
Germination very slow Shoot apex dead, infection on
stem and lower side of leaves
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
Cotyledons slightly
infected, growth rate
moderate
Plant healthy with no
symptoms of infection on
leaves and stem
Germination very slow Shoot apex dead, infection on
stem and lower side of leaves
Infection on cotyledons,
growth rate moderate
Infection on cotyledons,
growth rate fast
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
Healthy plant formation Growth rate fast, leaves and
stem devoid of any disease
symptoms
- +
+ -
+ -
- +
Healthy plants - +
Healthy plants + -
+ -
+ -
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Love, Desire, and Theological Issues in Indo-Iranian
Myths: A Comparative Introduction
Abbas Saeedipour
Dept. of Persian, Faculty of Humanities& Languages, J.M.I, the Central University, New Delhi, India
The Mythic Drama of Yama and Yami in the Rig Veda
Abstract- In the world of myths anything can happen illogically,
or sometime logically. In the tragedy of Prometheus Bound
written by Aeschylus, the Greek Prometheus there can steal fire
from heavenly gods and give it to the earthly mortal creatures.
Tiresias the blind soothsayer, descended from Oudaeus, in the
Sophocles' tragedy of Oedipus the King, can predict the future
fate of Thebes happening to the people there. Cerci the whore, in
the Homer's, can bewitch the bravest and the most powerful
Greek heroes. One set of potential human couple Mashya and
Mashyana grows like a set of plants out of forty years of
processing being under the air, the sun, and the soil. They are
metamorphosed and clutched together. There is apparently no
specific limit or any fixed and distinguished laws or regulations.
Nonetheless, myths have their own logic, seeds, and cluster. The
personification of things and forces, of phenomena, as well as
abstractions are widely and repeatedly allowed and the
composers have freedom and poetic license to manipulate and
manufacture their imaginatively made- narratives. Myths have
got their own logic, initiation, making process structural
mythemes and those of subjectivists' features space- timelessness
and settingless danglings.
Index Terms- mythic drama, love, sin, tradition. Yama, Yami,
Mashya, Mashyana, metaphorical setting, ethical issue
O
I. INTRODUCTION
ne of the first and also the best dramatic narratives and
representations of the mentality of man in the earliest stages
of his fictive creation that is still remained in the Rig Veda,
Mandala X, hymn 10, is the drama of Yama and Yami: the first
Aryan tribal couple, the first parents of men.
The parallel of the Rig Veda's couple is the Iranian mythic
couple of Mashya and Mashyana. It is more developed and
dramatized( Wendy Doniger,1974,1994 Hindu Myths,p.64)
Nevertheless, the plot and the story in its dramatic context, of
course, more extended and connected to later and the whole
future generations of the races of man in Iranian version of the
Avestan Scriptures..These are the most ancient dramatic mythic
literature of the world.
II. YAMA [MALE] AND YAMI [FEMALE] IN THE RIG VEDA
However, both the interior and exterior formation and
configuration of the two versions of the dramatic myth of the
first Aryan couple from which many future generations bear
different human races on the earth are beautifully and
imaginatively concrete. The credibility of the characters, of
design, and of the plot together make up the process of
development exportable and persuasive. It is like a full and
modern drama. The Iranian version of this dramatic myth of the
earliest literature of man is, particularly, extended and
profounded in length, depth, and horizon. In other word, the
Iranian version of this drama of the first Aryan couple of the
Indo-Aryan genealogy is well designed, structured and processed
horizontally and vertically. The drama tracks and is hunted down
to progenitor: Gaymart and his determination with Ahura Maza,
victory over devils and darkness, and succession .It also gets
going to the future.
III. THE DRAMA OF YAMA AND YAMI: THE DIALOGUE
Yama to Yami: ………….." Surya ………… is our father and
his wife Saranyu is our mother. We are brother and sister." Why
should you desire something deviating?
Yami to Yama: "In this lonely and abandoned Island, I feel
attracted to you ……….. You have been with me since I was in
mother's womb. "
"I seek your companionship ……."……." She has a biological
appetite to physically communicate with a male (his brother)
Yama to Yami: "I, Yama, your brother do not agree with you.
I do not want such companionship. Being my sister, it is not
right for us to have such relation. The deities … who reside in
heaven, are watching us."This is a religious argument and
theological reasoning. This portion of dramatic dialogue
represents a sense of spiritual as well as moral transcendence that
is assumedly lead from certain belief available and held by the
vedic society. It is not ritual, it is the set of codes of behavior
Some scholars and writers who look into Indo-Iranian
mythology, especially those modern Europeans may see this
loving dialogue between the female and the male as a break of
law and tradition. Because the dramatic dialogue does contains
such potentialities in itself. It seems that tradition, responsibility,
and honour resist against desire in the context of the drama at the
time. It appears that ancient Aryans in two – three thousand years
before Jesus Christ had indeed the criteria of behavior and held
conventions of men or God and observed moral regulations.
Yama and Yami, as many researchers emphasized, were not the
ancestors of human race.
The hymn of the tenth Mandala (book) of the Rig Veda is a
sort of dramatic exposition of Yama and Yami. It is a modern
point of view of a dramatic setting as if you were reading one of
those lovely plays of Shakespeare. Nevertheless, in the hymn
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there is the self-exposition of siblings with the parents named
Surya as father, and Saranya as mother of the two. The tenth the
hymn of the tenth Mandala of the Rig-Veda represents a desirous
dialogue with romantic tone and sensual appeal contains fourteen
verses of considerable suggestive lines and erotic words but
completely in a metaphoric setting.
It represents a moral discourse with its own philosophical and
ethical standards. Distinguishing between right deed and wrong
act is significantly theological: " we have never done such a thing
before. We should not follow the path dishonor. We should be
truthful and stay away from falsehood … we are brother and
sister."(RV. 10.4) That is not only a self-proclaim criterion. It is
interesting that the suggestion is emphatically from Yami
(female) side and she justifies her lusty desire and sensual
appeal: "such a relationship is banned for mortals, but we are not
mortals." Disallowance is "for mortals" is a self- pronouncement
decree arousing from an emotional trend and biological desire.
On the other hand Yama is well aware and theoretically
confident that this sort of behavior has never been taken place
before.
The issue indeed is something beyond the will and desire of
Yama, the individual persona: "these … deities… neither stop
nor ever close their eyes to anything." Yama not only argues that
the deed itself is not right but also emphasizes that there has been
no any trace of this relationship in his line and stock of ancestors
available. The new reason is an additional prohibiting ban. The
viewers, spies, and live spectators are present and watching us.
"A person who commits intercourse with his own sister is
considered to be a great sinner."
[Note the following text translated by Griffith, Ralph T.H: The
Rig Veda,book X, hymh 10,pp.422-24].
The Dramatic Dialogue of Yama and Yami in the Rig veda
1. FAIN would I win my friend to kindly friendship. So
may the Sage, come through the air's wide ocean,
Remembering the earth and days to follow, obtain a son,
the issue of his father.
2. Thy friend loves not the friendship which considers her
who is near in kindred as stranger. Sons of the mighty
Asura, the Heroes, supporters of the heavens, see far
around them.
3. Yea, this the Immortals seek of thee with longing,
progeny of the sole existing mortal. Then let thy soul
and mine be knit together, and as a loving husband take
thy consort.
4. Shall we do now what we ne'er did aforetime? we who
spake righteously now talk impurely? Gandharva in the
floods, the Dame of Waters-such is our bond, such our
most lofty kinship.
5. Even in the womb God Tvastar, Vivifier, shaping all
forms, Creator, made us consorts. None violates his
holy ordinances: that we are his heavens and earth
acknowledge.
6. Who knows that earliest day whereof thou speakest?
Who hath beheld it? Who can here declare it? Great is
the Law of Varuna and Mitra. What, wanton! Wilt thou
say to men to tempt them?
7. I, Yami, am possessed by love of Yama that I may rest
on the same couch beside him. I as a wife would yield
me to my husband. Like car-wheels let us speed to meet
each other.
8. They stand not still; they never close their eyelids, those
sentinels of Gods who wander round us. Not me-go
quickly, wantons, with another, and hastens like a
chariot wheel to meet him.
9. May Surya's eye with days and nights endow him, and
ever may his light spread out before him. In heaven and
earth the kindred Pair commingle. On Yam! be the
unbrotherly act of Yama.
10. Sure there will come succeeding times when brothers
and sisters will do acts unmeet for kinsfolk. Not me, O
fair one,-seek another husband, and make thine arm a
pillow for thy consort.
11. Is he a brother when no lord is left her? Is she a sister
when Destruction cometh? Forced by my love these
many words I utter. Come near, and hold me in thy
close embraces.
12. I will not fold mine arms about thy body: they call it sin
when one comes near his sister. Not me,-prepare thy
pleasures with another: thy brother seeks not this from
thee, O fair one.
13. Alas! thou art indeed a weakling, Yama we find in thee
no trace of heart or spirit. As round the tree the
woodbine clings, another will cling albout thee girt as
with a girdle.
14. Embrace another, Yami; let another, even as the
woodbine rings the tree, enfold thee. Win thou his heart
and let him win thy fancy, and he shall form with thee a
blest alliance.
IV. MASHYE, MASHYANE, AND THE RACES OF MAN
Mobad Rostam Shahzadi the Iranian writer in his Dictionary
of Pazand (2007) also defines Mashya and Mashyani, or Mashya
and Mashyane as follow: " Mashya is the first Aryan man of the
sperms of Kayomarth (=Gayomart) and Mashyani is the first
Aryan woman from the seed Kayomarth (=Gayomart). These
man and woman are born of a Rivas=Rhubarb" ( See Shahzadi,
Rostam(ed. by Shahzadi, Mehrangiz, published by Farvahar,
Tehran, 2007, P.302)
In the mythic narrative there might be considerable number
of parallel myths of mythical couples in different versions and
transformations. The first human couple in the Avestan tures and
Iranian mythology there are various pair name of the same stock:
Mash-Mashan, Mishi, Mishan, Mishah-Mishani, Mahla-Mahlina,
Meshah-Meshyanah. These variations of the first human pair (the
Aryan pair) are originally from the back bone of Gayomart.
Arthur Emanual Chritensen( 1845-75), one of the youngest
western Iranologists and scholars, and one of the good Danish
friends of Iran, amongst other fair orientalists ,has also spent
several pages of the first volume of his ' the First Man and the
First King' on Mashya and Mashyana, and there he refers to
different concerned sources of classic and original authorities,
such as the Avesta, the Avestan Scriptures, Ibn Athir, Alberuni,
Shahrestani, Tabari, Ferdoussi'Shahnameh and so on.
When the death time of Gayomart approaches he falls down in
his left side and his sperms pour on the earth and the process of
their purification under the sun's warmth take place.
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It is after forty years of being in the soil of the earth that the
Gayomart's semen bear the pair in the form of Rivas plant
(Rhubarb) with fifteen leaves. They were interwoven together in
such a way that from their shoulders, hands and back were
attached and connected with each on the earth.
This dramatic and the mythical story of Gayomort, Mashya
and Mashyana( Mashyag, Mashyang) has been repeatedly
recorded, narrated, and confirmed. Sometime it is commented by
different Iranian writers both Muslim and Zoaroathurian:
Alberuni in his Remained, Tabari in his History, Bala'ami in his
King and Prophets. Yashts and Persian poetic works, like
Shahnameh are also the most famous.
Gayomart is indeed the first mythical man-like creature
made on earth to assist Ahura Mazda. Gayomart from whom the
Aryan race is developed. He is genuinely and meaningfully is
immortal mortal. This is a paradox that should be explained in
itertainlys own contextual realm.
All Pahlavi documents, relevant texts and the Avestan
scriptures have narrated this mythical narrative of the pair who
are from rhubarb-Rivas-plant. (Christensen, Arthur, Les types du
premier homme et du premier roi dans l'histoir legendaire des
Iraniens 2 vols, Persian trans. P. 67)
Ahura Mazda to this first human couple says: "you are men I
created you. You are the predecessors of the human being of
twor yourselves, I made you complete and the best in the best
way of this king:
Good thought, Good Deed, Good Word: Thou Do Not Pray
Devils [Deevs]:
Note the following scripture about Mashya and Mashyana quoted
from a translation of the Farsi Avestan texts into English:
Bundahishn 23, scriptures of Zoroastrianism , http:/ www. Hindu website. Com /
sacred scripts/ zoroscripts/ Bundahishm. chapter X to XV.[ See also the English
versions of the Sacred Books of the Easthapter,Oxford University Press, chapter
XV.
Mashya and Mashyana in the Bundahishn
1. On the nature of men it says in revelation, that
Gayomard, in passing away, gave forth seed; that seed
was thoroughly purified by the motion of the light of the
sun, and Neryosang kept charge of two portions, and
Spandarmad received one portion.
2. And in forty years, with the shape of a one-stemmed
Rivas-plant, and the fifteen years of its fifteen leaves,
Matro [Mashye] and Matroyao [Mashyane] grew up
from the earth in such a manner that their arms rested,
behind on their shoulders (dosh), and one joined to the
other they were connected together and both alike.
3. And the waists of both of them were brought close and
so connected together that it was not clear which is the
male and which the female, and which is the one whose
living soul (nismo) of Ohrmazd is not away.
4. As it is said thus: Which is created before, the soul
(nismo) or the body? And Ohrmazd said that the soul is
created before, and the body after, for him who was
created; it is given into the body that it may produce
activity, and the body is created only for activity;' hence
the conclusion is this, that the soul (rhubarb) is created
before and the body after.
5. And both of them changed from the shape of a plant
into the shape of man, and the breath (nismo) went
spiritually into them, which is the soul (rhubarb); and
now, moreover, in that similitude a tree had grown up
whose fruit was the ten varieties of man.
6. Orrmazd spoke to Mashye and Mashyane thus: 'You are
man, you are the ancestry of the world, and you are
created perfect in devotion by me; perform devotedly
the duty of the law, think good thoughts, speak good
words, do good deeds, and worship no demons!'
7. Both of them first thought this, that one of them should
please the other, as he is a man for him; and the first
deed done by them was this, when they went out they
washed themselves thoroughly; and the first words
spoken by them were these, that Ormazd created the
water and earth, plants and animals, the stars, moon, and
sun, and all prosperity whose origin and effect are from
the manifestation of righteousness.
8. And, afterwards, antagonism rushed into their minds,
and their minds were thoroughly corrupted, and they
exclaimed that the evil spirit created the water and earth,
plants and animals, and the other things as aforesaid.
9. That false speech was spoken through the will of the
demons, and the evil spirit possessed himself of this first
enjoyment from them; through that false speech they
both became wicked, and their souls are in hell until the
future existence.
10. And they had gone thirty days without food, covered
with clothing of herbage (giyah); and after the thirty
days they went forth into the wilderness, came to a
white-haired goat, and milked the milk from the udder
with their mouths.
11. When they had devoured the milk Mashye said to
Mashyane thus: 'My delight was owing to it when I had
not devoured the milk, and my delight is more delightful
now when it is devoured by my vile body.'
12. That second false speech enhanced the power of the
demons, and the taste of the food was taken away by
them, so that out of a hundred parts one part remained.
13. Afterwards, in another thirty days and nights they came
to a sheep, fat and white-jawed, and they slaughtered it;
and fire was extracted by them out of the wood of the
lote-plum and box-tree, through the guidance of the
heavenly angels, since both woods were most
productive of fire for them; and the fire was stimulated
by their mouths; and the first fuel kindled by them was
dry grass, kendar, lotos, date palm leaves, and myrtle;
and they made a roast of the sheep.
14. And they dropped three handfuls of the meat into the
fire, and said: 'This is the share of the fire.' One piece of
the rest they tossed to the sky, and said: 'This is the
share of the angels.' A bird, the vulture, advanced and
carried some of it away from before them, as a dog ate
the first meat.
15. And, first, a clothing of skins covered them; afterwards,
it is said, woven garments were prepared from a cloth
woven in the wilderness.
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16. And they dug out a pit in the earth, and iron was
obtained by them and beaten out with a stone, and
without a forge they beat out a cutting edge from it; and
they cut wood with it, and prepared a wooden shelter
from the sun (pesh-khur).
17. Owing to the gracelessness which they practiced, the
demons became more oppressive, and they themselves
carried on unnatural malice between themselves; they
advanced one against the other, and smote and tore their
hair and cheeks.
18. Then the demons shouted out of the darkness thus: 'You
are man; worship the demon! so that your demon of
malice may repose.'
19. Mashye went forth and milked a cow's milk, and poured
it out towards the northern quarter; through that the
demons became more powerful, and owing to them they
both became so dry-backed that in fifty winters they had
no desire for intercourse, and though they had had
intercourse they would have had no children.
20. And on the completion of fifty years the source of desire
arose, first in Mashye and then in Mashyane, for
Mashye said to Mashyane thus: 'When I see thy shame
my desires arise.' Then Mashyane spoke thus: 'Brother
Mashye! when I see thy great desire I am also agitated.'
21. Afterwards, it became their mutual wish that the
satisfaction of their desires should be accomplished, as
they reflected thus: 'Our duty even for those fifty years
was this.'
22. From them was born in nine months a pair, male and
female; and owing to tenderness for offspring the
mother devoured one, and the father one.
23. And, afterwards, Ormazd took tenderness for offspring
away from them, so that one may nourish a child, and
the child may remain.
24. And from them arose seven pairs, male and female, and
each was a brother and sister-wife; and from every one
of them, in fifty years, children were born, and they
themselves died in a hundred years.
25. Of those seven pairs one was Siyamak, the name of the
man, and Nasak of the woman; and from them a pair
was born, whose names were Fravak of the man and
Fravakain of the woman.
26. From them fifteen pairs were born, every single pair of
whom became a race (sardak); and from them the
constant continuance of the generations of the world
arose.
27. Owing to the increase (zayishn) of the whole fifteen
races, nine races proceeded on the back of the ox
Sarsaok, through the wide-formed ocean, to the other
six regions (karshwar), and stayed there; and six races
of men remained in Xwaniratha.
28. went to the plain of the Tazhikan (Arabs); and of one
pair Hooshang was the name of the man and Guzhak of
the woman, and from them arose the Airanakan
(Iranians); and from one pair the Mazendarans have
arisen.
29. Among the number (pavan ae mar) were those who are
in the countries of Surak, those who are in the country
of Aner, those who are in the countries of Tur, those
who are in the country of Salm which is Arum, those
who are in the country of Seni, that which is Chinistan,
those who are in the country of Dai, and those who are
in the country of Sind.
30. Those, indeed, throughout the seven regions are all from
the lineage of Fravak, son of Siyamak, son of Mashye.
31. As there were ten varieties of man, and fifteen races
from Fravak, there were twenty-five races all from the
seed of Gayomard; the varieties are such as those of the
earth, of the water, the breast-eared, the breast-eyed, the
one-legged, those also who have wings like a bat, those
of the forest, with tails, and who have hair on the body.
The Issue of Love Offspring in the Myth of Yama and Yami:
The view of incest in the Mashya and Mashayana dramatic
story of Mashyana and Mashya, in the Avestan scriptures, and in
the dialogue of Yama and Yami, in the Rig Veda, is not fully
enough considered. The cores of the texts do not accept the
incest opinion. That means the myths do not substantiate and do
not furnish the opinions and judgments about themselves the do
not assess and do not see the whole play on the stage.
The direct and clear response of Yama to Yami denies and
refutes the oppinion of incest in the Rig Veda (Appendix, Yama
and Yami). The actual words and statements avoid immorality
and illegitimacy. The complete drama rejects the belief of men
being bastard or love offspring of illegal intercourse. The climax
of the play in its falling action resolves the conflict in the benefit
and the release of man that found not guilty.
The question of the story in the Avestan scriptures is
different. The characters are completely and substantially
metamorphosed. The characters of the drama of the first couple
of the world are metaphorically transformed to something
freakish. It becomes somehow incredible and grotesque. The
contents and elements of the Avestan drama is not like that of the
Rig Veda. (Appendix: Mashya and Mashyana). It does not seem
to be the one that is established. So, the approach and plot
appears to require different touch and criticism.
Characterization, substance, nature and features of all ingredient
mythemes (Strauss‘s terminology) are incompatible with that of
dramatic scene of Yama and Yami in the Rig Veda.
REFERENCES
[1] The Rig Veda
[2] The Avesta
[3] Avestan Scriptures: Yashts, Yasnas,…
[4] Mallory , J. P. and D, Q. Indo-European Culture, An Encyclopedia of; and
The Encyclopedia Iranica under Iran , Indo-Iranian religion.
[5] Bundahihn 23, scriptures of Zoroastrianism , http:/ www. Hindu website.
Com / sacred scripts/ zoroscripts/ Bundahishm. chapter X-XV
[6] Ibid. chapter V.I
[7] Ibid. chap. XIII. 15
[8] Radhakrishna, S., Eastern Religions and Western Thought, OUP.( date?)
[9] Oldenbreg, Hermann, The Religion of the Veda, trans. shotri, Shrlhar, B.,
MBP., New Delhi, 2004
[10] Bibhu and Minakshi Padhi, Indian Philosophy and Religion, Printworld
(Ltd), New Delhi, 1998,
Also check The Rig Veda. .X.X. 1-16 , and Mandala X, hymn 10, 1-
14,translated by Griffith, Ralph T.H: The Rig Veda,book X, hymh 10,pp.422-24].
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[11] The Rig Veda,trans.Dr.Sharma, Ganga Sahai, Vishv Books, New Delhi, 9
dat?)Mandal X, hymn 10.1-14, pp.909-911
[12] Nappert, Jan, Indian Mythology, Indus, New Delhi, 1993
[13] Kumar Dash, Narander, Dict. Of Indian culture, AG kalap. N.Delhi, 1991
[14] Encyclopedia of Rreligion (15 vols.) Vol. 8 , Thomas Gale, U.S.A, 2005
[15] Zend Avesta, Yasht III, 87
[16] Bundahishn, XV, 1.31
[17] Yasnas,,Khorde Avesta
[18] Doniger, Wendy, The Rig Veda: An Anthology
[19] Griswold, H.D., The Religion of the Rig Veda, MBP,Delhi, 1999.
AUTHORS
Abbas Saeedipour, M.A( Kent University, U.K), Scholar and
the Candidate of the PhD in Indo-Iranian Comparative
Mythology at Dept. of Persian, Faculty of Humanities&
Languages, J. M.I, the Central University, New Delhi, India,
Email: asaeedipour@yahoo.ca
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Performance Evaluation of DHT Based multi-path
Routing Protocol for MANETs
Abstract- Mobile Adhoc Networks (MANETs) creates a
temporary network of mobile nodes. Routing is a major issue in
MANETs. Distributed Hash Tables (DHTs) has recently proven
to be a novel and efficient way for developing scalable routing
protocols in MANETs. With the increase in applications of
MANETS, the networks have become very complex which leads
to channel impairments. Moreover multipath protocols provide
fault tolerance against node and link failures. In this paper, we
have analyzed the performance of M-DART[4], which is DHT
based Multipath protocol against Ad hoc On-Demand Multipath
Distance Vector Routing Protocol(AOMDV)[7] ,which is a
reactive Multipath protocol. We have conducted various
simulation experiments to evaluate its performance in terms of
throughput, packet delivery ratio, end to end delay and energy
consumption. We have analyzed that M-DART protocol
consumes less energy (8.2% than AOMDV. Simulation results
also show M-DART has better throughput and Packet Delivery
ratio than AOMDV by more than 1.6 times.
Index Terms- AOMDV, M-DART, Multipath Protocols, adhoc
Network, MANET.
M
I. INTRODUCTION
obile Ad hoc network represents complex distributed
systems comprised by wireless nodes which can freely and
dynamically self-organize themselves into temporary (ad hoc)
network topologies. In this way MANETs allow communications
in areas with no pre-existing infrastructure. The ad hoc network
paradigm has been proposed several years ago mainly for tactical
networks. Recently, the introduction of enabling technologies,
such as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, has led to the deployment of
commercial ad hoc networks outside the military domain,
generating so a new and growing interest in the research and
development of such networks. Researchers visualize MANETs
to be an integral part of 4G architecture and in the next
generation networks [1]. MANETs consist of rapidly changing
network topology as nodes move in a random manner. They can
work either standalone or may be connected to a larger internet.
Because of the absence of fixed infrastructure, nodes setup routes
among themselves autonomously. Nodes in a MANET (laptops,
PDAs, and so on) move arbitrarily and communicate directly
with other nodes sharing the identical media (radio, infrared, etc.)
within their radio transmission range. Outside this range,
message transfer occurs through hop-by-hop communication.
Routing packets between pair of nodes becomes a challenging
task due to random motion of nodes within the network. A route
Gurmukh Singh, Dr. Savita Gupta, Sukhvir Singh
Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
that is believed to be optimal at a given point in time might not
work at all a few moments later.
Table Driven routing protocols [2],[3],[4] as shown in Figure 1
also called proactive protocols maintain table containing routes
to all nodes. They react to any change in the topology even if no
traffic is affected by the change, and they transfer periodic
control messages to maintain routes to every node in the
network. As mobility increases, proactive protocols require more
scarce resources, such as bandwidth and power.
Figure 1: Types of Routing Protocols
Reactive routing protocols [5], [6], [7] determine the route
only when they need to route packets, thus avoiding nodes from
periodical transfer of route update in the network.
The behaviour of routing protocols depends on the link capacity,
network size, and node mobility. The topological instability (link
and node failures) due to node mobility and/or changes in
wireless transmission conditions can frequently give rise to
disconnected routes. An attractive approach to gain tolerance
against unreliable wireless links and node mobility is based on
multi-path routing. Multipath routing protocols [4],[7] discover
multiple routes from source to destination.
The most popular on-demand routing protocol, Ad-hoc Ondemand
Multipath Distance Vector (AOMDV) routing protocol
[7] is an improvement of Ad-hoc On-demand Routing Protocol
(AODV). AOMDV discovers multiple paths between a source
and destination to provide efficient fault tolerance by providing
quicker and more efficient recovery from route failures in a
dynamic network. As AOMDV discovering multiple paths in a
single route discovery attempt, new route needs to be discovered
only when all paths fail. This reduces not merely the route
discovery latency but the routing overheads also.
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Most of the protocols, regardless of the belonging class (reactive
or proactive, single-path or multi-path), do not have scalability to
work efficiently when the number of nodes grows mainly
because they have been proposed for wired networks and
modified to work in ad hoc scenarios [8]. More specifically, they
use static addressing in which the node identity equals routing
address. Static addressing is not very valid in ad hoc scenarios. In
recent times, some routing protocols [11], [13], [14], [15], [16]
have exploited the idea of decoupling node identification from its
location by using DHT services, which are used to distribute the
location information of node throughout the network. But these
protocols are single path so they are not tolerant against channel
impairments (node and link failures.
A multipath enhancement to DART [11] was proposed in [12]
called Augmented Tree based Routing (ATR), but in ATR the
DHT system is replaced by a global lookup table which is
available to all the nodes, which results in a great impact on the
address discovery, which is a key process of the whole routing
protocol. Among the DHT based Routing Protocols, M-DART is
an enhancement of shortest path routing protocol known as
Dynamic Address Routing (DART) [11]. M-DART discovers
and stores multiple paths to the destination in the routing table.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section II
discusses Dynamic Addressing and Dynamic Hash Table (DHT).
Section III discusses M-DART and AOMDV routing protocols.
Section IV discusses the simulation results of the two routing
protocols with different parameters. Finally, we summarize and
conclude our paper in section V.
II. DYNAMIC ADDRESSING AND DHT – OVERVIEW
Dynamic Addressing [9] separates the routing address and the
identity of a node. The routing address of a node is dynamic and
changes with movement of the node to reflect the node's location
in the network topology. The identifier is a globally unique
number that stays the same during the lifetime of the node. Now
the problem arises how to provide mapping between node
identity and routing address. In fixed networks, location
information can be easily embedded into the topologicaldependent
node address, which also uniquely identifies the node
in the network. But in self-organizing networks, however, there
is no permanent relationship between the location of the node
and the node‘s identifier as a consequence of the spontaneity and
adaptability of the network. So, this requires a dynamic
association between identification and location of a node, and the
specification of a mechanism to manage this association.
In response to these needs, DHTs [10] have been adopted as a
scalable substrate to provide many functionalities including
distribution of information, location service, and locationindependent
identity upon which a range of self-organizing
systems have been built. The functionality of decoupling
identification from location, and of providing a general mapping
between them, has made the DHT as an interesting principle to
be incorporated in network-level routing protocols. The key idea
of DHT is to use a hash function to distribute Node‘s location
information among rendezvous points throughout the network.
This hash function is also used by a source to identify the point
that stores a destination‘s location information.
III. OVERVIEW OF M-DART AND AOMDV ROUTING
PROTOCOLS
A. M-DART Routing Protocol
M-DART protocol is based upon dynamic addressing paradigm.
By means of dynamic addressing, DHT based algorithm is able
to implement hierarchical routing in a feasible way, reducing so
considerably the routing state information maintained by each
node. Since the whole routing process is based on the transient
network addresses, they have to be efficiently distributed across
the network. The mapping between node identities and network
addresses is provided by a Distributed Hash Table (DHT) [10].
The DHT based multi-path routing protocol proactively
discovers all the available routes between a source and a
destination. Key Features of M-DART are:
1) Address Space: - The network addresses are strings of l
Figure 2: Address Space
bits, thus the address-space structure can be represented as a
complete binary tree of l + 1 levels, that is a binary tree in which
every vertex has zero or two children and all leaves are at the
same level (Figure 2). In the tree structure each leaf is associated
with a network address, and a inner vertex of level k, namely a
level-k subtree, represents a set of leaves (that is a set of network
addresses) sharing an address prefix of l – k bits. For example,
with reference to Figure 2 the vertex with the label 01x is a level-
1 subtree and represents the leaves 010 and 011. Let us define as
level-k sibling of a leaf as the level-k subtree which shares the
same parent with the level-k subtree the leaf belongs to.
Therefore, each address has l siblings at all and each other
address belongs to one and only one of these siblings. Referring
to the previous example, the vertex with the label 1xx is the
level-2 sibling of the address 000, and the address 100 belongs
only to this sibling.
In Fig. 3, the address space is alternatively represented as an
overlay network built upon the underlying physical topology.
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Figure 3: Relationship between address space and physical
topology
Its tree-based structure offers simple and manageable procedures
for address allocation, avoiding relying on inefficient
mechanisms like flooding.
2) Route Discovery and Packet Forwarding: -Each node
maintains a routing table composed by l sections, one for each
sibling, and the k-th section stores the path toward a node
belonging to the level k sibling. Each section stores five fields:
the sibling to whom the entry refers to, the next hop, the cost
Table 1
Routing table for Node 001
Sibling Next Route cost Net_id Route log
id hop
000 000 C(001,000) MIN_ID(n) 000
n in 001
01x 000
C(001,000)+ MIN_ID(n) 010
MIN_C(000,n) n in 01x
n in 01x
011 C(001,011) MIN_ID(n) 010
n in 01x
1xx 000
C(001,000)+ MIN_ID(n) 100
MIN_C(000,n) n in 1xx
n in 1xx
011
C(001,011)+ MIN_ID(n) 100
MIN_C(011,n) n in 1xx
n in 1xx
needed to reach a node belonging to that sibling using the next
hop as forwarder, the network id used for address validation and
the route log used by the loop avoidance mechanism. Table 1
show the routing table of node 000 for the network depicted in
Fig. 3. The table has three sections: the first stores all the routes
toward the node 000, the second toward a node belonging to the
sibling 01x and the last toward nodes belonging to the sibling
1xx. The routing state information maintained by each node is
kept consistent through the network by means of periodic routing
updates exchanged by neighbor nodes. Each routing update
stores l entry and each entry is composed by four fields: the
sibling id, the cost, the network id and the route log. The packet
forwarding process exploits a hop-by hop routing based on the
network addresses. To route a packet, a node compares its
network address with the destination one, one bit at time starting
with the most significant (left side) bit, say the l-th. If the i-th bit
is different, the node forwards the packet towards one the route
stored in the i-th section. With reference to the previous example,
if the node 001 has to send a packet to the node with the address
101, then it will forward the packet to the next hop stored in the
third section (i.e the node 011).
B. AOMDV Routing Protocol
AOMDV was developed mainly for highly dynamic ad hoc
networks where link failures and route breakages occur very
frequently. It discovers multiple routes to destination in active
communication. AOMDV uses sequence numbers to determine
the freshness of routing information to avoid routing loops. It is a
timer-based protocol and provides a way for mobile nodes to
react to link breaks and topology changes.
Table 2
Routing Table of AOMDV
Destination
Sequence Number
Advertised hop Count
Next hop
{(next hop 1, hop count 1),
(next hop 2, hop count 2),…..}
Expiration time out
AOMDV uses three types of control message: route error
(RRER), route request (RREQ), and route reply (RREP) to
discover routes, that are sent to port 654 using User Datagram
Protocol (UDP). If a node needs a route to send data packets, it
broadcasts RREQ throughout the network. When a node receives
a RREQ packet, then it checks the destination address field of
RREQ. If it has information about a destination or it is
destination itself, it uses RREP packet to unicast to the source
node. If it does not have a route to destination and its multiple
alternative paths are not available, it sends RRER message back
to the upstream node. AOMDV has 5 fields in the routing table
as shown in Table 2.
AOMDV uses the advertised hop count field for multiple route
entries. It uses next hop lists in the routing table, to define
multiple next hops with relevant hop counts A node updates its
advertised hop count for a destination whenever it sends a route
advertisement for the destination [7].
IV. SIMULATION RESULT
We use network simulator ns2 to analyze M-DART and
AOMDV routing protocols. We compare the results of M-DART
routing protocol with AOMDV protocol by using the following
parameters:
Average Throughput:- Average rate of successful packet
delivery. It will be measured in kilo bits per second
(kbps).
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 299
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Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR):- The ratio of data packets
delivered to the destination to those sent by the sender.
Average End to end delay:- an end-to-end transmission
delay of data packets that are delivered to the intended
destination successfully.
Average energy consumption:- average energy
consumption per node.
We will analyze average throughput, PDR, and Average End to
End delay by varying the number of nodes between 50 to 400.
This is done to show the Scalability of M-DART for large
number of nodes. Average energy consumption will be analyzed
by varying the simulation time between 100 to 800 seconds. This
is done to show the durability of the routing protocols. A 802.11
(IEEE wireless standard) network is used for the simulation of
M-DART and AOMDV protocols. The mobility parameters have
been set to simulate low mobility, because the transmission range
requires lower speed values in order to allow the routing
protocols to build reliable paths. More specifically, the speed is
taken in the [0.5m/s; 1.5m/s] range.
A. Average Throughput
As shown in Figure 4, for small number of nodes ( 300) the
throughput of M-DART becomes about 1.8 times that of
AOMDV.
B. Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR)
Many protocols in MANETs use packet delivery ratio (PDR)
as a metric to select the best route, transmission rate or power. As
shown in Figure 5, at 50 nodes, AOMDV has better PDR than
M-DART.As the number of nodes increases, M-DART shows
better PDR than AOMDV. Same as with throughput, for large
number of nodes (>300) MDART has about 1.8 times PDR than
that of AOMDV.
Figure 5: Packet Delivery Ratio over number of nodes.
C. Average End to end delay
As shown in Figure 6, for small number of nodes, AOMDV and
M-DART shows approximately same End to End Delay. As the
number of nodes increases, End to End Delay of M-DART grows
linearly, whereas AOMDV shows exponential growth. For large
number of nodes, End to End Delay of AOMDV is more than 5
times than that of M-DART. The delay of AOMDV increases
dramatically because, the nodes queue packets while they select a
different route when the primary route fails due to congestion.
Reactive protocols must first determine the route, which may
result in considerable delay if the information is not available in
caches.
Figure 6: Average End to End Delay over number of nodes
D. Average Energy Consumption
Because of DHT paradigm in M-DART energy required is less as
compared to protocols which are based on On-Demand
paradigm. As shown in Figure 7 energy consumed in M-DART
is less as compared to AOMDV especially when the simulation
time is increased beyond 500 seconds.
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Figure 7: Average energy consumption over simulation time.
V. CONCLUSION
DHT based multipath routing supports scalability in various
wireless networks. M-DART is an efficient protocol which gives
improved performance in large networks. We have analyzed that
the average energy consumption of M-DART is lower than
AOMDV by 8.2%. We have also found that when number of
nodes grows, the performance of other multipath routing
protocols like AOMDV is not appropriate while M-DART is
performing better in terms of Throughput (1.6 times), PDR (1.7
times), End to End Delay (5 times). Because of better routing
paradigm in M-DART scalability is achieved as the number of
entries in DHT are less i.e. log(n).
REFERENCES
1. S. Basagni, ―Mobile ad hoc networking‖ 2004, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
xvi, 461.
2. C.E. Perkins, and T.J. Watson, ―Highly dynamic destination sequenced
distance vector routing (DSDV) for mobile computers,‖ Proc. ACM
Communications, Architectures, Protocols and Applications, vol. 24, pp.
234-244, 1994.
3. T. Clausen and P. Jacquet ―Optimized Link State Routing Protocol
(OLSR).‖ RFC 3626, IETF Network Working Group, October 2003.
4. M. Caleffi and L. Paura, ―M-DART: Multi-path Dynamic Address
RouTing‖ , Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput. pp: 1–20, 2010.
5. C. E. Perkins, E. M. Royer, and S. Das, "Ad hoc On-Demand Distance
Vector (AODV) Routing,‖ RFC 3561, (2003) IETF.
6. D. Johnson, Y. Hu, and D. Maltz, ―The Dynamic Source Routing Protocol
(DSR) for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks for IPv4,‖ RFC 4728, 2007.
7. M. Z. Oo , M. Othman , ―Performance Comparisons of AOMDV and OLSR
Routing Protocols for Mobile Ad Hoc Network‖, Second International
Conference on Computer Engineering and Applications, 2010.
8. I. Chlamtac, M. Conti, J. Liu, Mobile ad hoc networking: imperatives and
challenges. Ad Hoc Networks July 2003; 1(1):13–64.
9. J. Eriksson, M. Faloutsos, S. V. Krishnamurthy, ―Scalable ad hoc routing:
the case for dynamic addressing‖, IEEE, pp: 1108-1119, 2004.
10. A.C. Viana, M. D. de Amorim, S. Fdida, J.F. de Rezende, ―Self
organization in spontaneous networks: the approach of dht based routing
protocols‖. Ad Hoc Networks, September 2005; 3(5):589–606.
11. J. Eriksson, M. Faloutsos and S. Krishnamurthy. ―DART: Dynamic Address
RouTing for Scalable Ad Hoc and Mesh Networks‖. in IEEE- ACM
Transactions on Networking, vol. 15, no. 1, April 2007, pp. 119-132.
12. Caleffi, M., Ferraiuolo, G., and Paura, L., ―Augmented Tree based Routing
Protocol for Scalable Ad Hoc Networks‖, in MHWMN '07: Proceedings of
the Third IEEE International Workshop on Heterogeneous Multi-Hop
Wireless and Mobile Networks, 2007.
13. M. Caesar, M. Castro, E. B. Nightingale, G. O'Shea and A. Rowstron.
―Virtual ring routing: network routing inspired by DHTs‖. In Proc. Of
SIGCOMM, 2007.
14. C. Marcello, ―Mobile Ad Hoc Networks: the DHT paradigm‖ ,IEEE, 2009.
15. Z. Bo, W. Yingyou, Z. Hong, ―KDSR: An Efficient DHT-based Routing
Protocol for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks‖, Ninth International Conference on
Hybrid Intelligent Systems, 2009.
16. S. Du, A. Khan, C.S. Pal, A. Post, A.K. Saha, P. Druschel, D.B. Johnson, R.
Riedi, ―:Safari: A self-organizing, hierarchical architecture for scalable ad
hoc networking‖. Ad Hoc Network 2008; pp. 485–507.
AUTHORS
First Author – Gurmukh Singh, M.E.(I.T.), Panjab University,
Chandigarh. gurmukh86@gmail.com.
Second Author – Dr. SavitaGupta, PhD, Panjab University,
Chandigarh. savita2k8@yahoo.com.
Third Author – Sukhvir Singh, M.E.(I.T.), Panjab University,
Chandigarh. sukhvirpu@gmail.com.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 301
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Secure Data Hiding Algorithm Using Encrypted Secret
message
Abstract- In any communication, security is the most
important issue in today‘s world. Lots of data security and data
hiding algorithms have been developed in the last decade, which
worked as motivation for the research. This project is a
combination of steganography and cryptography, which provides
a strong backbone for its security. The scenario of present day of
information security system includes confidentiality,
authenticity, integrity, non-repudiation. This present work focus
is enlightening the technique to secure data or message with
authenticity and integrity.In this project work, the secret message
is encrypted before the actual embedding process starts. The
entire work has done in MATLAB. The hidden message is
encrypted using a simple encryption algorithm using secret key
and hence it will be almost impossible for the intruder to unhide
the actual secret message from the embedded cover file without
knowing secret key.Only receiver and sender know the secret
key.N-bit LSB substitution technique is used as embedding and
extraction method . We propose that this method could be most
appropriate for hiding any secret message (text,image
,audio,video) in any standard cover media such as image, audio,
video files.
S
I. INTRODUCTION
teganography is the art of passing information through
original files in a manner that the existence of the message is
unknown.The term steganography is arrived from Greek word
means, ―Covered Writing‖. The innocent files can be referred to
as cover text, cover image, or cover audio as appropriate. After
embedding the secret message it is referred to as stego-medium.
A stego-key is used to control the hiding process so as to restrict
detection and/or recovery of the embedded data. While
cryptography is about protecting the content of messages (their
meaning), steganography is about hiding the message so that
intermediate persons cannot see the message. Steganography
refers to information or a file that has been concealed inside a
digital Picture, Video or Audio file[1].
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
A. The Scope Of Steganography
With the boost in computer power, the internet and with the
development of digital signal processing (DSP), information
theory and coding theory, steganography has gone ‗‗digital‘‘. In
the realm of this digital world, steganography has created an
atmosphere of corporate vigilance that has spawned various
interesting applications, thus its continuing evolution is
guaranteed.Cyber-crime is believed to benefit from this digital
revolution. Hence an immediate concernis to find out best
possible attacks to carry out steganalysis, and simultaneously,
Harshitha K M, Dr. P. A. Vijaya
finding out techniques to strengthen existing stegnography
techniques against popular attacks like steganalysis[2]
B. Cryptography
Cryptography encodes information in such a way that nobody
can read it, except the person who holds the key. More advanced
cryptotechniques ensure that the information being transmitted
has not been modified in transit.There is some difference in
cryptography and steganography, in cryptography the hidden
message is always visible, because information is in plain text
form but in steganography hidden message is invisible.
III. THE PROPOSED SYSTEM
Data hiding techniques have been widely used to transmission
of hiding secret message for long time. Ensuring data security is
a big challenge for computer users. Businessmen, professionals,
and home users all have some important data that they want to
secure from others. In this proposed system we have the software
for data encryption and then embed the cipher text in an cover
medium.This system combines the effect of these two methods to
enhance the security of the data.
The proposed system encrypts the data with a crypto algorithm
and then embeds the encrypted data in an cover file. This system
improves the security of the data by embedding the encrypted
data and not the plain data in cover file.the block diagram of
proposed system is as shown in fig1
Fig. 1: Block diagram of proposed system
To embed a secret message file in the cover file used two distinct
methods:
(1) encrypt the secret message
(2) The encrypted secret message is embed in the cover media by
using LSB substitution technique.
Let us now describe proposed encryption method and then the
steganography algorithm.
A. Encryption algorithm
In this project the secret message is encrypted before
embedding .the secret message is randomly permuted using the
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secret key. The random permutation is carried out by using
matlab functions rand and randperm.
rand('twister',key)
p = randperm(length(N))
rand function randomly generates numbers using state ‖twister‖
and key. p stores the randomized positions of the length of the
secret message i.e length(N).then secret message is randomized
accordingly.
This encryptiom method is simple and efficient and is of
symmetric type where only receiver and sender knows secret
key. The Secret key length is variable and is of range double
precision. At the receiver side during extraction process the
decryption ,that is the reverse process of encryption is carried out
using the same key to obtain the secret message from stego
medium. In a nutshell, the reason that we encrypt the message is :
Cryptography + Steganography = Secure Steganography
B. Least Significant Bit (LSB) substitution method
Least Significant Bit (LSB) substitution method is a very
popular way of embedding secret messages with simplicity.The
fundamental idea here is to insert the secret message in the least
significant bits of the images. This actually works because the
human visual system is not sensitive enough to pick out changes
in color where as changes in luminance are much better picked
out. A basic algorithm for LSB substitution is to take the first N
cover pixels where N is the total length of the secret message that
is to be embedded in bits. After that every pixel's last bit will be
replaced by one of the message bits.
Least significant bit (LSB) insertion is a common, simple
approach for embedding information in a cover image. The LSB
or in other words 8-th bit of some or all the bytes inside an image
is changed to a bit of the secret message. Let us consider a cover
image contains the following bit patterns:
Byte-1 Byte-2 Byte-3 Byte-4
00101101 00011100 11011100 10100110
Byte-5 Byte-6 Byte-7 Byte-8
11000100 00001100 11010010 10101101
Suppose a number 200 is to embed in the above bit pattern. Now
the binary representation of 200 is 11001000. To embed this
information at least 8 bytes in cover file is needed. hence taken 8
bytes in the cover file. Now modify the LSB of each byte of the
cover file by each of the bit of embed text 11001000.Now
Table3.2 shows what happens to cover file text after embedding
11001000 in the LSB of all 8 bytes.
Table 3.1 Illustration of LSB technique
Here out of 8 bytes only 3 bytes get changed only at the LSB
position. Since changing the LSB hence either changing the
corresponding character in forward direction or in backward
direction by only one unit and depending on the situation there
may not be any change also as seen in the above example. As our
eye is not very sensitive so therefore after embedding a secret
message in a cover file our eye may not be able to find the
difference between the original message and the message after
inserting some secret text or message on to it.
C. Description of Proposed Work
When the system is executed GUI is displayed for embedding
process. The Embed window provides option for selecting
secret message file.the secret message file may be text,image
,audio,video.there is also provision for choosing cover
medium(video,audio,image). enter the key and press encrypt
button to encrypt the secret message. And choose the no of LSB
bits (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8) which are replaced by secret message in
cover file.As we go on increasing no of LSB bits the size of
secret message to be hide also increases.press embed message
button to embed the message in cover file to get stegomedium
and the press save button to save the stegomedium.embed
window also displays time taken in embedding ,Utilization factor
and PSNR value.press message extraction button to extract the
secret message from stegomedium or press exit button to get out
of the Embed window.
Fig. 2: Snapshot of Embed Window
In extract window browse any stegomedium file, enter thecorrect
key and then press extract button to extract the secret message
from the stegomedium.if the incorrect key is entered it is not
possible to extract message. The decryption is performed along
with extraction when extract button is pressed. The advantage of
this extract window is that it can extract any kind of
stegomedium(image,audio,video) with secret key known
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Fig. 3: Snapshot of Extract Window
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In steganography following factor are considerered after
embedding secret message in the cover medium.
A. Utilization factor
The utilization factor denotes the amount of cover image that
has been utilized to embed the secret message into it. And it is
given by
Utilization factor = ecret message size(bits)/ cover medium
size(bits)*100 (1)
B. PSNR value
PSNR is the ratio between the maximum possible power of a
signal and the power of corrupting noise that affects the fidelity
of its representation. Because many signals have a very wide
dynamic range, PSNR is usually expressed in terms of a
logarithmic decibel scale.A higher PSNR value indicates that the
reconstruction is of higher quality..PSNR is most commonly used
as a measure of quality of reconstruction of lossy compression
codes. The signal in this case is the original data, and the noise is
the error due to hiding. The PSNR value is calculated by Eqn. (2)
(2)
Where MSE: Mean-Square error Mean Square Error (MSE): It is
the measure used to quantify the difference between the initial
and the distorted or noisy image.and is given by Eqn.3.
Where x: width of image.
y: height.
x*y: number of pixels
We applied our present method on different cover files and secret
message files and the results are given below:
(3)
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 304
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V. CONCLUSION
Until recently, information hiding techniques received very
much less attention from the research community and from
industry than cryptography.Steganography has its place in
security.It is not intended to replace cryptography but
supplement it. In this paper we give an idea to enhance the
security of system by combining the two techniques. It can
enhance confidentiality of information and provides a means of
communicating privately. Here message is first encrypted and
then embed in cover file with help of steganographic system.
LSB algorithm is applicable for all kind of cover medium(image,
audio,video).LSB algorithm is used for both embedding and
extraction process.the entire work is done in MATLAB There are
infinite number ofsteganography applications for digital image
including copyright protection,feature tagging, and secret
communication. This paper explores a tiny fraction of the art of
steganography. The steganography method may be further
secured if we compress the secret message first and then encrypt
it and then finally embed inside the cover file.
REFERENCES
[1] Z. Hrytskiv, S. Voloshynovskiy & Y. Rytsar ―Cryptography of
Video InformationIn Modem communica-tion‖, Electronics And
Energefics, vol. 11, pp. 115-125, 1998
[2] Stinsown,D.―Cryptography:Theory and practice‖
[3] C. Cachin, ―An Information-theoretic Model for steganography‖, in
proceeding 2nd Information Hiding Workshop, vol.1525, pp.306-
318,1998
[4] Neil F. Johnson, Zoran uric,Sushil. Jajodia, ‖ Information Hiding:
steganography and Watermarking – Attacks and Countermeasures‖,
Kluwer Academic Press, Norwrll, MA,New York, 2000
[5] R A Isbell, ―Steganography: Hidden Menace or Hidden Saviour‖,
steganography White Paper,IO May 2002
[6] J. Zollner, H. Federrath, H. Klimant,et al.,―Modeling the Security of
Systems‖, Steganographic in 2 nd Workshop on Informafion Hiding,
Portland, April 1998, pp. 345-355. proceeding of IEEE, pp. 1062-
1078, July1999.
[7] W. Bender, D. Gruhl, N. Morimoto and A.Lu, ―Techniques for Data
Hiding‖, Sysfems Journal, vol. 35, 1996
[8] M. M Amin, M. Salleh, S. Ibrahim, M .R. Katmin, and M. Z. I.
Shamsuddin,― Information Hiding using Steganography‖, IEEE 0-
7803-7773-March 7,2003
[9] N. Provos, P. Honeyman, ―DetectingSteganography Content on the
Internet‖.Transformation‖, ZEICE Tram.
[10] Advanced Steganography Algorithm usingencrypted secret message,
Joyshree Nath and Asoke Nath, International Journal of Advanced
Computer Science and Application (IJACSA) Vol-2 No.3, Page19-
24,March(2011).
AUTHORS
First Author - Harshitha K M, USN:4MC10LDS10,
Mtech(DE&CS), MCE,Hassan-573202
Email id - harshimce022@gmail.com
Second Author - Dr. P. A. VIJAYA BE., M.E., PhD, Professor and
Head, Dept. of E&C Engg. MCE, Hassan-573202
Email id - pavmkv@gmail.com
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 305
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Biodiesel Production and Process Optimization
Rajarshi Kar, Oindrila Gupta, Mukundu Kumar Das
Chemical Engineering Department, Heritage Institute of Technology, Kolkata, India
Abstract- ―In any case, they make it certain that motor-power
can still be produced from the heat of the sun, which is always
available for agricultural purposes, even when all our natural
stores of solid and liquid fuels are exhausted..‖
Rudolf Diesel.
In this project we have intended to prepare biodiesel from waste
mustard oil. To make it economically feasible, a proper balance
have to be struck between the raw material cost & the selling
price of biodiesel as well as that of the byproduct glycerin. The
variables affecting the yield and characteristics of the biodiesel
produced from used frying oil were studied, the achieved results
were analyzed and a set of recommendations were proposed.
Objective of the work:
To study the production of biodiesel from waste mustard oil and
its process optimization
B
I. INTRODUCTION
iodiesel refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat-based diesel
fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl (methyl, propyl or ethyl)
esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids
(e.g., vegetable oil, animal fat (tallow)) with an alcohol.
Biodiesel is meant to be used in standard diesel engines and
is thus distinct from the vegetable and waste oils used to fuel
converted diesel engines. Biodiesel can be used alone, or blended
with petro-diesel. Biodiesel can also be used as a low carbon
alternative to heating oil.
Biodiesel is liquid which varies in color between golden and
dark brown depending upon the production feedstock. It is
immiscible with water, has a high boiling point and low vapor
pressure. Typical ethyl ester biodiesel has a flash point of about
130ºC, biodiesel has a density of about 0.88 gm/cm^3, less than
that of water. A biodegradable transportation fuel that contributes
no net carbon di oxide or sulfur emission to the atmosphere and
is low in particulate emission. Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel
fuel(ULSD) fuel, which is advantageous because it has virtually
no sulfur content. Biodiesel has very good lubricating properties,
significantly better than standard diesel which can prolong
engine's life. As a result, Biodiesel can now compete with other
alternative fuels and clean-air options for urban transit fleets and
government vehicles across the country. It is safe, biodegradable
and reduces air pollutants such as particulates, carbon monoxide
and hydrocarbon. A variation in biodiesel energy density is more
dependent on feedstock used than the production process.
II. REACTION INVOLVED
Esterification Reaction: The basic process of converting waste
oil to biodiesel is called Esterification. Carboxylic act reacts
readily with alcohols in the presence of catalytic amount of
mineral acids to yield compounds called esters. The process is
called esterification.
The esterification reaction is both slow and reversible. The
equation for the reaction between an acid RCOOH and an
alcohol R'OH (where R and R' can be the same or different) is:
Transesterification
Triglycerides (1) are reacted with an alcohol such as ethanol/
methanol (2) to give ethyl/ methyl esters of fatty acids (3) and
glycerol (4):
Animal and plant fats and oils are typically made of
triglycerides which are esters containing three free fatty acids
and the trihydric alcohol, glycerol. In the transesterification
process, the alcohol is deprotonated with a base to make it a
stronger nucleophile. Commonly, ethanol or methanol is used.
As can be seen, the reaction has no other inputs than the
triglyceride and the alcohol.
Normally, this reaction will precede either exceedingly
slowly or not at all. Heat, as well as an acid or base are used to
help the reaction proceed more quickly. It is important to note
that the acid or base are not consumed by the transesterification
reaction, thus they are not reactants but catalysts.
Almost all biodiesel is produced from virgin vegetable oils
using the base-catalyzed technique as it is the most economical
process for treating virgin vegetable oils, requiring only low
temperatures and pressures and producing over 98% conversion
yield (provided the starting oil is low in moisture and free fatty
acids). However, biodiesel produced from other sources or by
other methods may require acid catalysis which is much slower.
Since it is the predominant method for commercial-scale
production, only the base-catalyzed transesterification process
will be described below.
An example of the transesterification reaction equation,
shown in skeletal formulas:
During the esterification process, the triglyceride is reacted
with alcohol in the presence of a catalyst, usually a strong alkali
(NaOH, KOH, or Alkoxides). The main reason for doing a
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titration to produce biodiesel, is to find out how much alkaline is
needed to completely neutralize any free fatty acids present, thus
ensuring a complete transesterification. Empirically 6.25 g / L
NaOH produces a very usable fuel. One uses about 6 g NaOH
when the WVO is light in color and about 7 g NaOH when it is
dark in color.
The alcohol reacts with the fatty acids to form the mono-alkyl
ester (or biodiesel) and crude glycerol. The reaction between the
biolipid (fat or oil) and the alcohol is a reversible reaction so the
alcohol must be added in excess to drive the reaction towards the
right and ensure
Ester Hydrolysis
Soap Forming Reaction
Acid Catalyzed Pretreatment
Special processes are required if the oil or fat contains
significant amounts of FFAs. Used cooking oils typically contain
2-7% FFAs and animal fats contain from 5-30% FFAs. Some
very low quality feedstocks, such as trap grease, can approach
100% FFAs. When an alkali catalyst is added to these feed
stocks, the free fatty acids react with the catalyst to form
Soap and water as shown in the reaction below:
Fatty Acid Potassium Hydroxide Potassium soap Water
Up to about 5% FFAs, the reaction can still be catalyzed
with an alkali catalyst but additional catalyst must be added to
compensate for that lost to soap. The soap created during the
reaction is either removed with the glycerol or is washed out
during the water wash. When the FFA level is above 5%, the
soap inhibits separation of the glycerol from the methyl esters
and contributes to emulsion formation during the water wash. For
these cases, an acid catalyst such as sulfuric acid can be used to
esterify the FFAs to methyl esters as shown in the following
reaction:
Fatty Acid Methanol Methyl ester Water
This process can be used as a pretreatment to convert the
FFAs to methyl esters and thereby reduce the FFA level. Then,
the low FFA pretreated oil can be transesterified with an alkali
catalyst to convert the triglycerides to methyl esters . As shown
in the reaction, water is formed and, if it accumulates, it can stop
the reaction well before completion. Removal of this alcohol also
removes the water formed by the esterification reaction and
allows for a second step of esterification or proceeding directly to
alkali-catalyzed transesterification. Note that the methanol-water
mixture will also contain some dissolved oil and FFAs that
should be recovered and reprocessed.. Soapstock, a mixture of
water, soaps, and oil, is dried, saponified, and then esterified with
methanol or some other simple alcohol using an inorganic acid as
a catalyst. The procedure relies on a large excess of alcohol and
the cost of recovering this alcohol determines the feasibility of
the process.
When oils with free fatty acids are used, free fatty acids will
be turned into soaps by the alkali catalyst. As a result, the yield
of biodiesel is lowered for those oils, and the soap needs to be
removed. The process used cleaning the biodiesel is known as
―washing‖, in particular used for removing soaps. This process
involves either bubbling water up through the biodiesel (after
glycerin separation), or mixing water down on the top and letting
it flow down through the biodiesel. Water pulls the soaps out of
biodiesel as it passes through. The water eventually settles to
bottom, and can be separated readily from the biodiesel.
Process Details
Feedstock: Waste Mustard Oil
Chemicals Required: Sodium hydroxide as a catalyst
for transesterification reaction, Ethanol as a reagent,
distilled water.
Equipments used: A batch reactor with condenser, a
stirrer, clamp, a heater, Digital temperature indicator ( 0
– 250 o C ),Thermometer ( 0 – 250 o C ) x 2 nose, Beaker
( 1 L capacity ) x 2 nos, Cylinder ( 1 L capacity ) x 2
nos, Conical flask ( 100 cm 3 ) x 2 nos, Flash distillation
apparatus with mantel heater for 1 L flask, Separating
funnel Iron stand with ring holder ( 2 nos. ),Rubber tube
( ½ inch dia. ) x 1 roll ( 50m ),measuring cylinder.
Pipette, glass rod, PET bottles for biodiesel storage, a
batch distillation unit, PH strip, filter paper.
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Making a small batch biodiesel using Waste Mustard
Oil:
Filter and dewater waste mustard oil by using filter
paper since it may contain contaminants which oil
acidic(rancid).
Waste mustard Oil (3L) is heated to 50-60 °C for 10
minutes and then cooled.
Firstly, 30grms of sodium hydroxide is mixed slowly
with alcohol in a three-necked round bottom flask,
stirring continuously.
Oil is poured slowly in the prepared Sodium ethoxide
mixture with continuous stirring and then heated at
50-60 °C for about 90 minutes.
The alkalinity of the oil is measured by using pH strip
during reaction. The color of the Ph strip shows the
mixture is alkaline.
Now the whole system should be cooled and the
mixture allowed settling for at least 12 hours. But we
kept it for three days.
At the end of three days, the mixture separated to
impure Biodiesel (upper layer) and impure Glycerin
(lower layer) using a separating funnel.
The separated layer of Biodiesel is then fed to a batch
distillation unit for the recovery of ethanol and water.
The temperature is maintained around 105 °C.
The residue (biodiesel + soap) collected is taken in a
beaker.
The impure Biodiesel is washed with water. Two layers
are formed, upper layer being Biodiesel and the lower
layer being water.
Now the Biodiesel is separated from the water by a
separating funnel.
This Biodiesel may contain a small percentage of water
and so it is then dried by passing through silica gel.
The impure Glycerin (colored) is treated with activated
carbon and then filtered through a Buchner funnel.
The amount of Biodiesel, Alcohol (recovered) and
Glycerin are measured and noted.
III. BIODIESEL FROM WASTE MUSTARD OIL:
PROCESS STEPS
Heating of Oil
In order to speed up the reaction, the waste mustard must be
heated. The ideal temperature range is 50º C to 60º C. Heating
with electric elements is usually the easiest way to bring the oil
up to temperature. Heat the oil first to remove any water content.
Waste oil will probably contain water, which can slow down the
reaction and cause saponification (soap formation). The less
water in the oil the better. So waste mustard oil is heated to 50-
60ºC for 10 minutes and then cooled.
Proportion of Mustard oil, Sodium Hydroxide (alkali catalyst)
and Ethanol taken are as follows:
Mustard Oil: Volume (3 L) * Density (910 g/L) = 2730 g
Sodium Hydroxide : 1% of Oil = 1% of 2730 g
= 27.3 g
~ 300 g
Ethanol: 3 moles of 100% C2H5OH per mole of oil
= (3 * 138) g
= 414 g
So, for 90% alcohol, amount taken = (414/.90) g
= 460 g
~ 500g
Mixing of ethanol and catalyst
The purpose of mixing ethanol and the catalyst (NaOH) is to
react the two substances to form ethoxide. Firstly, NaOH is
mixed slowly with alcohol in a three-necked round bottom flask,
stirring continuously. NaOH does not readily dissolve into
ethanol. It is best to turn on the mixer to begin agitating the
ethanol and slowly pour the NaOH in. When particles of NaOH
cannot be seen, the ethoxide is ready to be added to the oil. This
can usually be achieved in 20 –30 minutes.
Heating and mixing
Oil is poured slowly in the prepared Sodium ethoxide
mixture with continuous stirring and then heated at 50-60 °C for
about 90 minutes. A full speed propeller coupled to an electric
motor works fine as a mixer. Too much agitation causes
splashing and bubbles through vortexing and reduces mix
efficiency. There should be a vortex just appearing on the
surface. Adjust the speed, or the pitch or size of the stirrer to get
the right effect. The transesterification process separates the ethyl
esters from the glycerin. Now the whole system should be cooled
and the mixture allowed settling for at least 12 hours. But we
kept it for three days.
Settling and separation
The ethyl esters (biodiesel) will be floating on top while the
denser glycerin will have congealed on the bottom of the
container forming a hard gelatinous mass. Then carefully decant
the biodiesel. This can be done by draining the reactants out of
the bottom of the container through a transparent hose. The semiliquid
glycerin has a dark brown color and the biodiesel is honeycolored.
Keep a watch on what flows through the sight tube.
When the lighter-colored biodiesel appears divert it to a separate
container. If any biodiesel stays with the glycerin it is easy to
retrieve it later once the glycerin has solidified. If you left the
mixture in the tank until the glycerin gelled, reheat the tank just
enough to liquify the glycerin again.
The separated layer of Biodiesel is then fed to a batch
distillation unit for the recovery of ethanol and water. The
temperature is maintained around 105 °C. The impure Biodiesel
is washed with water. Two layers are formed, upper layer being
Biodiesel and the lower layer being water.
Now the Biodiesel is separated from the water by a
separating funnel. This Biodiesel may contain a small percentage
of water and so it is then dried by passing through silica gel.
Draining of Glycerol
After the transesterification reaction, one must wait for the
glycerol to settle to the bottom of the container. This happens
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because Glycerol is heavier then biodiesel. The settling will
begin immediately, but the mixture should be left a minimum of
eight hours (preferably 12) to make sure all of the Glycerol has
settled out. The Glycerol volume should be approximately 20%
of the original oil volume. The impure Glycerin (colored) is
treated with activated carbon and then filtered through a Buchner
funnel. Volume of glycerin obtained near about 690ml.
Soap residue:
Suspended in the biodiesel will also be some soapy residues.
These are the result of Na + ions from the NaOH reacting with
water created when the ethanol bonds with the ester chains along
with any other water that was suspended in the oil. If the reaction
produces more than the usual amount of soap, this happens when
NaOH comes into contact with water before it has a chance to
react with the oil. In this case the excess water should have been
boiledoff.
The part of the process where it is vital to keep all water out
of the reaction is when making the sodium ethoxide. Keep the
vessels NaOH comes in contact with as dry as possible. The
chances of a good clean splitting of ester from glycerin with little
soap by-product are much better on a warm dry summer day than
on a damp winter day.
Washing Biodiesel
The purpose is to wash out the remnants of the catalyst and
other impurities. There are three main methods:
Water wash only (a misting of water over the fuel,
draining water off the bottom)
Air bubble wash (slow bubbling of air through the
fuel)
Air/water bubble wash (with water in the bottom of
the tank, bubbling air through water and then the
fuel)
Which method works the best is dependent on the quality of
the fuel. Washing Biodiesel with water is the oldest and most
common method of cleaning biodiesel. Raw unwashed biodiesel
is about 3% ethanol. Ethanol is a solvent; it captures soap and
other impurities and holds them dissolved in the biodiesel. Water
soaks up that ethanol, releasing impurities to be washed away
with water. Water washing is the most flexible way to purify
biodiesel.
The process of washing biodiesel involves mixing it with
water. Water is heavier than biodiesel and absorbs the excess
alcohol, sodium hydroxide, and soap suspended in it. After
washing and settling, the water and impurities in the water can be
drained from the bottom of the container. Several water cycles
are generally needed. The first water drained off the bottom of
the biodiesel will be milky, and the final wash water drained off
will be clear. Excess sodium hydroxide in biodiesel will form
soap when mixed with water, and it takes a while for the soap to
settle out.
Depending on the method use, it takes roughly as much as
biodiesel for a wash cycle. Initial washing must involve gently
mixing the formation of soap that will take time to settle out.
However, you want the mixing to be through and for the water to
be dispersed throughout the biodiesel oil. Mustard oil based will
have better cold weather flow characteristics than from coconut
oil or animal fat.
IV. OBSERVATION AND RESULTS
Amount of waste mustard oil taken = 3liter
Mustard oil density = 910g/l=2730g
Amount of catalyst (NaOH) taken = 30g
Amount of ethanol = 500ml
pH of mixture = 7(indicates alkalinity)
Volume of impure biodiesel after reaction (V1) = 2800ml (94%)
Amount of ethanol loss due to vaporization = 20ml
After Flash distillation,
Amount of ethanol recovered (V2) = 30ml
Volume of unwashed biodiesel (V3) = 2800ml
Volume of pure biodiesel = 2750ml
Characteristics
Color
Density, kg/m3
Flash point, ºC
Fire point, ºC
Viscosity,mm^2/s@40ºC
Aniline Point, ºC
Pour point, ºC (summer)
Calorific Value, MJ/L
Boiling Point, ºC
Comparative Study:
Diesel
Biodiesel
Golden Golden and dark
brown
0.84 0.88
60 to 80 130
78 138
1.3-4.1 1.5-4.0
42 54
18 10
38.3 36
180 to 340 315 to 350
Comparative study between diesel and biodiesel
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Figure: Process Flow Chart for Production of Biodiesel And
By- product from waste Mustard Oil
Properties
Biodiesel: Physical Characteristics
Values
Color Golden &Dark Brown
Specific Gravity 0.88
Aniline Point ºC 54 ºC
Diesel Index 43
Cetane Number(CN) 40
Flash Point ºC 130 ºC
Fire Point ºC 138 ºC
Kinematic Viscosity @40ºC 1.5 to 4.0
Gross calorific value 10800
American Petroleum Institute (API) gravity
Diesel Index (DI) = (Aniline point ºF*degree API)/100
Cetane Number =Diesel Index-3
Gross Calorific Value=12400-2100* ρ^2
where ρ is the density
Suggestion for future work
Biodiesel is not yet cost competitive with petroleum diesel.
In order to become more competitive, it is crucial to lower the
production costs associated with biodiesel. The cost of raw
material consists of as much as 70-95% of the total production
cost of biodiesel. The raw materials include oil, alcohol and a
catalyst. In order to reduce the production cost, it is most
beneficial to use waste cooking oil, as this is readily available
and at a low price. Waste mustard oil presents problems in the
form of excess water and free fatty acid composition of the oil
The best catalyzed transesterification of waste mustard oil
with ethanol is most economic decision. An alkali catalyzed
reaction allows for a low temperature and pressure with high
conversion. An alkali catalyzed reaction would require an
esterification pretreatment step in order to reduce the
concentration of free fatty acids and dewatering process in order
to create biodiesel suitable for vehicle consumption.
The problem of solidifying the biodiesel from waste
vegetable oil in cold weather conditions should be rectified in
future work by some kind of additives which are cheaply
available in the market
The Future of Biodiesel fuel
BIO-DIESEL is diesel made from animate source (using
plant oil and animal fats). Bio-diesel is basically comprised of
short-alkyl esters, made from animal fats and plant seeds.
With increase in the demand of petroleum products the
prices of petrol & diesel are increasing world wide. This trend is
expected in years to come as the resources are also depleting.
Hence alternative sources of energy for running our generators,
automobiles etc. are being considered world wide.
The possibility of obtaining oil from plant resources has
aroused a great interest and in several countries, vegetable oil
after esterification being used as 'Biodiesel'.
Biodiesel is a nontoxic, biodegradable replacement of the
petroleum diesel. The vegetable oils are treated with alcohol
ethanol or methanol and alkali. The products of the reaction are
Biodiesel and glycerol. Chemically biodiesel is monoalkyl esters
of long chain fatty acid and its properties are similar to petrodiesel.
The biodiesel can be used as 20% blend with petro-diesel
in existing engines without any modification. Both the edible and
non edible vegetable oils can be used as the raw materials for the
biodiesel. Considering the cost and demand of the edible oils the
non edible oils may be preferred for the preparation of biodiesel
in India.
Biodiesel is a substance that preserves air quality. This
type of fuel is designed to enhance the richness of a diesel
automobile. Various organizations are setup to control air
pollution and find new sources of fuels for vehicles. Not only
does biodiesel help the environment, it also assists people is
using a lower cost means of transportation. It is a more harmless
method than the now used petroleum diesel. Biodiesel is created
from nature oils and fats that can be gathered from anyone‘s
gardens.
The future of biodiesel is growing. More companies are
offering this solution to the consumers. At this stage, only diesel
powered automobiles can use the new fuel. This is expected to
change in the upcoming years. The mounting concern of offshore
oil as well as the environmental issues has groups in an
uproar. Already there are several types of companies using
biodiesel as their main source for transportation.
Biodiesel fuel also has its own advantages and
disadvantages. The biggest advantage of biodiesel is that it can
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play a significant role in reducing the harmful carbon dioxide
emissions. However, there do exist some drawbacks of biodiesel
which may become a hindrance in the introduction of biodiesel
as an alternative to the harmful carbon emitting fossil fuels.
Biggest advantage of biodiesel fuel is that it is non toxic and
biodegradable, which makes it one of the most environment
friendly alternative of power generation.
After completion of our actual experiment in the biodiesel
production, we have obtained our desired compatibility with
petroleum diesel. The flash point, pour point, calorific value, fire
point, kinematic viscosity, density etc has been satisfactory
taking into consideration the possibility of errors here. So our
observation is compatible within the limits of experimental errors
REFERENCES
[1] Biodiesel processing and production by Jon Van Gerpen.
[2] Small Scale Biodiesel Production by Waste Management & Research
Centre (WMRC)
[3] Triglyceride Based Diesel Fuel by Anjana Srivastava and Ram Prasad
[4] Biodiesel Production and Fuel Quantity J. Van Gerpen
[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel
[6] Fernando, S., Hal, C. and Jha S., ―NOx Reduction from Biodiesel Fuels‖,
Energy & Fuels 2006, 20, pp. 376-382
[7] Hancock, N., ―Global Biodiesel Market‖, Oilseeds WA, Biodiesel
Workshop, August 2005
[8] Biofuels refining and performance By Ahindra Nag
[9] Dunn, R.O.; ―Cold-Flow Properties of Soybean Oil Fatty Acid Monoalkyl
Ester Admixtures‖; Energy & Fuel; 2009.
[10] Nitschke, W.R., Wilson, C.M.; ―Rudolf Diesel: Pioneer of the Age of
Power‖; University of Oklahoma Press; 1965.
[11] Boocock, D.G.B., Konar, S.K., Mao, V., Lee, C., Buligan, S.; ―Fast
formation of high-purity methyl esters from vegetable oils‖; J. Am. Oil Soc.
Chem.; 1998.
[12] Srivastava, A., Prasad, R.; ―Triglycerides-based diesel fuels‖; Renewable
and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 4th edition; 2000.
[13] National Biodiesel Board www.biodiesl.org
[14] www.eere.energy.gov/biomass/publications.html
[15] www.landinstitute.org-Insights from Sunshine Farm
[16] Performance and Emissions of Single CylinderCI Engine using Kusum
Methyl Ester; International Journal of Computer Information Systems,Vol.
4, No.1, 2012
[17] journeytoforever.org/biodiesel_mike.html
[18] http://www.svlele.com/biodiesel_process.htm
[19] http://www.biotechpark.org.in/html/biodiesel/html/intro1.htm
[20] http://www.biodieselathome.net/The_Future_of_Biodiesel.html
[21] http://haydentech.edublogs.org/wiki/period9_group2/what-is-the-future-ofyour-fuel-source/
AUTHORS
First Author – Rajarshi Kar, Chemical Engineering Department,
Heritage Institute of Technology, Kolkata, India, Email:
rajarshi.kar6@gmail.com
Second Author –Oindrila Gupta, Chemical Engineering
Department, Heritage Institute of Technology, Kolkata, India, Email:
oindrilaa.gupta@gmail.com
Third Author – Mukundu Kumar Das, Chemical Engineering
Department, Heritage Institute of Technology, Kolkata, India
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A study of Intellectual Property Management in Industries
& Academics & ways for collaboration in India
First Author - Pankaj Prabhakar Borkar
Assistant Controller of Patent & Designs, Patent office, Mumbai, India
Second Author - Dr. Ashutosh A. Paturkar
Professor, Dr Ambedkar Institute of Management & Research, Nagpur, India
Abstract- Intellectual property (IP) has emerged as a key driver
in knowledge economy. Firms view IP as a valuable corporate
asset and a strategic business tool. The future focus of research
will be on mutual relationship with academic
institutions/university & industry cooperation. It will be how to
bring together the disciplines of IP and management & to
identify the communication gaps in academic & industries for
technology sharing / mutual research etc. It will avoid
duplication of research work & will introduce Basic IP
education. In Indian contest, most companies and academic
institutions under-utilize the IP system & its potential benefit due
to lack of awareness of IP system. This is attributed due to
complexity of IP system & lack of easily accessible teaching,
training and/or professional assistance. The proposed Protection
and Utilization of Public funded IP Bill pending before
Parliament will imposes obligations & creates rights to optimize
the potential of public funded R&D. It will further provide
incentive to create IP and mechanism for its protection and
utilization, simultaneously enhancing awareness, greater
interaction among universities, academic and research
institutions & their collaborations. This will pave the way in
India like other developed countries to avoid duplication of
research work & create immense resources through IP for social
development.
Index Terms- Intellectual Property, Universities, Academic,
Education, Industry, research, technology transfer, collaboration,
Protection and Utilization of Public funded IP Bill Intellectual
Property.
I. INTRODUCTION & SIGNIFICANCE OF
INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY (IP)
Intellectual property (IP) has emerged as a key driver
in knowledge economy & the firms view IP as a valuable
corporate asset and a strategic business tool. Recent research
indicates that over 50% of the value of many business
organizations or assets is attributed to IP. The purpose of IP
system mostly, patents are to protect and promote the
development of science & technology (S&T) and to promote the
dissemination & use of S&T. Intellectual Property means the
property represented by the product emanating from creativity of
the human mind, human intellect and creative ideas i.e. creative
ideas and expressions of the human mind (intellect) that creates
commercial value. It can be an invention (Patents), Design,
Trademarks, artistic creation etc. In earlier times, physical or
tangible assets like movable and immovable properties fetched
the maximum value and the owner had an exclusive right over it.
The property right, pertaining to such intangible assets, is called
as Intellectual Property. The IP is an asset and, as such, it can be
bought, sold, mortgaged, licensed, exchanged or gratuitously
given away like any other form of the property. IP facilitates
exclusive right to make, use, exercise, sell or distribute an
invented article or Process in India i.e. these rights can be shared,
licensed or sold. Thus IP serves as an indicator of achievements
in Research & Development institutions and ability of individual
researcher.
II. SIGNIFICANCE OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY
MANAGEMENT (IPM) TO INDUSTRIES &
ACADEMICS
Intellectual Property management (IPM) has become as
important as IP managers needs decision support information
related to R&D, innovation technology, finance, industrial
economics, business strategy litigation, technology analysis,
portfolio maintenance, licensing, acquisition analysis, evaluation
etc. For instance, a patent portfolio may contain a large number
of patents of less quality / high quality and on other end, a
smaller number of exceedingly high quality patents, hence IP
evaluation, audit is required. In India, most companies and
academic institutions under-utilize the IP system due to lack of
awareness and its usefulness due to complexity & lack of easily
accessible teaching, training and/or professional assistance.
Modern IPM provides essential tools for managing intangible
assets like Patents, Designs and Trademarks, etc. IPM allows to
handling risks & an uncertainty related to R&D and it facilitates
the interaction between the public & the private sector. Market
value of any enterprise is determined by its portfolio and optimal
use of IP assets. In this competitive world, creating, protecting
and managing IP rights and avoiding infringement of IP rights by
others are crucial task of any firm or organization. Hence the
main goal of patent management is obtaining and maintaining
patents.
2.1 IPM identifies, precautions to be taken after inventing
the technology
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not to publish the research work anywhere before filing
of patent application,
file provisional / complete specification in patent
offices,
check for technical/commercial viability of inventions
after complete development of invention file request for
examination (within 48 months),
get patent & maintain the enforcement of patent by
paying the renewal fee,
commercialize the invention (make / sell / license /
assign, etc.),
field watch (regular search of patent / non-patent
documents & watch on technological advancements)
III. COLLABORATION OF INDUSTRIES &
ACADEMICS FOR IP
In competitive world, it is necessary for India to
innovate & promote creativity which needs to protect and utilize
the IP created out of public funded research and development
(R&D), in which Government has invested large funds. The
proposed Protection and Utilization of Public funded IP Bill,
imposes obligations & creates rights to optimize the potential of
public funded R&D & it provides incentive to create IP and
mechanism for its protection and utilization. The above bill
encourages innovation in small and medium enterprises,
promotes collaboration between Government, private enterprises
and non-Government organizations & commercialization of IP
created out of public funded R&D and the culture of innovation
in the country.
At present, government funded Universities &
autonomous research Institutions cannot commercialize the fruits
of their research. However, after the approval of above bill by the
Government would alter the existing IP rules by allowing
academic institutions, rather than the government, to patent
publicly funded research and would reward institutions and
inventors with a share of the royalties i.e. around 30% and
licensing fees generated from the commercial products to the
inventor and commercialization of the invention. This bill will
enhance awareness of IP in universities, academic and research
institutions. It will also increase the responsibility of universities,
academic and research institutions to encourage students, faculty
and scientists to innovate. Such innovations can be utilized for
raising financial resources of these establishments, through
royalties or income. The income from IP will promote selfreliance
and will minimize dependence of universities, academic
and research institutions and other recipient organizations for
Government funding. This bill would allow government funded
academic institutions to patent their inventions & it should result
in greater interaction between Industry, Academia and
Government.
3.1 Significance of proposed Protection and Utilization of
Public funded IP Bill to Industries & Academics
The above bill facilitate commercialization of IP generated
out of Government funded R&D
Innovations in private sector as well as in universities,
academic and research institutions that receive grants from
Government will be encouraged & increase the innovation
culture in the country
Collaboration between Government, non-governmental
organizations and private sector will be promoted.
This bill mandate to constitute an IPM Committee within the
organization within 180 days of the receipt of public fund
This bill give guidelines to share IP of Government
agencies, like Defense, Space etc for civilian application and
such a development could immensely benefit the industry
and the society.
Dependence of universities, academic and research
institutions and other recipient organizations for funding on
the Government will be minimized as the bill provides for
utilization of a portion of royalties or income, generated out
of the public funded IP, for research and educational
purposes. The Bill provides for the utilization of public
funded IP and sharing of income or royalty earned between
the IP Creator and the recipient. Not less than 30% of the
income or royalty has to be given to IP creator due to which
it will give rise to number of IP‟s (patents) & increase the
flow of knowledge to industry.
The bill will also encourage research institutions to
establish their own technology licensing offices and to adopt
their own policies on IPM and technology transfer.
IV. SCOPE OF RESEARCH
The focus of research will be on, academic
institutions/university & industry cooperation such as academic
exchange agreements / joint research work. Also on, to identify
the communication gaps in academic & industries for technology
sharing / mutual research etc. to avoid the duplication of research
work. In India, IP awareness is very less. Many scientists, highly
educated persons don‘t know about patents, hence there is urgent
need to increase the awareness of IP in academic & industries. In
India there are huge research potentials, talented persons but
comparatively Indian patent filing is very less hence there is need
to find out the gaps & to identify the problems in academic &
industries for filing IP‘s / Patents.
V. METHODOLOGY & ANALYSIS OF
COLLABORATION OF INDUSTRIES &
ACADEMICS
The expertise of central originations like
CSIR/NRDC/TIFAC /NIIPM etc. to be made available for
technology transfer to university/ Institutes & Industry for
avoiding the risk of duplication of R&D and providing assistance
during development of new products. Universities/Institutes &
Industries collaborate with each other to promote the use of
university research & sharing the data mutually.
Hence, infrastructure shall be provided to University/
academic Institutes for utilization of Patent Information.
Secondly, link IP cell, technology transfer department, Patent
Information, R&D etc. to academic Institutes & Industry. It is
necessary to provide technical problem & information for
research by industries to University/academic Institutes & carry
out research on that & identifying solutions to technical problem
from the universities / Institutions. Thereafter patenting the
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inventions & prepare the agreements on technology transfer.
After that, IP enforcement by licensing & publicly disclose will
ideally avoid the duplication of research.
IP is never given much importance in India, but after
1995 i.e. end of GATT & 2005 (India signed international
agreement like TRIPS / WTO, PCT / WIPO etc & allowed
pharma product Patents after 2005, there is need in institutions &
Industries to create an independent ―IP cell‖ to protect their IP‘s
and increase IP awareness culture in organization. Effective IPM
can allow research institutions to use their own research to
benefit the public at large and to enter into public-private
partnerships. With the joint research consignments to work
together the benefits for Industries resulting from the universities
/ academic institute are, availability of the extensive network of
University / Academic Institutes , availability of University/
Academic Institutes officials, network and knowledge for
technological support.
VI. STATISTICS
Table 1: Filing of IP in last 5-6 years* in India:
Patents
applicati
on
received
Designs
applicati
on
received
TM
applicati
on
received
GI
applicati
on
received
2004-05 17466 4017 78996 29
2005-06 24505 4949 85699 16
2006-07 28940 5521 103419 33
2007-08 35218 6402 123514 37
2008-09 36812 6557 140172 44
2009-10 34287 6092 141943 40
Table 2: Comparison of Patent filing in year 2008-09 by
Indian Industries *
Indian Industries No of patent filed
Samsung India 205
Council of scientific & 165
Indusial Research
Dr Reddy‘s Laboratories 147
BHEL 119
Rainbaxy Laboratories 101
Infosys Technologies 81
Avesthagen Ltd. 66
Tata steel 65
Cadila Healthcare Ltd. 57
Matrix Laboratories Ltd. 54
*Source from IPO website
Table 3- Comparison of Patent filing in year 2008-09 by
Indian Academics*
Indian Academic university / No of patent
Institutes
filed
Indian Institute of Technology 91
Amity university 33
Indian Institute of Science 21
Central Institute for Research on
cotton
12
National Institute of 8
Pharmaceutical
Research
Education &
National
Immunology
Institute of 7
University of Delhi 7
Table 4: Comparison of Patent filing in year 2009-10 by
Indian Scientific & Research Development organizations *
Scientific & Research Development No of patent
organizations
filed
CSIR 162
Defense Research & Development
organization
80
ICAR 55
Indian Space Research Origination 17
Central Institute of Fishery 13
Technology
National Institute of Pharmaceutical
Education & research
10
Centre for Development of Advance
computing
07
National Institute of Immunology 07
Indian Council of Medical Research 06
SAMEER 06
Table 5: Comparison of Patent filing in year 2009-10 by
Institutes, Academics/university*
Indian Academic Institutes / No of
university
patent filed
Indian Institute of Technology 109
Amity university 81
Indian Institute of Science 45
Serum Institute of India Limited 12
The Energy & Resource institute 07
Institute of Life Sciences 06
Dalmia Institute of Scientific &
industrial Research
04
Jadavpur University 04
Krishna
Science
Institute of Medical 04
Manipal Institute of Technology 04
From the above tables it is observed that, due to
collaborations between university-PRO there is increase in trend
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in obtaining the IP, also there is increase in Patent filing after
2005. It is expected that the joint collaboration programs on IP
amongst PRO & university will not only avoid duplication of
research activities and wastage of time, resources but also will
have a strong & enhanced IP regime. Hence there is need to
manage these IP efficiently, so that technology will be fruitful &
there will be effective use of academic research work for
industries and duplication of research can be avoided. Hence IP
management plays vital role in industries and academics & thus
Collaboration between Government, non-governmental
organizations and private sector, academic institutes, university
shall be promoted.
share
0.04
0.035
0.03
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
US research univ. patents % of all domestic-assignee US patents, 1963 - 99
year
Figure 1 - Internationally Patents granted to Research
Institutions
US research university patenting before & after passage of
Bayh-Dole Act in 1980- 1999
Figure 2 -Effects of Japanese Bayh-Dole Act passed in 1999
Patents granted to Research Institutions
As per the Figure 1 & 2 it is observed that in
international scenario like USA, Japan after there is collaboration
between the Academic & industries & Bayh-Dole Act came into
force, and thus Patent filing has sharply increased.
Figure 3- Percentage share of University & PRO Patenting
1980 to 2010
Figure 4- Percentage sharer of University & PRO Patenting
in China & India in 2011
As per figure 3, it is observed that there was increased
in the percentage of share of total PCT application filed by
University & PRO Patenting from 1980 to 2010. Thus
university& PRO collaboration increased the Patent filing.
As per figure 4, there was increase in university and
PRO filings of the total patents obtained by Indian assignees
during 2011, about 22% patents were jointly owned by industry,
university or government sectors. Thus now a day‘s universities
and PROs have also experienced growth in licensing revenue by
way of mutual agreements.
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VII. FINDINGS & CONCLUSION
This study discusses the opportunities and challenges offered
by IP to foster technology transfer from government funded
research institutions. It is observed that from various originations
that, there are strong scientific capabilities but there is no
adequate Academic/university-Industry collaboration. There is a
weak industry science linkage in the country hence, there is need
to develop internal IP management capabilities, the formulation
of comprehensive national IP policies, strengthening their IP
court systems and IP offices, enforcement mechanisms, etc. The
interactions shall be take place by the licensing of patents, R&D
collaboration, scientific publishing & participation of
conferences etc.
In India, IP awareness is very low hence IP culture is
required to an enabling environment. Many scientists, highly
skilled & technocrats educated persons don‘t know about patents.
Hence there is urgent need to increase the awareness of IP in
academic & industries. Further basic IP education can be
provided at school level and undergraduate level and form
uniform IP course structure in India & increase the IP resources.
Many universities do not having technology transfer policy, IP
cell /department etc., guidelines for managing technology
transfer activities. Hence there is need to allow academic
institutions, rather than the government body, to patent publicly
funded research and would reward institutions and inventors with
a share of the royalties i.e. around 30% and licensing fees
generated from the commercial products to the inventor and
commercialization of the invention. Technology transfer offices
between the university & Industry and mechanisms to enhance
technology commercialization are required with financial support
for which IP bill shall be approved by the Government. Further,
it is highlighted that there may be special fee reduction for the
university or students to boost the research activity.
There are several difficulties the universities face in the
implementation of patenting and patented technology
commercialization. They do not have operative guidelines about
disclosure and patenting. Increasing autonomy of institutions,
decentralizing recruiting, providing performance based
incentives and acknowledging technology transfer activities in
researchers‘ career is essential. There is a need to redraft the
university regulations on IP. Performance incentives for
researches are needed for balancing entrepreneurial activity and
scientific achievements.
Patent plays an important role in fostering technology
transfer as countries develop their research capabilities.
Technology transfer by patent licensing, collaboration can entail
cross-fertilization between academics and industry, synergies in
research and new ideas for science, avoiding wasteful duplication
of efforts, and create employment and new market opportunities
for firms. Hence there is a need to have substantial private
investment in developing such a strategy.
ABBREVIATIONS
IPO Intellectual Property office
IP Intellectual Property
IPM Intellectual Property Management
TM Trademark
GI Geographical Indications
UN United Nation
WIPO World Intellectual Property organization,
WTO World Trade Organization
TRIPS Trade Related Aspect of Intellectual Property Rights
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
S&T Science & Technology
NIIPM National Institute for Intellectual Property Management
PRO Public research organizations
PCT Patent Cooperation Treaty
REFERENCE
Internet sites:
1. www.ipidnia.nic.in
2. www.google.com
3. www.indianpatents.org.in
4. http://spicyipindia.blogspot.com
5. www.wipo.int
6. http://www.wipo.int/academy/en/
7. http://en.wikipedia.org/
Books & Publications:
1. Patents, TrdeMarks, Copy Right Designs & Geographical Indications
– B.L.Wadera
2. Intellectual Property Law in India - P.S.Narayana
3. WIPO Guide to Intellectual Property Worldwide
4. WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook
5. Indian patent office - Manual of Patent Practice & procedure
6. NIIPM/ IPO, India training
7. IPO, India - Annual report
8. Original Bayh-Dole Bill
9. Gearing Up For Patents - The Indian Scenario –
Dr Prabuddha Ganguli
10. Proposed Protection and Utilization of Public Funded IP Bill
Presentation
This paper is accepted by World Academic Industry Research
Collaboration Organization (WAIRCO) & it will be presented by
the Author in the International Conference on Engineering,
Technology and Management - ICETM at September 2012 at
Tirupati, India. The details are available at
http://www.worldairco.org/ICETM%20Sep%202012/Manageme
nt.html
AUTHORS
First Author
Pankaj Prabhakar Borkar ,
Assistant Controller of Patent & Designs
Patent Office, Mumbai, India pankajnagpur@rediffmail.com
Second Author
Dr. Ashutosh A. Paturkar ,
Professor, Dr Ambedkar Institute of Management Studies &
Research, Nagpur, India ashutosh_paturkar@rediffmail.com
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 316
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Prequalification Science Practical Activities for the
Production of Effective Science Teachers: a Strategy for
Sustainable National Development
Jamil Mikhail Y.
School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Pulau, Penang, Malaysia.
Abstract- The future of science teaching is a function of the
number of prequalified candidates willing to take science
education at the tertiary level. This research was aimed at finding
science practical activities as a motivating factor in simplifying
science subjects, making the study of science harder as well as
developing prequalified students‘ interest in becoming science
teachers. Out of nearly 800 students in final year in Government
Science Secondary Schools Bama, and Gombe, respectively in
Borno and Gombe States, 400 hundred students were randomly
selected as representative sample. Four research questions were
answered using Prequalified Students Interest Questionnaire
(PSIQ) as an instrument for data collection and simple
percentage in analysis. The results showed that half of the
responded agreed that they have been doing practical from junior
secondary school and most of them agreed to doing it in the
senior class. It was also found out that science practical activities
makes understanding of the science subject simpler and
candidates study harder the subject they prefer its practical most.
Besides, it was discovered among others that practical activities
have motivated one third of the respondents to take science
education at higher institutions and become science teachers.
Hence, it was concluded that the future of science teaching is
bright.
Index Terms- science practical, science teachers
W
I. INTRODUCTION
hat cannot be over emphasised in national development is
the role science can play. Myriad publications and
speeches by distinguished authorities and great personalities
indicated the importance of science in national development. In
fact, no country can record any meaningful development without
science playing the most important role. Therefore, it is not
surprising if the then Head of State, General Gowon, said in an
opening address of STAN conference, as far back as 1968, that
no country can either survive or develop without due emphasis
given to science and technology. Any country and its policy
makers that decide to overlook this significant truism will never
achieve any meaningful development and shall continue to spend
much of its resources in the importation of products from
developed countries (Neil, Adam and John, 2010; Ali, 2009;
Bajah, 1982). To this end Rashidwan, (2009) and Akinmade,
(1985) contended that the emphasis accorded science in the
contemporary world seems very appropriate as ours in an age
where science and technology are part and parcel of the world‘s
culture. It is obvious that nowadays no one doubts the
significance of science and technology for sustainable national
development.
The issue now at stake is how effective is science teaching at
all levels of our education which is the most fundamental aspect
of the future of science in Nigeria. Science, being an activity
based subject, needs practical activities regularly at all level of
education for the effective and efficient achievement of the goals
of science and science education as outlined clearly in the
National Policy on Education (NPE, 2004) in section 7,
subsection 39 (a) and (b) as follows:
a- Emphasis shall be given to the teaching and learning of
science process and principles. This would lead to
fundamental and applied research in the sciences at all
level of Education.
b- The goals of Science education shall be to:
i. Cultivate inquiring, knowing and rational mind
for the conduct of good life and democracy.
ii. Produce scientists for national development.
iii. Service studies in technology and the cause of
technological development.
iv. Provide knowledge and understanding of the
complexity of the physical world, the forms
and the conduct of life.
These are indeed the goals of Science education as far as the
Federal Government of Nigeria is concerned. However, in order
to show that it is not oblivious of the significance of effective
teaching and learning of science, it further stated its position
again in subsection 39 (c) through (d) of the NPE (2004) thus:
c- Special provision and incentives shall be made for the
study of sciences at all levels of the national Education
system. For this purpose, the government shall
adequately support the functions of all agencies
involved in the promotion of the study of sciences.
d- Government shall popularise the study of sciences and
the production of adequate number of scientists to
inspire and support national development.
Therefore, there must be a proper way and techniques for
Science teaching at all levels of the Nigerian Education system in
order to achieve the above stated goals. There is the need for
competent Science Teachers who shall undergo training in
university Faculties of Education, Colleges of Education and
schools of Education in Mono/Polytechnics. These science
teachers are responsible for making the scientists needed in such
disciplines as medical sciences, engineering technology,
communication technology, space sciences, mining technology
and many more but to mention a few. All these are determinants
of national development and the strength of any nation economy.
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II. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Nevertheless, science, being an activity based subject,
effective teaching and learning cannot be feasible unless enriched
with practical activities. Practical Activities must occupy greater
part of the time allocated to science subjects than the chalk and
talk method of teaching of the theoretical aspects. However,
some schools and Science Teachers seem to abuse this
fundamental aspect of teaching and learning sciences at our
secondary schools despite the fact that the Science Teachers
themselves know best the significance of practical activities in
effective teaching and learning. To this end, what is the future of
science education in Nigeria? What percentage of Nigerian
prequalified candidates are willing to take science teaching as a
career in future? All these and other unanswered question
informed the need to carry out such a study.
III. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This research is purposely aimed at finding out whether the
science practical activities are regularly carried out in Nigerian
secondary schools. Moreover, it is also to find out whether or not
the students have developed interest in studying sciences harder
because of the science practical activities they are involved in
and whether or not the science practical activities have made the
study and understanding of sciences simpler. Finally, it is also to
examine whether the science practical activities have motivated
students to study sciences at tertiary institutions with emphasis to
Science Education so that there is going to be a boost in the
production of highly qualified and competent science teachers
who can help in actualising the goals of the NPE (2004).
IV. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
To guide the conduct of this study with clear direction and or
focus, the following four (4) research questions are going to be
answered:
1. Are science practical activities regularly being carried
out in secondary schools for teaching and learning
sciences?
2. Have the science practical activities developed students‘
willingness to study sciences harder?
3. Have the science practical activities made the study and
understanding of sciences simpler?
4. Have the science practical activities motivated students
to take science education at tertiary institutions and
become qualified Science Teachers?
V. METHODOLOGY
Based on survey research design, the study investigated Senior
Secondary III (SS III) students of Government Science
Secondary schools Gombe and Bama in Gombe and Borno states
respectively. The rationale behind the selection of this category
of students is because at the moment they have undergone
several science practical activities from Junior Secondary classes
in Integrated Science and in SS I-III science classes. Any student
outside this specification is out of the scope of this study. Four
hundred (400) students were randomly selected from the senior
classes (SS III) of the schools totalling close to 800. Due to time
constraints as well as inability to use all the students, this number
of students (50%) was simply selected randomly as
representative sample of the population from which data were
collected. Data were collected in November 2009 at Bama,
Borno state and November 2011 at Gombe, Gombe state.
A Prequalified Students Interest Questionnaire (PSIQ) was
used in data collection which comprises of sections ‗A‘
(Demographic data) and ‗B‘ the ten item questions. The
questionnaire was subjected to experts in educational research:
one Chief Lecturer and one Academic Doctor. All their
observations, corrections and comments were taken into
consideration and corrections made to that effect. The
questionnaire was pilot tested on some 40 students of the target
schools who were not part of the study sample. The questionnaire
administration was successful with the permission of the school
authorities. With the kind assistance of the schools‘ staff, the
questionnaires were distributed to the students and 100%
returned in few hours after responding to the items.
VI. DISCUSSIONS
Demographically, all respondents are males (table 1) and 50%
are from Gombe, Gombe state and the other half from Bama,
Borno state. They are all in SS III and so in their final year. They
are youths in the age range of ≤ 19 years (80%) and ≥ 20 years
(20%).
Figure 1 indicates responses of the students on the
performance of science practical activities in junior and senior
secondary schools. While they positively agreed to doing it in
senior classes (95%), the result proved otherwise in junior classes
because more than half (52%) posted a negative response. This
may not be unconnected with the reluctance of the teachers at the
junior secondary level. In fact some of the teachers teaching
science at such level are not even qualified science teachers
(Abdullahi, 2010; Babatunde & Ali, 2009; Gombe SUBEB
2011). It is just a mere feeling that it is only Integrated Science
and so can be taught by any teacher.
In the second figure, respondents have shown a greater
positive response to interest and enjoyment of practical activities
in sciences (88% and 74% respectively). This is true of scientific
discovery of facts and involvement of learners in teaching and
learning process. At any level of teaching and learning, learners
enjoy all aspects that call for their active participation and also at
the same time arrest their interest and readiness to the activities
making them active rather than passive learners. Active
participation and manipulation of apparatus or instructional
materials help to a greater extent in illustrating and reinforcing a
skill, fact or idea and relieve anxiety, fears or boredom since
many teaching aids are like games (SIL international, 1999).
Practical activities make learning more real than abstract, more
enjoyable than boring and above all skills, ideas, knowledge and
attitudes are easily acquired and readily put into practice. Hence,
it is not surprising if the learners well responded positively to the
questions that seek their opinion on the simplicity of the subject
they enjoy its practical most and the tendency to study that
subject harder. This is because 88% agreed that the subject they
prefer is simpler and similarly 89% agreed that they study that
subject harder (figures 3 and 4). Also on the preference of the
subjects, 42% prefer Biology Practical most, 43% Chemistry
practical and only 10% prefer Physics‘ while only 5% go for
other subjects or are undecided (figure 3). Therefore, according
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 318
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to the findings of this study, science practical activities
encourages students to study science harder, which translates in
to the simplicity of the subjects to them attesting to the
significance of science practical activities. This is in consistence
with the findings of Shaibu and Usman (2001) who revealed that
high positive relationship existed between students‘ performance
in practical activities and their academic achievement in
integrated science but contrary to what Babayi, (2005) asserted
that most students perceived laboratory activities as compulsory
for passing examination not for effective meaningful learning.
Also in figure 4, 69% of the respondents indicated that they do
not want to study science and become science teachers while
29% agreed to take teaching science as a career with 2%
undecided. Also in figure 5, more than half of the respondents
(63%) agreed that despite the interesting nature of science
practical activities, they do not wish to be science teachers but
one third (33%) positively responded to taking teaching science
as a career because of the practical involved in it. However,
going by professional preference (figure 5), close to one third
(29%) agreed that because of the practical involved, they want to
study science so that they can become Engineers, more than half
(55%) go for medical sciences as Doctors or Nurses (may be
because of the attractive welfare being enjoyed there). Only very
few (4%) prefer to be Laboratory technicians with one tenth
(10%) for Architecture and the least (2%) decided other
professions which were not specified. However, according to the
results, it is encouraging to have one third of the respondents
wishing to be science teachers. This showed that if practical
activities are being carried out regularly in secondary schools,
students‘ interest would be captured, they will study science
harder and science education has a brighter future since a
considerable percentage is willing to take science teaching as
their profession because of the practical involved in it.
VII. CONCLUSION
The research questions that guided the conduct of this study on
prequalified students were fully addressed. Results showed that
teachers in junior secondary schools are not performing science
practical activities as in the senior secondary school classes as
found out from the results. The result showed that learners enjoy
practical activities and as a result found the subject they prefer its
practical most simpler and are at the same time pay more
attention in studying the subject harder. Besides, despite interest
and enjoyment of practical activities, most of the prequalified
students do not aspire to be science teachers although those who
willingly showed interest in science teaching because of the
practical involve therein is encouraging. That is to say that the
future of science teaching is ensured according to the findings.
REFERENCES
[1] Abdullahi, S. D. (2010). Practical activities and learners achievement
in Integrated Science. Multidisciplinary Journal of Education. (10) 2.
[2] Akinmade C.T.O. (1985). The National Policy on Education and the
development of scientific and reflective thinking in primary school.
Journal of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria. (23) 1&2, p 77-
8.
[3] Ali, M. T. (2009). The contribution of science in national
development. Bangalore: Prime Press Ltd.
[4] Babatunde, O. K. & Ali, P. W. (2009). Science practical for students
learning. Accessed on December 20th, 2011, from:
www.educscience_mtx12glm/dfedj
[5] Babayi, A. A. (2005). The relationship between secondary school
students attitudes towards laboratory practical and their academic
achievement in chemistry. The Jos Journal of Education (7) 2: 46-51.
[6] Bajah, S. T. (1982). Two decades of primary science in Nigeria. A
critical evaluation. 23rd annual conference of Science Teachers
Association of Nigeria. Paper presentation. August 22-28, 1982.
[7] Gowon, Y. (1968). Opening address of the Head of State. Annual
conference of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria. Journal of
Science Teachers Association of Nigeria. Vol. 7 (3).
[8] Neil, A. R., Adam, S. John, P. W. (2010). The significance of
science and Technology. Human development perspective. Accessed
on September 28th, 2011, from:
http://www.sc/tech_human_dev_edu.html
[9] Rashidwan, K. (2009). Technology in the contemporary world.
Accessed on
[10] September 28th, 2011, from:
www.worldtechnology/issues.879tptht.htm
[11] Shaibu, A. A. and Usman, I. A. (2001). The relationship between
students‘ performance in practical activities and their academic
achievement in Integrated Science using the Nigeria Integrated
Science Teacher Education Project (NISTEP) mode of teaching. The
Jos Journal of Education. 6 (1) 17-21
[12] SIL International, (1999). The definition of evaluation. Accessed on
October 25th, 2007 From:
www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/ReferenceMaterials/GlossaryTerms.
[13] The Federal Government of Nigeria, (2004). The National Policy on
education (2004 edition). Abuja: Federal Government Press.
APPENDICES
Appendix 1 Prequalified Students’ Interest Questionnaire
(PSIQ)
Introduction - Please this questionnaire is designed to seek your
opinion about science practical activities you have been
performing since your JSS classes and in all science subjects you
are currently offering. Your opinion is going to be of great
contribution to the education sector and be sure that it is going to
be used only for this research.
Section A
Personal Data
School……………………………………………………………
………
Sex Male ( ) Female ( )
Class………………………………………………………………
………..
Section B
Instruction: tick as appropriate please after carefully having
read the questions.
(1) Do you performed practical in your Integrated
Science in JSS class? (Yes) (No)
(2) From your SS I to SS III do you perform practical
activities in science subjects? (Yes) (No)
(3) Do you enjoy the practical activities? (Yes)
(No)
(4) Apart from enjoying the practical are you interested
in doing the practical activities regularly? (Yes)
(No)
(5) Which science subject do you enjoy its practical
most?
(Physics) (Chemistry) (Biology) (Others)
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 319
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Appendix 2
(6) Do you study the subject harder? (Yes) (No)
(7) Has the subject proved simpler than other subjects?
(Yes) (No)
(8) Would you like to be a science teacher because you
enjoy practical? (Yes) (No)
(9) I enjoy practical but I do not wish to be a science
teacher? (Yes) (No)
(10) I enjoy practical and wish to be a scientist like:
Table 1: Demographic features of the sample
Figure 1: Performance of Practical Activities in JSS and SSS
Classes (n = 400)
Figure 2: Interest and enjoyment of practical activities (n = 400)
Figure 3: Subject preference and simplicity of the subject
preferred (n = 400)
Figure 4: Harder study of preferred subject and interest in
teaching science (n = 400)
Figure 5: Profession preference (n = 400)
AUTHORS
Jamil Mikhail Y., School of Educational Studies, Universiti
Sains Malaysia, 11800 Pulau, Penang, Malaysia.
Email id - jamilgombe@yahoo.com
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Education: A Solution to the Contemporary Challenges
of a Common Woman in a typical Hausa-Fulani
Dominated Society in Nigeria
Jamil Mikhail Y
School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Pulau Penang, Malaysia
Abstract- The common woman of a typical Hausa-Fulani
society in Northern Nigeria faces problems similar to what is
obtainable in the dark ages of centuries ago. Many women were
denied some of the legal and political rights accorded men. The
paper review the challenges faced by the women in the said
society namely: maturity, married life and education. A highlight
was made on how these became a challenge to the common
woman and conclusively singled out education which is a right as
the way out.
Index Terms- Education, common woman, Hausa-Fulani
N
I. BACKGROUND
igeria, a multicultural, multi-ethnic and multi-religious most
popular black nation of the world has women in very
significant positions of every body‘s life. Until the end of the
second half of the 20 th century, women in almost all localities of
the nation were denied some of the legal and political rights
accorded men. Throughout much of the history of Nigeria, deepseated
cultural, traditional or religious beliefs allowed women
only limited roles in the society chief among which are child
bearing and homemaking rather than involvement in the public
life of business or politics. Many societies agreed that women are
best suited for the above mentioned. Some even wrongfully
believe in the intellectual inferiority of women to men and thence
women education is limited to domestic skills of homemaking. If
this is not the case, then why men controlled most positions of
employment and power/leadership in the Nigerian Society?
Unfortunately, until the middle of 20 th century, this denial of
equal rights to women met infinitesimal or no protests to draw
the attention of most people. This prompted women, for quite a
very long time, to accept their inferior status as the only option
since they lacked the educational and economic resources that
would enable them opportunity to challenge the prevailing social
order.
Fortunately, towards the end of the 20 th century, there
emerged organized efforts by women to achieve greater rights,
which gave birth to some women organization such as: Women
Rights Advancement and Protection Agency (WRAPA);
National Agency for the Prohibition of Traffic in Persons
(NAPTIP); Women Trafficking and Child Labour Eradication
Fund (WOTCLEF). There is also National Council for Women
Societies (NCWS) and the Federation of Muslim Women
Associations of Nigeria (FOMWAN) etc. The education sector
has not stayed aloof, hence the emergence of Women in Colleges
of Education (WICE) in all the Federal and State Colleges of
Education. One of the activities of such an intellectual women
organization is sensitizing the entire Nigerian Society the value
of women through publications, seminars, and conferences. To
contribute to the success of this noble objective prompted the
need to write this paper to compliment the efforts of all women
in Nigeria by exposing the challenges a common woman in our
society.
II. WHO IS A WOMAN?
Simply put, a woman is a female adult of human being. A
woman can always take the position of a wife, girlfriend, mother
and grandmother. Whichever one is called or referred, what
comes to our mind is certainly a woman must be that wife, must
be that mother and so on. Nevertheless, what does it take to be a
wife? What does it take to be a girlfriend, mother etc? All wives
are women but not all women are wives! All mothers,
grandmother and girlfriends are women but not all women are
mothers and so on. One major aspect worthy of understanding
here is that what are the functions or activities and qualities that
qualify a woman to be referred to as a girlfriend, wife, mother
and grandmother. Certainly, it can be unanimously agreed that
there are certain tedious functions and activities that needs extra
carefulness, cautions, concentration, time, dedication, honesty
and transparency for every woman before she can be qualified as
a girlfriend, wife, mother and so on.
However, common woman in discharging her duties, as a
wife etc is prone to so many challenges because of the current
notion of her status in the society. Despite the fact that there is
need for her exposure to religious and western education for a
more efficient and effective discharge of such duties, concerned
people and societies turned deaf ears and blind eyes to the
challenges facing such a woman today. Although some of the
challenges, as they are made to be believed, has to do with the
protection of the society‘s (or family‘s) integrity and prestige.
III. WHAT ARE THESE CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES?
Maturity
Maturity is a biological state or quality of being fully-grown
or developed. It is a state of adulthood after attaining the legal
age. This resulted in to some physical changes of the female‘s
body among which are the emergence of pubic and bodily hair,
enlarged breast and broader hips. This stage of woman life is a
very complex one because she faces many problems ranging
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from those within her family and other people outside including
her friends, males and elders of the immediate society. However,
her ability to tackle or solve such complex problems is a function
of her accumulated learning and education (Jones and Mayer,
Type of
problem
Family
Her
friends
Boyfriends
Married
life
2006). The problems, their complexity, description and what is
needed to support her in solving them has been tabulated below:
Table 1: showing a common woman’s problem at maturity and solutions
DEGREE
DESCRIPTION
All members of the family superior to her keep
OF
COMPLEX
ITY
SUGGESTED SOLUTION
an eye on her.
Low
She needs proper education to
understand herself and others so
Purpose: To protect her integrity and the
that she can comply with all
family‘s
rules.
Whether good or bad she may adopt some of
their behaviours, activities and they can
influence her much more than any body
Purpose: To suit their friendship.
Befriend her to find love. Some times there may
be threat from some guys if she tries to resist
Purpose: To marry her or to satisfy their lust
Satisfying husband‘s lusts, children upbringing,
domestic chores, husband‘s family interference
etc
From the above table, it is clearly shown that in all the problems
a matured girl is bound to face, education and accumulated
learning are very important for tackling and or solving them.
This means that every woman needs good education and
counselling so that she can better understand the problem and its
degree of complexity, and subsequently design her own measures
to overcome them. Yet, education itself is today a challenge to
common woman, as can be seen shortly, despite the fact that
there are efforts to make it free and compulsory by government
of the federation. Her proximity to university has nothing to do
with her continuing education.
Very high
Extremely
high
Very high
Same as above
Need proper education &
counseling for choosing who to
befriend, indulge in love affairs
or not and subsequently marry to
be husband & wife.
Needs good education, active
employment and good income
here is highly recommended
Education
This is one of the most important challenges of a
common woman today. Although as many girls as possible are
attending school in the society, their parents are not willing to
send them to the University after secondary education. The
following is an extract from the results of face-to-face interview
administered to twenty (20) school attending girls between the
ages 16 and 18 in September 2011 to January 2012 from one
school in Gombe metropolitan:
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Table 2: Responses of 20 school attending girls to oral interview in Gombe in September 2011 (n = 20).
S/No
1
2
3
4
5
Questions
Do you wish to gain
admission a university
some day?
Are you sure, your parents
will allow you?
Do you wish to be
employed?
Are you sure of having it
(i.e. the employment)?
Can your parents listen to
your plea?
The above table was extracted from an unpublished
document of a research on women empowerment advocacy. It
indicated that out of the 20 girls playfully interviewed, all of
them wish to continue their education to the University but none
is sure of continuing. Of the reasons given by these girls among
others are: they are going to be given out for marriage; their
families would not allow it for fear of losing the family‘s prestige
in case the girl join bad friends; that girls at such liberty could no
longer be controlled by anybody.
When they were asked whether their parents can listen and
reason with them, only very few (20%) agreed that their parents
can do that and out of these few some confessed that even when
the parents hear their pleas, they would not agree and this is
generally, as confessed, associated to ignorance or religious faith.
However, very little could be done here because there is very
limited or no amount of influence that can convince and change
the minds of such parents especially in this part of Nigeria, the
North.
One important thing that all should remember is we cannot
run away from accepting the fact that education is a right of
every Nigerian child, girls inclusive. However, there is a flagrant
denial of this right as shown in the table above. The main reason
ranges from social to economic. The former has to do with the
fear of the girl‘s interaction with different people who can
influence her to be stubborn and not ready to listen to her elders.
The latter being the economic status of the family where the
males were given much attention in terms of financial assistance
for higher education.
The challenge here to the common woman is how can she
overcome these challenges? Do we still believe that women‘s
%
Yes
100
00
90
NIL
20
%
No
00
100
10
85
80
Remarks
very
encouraging
very
disappointing
very
disappointing
very
disappointing
very
disappointing
Source: Women Empowerment Advocacy -- Provisional Document.
education is a waste of time? In fact time has come when all
should agree to the fact that woman be given the chance to
actively participate in every endeavour of life with education as
the backbone of her success. Credit to the new Zealand‘s labourled
government who in 2004 launched a five year plan of action
to ensure women‘s full participation in the work place and that
their employment opportunity and rewards are not affected by
gender. This was not only to help women get recognition in the
jobs they carry out but will assist in participation in wider range
of higher level jobs. Did a common woman not deserve this? If
given the chance to study further Laban, (2007) contended that it
would mean women have access to a wider range of jobs and are
able to move between compatible positions. Both men and
women will have greater choice around caring and working
responsibilities without gender predetermining their choice. In
her speech in the World Conference of Women in Beijing, 1995,
the then U.S first lady Hillary Clinton delivered that Women‘s
Rights are also Human Rights therefore must be protected at all
cost.
The case of a common woman is not the government, but the
society and the socioeconomic status of the family. The society is
the type in which the majority of members see nothing good in
woman except the barbaric and degrading belief that she should
only be given out for marriage. If married, how many husbands
are willing to allow their wives to continue their education or
actively and profitably gain employment whether in the public or
the private sectors? How many husbands (and parents) are
willing to assist their wives (and daughters) with active self-
employment? Indeed very few, that is the simple answer. To hit
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the nail on the head, we shall never progress with this belief in
mind.
Married life
Let us start by quoting Francis Bacon, an English
Philosopher, statesman and a lawyer who lived in 1561–1626,
who once said ‗Wives are young men‘s mistresses, companions
for middle age and old men‘s nurses‘, a practical truth. For a
woman in to act practically, indeed effectively, and efficiently as
young men‘s mistress, companion for middle ages as well as a
nurse for old men is a very challenging task. Once again,
education is a sin-qua-non to successful execution of these tasks.
Yet married life to many women in Nigeria, is a vehicle of
frustrations, uncertainties, harassment and insecurity instead of
happy, secured and life full of hopes, progresses and appreciation
as can be found in some homes.
The common woman is frustrated once if what she was told
or is expecting to find in her home are fairy tales. Moreover, if
the one she trusted betrayed her because she is now his own
―property‖ and would decide to ―operate‖ her the way he likes
regardless of her value and the love she has towards him, resulted
to nothing other than frustration. Besides, if she were married to
somebody who she does not love, her life would be a miserable
one, to cut it short.
Uncertainties happen to every woman‘s married life if she
can no longer trust her husband based on clear and genuine
reasons. That is for instance, his affairs with other women
illegally, his way of income and system of catering for the
family. Failure to reason with her is total rejection of the fact that
all men and women are borne free and equally entitled to certain
inalienable rights among which are life, some liberty and
happiness. However, very little do some husbands realize the
obloquy this cast in their married life. In fact, some husbands‘
grosser insult offered to women is the insinuation that she is
honest and virtuous only because her parents ruled that, or she is
aiming at something lucrative or it is the traditional law.
In such a married life, how can a woman find liberty and
happiness? A question that need to be answered here is can man
live successfully without woman? Can therefore be a
development in a society or a nation at large without women‘s
influence? Definitely the response to these interrogations is NO.
Harper, (2006) helps us with an answer in his speech delivered at
the Columbian Exposition of the 1893 World‘s fair.
If before sin had cast its deepest shadows or sorrow had
distilled its bitterest tears, it was true that it was not good for man
to be alone, it is no less true, since the shadows have deepened
and life‘s sorrows have increased, that the world has need of all
the spiritual aid that a woman can give for the social
advancement and moral development of the human race. The
tendency of the present age with its restlessness, religious
upheavals, failures, blunders, and crimes is towards broader
freedom, an increase of knowledge, the emancipation of thought,
and recognition of the brotherhood of man; in this movement
woman, as the companion of man must be a sharer. So close is
the bond between man and woman that you cannot raise one
without lifting the other. The world cannot move without
woman‘s sharing in the movement, and to help give a right
impetus to that movement is woman‘s highest privilege.
If All Could Understand
If both men and women could understand the value of a
woman, we shall witness tremendous changes in our lives and in
the pace of our national development. What keeps on lingering in
a typical Hausa-Fulani society today is somewhat indifferent
from that of five thousand years ago as far as women‘s value is
concerned, which depended solely on the benefit she could
provide men, either as pleasurable sexual object or as a vehicle
for procreation and servitude. This has put aside the values of her
personhood, talents and unique contribution to humanity and
economic development. Many damages have been done to these
since the belief in her sole value is based on her procreative
abilities and sexual attractiveness; hence, the focus of her life is
inevitably her ability to attract a man. Some questions that need
concrete answers here are critical; when shall the society value
women for their unique contribution to the world‘s economy?
When will men value woman regardless of her attractiveness?
When will woman see herself as incredible human being
regardless of how sexually valuable she is to men? (Jones and
Meyer, 2006)
The way out would be appreciated
Conclusively, to every problem, there is a solution but
sometimes the approach to solving a problem can also be a
problem. However, the following has been suggested as the ways
out of some or all of the contemporary challenges facing the
common woman.
Education: - All members of the society ought to understand
that education is a fundamental girls‘ right and therefore under
no circumstances a girl be denied her right. This will help her
understand her worth, respect her superiors, be actively
employed (self or otherwise) for contribution to the household‘s
economy, create liberty and happy life for herself and her family
but to mention a few. In order to achieve the above stated,
governments at all levels should declare free and compulsory
girl-child education in all categories of learning since doing that
would contribute in no small amount to nation‘s economic
development.
Value Reorientation: - The woman must understand herself and
her importance in the society. She must admit that she is that part
of human life, happiness, and progress without which nothing
could be possible. A lot of work here is needed of women to
sensitize themselves. Men on the other hand, must recognize the
value of woman far beyond lust satisfaction rather, a companion
without whom their existence could not be possible. Many men
suffered the consequence of their deeds and mischief if only they
listen to simple advice of their wives, and many a man rejoices
their successes having listened to some simple advices of their
wives. A good example of this is the success of Patrick J.
O‘Haire, who suffered from inferiority and discouraged as a sales
man received an invitation to attend a course in public speaking.
He did not want to attend but listened to the simple advice of his
wife and attended. The results made him advanced in sales
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department and valued and much liked member of his company
(Carnegie, 1981: 297-298). Therefore, men, women, media,
leaders, adults, parents, teachers, community members,
producers and consumers must collectively stop emphasizing the
need for girls and women to be attractive to men in order to feel
valuable. We must stop emphasizing female‘s sexuality above
her unique self.
Girls must be supported at all costs to find their unique
talents, gifts and interests for effective economic development of
the society and the nation at large. If they find ways to express
themselves in positive, up lifting and productive ways, the less
they will feel their value is exclusive to their form. Hence, the
better they feel about their individuality and the less need they
will feel for sexual validation (Jones, 2006).
By so doing, we can bring a new sense of appreciation and
respect for all women and we must all understand that valuing
woman as human beings is essential to making change in our
nation and the world at large.
REFERENCES
[1] Carnegie, D. (1981). How to Win Friends and Influence People. Revised
edition. Benin city: C. C. publication.
[2] Harper, F.E.W. (2006) Woman‘s political future. The Norton Anthology of
African: American literature. Gates, Henry Louis Jr., and Nevie Y. McKay,
Eds. New York. WW. Norton Company.
[3] Jones, F.A & Meyer, W.J. (2006) Adolescence. Microsoft Encarta 2006
(CD). Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation.
[4] Jones, J. (2006). The sexual value of women. Retrieved July 20th, 07 From:
www.associatedcontentcom/article/98053/the-sexual-value of-women.html
[5] Laban, L.W. (2007) Woman‘s Rights in Aotearoa and the pacific Speech:
New Zealand Government
AUTHORS
First Author – Jamil Mikhail Y, School of Educational Studies,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Pulau Penang, Malaysia,
Email: jamilgombe@yahoo.com
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Circular Disk Monopole Antenna for Broadband
Applications
B.Saidaiah #1 , A.Sudhakar *2 , K. Padma Raju #3
#1 Professor, Department of ECE, Chebrolu Engineering College, Guntur Dt, AP, India
*2 Professor, Department of ECE,RVR&JC College of Engineering, Guntur Dt, AP, India
#3 Professor, Department of ECE, JNTU Kakinada, East Godavari Dt, AP, India
Abstract- This paper describes design of circular disk
monopole antenna for operating frequency 3.0GHz-20.0GHz.
This proposed antenna giving superior performance over
conventional antennas with high gain 17 dB, high directivity and
symmetrical E-plane and H-plane characteristics which makes
this antenna suitable for ultra wideband (UWB) and broad band
applications. This paper presents the return loss, input
impedance, radiation patterns, VSWR, E-field, H-field and
current distributions using CST software.
Index Terms- UWB, VSWR, CST
M
I. INTRODUCTION
odern and future wireless systems are placing greater
demands on antenna designs. Many systems now
operate in two or more frequency bands, requiring dual or
triple band operation of fundamentally narrow band antennas.
These include, satellite navigation systems, cellular systems,
wireless LAN and combination of these systems. One of the most
popular antennas employed in mobile communication
systems is the Monopole antenna and its family [1]-[3]. The
term broadband refers to a telecommunications signal or device
of greater bandwidth, in some sense, than another standard or
usual signal or device [4].
Some of the Broad Band antennas are much more complex
than other existing single band, dual band and multi band
antennas [5]-[6]. In this paper we investigate Broad Band
antenna, which is basically a printed micro strip antenna with
etched ground plane. The printed circular micro strip antenna is
advanced antennas over conventional rectangular micro strip
antennas in terms of the complexity. This Broad Band antenna
has slightly high BW than previous existed one and also it has
high efficiency and reduced size.
II. SUBSTRATE MATERIAL SELECTION
The choice of dielectric substrate will play an important role in
the design and simulation of the micro strip antennas. The
substrate choice depends upon permittivity, dielectric loss
tangent, thermal expansion and conductivity, cost and
manufacturability. In this present work we used Roger RT-duroid
as substrate material for simulation of micro strip antennas.
III. DESIGN SPECIFICATION
The radiation mechanism of planar circular disc monopoles is
an involved topic and has been investigated by many UWB
antenna researchers [5], [6]. One method for analysing such
structures can be in the frequency domain where wide band
monopole operation is explained by the overlapping of closely
distributed minimums in the reflection coefficient, sometimes
referred to as resonances [7]. The design specifications and
structure of proposed antenna on Rogers RT-6010 substrate
material with relative dielectric constant 10.2, thickness of
0.83mm. The real part of antenna impedance is 50Ω at 9.5GHZ,
10.5GHz, 11.5GHz and 12.5GHz where the imaginary part of the
antenna impedance equals zero, the final dimensions and
structure of Broad Band antenna after doing an extensive
simulation study as shown below table and figures.
Table-1 Dimensions of the Circular Disc Monopole antenna
Dimensions Millimetres [mm]
Width of the Substrate W 30
Length of the Substrate L 35
Width of the 50-Ω Feed line Wf 1.8
Length of the 50-Ω Feed line Lf 8
Width of the First Micro strip Line W1 1.4
Length of the First Micro strip Line L1
Width of the Second Micro strip Line W2 1
Length of the Second Micro strip Line L2 3.5
Radius of the Printed Disc R 7.5
Length of the Partial Ground Plane Lg 15.1
Width of the Partial Ground Plane Wg 30
Substrate Thickness Hsub 0.83
5
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Figure 1: Compact Disc Monopole antenna
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figure 1 shows the CST model of Broad Band Compact Disc
Monopole Antenna. Figure 2 shows the return loss of the
proposed antenna.
Figure 2: Frequency vs. Return loss
Figure 3: VSWR curve
Figure 2 shows Frequency Vs. Return loss curve for simulated
values. Return loss of less than -2 dB is obtained in entire
frequency range. Figure 3 shows VSWR curve.
As the antenna gets excited the travelling wave gets travelled and
the radiation pattern is obtained when impedance of the micro
strip gets matched with the free space impedance. Symmetric
radiation is obtained with low side lobes. Figure 4 shows the
radiation pattern for the proposed antenna at different canter
frequencies in between 3GHz to 20GHz.
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 4.Circular Disc Monopole antenna:2-D Far field radiation
pattern at (a) 12.5GHz (b) 11.5GHz (c) 10.5GHz (d) 9.5GHz
Figure 4 shows the 2-D radiation patterns at different
frequencies 12.5 GHz, 11.5GHz, 10.5GHz and 9.5GHz .
Maximum Gain of approximately 18 dB occurred at 12.5GHz
and gain margin is 15.65dB is obtained from the simulated
results.
The simulation time and accuracy will be influenced by the
mesh. Fig.5 and Fig.6 shows the E-field, H-field current
distribution generation for the proposed antenna. Average current
distribution of the cross section will give the information about
S-parameters.
Figure 5: E-Field distribution
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Figure 6: H-Field distribution
V. CONCLUSION
This paper mainly presents the design and detailed results of
the Compact Disc Monopole Antenna for Broad Band
Applications with Roger RT-6010 substrate material. This
antenna is showing remarkable performance over the entire
frequency range between 3-20GHz with high gain of 18 dB and
high directivity. This proposed model is giving the confidence to
use design of Broad Band antennas for the phased array
applications.
REFERENCES
[1] Naffall Herscovici and Christos Christo-douloc, ―Wideband
monopole antennas for Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol.45,
No.2, April 2003.
[2] S. T. Fang and K. L. Wong, ―A dual frequency equilateral-
triangular micro-strip antenna with a pair of narrow slots,‖
Microwave Opt.Tech. Lett.23, 82–84, Oct. 20, 1999.
[3] K. P. Yang, Studies of compact dual frequency micro strip
antennas, Ph.D. dissertation, depart. of Electrical Engineering,
National Sun Yat sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, 1999.
[4] J.H.Lu and K.L.Wong,―Compact dual frequency Circular micro
strip antenna with an offset circular slot,‖ Microwave Opt. Tech.
Lett.22, 254 –256, Aug. 20, 1999.
[5] G.S.Row, S.H.Yeh, and K.L.Wong, ―Compact dual-polarized
microstrip antennas,‖ Microwave Opt. Technol.Lett. 27, 284–287,
Nov. 20, 2000.
[6] T.W.Chiou and K.L.Wong,―Designs of compact micro strip
antennas with a slotted ground plane‖ in 2001IEEE Antennas
Propagate.Soc.Int.Symp Dig., pp. 732–735
[7] Garish Kumar and K.P.Ray, Broadband Micro- strip antennas,
Norwood: Artech House 2003.
AUTHORS
First Author – B.Saidaiah, Professor, Department of ECE,
Chebrolu Engineering College, Guntur Dt, AP, India
Email id - saidaiahbandi@gmail.com
Second Author - A.Sudhakar, Professor, Department of
ECE,RVR&JC College of Engineering, Guntur Dt, AP, India
Email id – alapati_sudhakar@yahoo.com
Third Author - K. Padma Raju, Professor, Department of ECE,
JNTU Kakinada, East Godavari Dt, AP, India
Email id - padmaraju_k@yahoo.com.
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Implementation Scheme for Online Medical Diagnosis
System Using Multi Agent System with JADE
Mr.Shibakali Gupta, Arindam Sarkar, Indrani Pramanik, Banani Mukherjee
Computer Science & Engg. , University Institute of technology, Burdwan University, Golapbag, Burdwan (W.B)
Abstract- In this proposed methodology we are building agent
based information services for internet users. In our work we are
considering the use of agents that will provide Medical Care
related services. In this paper we report the design and
construction of a Multi-Agent System (MAS) that is composed
of agents that provide medical services. The implemented system
contains agents developed using JADE that allow the user to
search for medical centres satisfying a given set of symptoms, to
access his/her medical record or to make an appointment to be
visited by a particular kind of doctor in his/her location. He/She
can also chat or mail to a doctor. And can get various tips about
health care and diseases.
Index Terms- Multi Agent System, JADE, Health Care, Agents.
A
I. INTRODUCTION
s an initial problem in the domain of Health care service [1]
and diagnosis, we choose online medical service system
.Now a days internet has expanded in everywhere .And this
proposed methodology is concerned about the online treatment
and creating a Medical Diagnosis System [2] consisting of agents
developed using JADE [8][9] constituting a Multi Agent System.
Imagine that a user is going for a tour in an unknown city. It is
the first time that he goes to that city, so he only knows the
location of the airport, the hotel and the tour sites. After visiting a
few sites and having a heavy dinner in the night he doesn't feel
very well, for two hours. The user is a diabetic patient, so he is
quite worried about this condition. Fortunately, the user carries
his laptop with him. He now opens the site OnlineDocs.com. He
enters his symptoms in the site and in a few seconds he have on
the laptop's screen the details of the closest and best hospital,
nursing home, clinics and the doctor‘s details. Then, the site
provides information about the timetables of the doctors of that
medical centre that are diabetic specialists and with a list of three
doctors; one of them performs examinations on the afternoon,
and another one on the evening (the third one is on holidays). He
confirms to book a visit to one of the two available doctors as
soon as possible. OnlineDocs tries to book a visit to the first
doctor by contacting the doctor agent, but he is told that the
doctor has a full schedule. However, it manages to book a visit to
the second doctor at 18:00. Then, he can see in the laptop‘s
screen a confirmation of the booking. At 18:00 he goes to the
hospital .After explaining the problem to the doctor. And then the
doctor logins as an administrator to our site and asks the site to
retrieve his medical record (which can be done with his medical
ID code and a password that he introduce in the computer‘s
keyboard). In a few seconds he can see the previous health
conditions of user, the treatments and operations he might have
had in the past, the medicines to which he is allergic, etc. After a
detailed examination, the doctor concludes that the problem is
very serious, as the user‘s sugar level has increased very much
due to excessive sugar consumption and so he gives the patient
medicines and asks him to take some rest. He also adds the
information gathered in this examination to the user‘s medical
record, so that it can be taken into account in the future. And
after that the site will give him information about where the
prescribed medicines by the doctor are available in that city.
Now after taking medicines for few days he can also report his
progress to the doctor through the chatting and mailing
functionalities of the website.
Now suppose there are a large number of medical records
of users which have cases of malaria then the system will
generate an epidemic alert to the media and government agent.
This scenario is not as far-fetched and futuristic as it may seem at
first glance. If agent technology delivers the results it is
promising, the facts depicted in this example could indeed
happen in a real setting. The challenges involved are many and
come from five main areas:
1. Communication between services - e.g. sharing ontology
and semantics which could be heterogeneous even within the
health care domain.
2. Security/Authorization-accessing/editing sensitive medical
data, such as the medical records of the patients.
3. Creating an environment where agents can discover one
another and access one another's services.
4. Communication between users and agents -e.g. graphical user
interfaces to communicate with personal assistants.
5. Co-ordination between distributed services, i.e. making
complex distributed decisions (for instance, the medical centers
could get in touch with one another so that patients are evenly
distributed between them).
The work reported in this paper is a first step towards these
future scenarios, with contributions to primarily the first four
challenges. The final aim of the project is to design and
implement a system which could be run in an environment such
as the Agent Cities network, which is attempting to create a
technical environment in which some of the above topics may be
studied. In this paper we describe the design and
implementation of a MAS that offers some of the services
which have been requested in the previous paragraph. Main
agent of the system can provide information about the medical
centers that are available in a given city. The MAS also contains
an Doctors agent for each medical centre in town; these agents
may be asked about the doctors working in that hospital, or may
be requested to perform a booking in the schedule of a
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specific doctor and can also access a database in which the
medical records of the users are stored. The developed system
also contains Medicine agents for each drug centre in the city
which provides information about the medicines available.
Therefore, when agent (and telecommunication) technology is a
little bit more mature, we will hopefully be able to access much
useful health- related information and facilities all around the
world.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. First of all, the
Agent Cities project, which is the framework in which this work
has been made, is briefly introduced, and we argue why multiagent
systems offer an appropriate platform for developing
health-related applications. After that, a detailed description of
the MAS that has been designed and implementation scheme is
given. We explain the architecture of the MAS, the services
offered by the different types of agents and the ontology
used in this work. The paper finishes with a discussion of the
work done and an outline of some potential future lines of
research.
II. BACKGROUND
The Foundation for Intelligent Physical Agents (FIPA) [10] is
an organization that defines standards for agent interoperation.
Agent Cities [11] is an ambitious project whose main aim is the
construction of a worldwide, publicly accessible network of
FIPA-based agent platforms. Each platform will support agents
that offer services similar to those that can be found in a real city
(e.g. facilities, amenities, attractions, information and
commercial services). The agents that are planned to be initially
deployed in this network will focus on information and booking
services in domains such as cinemas and theatres, restaurants,
hotels, taxis, magazines, tourist information, weather information
and a meeting scheduling service. It is expected that, once these
initial services have been deployed, it will be possible to
implement intelligent complex compound services (e.g. agents
that are able to help a user to plan a weekend away, including
tasks such as booking air tickets, selecting and booking a room in
an appropriate hotel, buying tickets for the theatre and reserving
a table in a restaurant that is near the theatre and offers the user's
favourite meal). Our group has been working in the last twelve
months in the application of AI techniques (especially agentbased
technology) to the medical domain [5]. When the Agent
Cities initiative was made public, we immediately imagined the
potential development of agents that could offer not the usual
leisure-oriented services but health-care related services.
Therefore, we decided to design and construct a multi-agent
system with the following characteristics:
The user may request information about all the medical
centres available in a particular city by giving his/her
symptoms.
If the user is aware of a specific medical centre in the
area, he/she may request information about the medical
services and doctors in that centre.
It is possible to book a visit to a doctor.
The user may access his/her medical record.
The user can also find medical stores in the city.
The user can chat or mail to the doctors.
Media and Government user will get a possible
epidemic alert.
The decision of using a Multi-Agent System in this medical
setting (and not other more traditional AI techniques such
as an expert system or a decision support system) is motivated by
the following reasons:
• The information that must be dealt with is geographically
distributed, because each hospital or medical centre will keep its
own data, each doctor will have his/her personal information
(e.g. an up-to-date daily schedule) in a personal computer, the
medical records of the potential users of the system may be
located in different databases, etc. Therefore, a distributed AI
approach (such as the one offered by multi-agent systems) seems
suitable in this case.
• There must be a fluent communication between the user and the
medical centres. For instance, the user's agent should be able to
ask for a booking with a certain doctor, and be able to react
quickly if the doctor's schedule is full (so another doctor has to
be chosen). Agents are not only reactive but also
endowed with social abilities, so they are able to communicate
with other agents in order to negotiate and co-ordinate their
activities.
• Existing systems (such as databases containing medical
records) may be easily included in a multi- agent system. The
standard way of agentifying a database is to put a wrapper
around it. A wrapper is an agent that receives the queries to be
made to the database in a standard agent communication
language (such as FIPA-ACL or KQML) and is able to translate
these requests into queries in SQL to the database. After
receiving the reply from the database, the wrapper may translate
the answer to the common agent communication language and
send it to the requesting agent.
• Health-oriented agents could perform pro-active tasks in order
to have ready all the information that the user may need at a
particular time. For instance, the user's agent might keep, in the
user‘s health profile, the information that he/she has had heart
conditions in the past. When the user travels to a foreign city,
the personal assistant could immediately (without an explicit
demand from the user) search all those medical centres in which
there are heart specialists, and have this information ready in
case the user needs it. This property has not been implemented in
the agents described in this paper, though.
• The user should be able to access his/her medical record from
anywhere. For instance, the user may be on holiday in a rural
area, far away from medical centres, and need to be examined by
a local doctor. If the user may access his/her medical record from
a mobile phone or a personal computer connected to the Internet,
the doctor may take it into account in order to make a more
precise diagnosis.
• Finally, perhaps the most important reason for capturing
services as agents in this way is to enable the individual medical
services to interact with each other at a high enough level to
ensure that they can all interoperate. Agent communication
languages (such as FIPA-ACL), content languages (such as SL)
and formal ontologies are very useful in describing
communication between different services at the application
level – i.e. in a way which relates to the domain of discourse
rather than to any single implementation. Without formal
specifications for domain ontologies it would be almost
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impossible for diverse medical systems to interact with each
other correctly.
III. ARCHITECTURE OF THE MASS AND IMPLEMENTATION
This section describes the Multi-Agent System [3] [4] which
have been developed. The primary design objectives of the work
were the following:
• To provide a decomposition of the problem that matched
agents to entities which could be realistic players in such a
domain (e.g. Medical centres, personal agents, etc.) And to take
care in who had access to which information.
• To provide an ontology for the domain (a detail often ignored
in demonstrations).
• To make the developed agent services as reusable as possible
by using standard languages- in this case FIPA-ACL for
communication and FIPA-SL for content - and providing
detailed service models to describe the individual functioning
and objective of each agent including descriptions of actions,
protocols used and example messages.
These points are particularly important since the aim is to
make re-usable service components which could be used in many
applications (not all of them necessarily medical). The aim of the
multi-agent system is to provide access to the basic health-care
services in a given city to the users. The basic architecture of the
MAS which has been developed in this work is shown in figure
1.
This multi-agent system contains six different types of agents:
the main agent (MA), the user agent (UA), the medical store
agent (MSA), a database wrapper (DW) and some doctor agents
(DA), media and govt. agent (MGA).
User Agent:
• User agent enters his/her symptoms and gets the list of
available doctors in clinic, hospital, nursing homes in
the city.
• The user agent can chat or mail to the doctors.
• The user agent can view his/her health profile.
Main Agent:
• The main agent searches the best available doctors in
the city.
• The main agent fixes appointment to the doctors.
• The main agent searches the medicines available in the
different medical stores in the city through medical store
agent.
• The main agent send alert about possible epidemic
situation to the media and government agent in the city.
Doctor Agent:
• The doctor agent prescribes the medicine.
• The doctor agent updates the medical records.
Media and Government Agent:
• The media and government agent can view the alert
about the possible epidemic situation in the city.
Database Wrapper:
Database wrapper stores the data and performs analysis on the
data to generate the required result.
Fig.1 Architecture of the MAS
A. FIPA Agent Platform
The standard model of an agent platform, as defined by FIPA,
is represented in the following figure 2,
Agent Management System
The Agent Management System (AMS) is the agent who exerts
supervisory control over access to and use of the Agent Platform.
Only one AMS will exist in a single platform. The AMS provides
white-page and life-cycle service, maintaining a directory of
agent identifiers (AID) and agent state. Each agent must register
with an AMS in order to get a valid AID. The Directory
Facilitator (DF) is the agent who provides the default yellow
page service in the platform.
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Fig.2 Reference of FIPA Agent Platform.
Agent Communication Channel
The Message Transport System, also called Agent
Communication Channel (ACC), is the software component
controlling all the exchange of messages within the platform,
including messages to/from remote platforms. JADE fully
complies with this reference architecture and when a JADE
platform is launched, the AMS and DF are immediately created
and the ACC module is set to allow message communication.
The agent platform can be split on several hosts. Only one Java
application, and therefore only one Java Virtual Machine (JVM),
is executed on each host. Each JVM is a basic container of agents
that provides a complete run time environment for agent
execution and allows several agents to concurrently execute on
the same host.
The main-container, or front-end, is the agent container
where the AMS and DF lives and where the RMI registry, that is
used internally by JADE, is created. The other agent containers,
instead, connect to the main container and provide a complete
run- time environment for the execution of any set of JADE
agents. According to the FIPA specifications, DF and AMS
agents communicate by using the FIPA-SL content language
and the FIPA-agent-management ontology, and the FIPA-request
interaction protocol. JADE provides compliant implementations
for all these components. The following messages are used by
agents to communicate with other agents:
a. Accept Proposal - One Agent accepts the proposal of another
agent
b. Agree - The process of mutual agreement between agents for
request and response
c. Inform - One agent informs to the agent about the process
d. Failure - The communication failure is send as the response
e. Propose - One agent submits some task to the other agent
f. Refuse - The process of denying some task
g. Request - Request for some action to be performed
B. Experimental Design and Implementation of Software
Architecture
The user is authenticated, and he/she has been taken into
website user part. The user may now give his/her symptoms to
the User agent (UA). After that expert advice i.e., recommended
doctors or appropriate medicine stores are provided of the city by
the Main agent (MA).Once the expert advice has been selected
by the User agent (UA) a XML file through the J2EE parser is
created and is sent to the Main agent (MA).
The specific requirement of XML file is that, in near future
JADE [6] may be moved to some other server. It gives
flexibility to transfer the data from one server to another server.
The XML file is parsed using J2EE Parser and data is transferred
to JADE agents. Intern it is forwarded to Main agent (MA). Main
agent (MA) is connected with Decision Support System and the
MYSQL database. Main agent by communicates with the Doctor
Agent (DA) and make intelligent analysis and returns the best
doctors and best medicine centres available in the city. The
above steps are carried out in backward direction and Media and
Govt. Agents gets a possible alert in case of an outbreak. The
software architecture is shown in figure 3,
Fig.3 Software Architectural design for the System.
C. Experimental Result Screenshots
The different sections of the above proposed system is shown
in the figure below,
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Fig. 4 User Interface (Webpage) for the Medical Diagnosis
System developed using JSP and HTML.
Fig. 5 A JADE platform starter Agent System which will start the
Agents on clicking a link on the user homepage.
Fig. 6 A JADE platform containing the Main Agent, User Agent
and Doctor Agent
.
Fig. 7 The User Agent taking the symptoms fever as given by the
user as an input and give it to the Main Agent.
Fig. 8 The Main Agent searching for the symptoms fever given
by the User Agent and fixing the appointment to the best doctor
available in the city.
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Fig. 9 The Doctor Agent is uploading the User prescription to the
database and then the medicine agent working in the background
find those medicines and give it to the User Agent.
IV. CONCLUSION & FUTURE WORK
The proposed implemented version of Medical Diagnosis
System (MDS) can take care of every stage of patients such as
initial checkup, treatment and report for the patients. We believe
that the implemented scheme can bring a revolution in our
Medical Diagnosis System mainly for Indian environment. In
future correspondence the incorporation of KQML (Knowledge
Query Manipulation Language) [7] can be done to have more
efficient data mining or knowledge mining.
REFERENCES
[1] Pricewater House Coopers, Emerging Market Report: Health in
India 2007,2007
[2] Shibakali Gupta, Shiladitya Pujari, A multi agent system (MAS)
based scheme for health care and medical diagnosis system, IAMA
09, ieeexplore, ISBN 978-1-4244-4710-7,2009
[3] Michael Wooldridge, ‖An Introduction to Multi agent Systems‖,
Department of Computer Science, University of Liverpool, Uk JOHN
WILEY AND SONS, LTD.
[4] Katia P Sycara Multiagent Systems, AI magazine Volume 19,
No.2 Intelligent Agents Summer 1998.
[5] Antonio Moreno, Medical Applications of Multi Agent Systems,
Computer Science and Mathematics Department, Universitat Rovira,
Virgili, ETSE. Campus Sescelades.Av.delsPasosCatalans, 26, 43007-
Tarragona Spain.
[6] Developing Multi-agent Systems with JADE,Fabio Bellifemine1,
Agostino Poggi2, and Giovanni Rimassa21,CSELT S.p.A.,Via G.
Reiss Romoli, 274, 10148, Torino, Italy,Dipartimento di Ingegneria
dell‘Informazione, University of Parma Parco Area delle Scienze,
181A, 43100, Parma, Italy.
[7] KQML as an agent communication language Tim Finin, Yannis
Labrou, and James Mayfield, in Jeff Bradshaw (Ed.), ―Software
Agents‖, MIT Press, Cambridge, to appear, (1997)
[8] JADE:Java FrameWork For Agent Development,
http://sharon.cselt.it/projects/jade
[9] JADE:Java framework for Agent
Development,http://www.jade.tilab.com
[10] FIPA:Foundation for Intelligent Physical Agent,http://www.fipa.org
[11] Agent Cities: http://www.agentcities.org.
AUTHORS
First Author – Mr.Shibakali Gupta,
Computer Science & Engg. ,
University Institute of technology, Burdwan University,
Golapbag, Burdwan (W.B). Email id - skgupta.81@gmail.com
Second Author - Arindam Sarkar, Computer Science & Engg.,
University Institute of technology, Burdwan University,
Golapbag, Burdwan (W.B). Email id – arsoftech@gmail.com
Third Author - Indrani Pramanik, Computer Science & Engg.,
University Institute of technology, Burdwan University,
Golapbag, Burdwan (W.B).
Email id - pramanikindrani@gmail.com
Fourth Author-Banani Mukherjee, Computer Science & Engg.,
University Institute of technology, Burdwan University,
Golapbag, Burdwan (W.B). Email id – rajtukun@gmail.com
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Multicarrier modulation with OFDM for 4G networks
Abstract- This paper presents a new approach based on
multicarrier modulation (MCM) with OFDM, to accomplish the
goals of 4G. MCM [1] is a form of multicarrier system and a
derivative of frequency-division multiplexing. MCM is a
baseband process that uses parallel equal bandwidth sub channels
to transmit information. Normally implemented with Fast Fourier
transform (FFT) techniques, MCM's advantages include better
performance in the inter symbol interference (ISI) environment,
and avoidance of single-frequency interferers.
Index Terms- MCM, OFDM, transceiver, ISI.
A
I. INTRODUCTION
third-generation (3G) cellular service provides to different
access technologies. The voice, video, multimedia, and
broadband data services are becoming integrated into the same
network. It is apparent that 3G systems, while maintaining the
possible 2-Mbps data rate in the standard, will realistically
achieve 384-kbps rates. To achieve the goals of true broadband
cellular service, the systems have to make use of fourthgeneration
(4G) network.4G is intended to provide high speed,
high capacity, low cost per bit, IP based services.
A. Multicarrier modulation
The basic idea of multi carrier modulation [2] is to divide the
transmitted bit stream into many different sub streams and send
these over many different sub channels. Typically the sub
channels are orthogonal under ideal propagation conditions. The
data rate on each of the sub channels is much less than the total
data rate, and the corresponding sub channel bandwidth is much
less than the total system bandwidth. The number of sub streams
is chosen to ensure that each sub channel has a bandwidth less
than the coherence bandwidth of the channel, so the sub channels
experience relatively flat fading. Thus, the inter symbol
interference on each sub channel is small. The sub channels in
multicarrier modulation need not be contiguous, so a large
continuous block of spectrum is not needed for high rate
multicarrier communications. Moreover, multicarrier modulation
is efficiently implemented digitally.
B. OFDM
In this discrete implementation, called orthogonal frequency
division multiplexing (OFDM) the ISI can be completely
eliminated through the use of a cyclic prefix. The simplest form
of multicarrier modulation divides the data stream into multiple
sub streams to be transmitted over different orthogonal sub
channels centered at different subcarrier frequencies. The number
of sub streams is chosen to make the symbol time on each Sub
stream much greater than the delay spread of the channel or,
equivalently, to make the sub stream bandwidth less than the
M.Gopu*, Dr. Ritesh Khanna**
*Research scholar, CMJ University, India
**CMJ University, India
channel coherence bandwidth. This ensures that the sub streams
will not experience significant ISI.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows section 2
describes the implementation of 4G using MCM, chapter.
Section 3 explains information processing in 4G. Section 4,
section 5 explains MCM/OFDM transmitter and receiver. Section
6 concludes the paper.
II. IMPLEMENTATION OF MCM FOR 4G
Two different types of MCM are useful for 4G. These include
multicarrier code division multiple access (MC-CDMA) and
orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) using time
division multiple access (TDMA). Note: MC-CDMA is actually
OFDM with a CDMA overlay.
Similar to single-carrier CDMA systems, the users are
multiplexed with orthogonal codes to distinguish users in MC-
CDMA [3]. However, in MC-CDMA, each user can be allocated
several codes, where the data is spread in time or frequency.
Either way, multiple users access the system simultaneously.
In OFDM with TDMA, the users are allocated time intervals
to transmit and receive data. As with 3G systems, 4G systems
have to deal with issues of multiple access interference and
timing. Differences between OFDM with TDMA and MC-
CDMA can also be seen in the types of modulation used in each
subcarrier. Typically, MC-CDMA uses quadrature phase-shift
keying (QPSK), while OFDM with TDMA could use more highlevel
modulations (HLM), such as, multilevel quadrature
amplitude modulation (M-QAM) (where M = 4 to 256). However,
to optimize overall system performance, adaptive
modulation can be used; where the level of QAM for all
subcarriers is chosen based on measured parameters.
III. PROCESSING 4G INFORMATION
As 4G is based on a multicarrier technique, key baseband
components for the transmitter and receiver are the FFT and its
inverse (IFFT). In the transmit path the data is generated, coded,
modulated, transformed, cyclically extended, and then passed to
the RF/IF section. In the receive path the cyclic extension is
removed, the data is transformed, detected, and decoded. If the
data is voice, it goes to a vocoder. The baseband subsystem will
be implemented with a number of ICs, including digital signal
processors (DSPs), microcontrollers, and ASICs. Software, an
important part of the transceiver, implements the different
algorithms, coding, and overall state machine of the transceiver.
The base station could have numerous DSPs. For example, if
smart antennas are used, each user needs access to a DSP to
perform the needed adjustments to the antenna beam.
A. 4G Transceiver structure
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The structure of a 4G transceiver is similar to any other
wideband wireless transceiver. Variances from a typical
transceiver are mainly in the baseband processing. Base stations
and mobiles are distinguished in that base stations transmit and
receive/ decode more than one mobile, while a mobile is for a
single user. A mobile may be a cell phone, a computer, or other
personal communication device.
The line between RF and baseband will be closer for a 4G
system. Data will be converted from analog to digital or vice
versa at high data rates to increase the flexibility of the system.
Also, typical RF components such as power amplifiers and
antennas will require sophisticated signal processing techniques
Fig 1 gives the transmitter section of MCM/CDMA [4].The
purpose of the transmitter is to generate and send information. As
the data rate for 4G increases, the need for a clean signal also
increases. One way to increase capacity is to increase frequency
reuse. As the cell size gets smaller to accommodate more
frequency reuse, smaller base stations are required. Smaller cell
sizes need less transmit power to reach the edge of the cell,
though better system engineering is required to reduce intra-cell
interference.
One critical issue to consider is spurious noise. The regulatory
agencies have stringent requirements on the amount of unwanted
noise that can be sent out of the range of the spectrum allocated.
In addition, excess noise in the system can seriously diminish the
system's capacity.
With the wider bandwidth system associated with 4G, it will
be difficult to achieve good performance without help of linearity
techniques. To effectively accomplish this task, feedback
between the RF and baseband is required. The algorithm to
perform the feedback is done in the DSP, which is part of the
baseband data processing.
to create the capabilities needed for broadband high data rate
signals.
In the transmit path in phase and quadrature (I&Q) signals are
up converted to an IF, and then converted to RF and amplified
for transmission. In the receive path the data is taken from the
antenna at RF, filtered, amplified, and down converted for
baseband processing. The transceiver provides power control,
timing and synchronization, and frequency information. When
multicarrier modulation is used, frequency information is crucial.
If the data is not synchronized properly the transceiver will not
be able to decode it.
IV. TRANSMITTING SECTION
V. RECEIVER SECTION
Fig 2 shows the receiver model of MCM/CDMA. For 3G,
using the 2-Mbps data rate in a 5-MHz bandwidth, the SNR is
only 1.2 dB. In 4G, approximately 12-dB SNR is required for a
20-Mbps data rate in a 5-MHz bandwidth[5]. This shows that for
the increased data rates of 4G, the transceiver system must
perform significantly better than 3G. With any receiver, the main
issues for efficiency and sensitivity are noise figure, gain, group
delay, bandwidth, sensitivity, spurious rejection, and power
consumption. For a 4G receiver using a 5-MHz RF bandwidth,
16 QAM modulation, the receiver sensitivity is -87 dBm. For 3G,
the receiver sensitivity needs to be -122 dBm; the difference is
due to the modulation.
The other configuration has one down conversion, as in a
homodyne (zero IF or ZIF) receiver, where the data is converted
directly to baseband. The challenge in the receiver design is to
achieve the required sensitivity, inter modulation, and spurious
rejection, while operating at low power.
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The down converter section of the receiver will have to achieve
good linearity and noise figure while consuming minimal power.
The error correction coding of 4G has not yet been proposed,
however, it is known that 4G will provide different levels of
QoS, including data rates and bit error rates. It is likely that a
form of concatenated coding will also be used, and this could be
a turbo code as used in 3G, or a combination of a block code and
a convolution code. This increases the complexity of the
baseband processing in the receive section.4G baseband signalprocessing
components will include ASICs, DSPs,
microcontrollers, and FPGAs. The receiver will take the data
from the ADC, and then use it to detect the proper signals.
Baseband processing techniques such as smart antennas and
multi-user detection will be required to reduce interference.
The goal is to improve the signal by adjusting the beam pattern
of the antennas. The number of DSPs needed to implement an
smart antenna depends on the type of algorithm used. The two
basic types of smart antenna are switched-beam antennas and
adaptive arrays. The former selects a beam pattern from a set of
predetermined patterns, while the latter dynamically steers
narrow beams toward multiple users. Generally speaking, SA is
more likely be used in a base station than a mobile, due to size
and power restrictions.
B. Multi-user detection (MUD)
Multi-user detection (MUD) is used to eliminate the multiple
access interference (MAI) present in CDMA systems. Based on
the known spreading waveform for each user, MUD determines
the signal from other users and can eliminate this from the
desired signal. Mobile devices do not normally contain the
spreading codes of the other users in the cell, so MUD will likely
be implemented only in base stations, where it can improve the
capacity of the reverse (mobile-to-base) link.
C. Power control
Power control will also be important in 4G to help achieve the
desired performance; this helps in controlling high PAVR -
different services need different levels of power due to the
different rates and QoS [7]levels required. Therefore, power
control needs to be a very tight, closed loop. Baseband
processing is just as critical whether dealing with the receiver or
transmitter sections. As we've seed, RF and baseband work in
tandem to produce 4G signals. The baseband processing of a 4G
transmitter will obviously be more complicated than in a 3G
design. The digital-to-analog converter (DAC) is an important
piece of the transmit chain. It requires a high slew rate to
minimize distortion, especially with the high PAVR of the MCM
signals. Generally, data is oversampled 2.5 to 4 times; by
increasing the oversampling ratio of the DAC, the step size
between samples decreases. This minimizes distortion.
D. Increasing the capacity
In the baseband processing section of the transmit chain, the
signal is encoded, modulated, transformed using an IFFT, and
then a cyclic extension is added. Dynamic packet assignment or
dynamic frequency selection are techniques which can increase
the capacity of the system. Feedback from the mobile is needed
to accomplish these techniques. The baseband processing will
have to be fast to support the high data rates.
VI. CONCLUSION
The proposed MCM and OFDM-based technologies will
provide large amounts of bandwidth for broadcast and broadband
applications. With Higher bandwidth MCM/ OFDM
technologies also offer economic benefits additional features and
wider coverage. In most instances MCM/CDMA will remain the
leading and most economical platform for the delivery of mobile
broadband services. Mass adoption of these wide-bandwidth
OFDM-based solutions will surely cater the needs of 4G
networks.
REFERENCES
[1] R. Ziemer, W. Tranter, ―Principles of Communications: Systems,
Modulation and Noise‖ (5th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2002)
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[2] A. Bahai, B. R. Saltzberg, ―Multi-Carrier Digital Communications – Theory
& Applications of OFDM‖ (Klumer Academic / Plenum Publishers, 1999)
[3] H. Matsutani, M. Nakagawa, ―Multi-Carrier DS-CDMA Using Frequency
Spread Coding‖, IEICE Trans. Fundamentals, vol.E82-A, no.12, pp.2634-
2642, Dec 1999.
[4] C. Y. Li, S. Roy, ―Performance of Frequency-Time MMSE Equalizer for
MC-CDMA over Multi-path Fading Channel‖, Dept. of Elec. Eng., Uni. Of
Washington, USA, April 2002.
[5] S. Abeta, H. Atarashi, M. Sawahashi, F. Adachi, ―Performance of Coherent
Multi-Carrier/DS-CDMA and MC-CDMA for Broadband Packet Wireless
Access‖, ICICE Trans. Comm., vol.E84-B, no.3, pp.406-414, March 2002.
[6] S. Hara, R. Prasad, ―Design and Performance of Multi-carrier CDMA
System in Frequency Selective Rayleigh Fading Channels‖, IEEE Trans on
Vehicular Tech., vol.48, no.5, pp1584-1595, Sep 2002.
[7] A. Harada, S. Abeta, M. Sawahashi, ―Adaptive Radio Parameter Control
Considering QoS for Forward Link OFCDM Wireless Access‖, IEEE VTC
2002, pp.1175-1179.
AUTHORS
First Author – M.Gopu, Research scholar, CMJ University,
India. Email id - gopumano@gmail.com,
Second Author – Dr. Ritesh Khanna, rkhanna23@yahoo.com
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Study and Comparison Performance of On-demand
AODV and DSR, along with the traditional proactive
DSDV Routing Protocols for MANET
Vijendra Rai*, Jaishree Jain**
Computer Science and Engineering Departments, College of Engineering & Rural Technology, Meerut, UP, India
** Technology Departments, Bharat Institute of Technology, Meerut, UP, India
Abstract- In wireless research area, efficient routing
algorithms can provide remarkable benefits in Ad-hoc networks,
including higher throughput, lower average end-to-end delay,
less number of dropped data packets and generally an
ameliorated network performance. Many routing protocols for
such networks have been proposed so far. My research work, an
attempt has been made to compare the performance of three
prominent on-demand reactive routing protocols for mobile ad
hoc networks: DSR and AODV, along with the traditional
proactive DSDV protocol. A simulation analysis with MAC and
physical layer models is used to study interlayer communication
and their performance implications. Experimental results
obtained, showed that the On-demand protocols, AODV and
DSR perform much better than the table-driven DSDV protocol.
Although DSR and AODV share similar On-demand behavior,
the differences in the protocol mechanics can lead to significant
performance differentials. For a variety of scenarios, as
characterized by mobility, load and size of the ad-hoc network
were simulated. The performance differentials are analyzed using
varying network load, mobility pattern, and Network size.
Index Terms- Ad Hoc Network, AODV, DSDV, DSR, NS2.
I. INTRODUCTION
In ad hoc networks, each mobile node operates not only as a
host but also as a router, forwarding packets for other mobile
nodes in the network that may not be within direct wireless
transmission range of each other. Each node participates in an ad
hoc routing protocol that allows it to discover ―multi-hop‖ paths
through the network to any other node. The idea of ad hoc
networking is sometimes also called infrastructure less
networking, since the mobile nodes in the network dynamically
establish routing among themselves to form their own network
―on the fly.‖
A. Mobile Ad-Hoc Network
An ad-hoc network is a collection of wireless mobile hosts
forming a temporary network without the aid of any standalone
infrastructure or centralized administration [13]. Mobile Ad-hoc
networks are self-organizing and self-configuring multihop
wireless networks where, the structure of the network changes
dynamically. This is mainly due to the mobility of the nodes
[12]. Nodes in these networks utilize the same random access
wireless channel, cooperating in a friendly manner to engaging
themselves in multihop forwarding. The nodes in the network not
only act as hosts but also as routers that route data to/from other
nodes in network [10]. In mobile ad-hoc networks where there is
no infrastructure support as is the case with wireless networks,
and since a destination node might be out of range of a source
node transmitting packets; a routing procedure is always needed
to find a path so as to forward the packets appropriately between
the source and the destination. Within a cell, a base station can
reach all mobile nodes without routing via broadcast in common
wireless networks. In the case of ad-hoc networks, each node
must be able to forward data for other nodes. This creates
additional problems along with the problems of dynamic
topology which is unpredictable connectivity changes [11, 14].
B. Infrastructure Networks
Infrastructure network consists of a network with fixed and
wired gateways. A mobile host communicates with a bridge in
the network (called base station) within its communication
radius. The mobile unit can move geographically while it is
communicating. When it goes out of range of one base station, it
connects with new base station and starts communicating through
it. This is called handoff. In this approach the base stations are
fixed.
C. Infrastructure less (Ad hoc) Networks
In ad-hoc networks [5] all nodes are mobile and can be
connected dynamically in an arbitrary manner. As the range of
each host‘s wireless transmission is limited, so to communicate
with hosts outside its transmission range, a host needs to enlist
the aid of its nearby hosts in forwarding packets to the
destination. So all nodes of these networks behave as routers and
take part in discovery and maintenance of routes to other nodes
in the network. Ad hoc Networks are very useful in emergency
search-and rescue operations, meetings or conventions in which
persons wish to quickly share information, and data acquisition
operations in inhospitable terrain. This ad-hoc routing protocols
can be divided into two categories:
1. Table-Driven Routing Protocols: In table driven routing
protocols, consistent and up-t o-date routing information to all
nodes is maintained at each n ode.
2. On-Demand Routing Protocols: In On-Demand routing
protocols, the routes are created as and when required. When a
source wants to send to a destination, it invokes the route
discovery mechanisms to find the path to the destination.
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D. Some of the differences between proactive (Tabledriven)
and reactive (On-demand) routing protocols are:
Parameters Proactive-table Reactive-on
driven
demand
Overhead High Low
Memory
requirement
High Low
Delay Low High
Routing
philosophy
Flat Flat
Availability of Always available Available when
routing regardless of need it
information need
Coping with Inform other Use localized
mobility nodes to achieve
a consistent
routing table
route discovery
Quality of Mainly shortest Few can support
service(QoS) path as the QoS QoS, although
support
metric most support
shortest path
Signaling traffic Greater than that Grows with
generated in on-demand increasing
routing mobility of
active routes
E. Destination Sequenced Distance VECTOR (DSDV)
The Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector (DSDV)
Routing Algorithm is based on the idea of the classical Bellman-
Ford Routing Algorithm with certain improvements. Every
mobile station maintains a routing table that lists all available
destinations, the number of hops to reach the destination and the
sequence number assigned by the destination node. The sequence
number is used to distinguish stale routes from new ones and
thus avoid the formation of loops. The stations periodically
transmit their routing tables to their immediate neighbors. A
station also transmits its routing table if a significant change has
occurred in its table from the last update sent. So, the update is
both time-driven and event-driven.
Advantages of DSDV
a. DSDV protocol guarantees loop free paths [9].
b. Count to infinity problem is reduced in DSDV
[9].
c. We can avoid extra traffic with incremental
updates instead of full dump updates.
d. Path Selection: DSDV maintains only the best
path instead of maintaining multiple paths to
every destination. With this, the amount of
space in routing table is reduced.
Limitations of DSDV
a. Wastage of bandwidth due to unnecessary advertising of
routing information even if there is no change in the
network topology [7].
b. DSDV doesn‘t support Multi path Routing.
c. It is difficult to determine a time delay for the
advertisement of routes [3].
d. It is difficult to maintain the routing table‘s
advertisement for larger network. Each and every host
in the network should maintain a routing table for
advertising. But for larger network this would lead to
overhead, which consumes more bandwidth.
F. Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV)
Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector is essentially a
combination of both DSR and DSDV. It borrows the basic ondemand
mechanism of Route Discovery and Route Maintenance
from DSR, plus the use of hop-by-hop routing, sequence
numbers, and periodic beacons from DSDV. It uses destination
sequence numbers to ensure loop freedom at all times and by
avoiding the Bellman-Ford count-to-infinity problem offers
quick convergence when the ad hoc network topology changes.
In this research paper we attempt to present an overview of two
main categories of mobile ad-hoc routing protocols and
performance comparison of both the protocols by simulation of
two routing protocols(DSDV and AODV) focusing on the
differences in their dynamic behavior that can lead to
performance differences.
Advanced uses of AODV
a. Because of its reactive nature, AODV can handle highly
dynamic behavior of Vehicle Ad-hoc networks [2].
b. Used for both unicasts and multicasts using the ‘J‘ (Join
multicast group) flag in the packets [4].
Limitations/Disadvantages of AODV
a. Requirement on broadcast medium: The algorithm
expects/requires that the nodes in the broadcast medium
can detect each others‘ broadcasts.
b. No reuse of routing info: AODV lacks an efficient route
maintenance technique.
c. The routing info is always obtained on demand,
including for common case traffic [8].
d. It is vulnerable to misuse: The messages can be misused
for insider attacks including route disruption, route
invasion, node isolation, and resource consumption [6].
e. AODV lacks support for high throughput routing
metrics: AODV is designed to support the shortest hop
count metric. This metric favors long, low bandwidth
links over short, high-bandwidth links [8].
f. High route discovery latency: AODV is a reactive
routing protocol. This means that AODV does not
discover a route until a flow is initiated. This route
discovery latency result can be high in large-scale mesh
networks
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G. Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
The key distinguishing feature of DSR is the use of source
routing. Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) is a reactive protocol
i.e. it doesn‘t use periodic advertisements. It computes the routes
when necessary and then maintains them. Source routing is a
routing technique in which the sender of a packet determines the
complete sequence of nodes through which the packet has to
pass; the sender explicitly lists this route in the packet‘s header,
identifying each forwarding hop by the address of the next node
to which to transmit the packet on its way to the destination host.
H. NS2 TOOLS DETAILS:
1. Ns2: Tool for virtual presentation of Network.
2. Simulations: The artificial flow of virtual network
3. Working: Nodes created by coding in TCL and given
motion as in real network.
Ns-2 Simulation Process Flow:
I. EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS:
1. Throughput: The packet delivered per unit time.
2. Delay: The time of delivery
3. Packet delivery: The volume and information sent
network.
II. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
A. Simulation Environment
The simulation experiment is carried out in LINUX (Ubuntu
9.04). The detailed simulation model is based on network
simulator-2 (ver-2.33), is used in the evaluation. The NS
instructions can be used to define the topology structure of the
network and the motion mode of the nodes, to configure the
service source and the receiver, to create the statistical data track
file and so on.
B. Traffic Model
Continuous bit rate (CBR) traffic sources are used. The
source-destination pairs are spread randomly over the network.
Only 512-byte data packets are used. The number of sourcedestination
pairs is varied to change the offered load in the
network. The protocols maintain a send buffer of 64 packets. It
contains all data packets waiting for a route, such as packets for
which route discovery has started, but no reply has arrived yet.
To prevent buffering of packets indefinitely, packets are dropped
if they wait in the send buffer for more than 30 s. All packets
(both data and routing) sent by the routing layer are queued at the
interface queue until the MAC layer can transmit them. The
interface queue has a maximum size of 50 packets and is
maintained as a priority queue with two priorities each served in
FIFO order. Routing packets get higher priority than data
packets.
III. PERFORMANCE METRICS
The performance of the protocols depends on various interrelating
adhered metrics. The most important parameters End to
End Delay, Packet Loss and Throughput have been considered
herein to draw an analytical observation.
A. Average END to End Delay
Average end to end delay includes all possible delays caused
by buffering during route discovery latency, queuing at the
interface queue, retransmission delays at the MAC, and
propagation and transfer times of data packets.
B. Packet Loss
The protocols maintain a send buffer of 64 packets. It
contains all data packets waiting for a route, such as packets for
which route discovery has started, but no reply has arrived yet.
To prevent buffering of packets indefinitely, packets are dropped
if they wait in the send buffer for more than 30 s. All packets
(both data and routing) sent by the routing layer are queued at the
interface queue until the MAC layer can transmit them. The
interface queue has a maximum size of 100 packets and is
maintained as a priority queue with two priorities each served in
FIFO order. Routing packets get higher priority than data
packets.
C. Throughput
Also called packet delivery ratio, this is the ratio of the
number packets received by the CBR sink to the number of
packets sent by the CBR source, both at the application layer.
Packets that are sent but not received are lost in the network due
to malicious drops, route failures, congestion, and wireless
channel losses. A higher throughput will directly impact the
user‘s perception of the quality of service (QOS).
IV. PERFORMANCE RESULTS
A. Throughput vs. Node:
DSR performed poorly in our metrics (PDR and Throughput)
in these ―stressful‖ situations (higher mobility, more network
load). The reason of these phenomena is the aggressive use of
route caching in DSR. In our observation, such caching provides
a significant benefit up to a certain extent. With higher loads the
extent of caching is deemed too large to benefit performance.
Often, stale routes are chosen since route length (and not any
freshness criterion) is the only metric used to pick routes from
the cache when faced with multiple choices. DSDV shows higher
throughput than the DSR and AODV since its routing overhead
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is less than others. The rate of packet received for AODV is
better than the DSDV.
Fig. 1: THROUGHPUT Agent 1, Sink 1 DSDV
Fig. 2: THROUGHPUT Agent 1, Sink1 AODV
Fig. 3: THROUGHPUT Agent 1, Sink1 DSR
B. Packet Dropped vs. Nod:
Mainly Packet drop occurs due to the end of TTL (Time to
Live). If a protocol takes much time to decide destination path,
then the packets having short life time, fall into victim to drop.
Efficient protocols can wisely find out routing direction thus
packets dropping rate reduces for them. The dropped packet for
DSR is less than that of DSDV; AODV has no periodic updates
exist in DSR.
Fig. 4: PACKET LOSS Agent 1, Sink 1 DSDV
Fig. 5: PACKET LOSS Agent 1, Sink 1 AODV
Fig. 6: PACKET LOSS Agent 1, Sink 1 DSR
C. END to End Delay
DSDV which is a table driven proactive routing protocol
completely wins over the on demand reactive routing protocols
AODV and DSR .Since DSDV proactively keeps the routes to all
destination in its table it does not have to initiate the route
request process as frequently as in AODV and DSR while
sending packets. Hence on average DSDV clearly has less delay.
Now we can easily observe that DSR is the worst protocol in
terms of delay. At high mobility and more networks load (512
byte packets at 3 packets/sec) aggressive route caching strategy
of DSR fails. In these stressful condition links break very often
leading to invalidation of routes cached.
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Fig. 7: DELAY Agent 1, Sink 1 DSDV
Fig. 8: DELAY Agent 1, Sink 1 AODV
Fig. 9: DELAY Agent 1, Sink 1 DSR
1. Comparison for 20 and 30 NODES (DSDV):
2. Comparison for 20 and 30 NODES (AODV):
3. Comparison For 20 and 30 NODES (DSR):
4. Comparison based on QOS Parameters 20 nodes:
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5. Comparison based on QOS Parameters 30 nodes:
V. CONCLUSION
The study reveals that, DSDV shows higher throughput than
the DSR and AODV since its routing overhead is less than
others. The rate of packet received for AODV is better than the
DSDV. The dropped packet for DSR is less than that of DSDV;
AODV has no periodic updates exist in DSR. DSDV routing
protocol consumes more bandwidth, because of the frequent
broadcasting of routing updates. While the AODV is better than
DSDV as it doesn‘t maintain any routing tables at nodes which
results in less overhead and more bandwidth. It can be assumed
that DSDV routing protocols works better for smaller networks
but not for larger networks. In END to End Delay, DSDV which
is a table driven proactive routing protocol completely wins over
the on demand reactive routing protocols AODV and DSR .Since
DSDV proactively keeps the routes to all destination in its table
it does not have to initiate the route request process as frequently
as in AODV and DSR while sending packets. Hence on average
DSDV clearly has less delay. It can be observed that DSR is the
worst protocol in terms of delay.
So, my conclusion is that, a combination of DSR and DSDV
would result in a protocol with better performance than either of
the two.
VI. FUTURE SCOPE
In the future, extensive complex simulations could be carried
out using the project code, in order to gain a more in-depth
performance analysis of the ad hoc routing protocols. Other new
protocol performance could be studied too.
REFERENCES
1. NS-2, The ns Manual (formally known as NSDocumentation)
available at http: //www. isi.edu/nsnam/ns/doc.
2. Christian Schwingenschlogl and Timo Kosch. “Geocast
enhancements of aodv for vehicular networks.” Technical report,
Institute of Communication Networks, Munich University of
Technology. and BMW Research,Munich, Germany. 12 Nov 2009
3. Guoyou He. “Destination-sequenced distance vector (DSDV)
protocol.” Technical report, Helsinki University of Technology,
Finland. 2 Dec 2003
4. Krishna Ramachandran. “Aodv.” Technical report, University of
California, Santa Barbara, USA. July 2004
5. Magnus Frodigh, Per Johansson and Peter Larsson. Wirelessad hoc
networking—The art of networking without a network.
6. Ning.P. and Sun.K. “How to misuse aodv: a case study of insider
attacks against mobile ad-hoc routing protocols.” Technical report,
Comput. Sci. Dept., North Carolina State Univ., Raleigh, NC, USA,
2003.
7. Danny D. Patel. “Energy in ad-hoc networking for the pico radio.”
Technical report. 15 Jun 2006
8. Krishna Ramachandran. “Aodv-st.” Technical report, University of
California, Santa Barbara, USA. July 2004
9. Dr. Uwe Roth. “Highly dynamic destination-sequenced distancevector
routing.” June 15, 2006
10. Mehran Abolhasan, Tadeusz Wysocki, and Eryk Dutkiewicz. “A
review of routing protocols for mobile ad hoc networks. Technical
report,” Telecommunication and Information Research Institute,
University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522; Motorola
Australia Research Centre, 12 Lord St., Botany, NSW 2525, Australia,
2003.
11. Laura Marie Feeney. “A taxonomy for routing protocols in mobile ad
hoc networks.” Technical report, Swedish Institute of Computer
Science, Sweden, 1999.
12. Xiaoyan Hong, Kaixin Xu, and Mario Gerla. ―Scalable routing
protocols for mobile ad hoc networks”. 2002.
13. David B. Johnson and David A. Maltz. ―Dynamic source routing in ad
hoc wireless networks.” Technical report, Carnegie Mellon
University, 1996.
14. Jochen Schiller. “Mobile Communications.” Addison- Wesley, 2000.
First Author – Vijendra Rai, M.Tech (Information Technology)
from GGSIPU Delhi INDIA and email address is
vijendrarai1@gmail.com.
Second Author – Jaishree Jain, M.Tech (Software Engineering)
from MNNIT Allahabad and email address is
raijaishree@gmail.com.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 345
ISSN 2250-3153
“Automated Innovation Analysis & Human Resource
Management System”
Prashik Nagkirti, Sagar Kunjir, Ganesh Rajput, Swapnil Patil
Department of Information Technology
Marathwada Mitra Mandal‘s College of Engineering, Pune, Maharashtra, India.
Abstract- ―Automated Innovation Analysis & Human
Resource Management System‖, is a formal mechanism, which
encourages employees of an organisation to contribute
constructive, innovative innovations for improving productivity,
efficiency and effectiveness in an organization. This system will
elicit various innovations from employees, classify them, and
dispatch them to experts for evaluation. After this, the posted
innovation might be adopted, in which case the Originator of that
innovation (i.e. an employee from the organization) may well be
rewarded. With this system all employees are completely aware
of recently posted, awarded, screened, evaluated, rejected
innovations & view statistics with statistic module. Advance
search module helps to search any innovation post & their status
with just putting keyword to module. Authenticate the user with
username (Employee ID/Employee Email ID) and the password
(encrypted password). This system being deployed on the web,
the system automatically reduces the mechanical work involved,
such as manual transmission of innovations and paperwork,
which can impede performance, thus leading to improved
efficiency. Through this system we aim to capture the entire
innovation life cycle and ease the processing of requests. In
IT enterprises, management occupies a central position in the
multiple functional managements of the corporate management.
The key to rise and fall of IT enterprises is how to find out
talents, take in talents, cultivate talents and conserve
talents and how to stimulate enthusiasm, innovation and
cooperative spirit of employees. This article analyzes
characteristics of IT enterprises, and brings the ways to
implement the effective management in IT enterprises. In this
system we use RFID facility to keep track of employees. We
provide the leave management facility using mobile application.
Index Terms- Employee, Human Resource, Innovation, Mobile,
RFID.
T
I. INTRODUCTION
his project is build up for developing online system which
encourages employees of organization to get online any time
and share their ideas or innovations. This system also helps to
improve communication among employees and associates.
Use of RFID Technology:
RFID stands for Radio Frequency Identification. A typical RFID
system consists of a tag, a reader, and some sort of data
processing equipment, such as a computer. The reader sends a
request for identification information to the tag. The tag responds
with the respective information, which the reader then forwards
to the data processing device. The tag and reader communicate
with one another over an RF channel. In some systems, the link
between the reader and the computer is wireless.
Radio frequency identification (RFID) is an emerging technology
and process this can helps to keep track of employee details.
This system is also aimed at developing an online leave
management system that is of importance to the organization.
This system can be used to automate the workflow of leave
applications and their approvals. The periodic crediting of leave
is also automated. There are features like, cancellation of leave,
approval of leave, report generation, email notification etc in this
system.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Automated Innovation Analysis
Existing System is completely manual having mechanical
works involving manual transmission of innovations and paper
work which can impede performance. System does not let
employees keep track on life cycle of innovations posted.
Employees being unaware of the status of their post.
Existing system does not have notification facility among
employees. As it is manual system it is very tedious job to store,
maintain, retrieve and evaluate huge information related to
employees & their respective inputs. Employees cannot update
their posts any time. Each time for new post one employee has to
undergone whole long procedures and formalities. Existing
System provide less security and also employee cannot
personalize their accounts. Core team & Technical team has
difficulties in co-coordinating & maintaining records of pending,
evaluated, screened innovations in innovation cycle. The world is
facing the next major transition: this will mean opportunity for
some and extinction for other.
B. Human Resource Management System
The current Leave management process of the organization is
very simple. The main processes involved are, registering the
information of any new Employee, Department, and Leave
Policy etc in a Register. Employees apply for leave manually by
filling a leave application form. The superior employees
approve/reject the leave applications of their subordinates by
making such a note on the application. The employees enquire in
the Human Resource Department about their leave balance. The
superior also get information about the employees on leave from
Human Resource Department. Administrator can manage Leave.
Leave allocation to employee.
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III. NEED FOR PROJECT
System lets employees keep track on life cycle of innovations
posted. Employees being unaware of the status of their post
therefore we provide notification facility among employees.
Through this system it is easy to maintain, retrieve and evaluate
huge information related to employees & their respective inputs.
Employees can update their posts anytime anywhere. This
System provides more security and also employee can
personalize their account. It is easy for Core team & Technical
team members for co-coordinating & maintaining records of
pending, evaluated, screened innovations in innovation cycle.
This system is concerned with saving, editing, deleting the
master information about the employee, department, designation,
leave policy and leave allotment per designation.
This management system allows the employees to apply for
leave online. The employees can select the leave type they want
to apply for. Accordingly they will get the information about the
total number of that specific leave types allotted to them and how
many leaves they have used, and how many are remaining.
Accordingly the employee can decide for number of days leaves
he requires and then proceed further. Also the employee can state
the reason for applying for leave. The superior employee i.e. the
head can view all the leave applications he has received from his
subordinates. Also the head can see the leave details about the
subordinate employees and accordingly accept/reject the
applications. He can also state the reason for approval/rejection
of application. In this system the employee can get the reply
details of the specific leave application he has applied for. This
will contain the information about who accepted rejected the
application, for what reason and when. In this system, the
employee can withdraw the leave application which has not been
yet sanctioned by the head, without disturbing the head.
IV. CONCEPT
―Automated Innovation Analysis & Human Resource
Management System‖ is build up for developing online system in
which encourages employees of organization to get online any
time and share their ideas or innovations. This system also helps
to improve communication among employees from various areas
with help notification module integrated in the system.
―Automated Innovation Analysis & Human Resource
Management System‖ is web application which provides
multiuser environment. ―Automated Innovation Analysis &
Human Resource Management System‖ is client-server
architecture which is deployed in LAN (Local Area Network) of
organization where multiple clients PCs connected to one server
for accessing system.
―Automated Innovation Analysis & Human Resource
Management System‖ provides database which is relevant to
store & maintain updated information. Database management
helps to work many users at a time.
With this system all employees are completely aware of
recently posted, awarded, screened, evaluated, rejected
innovations & view statistics with statistic module. Advance
search module helps to search any innovation post & their status
with just putting keyword to module. Authenticate the user with
username (Employee ID) and the password (encrypted
password).
In Human Resource management system leave management
facility helps employees to apply for leaves and keep track of all
their leaves. Also employees can apply and manage their leaves
at anytime anywhere using mobile application created for
particular system.
V. IMPLEMETATION
User requirement is the first and fore most important for
starting the development of the system software. A system is
known as functionally correct if all the user requirements are
fulfilled.
For the ―Leave Management system‖ following are the user
requirements:
1) An employee should be able to:
Login to the system through the first page of the application.
Change the password after logging into the system. See his/her
eligibility details (like how many days of leave he/she is eligible
for etc). Query the leave balance. See his/her leave history since
the time he/she joined the company.
Apply for leave, specifying the form and to dates, reason for
taking leave. See his/her current leave applications and the leave
applications that are submitted to him/her for approval or
cancellation. Approve/reject the leave applications that are
submitted to him/her. Withdraw his/her leave application (which
has not been approved yet). Cancel his/her leave (which has been
already approved). This will need to be approved by his/her
Superior. Get help about the leave system on how to use the
different features of the system. The number of days of leave (as
per the assumed leave policy) should be automatically credited to
everybody and a notification regarding the same be sent to them
automatically
A summary report of the leave application details should be
generated.
System Requirement and Specification:-
Description of Technology:
Front End: ASP.NET, C#.NET,
Back End: MS-SQL Server 2005
VI. FEATURES
Give rise to fully automated system for improving
productivity, efficiency and effectiveness in an
organization.
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―Automated Innovation Analysis & Human Resource
Management System‖ allows users to update their information or
post any time.
To provide automated notification employed with
mailing so as to improve communication among
employees & keep them updated.
Proper life cycle of innovations is maintained like
originator-technical team-core team-acceptance or
rejection-awards that‘s why there is no confusion &
conflicts among employees & teams.
The proposed system is online so work can be done
faster. Employee can apply for leave through internet
even if he is at home.
Since the system is online there is facility for login and
password. Only authorized employees can use the
system.
System gives all the detailed leave information about
subordinate employee.
VII. CONCLUSION
Project build on ―Automated Innovation Analysis & Human
Resource Management System‖ is relevant and very useful to
organization wherein it provides platform for employees to share
their innovative ideas in different eras like technical,
infrastructure, facilities, demands, business etc. Technically
database management system becomes useful to manage huge
data & maintaining records. Notifications also raise
communication between employees which may clear doubts
coordinating them in certain work. This helps organization to
improve their productivity, efficiency and efficacy. This system
is generally helpful for newly established companies which are
on their way to grow and develop. This system also helps to keep
information about employees in Human Resource management
by using RFID and mobile application facility.
REFERENCES
[1] Ali Mostafavi, Student Member, IEEE, Dulcy M. Abraham, Daniel
DeLaurentis, Member, IEEE, and Joseph Sinfield, ―A System of Systems
Framework‖. JUNE 2011
[2] RFID Essentials - by Bill Glover, Himanshu Bhatt.
[3] http://www.rediff.com/money/2007/feb/14guest.htm.(literature survey).
AUTHORS
Prashik Nagkirti, Sagar Kunjir, Ganesh Rajput, Swapnil Patil are
pursuing their Bachelor of Engineering Degree in Information
Technology from Marathwada Mitra Mandal‘s College of
Engineering, Pune, Maharashtra, India.
They are implementing project based on this idea.
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X-Ray Satellites in the Lα1 Region of 4d Transition
Element
Dr. Sameer Sinha *, Ajay Vikram Singh**, Kedar Nath Singh***
*Reader, Ganpat Sahai Post Graduate College, Sultanpur, U.P. India
**Associate Professor, Rajarshi Rananjay Sinh Institute of Management &Technology, Amethi , CSJ Nagar, U.P. , India
***Lecturer, S.B.I.C., Badlapur , Jaunpur
Abstract- We have used Plasmon theory [13,14] to explain
Energy Satellites and relative intensity of high energy X-ray
satellites Lα3 , Lα4 & Lα5 with respect to Lα1 parent line in 4d
Transition Metal ( Zr , Nb , Mo , Ru , Rh , Pd , Ag and Cd) and
estimated values are in agreement with the calculated values of
Surendra Poornia and S.N.Soni[15].
Index Terms- Surface Plasmon Satellites , Relative Intensity
& Energy Sepration
I
I. INTRODUCTION
n the characteristic X-ray Spectra, Diagram as well as non
Diagram lines are present. Those lines which fit in the
conventional energy level diagram are called Diagram lines. &
those lines which do not fit in the conventional energy level
diagram are called non diagram lines. It is also known as
―Satellites or Second order lines‖. Satellites are generally of
weak intensity lines & are found close to more intense parent
line. The satellites which are observed on higher energy side are
called high energy satellites (HES) whereas those are observed
on lower energy side are called lower energy satellites (LES).
First Siegbahn & Stenstroem observed these satellites in the K-
Spectra of element from Cr to Ge while coster theraeus &
Richtmyer in the L-Spectra of element from Cu to Sb & Hajlmar,
Hindberg & Hirsch in the M-Spectra of elements from Yb to U.
Several theories were proposed from time to time to explain the
origin of these satellites. Out of these theories the plasmon theory
is found to be the most suitable theory especially for those
satellites.
Plasmon theory was first proposed by Bohm & pines which
are extended by Housten, Ferrel, Noziers & Pines. According to
this theory the low energy plasmon satellites are emitted when
valence electron excites a plasmon during the annihilation of
core hole conversely if Plasmon pre exists, its energy add up to
the energy of diagram line.
The radiation less reorganization of electronic shell of an
atom is known as Auger effect. Auger satellites have also been
observed by Korbar and Mehlhorn [1] Haynes et at. [2] Edward
and Rudd [3]. Theoretical explanation for K series Auger
spectrum was given by Burhop and Asaad [4] using intermediate
coupling. Later on more refined theory, using relativistic and
configuration interaction has been used by Listengarter [5] and
Asaad [6]
In Auger primary spectra, one can also observe secondary
electron peaks close to the primary peaks are produced by
incident electrons which have undergone well energy losses. The
most common source of such energy loss in the excitation of
collective plasma oscillations of the electrons in the solid. This
gives rise to a series of plasma peaks of decreasing magnitude
spaced by energy ħp where p is the frequency of plasma
oscillation.
Auger peaks are also broadened by small energy losses
suffered by the escaping electrons. This gives rise to a satellite on
the low energy of the Auger peak. Energy loss peaks have well
defined energy with to primary energy.
The involvement of Plasmon oscillation in the X-ray emission
or absorption spectra of solids has been widely studied during the
last few decades and has been recognized that the electron –
electron interaction has played an important role.
This Paper is devoted to Plasmon theory [13,14] to explain
the Energy Satellites and relative intensity of high energy X-ray
satellites Lα3 , Lα4 & Lα5 with respect to Lα1 parent line in
4d Transition Metal ( Zr , Nb , Mo , Ru , Rh , Pd , Ag and
Cd) and estimated values are in agreement with the calculated
values of Surendra Poornia and S.N.Soni[15].
According to Plasmon theory, if the valence electron, before
filling the core vacancy, also excites a Plasmon, then the energy
ħωp needed for the excitation of Plasmon oscillation is taken
from the transiting valence electron so that the emitted radiation
will be derived off an energy ħωp and a low energy satellites will
emitted whose sepration from the main X-ray line will
correspond to ħωp . On the other hand if the Plasmon pre exists,
during the X-ray emission process, then, on its decay it can give
its energy to the transiting valence electron before it annihilates
the core vacancy. Thus the energy of emitted X-ray photon will
be higher than the main emission line and by an amount ħωp
giving rise to high energy satellite.
Surendra Poornia and S.N.Soni have observed low and high
energy satellite peaks in 4d Transition Metal ( Zr , Nb , Mo , Ru
, Rh , Pd , Ag and Cd ) A close approximation of their tables
shows that some satellites are at a distance of ħωp (Plasmon
energy ) from the main emission line . This observation forced
us to think that these might be due to Plasmons emission and
absorption.
II. MATHEMATICAL CALCULATION
In order to confirm the involvement of Plasmon in the
emission of X-ray satellites the relative intensity of single
Plasmon satellites must be calculated. In this process first we
deal with mathematical details of canonical transformation
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carried out over the model Hamiltonian of the system . Thus the
energy separation ∆E of the low and high energy Plasmon
satellite from the corresponding main line should be equal to the
quantum of Plasmon energy ħωp which is given by [13]
ev 1
Where Z = No.of unpaired electrons taking part in plasma
oscillation
= Specific gravity
= Molecular Weight
This equation can be derived as given below.
From the classical consideration, we get the frequency of
Plasmon oscillation as
Hence the amount of energy given to Plasmon becomes
Ep = ħωp = ħ
In this equation we can write n =
, Z and W are defined above and L is the Avogadro number .By
putting the numerical value of constant, we get the Plasmon
energy as
2
ev 3
Our calculated values of ∆E have been compared with the
Scrocco‘s experimental value. And We have also calculated the
relative intensity of plasmon satellites, which is different in
different processes. If the excitation of plasmon occurs during the
transport of the electron through the solid, it is known as
extrinsic process of plasmon excitation. The plasmon can also be
excited by another method known as intrinsic process. In this
process, excitation of plasmon takes place simultaneously with
creation of a hole. Bradshaw et al have further divided core hole
excitation into two classes
1. Where the number of slow electrons are conserved.
2. Where the number of slow electrons are not conserved
The Author has calculated relative intensity in both the cases
with new modification in the light of Bradshaw [12] and
Lengreth [13] work, which explains that not only intrinsic
process but extrinsic process and their relative contribution may
also contribute in relative intensities. The combined effect of
intrinsic and extrinsic plasmon excitation intensity variation was
suggested by Lengreth as:
I= Is / Im = α n 4
The value of β is taken as β = 0.12rs which is purely intrinsic,
rs = (47.11/ ħws) 2/3 is dimensionless parameter and α = 0.47 rs 1/2
in the place of α = (1+l/L) -1 used by Pardee et. al.(14) . The
equation (3) contains a series of terms. The first term of the
equation is purely extrinsic, while second term is purely intrinsic.
The other terms are containing the relative contributions of both
extrinsic and intrinsic. The specialty of this formula is that each
term alone or simultaneously with other terms is able to give the
relative intensity. This formula also includes both the categories
mentioned by Bradshaw and gives better results as compared
than traditional methods for calculation of the relative intensity.
Using the values of α, β and rs in equation (4)
Using the equation (4), the author has for the first time,
calculated the relative intensity of high energy X-ray satellites
Lα3 , Lα4 & Lα5 with respect to Lα1 parent line in 4d
Transition Metal ( Zr , Nb , Mo , Ru , Rh , Pd , Ag and Cd)
metals. Our calculated and estimated values are in agreement
with the calculated values of Surendra Poonia and S.N.Soni(11).
REFERENCES
[1] Haynes S.K. & Velinsky, M & Velinsky L.J. ; Nucl. Phys. A99 (1967), 537.
[2] Rudd M.E. & Edward & Volz, D.J. ; Phys Rev. 151, (1966), 28.
[3] Asaad, W.N. & Burhop E.H.S. ; Proc. Phys. Soc., London 71, (1958), 369.
[4] Listengarten, M.A. ; Bull Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R., Phys. Ser. 26 (1962), 182.
[5] Asaad, W.N. ; Nucl. Phy. 66, (1965b), 494.
[6] M.Scrocco in photoemission spectra of Pb.(II) halide; Phys. Rev. B25
(1982) 1535-1540 .
[7] M.Scrocco , Satellites in X-ray Photo electron spectroscopy of insulator I 32
(1985) 1301-1306
[8] M.Scrocco , Satellite in X-ray Photo electron spectroscopy of insulators II
32 (1985) 1307-1310
[9] L.Marton , L.B.Lader and H. Mendlowitz; Adv. Electronic and Electro
Physics; edited by L.M arton Academic , New York 7 (1955) , 225 .
[10] Surendra poonia and S.N.Soni , Indian journal of pure and applied physics ,
vol.45, feb.2007 pp-119-126
[11] A. M. Bradshaw, Cederbaurn S.L, Domeke W. & Krause Jour. Phys C:
Solid StatePhys. 7, 4503, 1974
[12] D. C. Lengreth, Phys. Rev. Letter, 26, 1229, 1971
[13] K. S. Srivastava , S. P. Singh and R.L. Srivastava ; Phys. Rev. B13 ( 1976 )
, 3213
[14] W. J. Pardee, G.D. Mahan, D. E. Eastman R.A. Pollak, L. Ley, F.R.
McFeely, S.P.Kowalczky and D.A. Shirely, Phys. Rev. B, 11, 3614, 1975.
[15] Surendra poonia and S.N.Soni , Indian J. Phys. 83 (3), 325-337 (2009)
AUTHORS
First Author – Dr. Sameer Sinha, Reader , Ganpat Sahai Post
Graduate College , Sultanpur ,U.P. India
Second Author – Ajay Vikram Singh, Associate Professor,
Rajarshi Rananjay Sinh Institute of Management &Technology,
Amethi , CSJ Nagar, U.P. , India
Third Author – Kedar Nath Singh, Lecturer , S.B.I.C. ,
Badlapur , Jaunpur
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Correspondence Author – Ajay Vikram Singh, Associate
Professor, Rajarshi Rananjay Sinh Institute of Management
&Technology, Amethi , CSJ Nagar, U.P. , India, Email:
ajay_gspgcs@rediffmail.com
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Energy sepration ΔE at Lα1 satellite of 4-d Transistion element
S.No. SYMBOL Z W Sp.Gravity
Exper. Value
[Ref. 15]
Author Value
Satell.
Name
1
6.54 5.44 Lα3
Zr(40) 1 91.224 6.51
2 10.64 10.88 Lα5
3
6.51 6.19 Lα3
Nb(41) 1 92.906 8.58
4 10.61 12.38 Lα5
5
6.54 6.67 Lα4
Mo(42) 1 95.94 10.28
6 8.84
9.43
Lα5
7
6.85 7.15 Lα3
8 Ru(44) 1 101.07 12.45
9.55 10.11 Lα4
9 11.95 14.30 Lα5
10
7.36 7.07 Lα3
11 Rh(45) 1 102.91 12.41
9.96 10.00 Lα4
12 12.66 14.14 Lα5
13
7.59 6.84 Lα3
14 Pd(46) 1 106.42 12.02
10.39 9.68 Lα4
15 13.49 13.68 Lα5
16
17
Ag(47)
2 107.87 10.5 8.09 8.99 Lα3
10.69 12.71 Lα4
18 13.99 17.98 Lα5
19
8.77 7.98 Lα3
20 Cd(48) 2 112.41 8.64
11.47 11.29 Lα4
21 14.77 15.96 Lα5
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S.No. SYMBOL
Relative Intensity of Lα1 satellite of 4-d Transition element
Surface
Energy
Bulk
Energy
Rs Alpha beta
Author
intensity
Exp.
Intensity
[Ref.15]
Satell.
Name
1
0.76180 0.7840591 Lα3
Zr(40) 5.44 7.69 4.22 0.97 0.5060
2 0.50600 0.4177052 Lα5
3
0.70000 0.7780185 Lα3
Nb(41) 6.19 8.75 3.87 0.92 0.4644
4 0.46440 0.4153178 Lα5
5
0.66780 0.7214661 Lα4
Mo(42) 6.67 9.43 3.68 0.90 0.4419
7 0.44190 0.4019253 Lα5
9
0.84370 0.7837573 Lα3
10 Ru(44) 7.15 10.11 3.52 0.88 0.4218 0.63890 0.6746709 Lα4
11 0.42180 0.3891727 Lα5
13
0.84970 0.8655837 Lα3
14 Rh(45) 7.07 10.00 3.54 0.88 0.4248 0.64320 0.7143737 Lα4
15 0.42480 0.3976648 Lα5
17
0.86844 0.8624479 Lα3
18 Pd(46) 6.84 9.68 3.62 0.89 0.4342 0.65670 0.6916922 Lα4
19 0.43420 0.4220774 Lα5
21
0.88480 0.8580864 Lα3
22 Ag(47) 8.99 12.71 3.02 0.82 0.3622 0.72432 0.6724729 Lα4
23 0.44240 0.4252396 Lα5
25
0.78365 0.8258238 Lα3
26 Cd(48) 7.98 11.29 3.27 0.85 0.3918 0.59610 0.6572864 Lα4
27 0.39180 0.4305464 Lα5
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Characterization of Sulphamic Acid Single Crystal by
Optical Techniques
Dr. Rita A. Gharde, Divakar T. Chunarkar
* Department of Physics, Mumbai University, Kalina (Santacruz), Mumbai – 400 008 India
Abstract- The formation of crystal in nature, like snowflakes
and minerals, as well as the preparation of the crystal in
laboratories and factories made for technical application is called
crystal growth. The most frequently used and most important
method of producing single crystals of a given material is by
solidification of its own melt called ‗crystal growth from the
melt‘ or just ‗melt growth‘. Its technical and economic
importance is due to the fact that large single crystals can be
grown very effectively and with a high yield at a relatively high
growth rate. This growth rate is not limited by the transport of
crystal species but only by the removal of the heat of
crystallization. In the last decade single crystalline subject of
increasing interest, because of their remarkable characteristics.
Due to the large length-to-diameter ratio composed with perfect
single crystal structure and chemical homogeneity, the
mechanical properties approach theoretical value.
In this work we are interested in growing single crystal for
nonlinear optical applications. Beside this, we are trying to
develop new materials that have specific thermo-mechanical
properties to be used as a suspension for the mirror in advance
gravitational waves detector in order to decrease low thermal
noise.
A monocrystal known as single crystal of sulphamic acid
(H2NSO3H) is an inorganic nonlinear optical material was
grown by slow evaporation solution growth technique. We have
performed studies characterization of Sulphamic acid single
crystal by X-ray diffraction and FTIR studies. The crystals are
extremely good of the orthorhombic structure. We also study the
other properties like viscosity, dielectric constant, melting point,
PH scale and surface tension etc.
Index Terms- Growth from solution, coefficient of viscosity,
dielectric constant, melting point, PH scale and surface tension,
inorganic compound.
I. INTRODUCTION
.
ulphamic acid (H2NSO3H) is an important Industrial
S
chemical compound, which is strongly soluble in water. The
molecular weight of this compound is 97.09. The growth of the
single crystal in both science and technology important
application of such crystal. The growth and size of any crystal
depends on the condition of its formation. Temperature,
pressure, presence of impurities etc will affect the size perfection
of crystal.. In the recent years, several studies dealing with
organic, inorganic and semi organic molecules and materials for
non linear optics (NLO) reported, due to the increasing need for
cheap and easily process able material. Crystals take variety of
shapes, depending on the internal factors. Both internal and
external factors influence the growth rates, and therefore, they
modified the crystal morphology. Crystal grown from
conventional solution growth method was used as a seed. The
plane which has fast growth rate has chosen for this study. The
growth of the face depends on the external factors such as
temperature and pressure. The concentration of solution
increases. In crystal growth literature, the recently discovered
uniaxially solutions – crystallization method of Shankar Narayan
– Ramasamy (SR) is a suitable method. To effectively control the
orientation of molecule during the bulk crystal growth from
solution at room temperature with 100% solute – crystal
conversion efficiency. Non-linear optical (NLO) single crystal
are used in the area of fiber optics, communication, optical
frequency conversion, optical data storage etc. In the present
investigation sulphamic acid single crystal or monocrystal grown
by three distinct methods are as follows:
1. Growth from solution
2. Growth from melt
3. Growth from vapor
II. EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
We are using the growth from solution method to grow the
crystal .We prepared 26 % solution of sulphamic acid at about
30 0 to 45 0 temperature. Growth of sulphamic acid crystal was
carried out by S. R. method by slow evaporation. In this method
of growth assembly used ‗L‘ bend ampoule made by borosilicate
glass with seed mounting pad which is parallel to that used by S.
R. method. The selection of the solvent is an important step in
the bulk growth of crystal from solution by slow evaporation
method. The size of the crystal depends on the amount of
material available in the solution, which in turn is decided by the
solubility of the material in that solvent. Seed crystal were
harvested within 2 to 4 days.
As shown in fig. 1 consist of glass ampoule with seed
mounting pad. A resistive ring heater (80W) of diameter 10 mm
provides the necessary temperature around the growth ampoule
for solvent evaporation. A ring heater positioned at the top of the
growth ampoule was connected to the solvent of evaporation. In
this experiment, the temperature around the growth region is
mentioned at 65 0 C with ± 0.05 0 C accuracy depending on the
evaporation rate of the growth crystal. The most important
requirement for the growth of crystal from the vapor is
sufficiently high saturated pressure P of the source to obtained an
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acceptable growth rate. The rate of the crystal growth from the
vapor method is 1 mm per day = 1.16 X 10ˉ 6
D = Glass Ampoule
T = Sulphamic Acid Saturated
Solution
C = Water Bath
E = Thermometer
F = Seed Crystal of S.A.
G = Fixed Stand
L = L bend tube
Fig.1: Schematic Diagram of the experimental setup S. A. Crystal
Viscosity:-We used Ostwald Viscometer. The viscosities of
two liquid, or the same liquid a different temperature, may be
compared with the help of simple apparatus known as Ostwald
Viscometer. As shown in fig.2 viscometer consists of U shape
tube with two bulb A & B. A capillary position CDE a side tube
T, fitted with a Tap S, & with three marks engraved on it, at M,
N, & Q respectively. Prepare the saturated solution at a normal
temperature of 1% sample in 100 ml distilled water.
This solution has been taken in four different concentration i
e 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8% & 1.0%. From this solution fill 10 ml in
Ostwald Viscometer apparatus and measure time in different
position of the liquid. If the flow of liquid increase to increase
the specific coefficient of viscosity. The temperature of liquid
increases to decrease the viscosity of the given liquid.
Fig. 2: Ostwal Viscometer Apparatus Fig. 3: Coefficient of Viscosity Graph
Dielectric constant:- To study the dielectric constant we
made a very simple technique in the laboratory. The single
crystal of Sulphamic Acid crushed into powder form. In this
method the capacitance of a capacitor increases when it is filled
with an insulating medium. The increasing capacitance depends
on the property of the medium, called dielectric constant.
Dielectric constant method which we set up in the lab as shown
in fig 4 .Both stripping copper plate varnished. Fine powder of
this sample kept between two plate & packed with the rubber
band.. At that time do not pass the air into the plate through the
rubber band. After that to measure the capacitance of this sample
with the help of millimeter & calculate the dielectric constant..
The maximum dielectric constant response revealed may be of
great interest in application. The sulphamic acid (H2NSO3H)
Material with high dielectric constant values are quite good.
Which can be used in the thin film transistor tunneling devices,
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insulator, fabricating capacitors and other electric field devices.
Sulphamic acid crystal is an insulating material it gets higher
Melting Point:- We study the capillary melting method by
using the one side open capillary tube and to measure the melting
point of the sample by using least capillary melting method.
Crushed the SA crystal sample and fill the capillary tube and
used the melting point instrument by measuring the melting point
with the help of thermometer. The melting point of the crystal
growth of sulphamic acid is 206˚C. The high melting point of the
material contains strong bond and get the more energy of heat.
Such type of material are used in the fire retardants for paper &
other cellulosic‘s, stabilizing agent, for chlorine and
hypochloride in swimming pool closed hydrogen system,
bleaching paper pulp and textile catalyst for urea formaldehyde –
resins.
PH Meter:- PH Scale should be clear that every acquire
solution whether acidic, alkaline & neutral contain both
hydrogen (H + ) and hydroxyl (OH - ) ions. There product always
constant and equal to 1 x 10 -14 at normal temperature at about
25˚C. The solution are acidic or alkaline depends upon the two
ions is present in greater concentration then the other. The
sulphamic acid growth crystal is an acidic medium and its PH
value of preparing 1% of solution is 1.14 by using model CL-46,
Sr. No.4944, Power 230 v ac PH meter about 25˚C normal
temperature This sulphamic acid are used in the operation of to
remove the excess nitrus Acid from the preparing diazo in the
dyes plant. The sulphamic acid is less PH i.e. more acidic than
the formic and phosphoric acid and acitic acid. Such type of
material are used in metal and ceramic cleaning and nitrite
removal in azodize operation.
Surface Tension :- To determine the surface tension ,we
use capillary rise method. This method is based on the rise of
liquid in a capillary tube. Consider a capillary tube lowered in a
liquid that wets its surface. The contact angle between the glass
& liquid is now‖ 0‖ the rising position of the liquid high depends
upon the surface tension and density. The column of the liquid in
the capillary is evidently being by the supported by the force
acting along the surface of water, is known as force of surface
tension. Measure the height through which the liquid rise and
radius of capillary tube in centimeter. The height is measure by
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
energy and higher dielectric constant.
y
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
cathetometer and radius of the capillary tube measure by the
traveling microscope. The rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary
can be better understood by involving the concept of cohesion
and adhesion position. In this method the liquid solution is
depressed in the capillary tube. We found surface tension of the
growth crystal of sulphamic acid is 116.41d cm-1.
III. RESULT & DISCUSSION
From study of study FTIR and X-ray diffraction it is
confirmed that vibration frequency of sulphamic acid. We found
the dielectric constant value much higher, those reported by
earlier workers. It is observed sulphamic acid is more acidic. The
coefficient of viscosity is found to be 0.022dyne.sec.cm -2 . which
is very less .and the Surface tension of sulphamic acid is more.
We have observed that crystals are extremely good of
orthorhombic structure. We introduced a new method to study
dielectric constant. Further study on the crystal growth shows
that it is more acidic, and coefficient of viscosity is found to be
0.022 d sec /cm which is very less.
IV. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am thankful to Dr. A. D. Yadav Head of the Department of
Physics, University of Mumbai. I am indebted to Dr. Rewatkar
(Lecturer in Physics Dr. Ambedkar M. dikshabhumi Nagpur). I
am also grateful to thanks all the staff members of R & D,
mechanical, production, QC Dept. of Formokem India
Corporation Kashigaon (Bhayandar). I am extremely grateful to
Dr. S. B. Singh (Principal) of S. N. College Bhayandar (East).
REFERENCES
[1] K. Nassu, J Nassu, Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill, N. J. 079074 U.S.A.
(Berlin Heidelberg New York)
[2] E. Schonherr, Bernardsville N. J. 07924, U.S.A.
(Berlin Heidelberg New York)
[3] D. E. Ovsienko, G. A. Alfintsev, Bernardsville N. J. 07924, U.S.A.
Series 1
x
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(Berlin Heidelberg New York)
[4] A. H. Monish, Bernardsville N. J. 07924, U.S.A.
(Berlin Heidelberg New York)
[5] Dr. Puri, Physical Chemistry, 2005
(Punjab University Chandigarh)
[6] Dr. Sharma, Physical Chemistry, 2005
(Punjab University Chandigarh)
[7] Dr. Pathania, Physical Chemistry, 2005
(Punjab University Chandigarh)
[8] Dr. D. S. Mathur, 2006
(S. & Chand Co.)
[9] R. Ueda,
Waseda universita, Tokyo, Japan (1992- 93)
[10] J. B. Mullin
(Royal Radar Establishment, great Malvern, England May, 1996)
[11] Arthur Beiser
(Tata MC Graw – Hill Publishing Co. Ltd. New Dehli Fifth Edition, 1953)
[12] E. H. Lewit
(Imperical Science & Technology College, South Kensington, 4th & 5th
Edition, 1973)
[13] K. Shankar Narayan, P. Ramasamy, J. Crystal Growth (2005)
(Imperical Science & Technology College, South Kensington, 4th & 5th
Edition, 1973)
AUTHORS
First Author – Dr. Rita A. Gharde, Divakar, Department of
Physics, Mumbai University, Kalina (Santacruz), Mumbai – 400
008 India, Email: gharde .rita@gmail.com
Second Author – Divakar T. Chunarkar, Department of Physics,
Mumbai University, Kalina (Santacruz), Mumbai – 400 008
India
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Design of a 32 DOF Andro Humanoid Robot using
Cascaded Computational Intelligence
Abstract- This paper focuses on the design of a 32 DOF andro
humanoid robot using cascaded computational intelligence. The
robot consists of hip, neck, Lip, shoulder, elbow, and wrist and
finger joints. The robot secures itself from hacking and power
problems. The intelligence of the robot is a combination of
human intelligence, computational intelligence and sensor fusion
unit data.
Index Terms- Robot, Kinematics, Inverse kinematics, Andro
Humanoid, DOF, Cascaded computational intelligence, sensor
fusion unit.
R
I. INTRODUCTION
obot is a machine to execute different task repeatedly with
high precision. Thereby many functions like collecting
information and studies about the hazardous sites which is too
risky to send human inside. Robots are used to reduce the human
interference nearly 50 percent. Robots are used in different types
like fire fighting robot, metal detecting robot, etc. Humanoids are
robots which resembles human joints. Humanoids are nowadays
used in industrial purpose, military, research etc.
This paper focuses on designing a 32 DOF andro humanoid
robot. The robot uses cascaded computational intelligence and
hence it has a self securing feature. The robot is controlled by a
human master and a local master controller which is connected to
a sensor fusion network.
II. HARDWARE CONCEPT
A. Mechanical Part
The humanoid consists of a hip, neck, Lip, shoulder, elbow,
and wrist and finger joints. The humanoid has 32 degrees of
freedom.
The humanoid has a platform on which it is mounted. The
platform helps the humanoid to move around in a plane surface.
The platform consists of four wheels each of which is connected
to dc geared motors. The hip joint of the humanoid has one
degree of freedom and allows the upper body of the humanoid to
rotate in horizontal direction. The neck joint helps to rotate the
head in horizontal direction. A web camera is mounted in the
eyes of the humanoid.
S Shyam.R.Nair, Prof. Manjula Pramod
Dept. of EIE, Hindustan University, Chennai
The humanoid has shoulder, elbow, wrist and finger joints on
both hands. The shoulder has 2 DOF, elbow has 3DOF, wrist has
4 DOF and the finger unit has 5 DOF. The hip and neck has one
DOF and the lip has 2 DOF. All these togather makes 32 DOF
andro humanoid.
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Figure 2. Schematic of motor arrangement
B. Torque Calculations
There are 14 motors with 10 rpm each including the four in the
platform which are connected to the wheels.
Neck motor:
The motor is placed at neck which will make the head rotate in
the horizontal plane.
Weight of the head including the web camera is 0.5 Kg.
The distance from the shaft of the motor is 25 cm.
Hence torque required to make proper movement is 0.5*6 = 3
Kgcm
Required power = 2*π*N*T/60
= 3.12 Watts
Where N is rpm of the motor and T is torque
Hip motor:
The motor is placed at hip which will make the upper body rotate
in the horizontal plane.
Weight of the upper body is 5.5 Kg.
The distance from the shaft of the motor is 30 cm.
Hence torque required to make proper movement is 5.5*30 = 165
Kgcm
the required torque is 50% of the calculated torque due to the
symmetry of the upper body.
Hence actual torque = 82.5 Kgcm.
Required power = 2*π*N*T/60
= 85.8 Watts.
Shoulder motor:
The motor is placed at the shoulder which will make the hand
rotate in the vertical plane.
Weight of the hand is 1.5 Kg.
The distance from the shaft of the motor is 70 cm.
Hence torque required to make proper movement is
1.5*70 = 105 Kgcm
the required torque is 50% of the calculated torque as one of the
end is hinged which supports the rotation.
Hence actual torque = 52.5 Kgcm.
Required power = 2*π*N*T/60
= 54.95 Watts.
Elbow motor:
The motor is placed at elbow which will make the arm rotate in
the horizontal plane.
Weight of the arm is 0.6 Kg.
The distance from the shaft of the motor is 20 cm.
Hence torque required to make proper movement is
0.6*20 = 12 Kgcm
the required torque is 50% of the calculated torque as one of the
end is hinged which supports the rotation.
Hence actual torque = 6 Kgcm.
Required power = 2*π*N*T/60
= 6.24 Watts.
Wrist motor:
The motor is placed at the wrist which will make the palm yoke.
Weight of the palm is 0.3Kg.
The distance from the shaft of the motor is 20 cm.
Hence torque required to make proper movement is
0.3*20 = 6 Kgcm
Required power = 2*π*N*T/60
= 6.24 Watts.
Finger motor:
The motor is placed at the finger which will make the finger
grasp.
Weight of the finger unit is 0.05Kg.
The distance from the shaft of the motor is 10 cm.
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Hence torque required to make proper movement is
0.05*10 = 0.5 Kgcm
Required power = 2*π*N*T/60
= 0.52 Watts.
Wheels motor:
The motors are coupled to the wheels of the platform for free
movement in a plane surface.
The weight of the body is equally distributed to four wheels.
Thus each wheel will bear a load of 10Kg.
Distance of the wheel from axis of the motor= 2cm.
Hence torque required for 1 wheel is 10*2 = 20Kgcm.
Required power = 2*π*N*T/60
= 20.8 Watts.
C. Inverse Kinematics
Figure 3. Arm Schematic
O is the point to be reached.
‗c‘ and ‗a‘ are lengths of first and second link respectively.
From figure3 and figure 4;
θ1 = θ
θ2 = A
θ3 = B
By Pythagoras theorem,
b² = x²+y²+ z² (1)
θ = tan‾¹(y/x) (2)
Ø = tan‾¹(z/ x²+y²) (3)
We know that area of a triangle is given by;
Area = (s*(s-a)*(s-b)*(s-c))½ (4)
Where, s = (a+b+c)/2 (5)
Here, c and a are arm length of link one and two respectively.
We also know that the area of a triangle is given by;
Area = ½*base*altitude (6)
From figure (4);
Area = ½*b*h (7)
But h = c*sinA (8)
Now, by substituting (8) in (7), we get;
Area = ½*b*c*sinA (9)
As we know values of a, b and c, the area is calculated as per
equations (4) and (5)
Hence, from equation (9);
sinA = 2*Area/ (b*c)
Or
A = sin‾¹ (2*Area/(b*c)) (10)
Similarly,
B = sin‾¹ (2*Area/ (a*c)) (11)
Figure 4. Schematic of working environment
D. Kinematics
From figure (4),
X coordinates are decided by the arm lengths c, a, angles A, C, θ,
Ø.
As the effective length decreases with increase in angles, A and
C, it has a cosine relationship with the x coordinate.
The effective length decreases with increase in the values of θ
and Ø.
Hence, the x coordinate can be written as;
X = (cCosA+aCosC) Cos θ Cos Ø
Similarly,
Y coordinates are decided by the arm lengths c, a, angles A, C, θ,
Ø.
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As the effective length increases with increase in angles, A and
C, it has a sine relationship with the y coordinate.
The effective length decreases with increase in the values of θ
and Ø.
Hence, the y coordinate can be written as;
Y = (cCosA+aCosC) Sin θ Cos Ø
Similarly,
Z coordinates are decided by the arm lengths c, a, angles A, C, θ,
Ø.
As the effective length increases with increase in angles, A and
C, it has a sine relationship with the z coordinate.
The effective length increases with increase in the value of Ø.
There is no relation for z with respect to θ.
Hence, the z coordinate can be written as;
Z = (cSinA+aSinB) Sin Ø
Hence the kinematic equations for the robotic arm are;
X = (cCosA+aCosC) Cos θ Cos Ø
Y = (cCosA+aCosC) Sin θ Cos Ø
Z = (cSinA+aSinC) Sin Ø
Matrix Transformation;
* =
E. Motor Rotation
From equations (2), (9) and (10), the values of θ, A and B are
obtained.
Θ is the angle of rotation for the base motor. A is the angle of
rotation for the motor connecting the first link and B is the angle
of rotation for the motor connecting the second link.
Here, we consider that all motors are of 10rpm. And hence, all
the motors cover 60° in one second.
To improve accuracy, the motor is turned on only for 1ms in one
on loop in the program.
Hence the motor covers an angle of 0.06° in one on loop.
Once the angles are calculated by using the inverse kinematics,
the PIC microcontroller decides the number of on loops to be
executed for each motor.
For example, if the angle to be covered by the base motor is 24°,
then the PIC microcontroller will execute the on loop 400 times.
F. Transformation from initial to final point
Once the robot gets the coordinate values, it computes the
angles using the inverse kinematics and proper rotations are
made by the motors. These angle values are stored in eeprom of
the controller.
When the next coordinates are obtained, again the robot
calculates the angles, but this time it looks back to the values
stored in eeprom and compares it with the newly computed angle
values. Then the robot rotates the motors in such a way that the
new angles are achieved. And the newly computed angles are
overwritten on the previously stored values.
For example;
If the robot has rotated the motors in the following sequence;
A with 15°
B with 20°
Θ with 10°
Ø with 25°
And if the newly calculated angles are
A with 17°
B with 19°
Θ with 10°
Ø with 27°
Then the robot will make the following rotations;
A with 2° positive rotation
B with 1° negative rotation
Θ with 0°
Ø with 2° positive rotation
Thus transformation is done from initial point to the final point.
III. MODES OF OPERATION
Manual
In manual mode, the robot is controlled by the human master.
The task that is to be executed is instructed by the human master
as voice, finger gesture, eye ball movement, brain cap etc.
The instruction is fed to the client PC as characters using
appropriate human machine interface. These characters are fed
serially to the server laptop using high speed internet. The server
laptop receives these instructions through high speed internet and
feeds it to the master PIC microcontroller.
The visuals are obtained through the camera in the robot by
using the Gmail video chat or Skype software. This also
introduces a dual channel communication, ie, the instructions are
given through one channel and the visuals are obtained through
other channel. So if one of the channels is hacked we get access
to the robot using the other channel.
Suppose we lose the video signals, we can command the robot
to come back to the source point. Otherwise if we lose the
instruction channel, the video chat helps us to locate the robot.
In this mode, the sensor fusion unit is not activated. This mode
is usually used for training purpose.
Automated
In this mode, the robot does not get the instructions from the
human master. Instead, it will use the data in eeprom to execute
task or it will use neural scheme for executing task.
In this mode, the sensor fusion unit is activated and it is used
to analyze the environmental conditions.
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Cascaded
In certain places, we cannot expect the robot to execute task by
itself and neither can we expect human commands enough to
execute the task like surveying of an unknown area or in warfare.
In such area, we use both human intelligence and sensors for
executing a task. In such situations the cascaded mode will be of
great use.
In this mode the instructions from master is received in the
client node as explained in manual mode.
Once the instruction is received at the master controller it
verifies the environmental conditions. This master controller is
connected to sensor fusion unit which is used to observe the
environmental conditions. The sensor fusion unit consists of ultra
sonic sensors for identifying and locating obstacles, temperature
sensor for analyzing the surrounding temperature, etc. The
master controller verifies the environmental conditions and
executes the task if and only if the conditions are ideal to be
executed.
In this mode the robot continuously verifies the
communication system security. This is done by transmitting and
receiving a peculiar code in a definite interval of time. If the code
is not received in either of the ends at proper time then the robot
disconnects all the communication channels and returns back to
the source point by using the data stored in eeprom of the
controller.
In this mode the robot also verifies the battery level using a
battery monitoring circuit. If the robot identifies a drain in
battery charge, it automatically switches to the secondary power
source. Once the robot switches to the last battery, it will stop all
the task and returns back to the source point using the data in
eeprom.
IV. ELECTRONICS
The platform is designed to fit a laptop, sensors, and four 12V
7aH lead acid batteries. The platform also contains the
electronics hardware including a relay based circuit for driving
the dc geared motors, a pic microcontroller circuits, and
ultrasonic sensors.
The task to be executed is given as voice commands[14] by
the human master at the client pc. A serial code is generated for
each word and is transmitted to the laptop on the robot platform.
For generating, transmitting and receiving the code software‘s
known as Roboclient and Roboserver is used. Both these
software‘s are developed in Microsoft Visual Studio. The client
pc and the server laptop is connected to internet using high speed
3G network. The serial code is transmitted from the laptop to the
microcontroller circuit by a RS-232 cable. When the
microcontroller receives this signal, it checks for the
environmental conditions using the ultrasonic sensors. The
environmental condition, here, refers to any obstacle for the task
execution. Now if there are no obstacles, then, the robot executes
the task. But if there is any obstacle, it sends the human master a
serial code indicating its problem and waits for further
instruction from human master. The human master can view the
area under survey with the help of the camera mounted on the
robot platform. This is made possible by using the Gmail video
chat or the Skype software.
The robot platform also contains a battery monitoring circuit.
If this circuit identifies a power crisis, then, the circuit switches
to the next power source. The number of power sources can be
fixed according to the need and availability. If the last battery is
switched, then, the robot closes all its applications and comes
back to the source point by using the data in the eeprom. The
robot also returns to the source point if it identifies a security
issue in the communication link.
A. Identification of a security issue in communication link
The client pc and the server laptop continuously exchange a
serial code. If the pic microcontroller does not receive this code
in a specified delay, it comes to a conclusion that the
communication link is lost or hacked. In that case, the robot
closes all its communication links and other activities and returns
back to the source point. By using the data stored in eeprom.
B. Returning of robot to the source point using the data in
eeprom
The robot stores all the movement codes in the internal eeprom
of the pic microcontroller. The first location contains the
movement code and the next location contains the time delay for
the code. This continues for all the movement codes. When the
robot faces a security or power problem, the robot executes the
data in eeprom in last in first out method. The controller swaps
the forward and backward instructions. That is if there is a
forward movement in the eeprom location, the robot moves
backward and vice versa. The rest of the instructions remain the
same. This helps robot from protecting itself from exploitation
from unauthorized access.
Figure 5. Block Schematic
C. Visual sensor
This part is the place to install sensors which are used for
searching vital sign of the victims like camera [11]. The camera
can be made to continuously rotate as per the command from
human master. The visuals obtained by the camera are
transmitted through the Gmail video chat or the Skype software.
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D. Monitoring and navigation of robot
The robot is monitored using the camera in the robot platform.
The robot uses ultrasonic sensors for identifying any obstacle in
the path of its motion. The sensors are connected to the controller
circuit for making appropriate decision. When the robot
navigates automatically, it uses the data in eeprom. For the
patrol robot navigation several methods are used like sensing the
paths, graphical user interface, map following algorithms and
compass, other Kalman filtering methods[6][5][7][8][9]. All
these approaches are somehow complex. This can be overcome
by using the EEPROM of the microcontroller. PIC16F877A has
256 bytes of EEPROM inside it. So memory can use it to store
data that need on a permanent basis and we can read it back from
it. There are two functions to accomplish the task. Eeprom_Read
and Eeprom_Write.
Eeprom_Read function returns an integer and takes a
parameter of the address from which the data has to be fetched.
Eeprom_Write takes two parameters the first one is the address
and the second one is the data.
unsigned short Eeprom_Read(unsigned int address);
void Eeprom_Write(unsigned int address, unsigned short data);
Most of the robot will navigate with different
algorithm.[10][11][12][13] The robot will navigate with respect
to the commands from the user (initially from A to B) as shown
in fig.7. All the running commands are stored in the memory and
also a counter is set to determine how long the commands are
executed. Now the current position of the robot is at B.
Whenever it needs to return, the last stored command will
execute first (LIFO). If the last executed command is forward,
that swaps it into backward command.
Similarly,
Backward ≈ Forward
Figure 6. Path Schematic
V. SOFTWARE
Onboard software is mainly developed with micro C. This
software interfaces between the operator station software and the
robot by receiving operator‘s command to control all robot
functions. Simulations have been executed both in Mat lab and
PIC simulator. In Mat lab the approaches were implemented
under ideal hypothesis, more realistic settings. The commands
are send through serial communication with the help the software
Roboclient developed in Microsoft Visual studio. The data is
received using the software Roboserver developed in Microsoft
Visual studio. Real time visuals can be captured and displayed on
the window with the help of Gmail video chat or Skype software.
Figure 7. Voice Control Panel
VI. SAMPLE WORKING
The required action is commanded by the human master as a
specific word which is picked by the microphone and converted
to a code alphabet by the client PC using Roboclient software.
This alphabet is transmitted to the server laptop at the robot
platform through high speed internet. At the reception end the
alphabet is transmitted to the master controller from the server
laptop through RS-232 cable. Now the master controller controls
the slaves according to the program for the particular alphabet.
For example, when a command ‗move‘ is said by the human
master, a code alphabet ‗m‘ is transmitted and the
microcontroller on receiving this ‗m‘, executes the internal loop
program and waits for the next instruction.
VII. CONCLUSION
The 32 DOF andro humanoid robot was designed successfully
and was found to have advantages of unbounded control with the
use of high speed internet. The humanoid also has the advantage
of self securing ability.
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In future the humanoid can be made to walk by designing the
legs for the robot. Additional sensors can be fused to improve
efficiency of the humanoid.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research in this paper was carried out at Hindustan
Institute of Technology and science, Chennai. This work was
supported by the e-MEN Robotic Research Centre Palakkad.
REFERENCES
[1] Kenji KANEKO, Fumio KANCHIRO, Shuuji KAJITA, Hirohisa
HIRUKAWA, Toshikazu KAWASAKI, Masaro HIRATA, Kazuhako
AKACHI and Takakatsu ISOZUMI ―Humanoid robot HRP-2‖, proceedings
of the 2004 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation.
[2] Kenji KANEKO, Fumio KANCHIRO, Shuuji KAJITA, Hirohisa
HIRUKAWA, Toshikazu KAWASAKI, Kensuke HARADA, Kazuhako
AKACHI and Takakatsu ISOZUMI ―First Humanoid Robot that has the
Same Size as a Human and that can Lie Down and Get Up‖, proceedings of
the 2003 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation.
[3] T.Asfour and R.Dillmann ―Human-Like Motion of a Humanoid Robot Arm
based on a Closed-Form Solution of the Inverse Kinematics Problem‖,
IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems.
[4] Amon Tunwannarux and Supanunt Tunwannarux ―The CEO Mission II,
Rescue Robot with Multi-Joint Mechanical Arm‖, Proceedings of World
Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 2007.
[5] Mbaitiga Zacharie ―Intelligent OkiKOSenPBX Security Patrol Robot via
Network and Map-Based Route Planning‖, Journal of Computer Science
5(1);79-85,2009.
[6] Fen Xu, Zheng Xi Li, Kui Yuan ―The design and implementation of an
autonomous campus patrol robot‖ Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE
International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics.M. Young, The
Technical Writer's Handbook. Mill Valley, CA: University Science, 1989.
[7] S. Ali A. Moosavian, Hesam Semsarilar, Arash Kalantari ―Design and
manufacturing of a mobile rescue robot‖ international conference on
intelligent robots and system oct 9-15-2006 IEEE
[8] Robert W. Hogg, Arturo L. Rankin, Stergios I. Roumeliotis ―Algorithms
and Sensors for Small Robot Path Following‖
[9] Sebastian Thrun1, Maren Bennewitz2, Wolfram Burgard2‖MINERVA: A
Second Generation Museum Tour-Guide Robot‖ Carnegie Mellon
University.
[10] Stephen J. Tobias, A. Antonio Arroyo ―Autonomous Path finding‖ 2000
Florida Conference on Recent Advances in Robotics May 4-5, 2000,
Florida Atlantic University.
[11] Ali Sekmen, Sheldon Greene ―Vision-based Mobile Robot Learning and
Navigation‖2005 IEEE International Workshop on Robots and Human
Interactive Communication
[12] Yongxing Hao, Benjamin Laxton ,Sunil K. Agrawal, Edward Lee , Eric
Benson ―Planning and Control of UGV Formations in a Dynamic
Environment: A Practical Framework with Experiments‖ Proceedings of the
2003 IEEE International Conference on Robotics & Automation Taipei,
Taiwan, September 14-19, 2003
[13] Johann Borenstein+ and Yoram Koren ―MOTION CONTROL ANALYSIS
OF A MOBILE ROBOT‖ Transactions of ASME, Journal of Dynamics,
Measurement and Control, Vol. 109, No. 2, pp. 73-79. [20]
[14] Brandi House, Jonathan Malkin, Jeff Bilmes ―The VoiceBot: A Voice
Controlled Robot Arm‖ CHI 2009, April 4-9, 2009, Boston, Massachusetts,
USA.
[15] Shyam.R.Nair, ―Cascaded Computational Intelligence for Robotics‖,
ICCVR 2012.
[16] Shyam.R.Nair, ―Design of a Robotic Arm for Picking and Placing an Object
Controlled using LABView‖, IJSRP, May 2012.
First Author –
AUTHORS
Shyam.R.Nair, PG Scholar, Hindustan University, Chennai,
shyamieee@gmail.com
Second Author - Prof. Manjula Pramod, MS, HOD, Dept. of
EIE, Hindustan University, Chennai.
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Image Processing Operations for 3d Image
Mrs. A. Padmapriya, S.Vigneshnarthi
Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Alagappa University, Karaikudi – 630 003, India
Abstract- Image processing and pattern recognition has
become a powerful technique in many areas. This includes
Engineering, Computer Science, Statistics, Information Science,
Physics, Chemistry and Medicine. Anyone who wants to extract
data from image or visual project, image processing is required.
Most of the image processing software‘s are able to process two
dimensional images alone. This paper implements three basic
image processing operations namely enhancement, blur and
segmentation. Each of the operation can be implemented using
a variety of algorithms. The algorithms are implemented using
and their performance are compared in this paper. The proposed
work produces better result of 3D images also.
Index Terms- Image processing, Enhancement, Blur,
Segmentation, 3D Image
I. INTRODUCTION
Image Processing
mage processing [3] is a form of signal processing for which
I
the input is an image, such as photographs; the output of image
processing can be either an image or a set of characteristics or
parameters related to the image. Most image-processing
techniques involve treating the image as a two-dimensional
signal and applying standard signal-processing techniques to it.
This is done through the development and implementation of
processing means necessary to operate on the image. Processing
image using a digital computer provides the greatest flexibility
and power for general image processing application, since the
programming of a computer can be changed easily which allows
operation to be modified quickly. Interest in image processing
technique dates back to early 1920‘s when digitized pictures of
world news events were first transmitted by submarine cable
between New York and London.[4]. However, application of
digital image processing concepts did not become widespread
until the middle 1960‘s, when third-generation digital computers
began to offer the speed and storage capabilities required for
practical implementation of image processing algorithms. Since
then, this area has experienced vigorous growth and has been
subjected of study and research in various fields. Image
processing and computer vision practitioners tend to concentrate
on a particular area of specialization [5] research interests as
―texture‖, ―surface mapping‖, ―video tracking‖, anthe like.
Nevertheless, there is a strong need to appreciate the spectrum
and hierarchy of processing levels.
The paper is organised as follows: Section II briefly review
the literature behind the proposed work. Section III elaborates the
proposed work .Section IV discusses the implemented of the
proposed work. Section V concludes the findings.
II. LITERATURE SURVEY
Motivation for a digital image processing course [1] arises
mainly from two areas of applications, namely, a) an increase in
the pictorial information available for human interpretation, and
b) image processing for automatic and autonomous machine
control. This is because vision is the most important human sense
in terms of the amount of information it conveys and because of
a good visualization is very important for the correct information
converged in an image. Many image processing circuits require
dedicated software to perform their tasks. These packages
usually are highly priced and are not easily modified by the final
user. In this paper the basis for the image processing is
MATLAB [3], a software package now available almost
anywhere for other uses and that is used as the engine for the
image processing experiments. The software written for the
image processing experiments is available from the users at no
cost to interested users and instructors. Image processing
applications include many topics, among which we can mention
remote sensing, ultrasound images, meteorology, astronomy,
inspection, radar, seismology, radiology, autonomous navigation,
recognition, etc.
III. PROPOSED WORK
This paper deals with the implementation of three basic
image processing operations namely image enhancement,
segmentation and blur.
A. Image Enhancement
Image Enhancement of image means processing an image so
that the results are more suitable for a particular application.
Processing an image so that the result is more suitable for a
particular application. (sharpening or deblurring an out of focus
image, highlighting edges, improving image contrast, or
brightening an image, removing noise)
Enhancing Multispectral Color Composite Images
Enhance multispectral radiance or reflectance data to create
an image that is suitable for visual interpretation. Another way to
enhance the true color composite is to use a decorrelation stretch,
which enhances color separation across highly correlated
channels. Use decorrstretch[6] to perform the decorrelation
stretch. Again, surface features have become much more clearly
visible, but in a different way. The spectral differences across the
scene have been exaggerated.
Enhance Color Images
Contrast enhancement of color images is typically done by
transforming an image to a color space that has image intensity
as one of its components. One such color space is L*a*b*. Use
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color transform functions to convert the image from RGB to
L*a*b* color space, and then work on the luminosity layer 'L*'
of the image. Manipulating luminosity affects the intensity of the
pixels, while preserving the original colors. Using the default
settings, compare the effectiveness of the following three
techniques:
a) Imadjust
b) Histeq
c) Adaphisteq
Imadjust
It increases the contrast of the image by mapping the values
of the input intensity image to new values such that, by default,
1% of the data is saturated at low and high intensities of the input
data.
Histeq
It performs histogram [8] equalization. It enhances the
contrast of images by transforming the values in an intensity
image so that the histogram of the output image approximately
matches a specified histogram (uniform distribution by default).
Adapthisteq
It performs contrast-limited adaptive histogram equalization.
Unlike histeq, it operates on small data regions (tiles) rather than
the entire image. Each tile's contrast is enhanced so that the
histogram of each output region approximately matches the
specified histogram (uniform distribution by default). The
contrast enhancement [7] can be limited in order to avoid
amplifying the noise which might be present in the image. Notice
that imadjust had little effect on the image of the tire, but it
caused a drastic change in the case of pout. Plotting the
histograms of pout.tif and tire.tif reveals that most of the pixels
in the first image are concentrated in the center of the histogram,
while in the case of tire.tif, the values are already spread out
between the minimum of 0 and maximum of 255 thus preventing
imadjust from being effective in adjusting the contrast of the
image.
Histogram equalization, on the other hand, substantially
changes both images. Many of the previously hidden features are
exposed, especially the debris particles on the tire. Unfortunately,
at the same time, the enhancement over-saturates several areas of
both images. Notice how the center of the tire, part of the child's
face, and the jacket became washed out. Concentrating on the
image of the tire, it would be preferable for the center of the
wheel to stay at about the same brightness while enhancing the
contrast in other areas of the image. In order for that to happen, a
different transformation would have to be applied to different
portions of the image. The Contrast-Limited Adaptive Histogram
Equalization technique, implemented in adapthisteq, can
accomplish this. The algorithm analyzes portions of the image
and computes the appropriate transformations. A limit on the
level of contrast enhancement can also be set, thus preventing the
over-saturation caused by the basic histogram equalization
method of histeq. This is the most sophisticated technique in this
demonstration.
B. Segmentation
Segmentation is the process of partitioning a digital image into
multiple segments. The goal of segmentation is to simplify
and/or change the representation of an image into something that
is more meaningful and easier to analyze. Image segmentation is
typically used to locate objects and boundaries (lines, curves,
etc.) in images. More precisely, image segmentation is the
process of assigning a label to every pixel in an image such that
pixels with the same label share certain visual characteristics.
An object can be easily detected in an image if the object
has sufficient contrast from the background. We use edge
detection and basic morphology tools to detect a prostate cancer
cell.
The steps involves are below:
Step 1: Detect Entire Cell
Step 2: Fill Gaps
Step 3: Dilate the Image
Step 4: Fill Interior Gaps
Step 5: Remove Connected Objects on Border
Step 6: Smooth the Object
Step 1: Detect Entire Cell
Two cells are present in this image, but only one cell can be
seen in its entirety. We will detect this cell. Another word for
object detection is segmentation. The object to be segmented
differs greatly in contrast from the background image. Changes
in contrast can be detected by operators that calculate the
gradient of an image. One way to calculate the gradient of an
image is the Sobel operator, which creates a binary mask using a
user-specified threshold value. We determine a threshold value
using the graythresh function. To create the binary gradient
mask, we use the edge function.
Step 2: Fill Gaps
The binary gradient mask shows lines of high contrast in the
image. These lines do not quite delineate the outline of the object
of interest. Compared to the original image, you can see gaps in
the lines surrounding the object in the gradient mask. These
linear gaps will disappear if the Sobel image is dilated using
linear structuring elements.
Step 3: Dilate the Image
The binary gradient mask is dilated using the vertical
structuring element followed by the horizontal structuring
element.
Step 4: Fill Interior Gaps
The dilated gradient mask shows the outline of the cell
quite nicely, but there are still holes in the interior of the cell.
Step 5: Remove Connected Objects on Border
The cell of interest has been successfully segmented, but it
is not the only object that has been found. Any objects that are
connected to the border of the image can be removed.
Step 6: Smooth the Object
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Finally, in order to make the segmented object look
natural, we smooth the object by eroding the image twice with
a diamond structuring element. An alternate method for
displaying the segmented object would be to place an outline
around the segmented cell.
C . Blur
Blurring an image usually makes the image unfocused. It
increased by increasing the pixel radius
Blur Deconvolution
The Blur Deconvolution Algorithm can be used effectively
when no information about the distortion (blurring and noise) is
known. The algorithm restores the image and the point-spread
function (PSF) [9] simultaneously. What happens is that what
should be seen as a sharp point gets smeared out, usually
into a disc shape. In image terms this means that each pixel in
the source image gets spread over and mixed into surrounding
pixels. Another way to look at this is that each pixel in the
destination image is made up out of a mixture of surrounding
pixels from the source image
IV. EXPERIMENT STUDY
Image can be processed using any software programming
language such as C language Matrix-X. Visual Basic. Java
program and MATLAB program. Image applications frequently
need to interactively manipulate an image by continuously
changing a single parameter and multi-parameter. This paper
briefly elaborates the image process operations for 3D images.
Three major operation selected for implementation are
enhancement, segmentation and blur.
A. Enhancement
In the papers [2,6], the Enhancement technique is used for
2D colour images. Enhance multispectral radiance or reflectance
data to create an image that is suitable for visual interpretation.
Another way to enhance the true color composite is to use a
decorrelation stretch, which enhances color separation across
highly correlated channeonls. Use decorrstretch to perform the
decorrelation stretch. Again, surface features have become much
more clearly visible, but in a different way. The spectral
differences across the scene have been exaggerated.
In this paper, 3D images are used for Enhancement
technique and three functions imadjust, histeq, and adapthisteq
are used for contrast enhancement.
ORIGINAL IMAGE
IMADJUST
HISTEQ
IMADJUST
ADAPTHISTEQ
Image Composite after Decorrelation Stretch
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B.Segmentation
In the papers [1-4] segmentation can be implemented for 2D
method.
In this proposed work, segmentation implemented for
3Dmethod.
BINARY GRADIENT MASK
BINARY IMAGE FILLED WITH HOLES
CLEARED BODER IMAGE
ORIGINAL IMAGE
SEGMENTED IMAGE
B. Blur
In the paper [9] Blind Blur Deconvolution Algorithm for 2D
method can be used effectively when no information about the
distortion (blurring and noise) is known. The algorithm restores
the image and the simple blur algorithm simultaneously. What
happens is that what should be seen as a sharp point gets smeared
out, usually into a disc shape. In image terms this means that each
pixel in the source image gets spread over and mixed into
surrounding pixels. Another way to look at this is that each pixel
in the destination image is made up out of a mixture of
surrounding pixels from the source image.
In this paper, Blur Deconvolution Algorithm for 3D method
can be used effectively when no information about the distortion
(blurring and noise) is known. The algorithm restoresthe image
and the point-spread function (PSF) simultaneously. In image
terms this means that each pixel in the source image gets spread
over and mixed into surrounding pixels. Another way to look at
this is that each pixel in the destination image is made up out of a
mixture of surrounding pixels from the source image.
BLURRED AND NOISY IMAGE
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Comparison histogram for enhancement for 2d and 3d
images:
Comparison histogram for segmentation for 2d and 3d
images:
Comparison histogram for segmentation for 2d and 3d
images:
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Comparison histogram for blur for 2d and 3d images:
V. CONCLUSION
This paper briefly elaborates the image process operations for
3D images. The three major operations selected for
implementation are enhancement segmentation and blur. This
paper briefly the software used for implementation is matlab. The
outputs of the algorithms are compared. Previously there
operations are done used 2D images only. The proposed work
processes 3D images.
REFERENCES
[1] ABDUL HALIM BIN BABA. image processing learning tool-edge
detection bachelor degree. university of technology malaysia 1996.
[2] FIONN MURTAGH. Image Processing data analysis. The multi-scale
approach. University of Ulster.
[3] Fundamentals of image processing, hany.farid@dartmouth.edu
.(http://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/~farid)
[4] JEAN-LUC STARCK, centre d‘ etudes de Saclay, Fionn Murtagh. Image
processing and data analysis the multiscale approach. University of
Ulster.
[5] LOUIS J.GALBIATI, JR. machine vision and digital image processing
fundamentals. Prentice-Hall International Editions.
[6] S. K. MITRA AND H. LI, ―a new class of nonlinear filters for image
enhancement, ‖in Proc. IEEE int. Conf. Acoustics, Speech, Signal
Processing, Toronto, Ont., Canada, may 14–17, 1991, pp. 2525–2528.
[7] G. RAMPONI, N. STROBEL, S. K.
MITRA, AND T. YU, ―nonlinear unsharp masking methods for image
contrast enhancement,‖ J. Electron. Image, vol. 5, pp. 353–366, July 1996.
[8] G. RAMPONI, ―A cubic unsharp masking technique for contrast
enhancement,‖ Signal Process., vol. 67, pp. 211–222,June 1998.
[9] Y. H. LEE AND S. Y. PARK, ―A study of convex/concave edges and edge
enhancing operators based on the laplacian,‖ IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst.,
vol. 37, pp. 940–946, July 1990.
AUTHORS
First Author – Mrs. A. Padmapriya, Assistant Professor,
Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Alagappa
University, Karaikudi – 630 003, Email :
mailtopadhu@yahoo.co.in
Mrs.A. Padmapriya is with Department of Computer Science and
Engineering, Alagappa University, Karaikudi as Assistant
professor. She is having 9 years of teaching experience and 5
years of research experience. She has published 5 research
Papers in National/International Journals and presented 9 papers
in International/National Conferences. She research area includes
Computer Networks and Data Mining. She is a reviewer for
IEEE Conferences and Symposion and various International
Jourals.
Second Author – S.Vigneshnarthi, M. Phil Scholar, Department
of Computer Science & Engineering, Alagappa University,
Karaikudi – 630 003, Email : narthi86@gmail.com
S.Vigneshnarthi received her B.sc degree in Computer Science
from Alagappa University, Karaikudi, B.Ed degree Computer
Science from Tamilnadu Teacher Education University, Chennai
and M.sc in Computer Science from Alagappa University,
Karaikudi. Currently she is pursuing her M.Phil in Computer
Science under Alagappa University, Karaikudi.
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Transient Analysis of Mac Protocol in Sensor Networks
Mada Amarnadh, M. Venkata Dasu
Abstract- In a Wireless Sensor network, whose node accesses
the medium by using the unslotted MAC protocol and in our case
we are not able to increase the packet delivery ratio when
compared with others MAC protocols. In order to improve that
we are going to compare the two different MAC protocols (like
CSMA and advanced MAC scheduling) for the IEEE 802.15.4
and IEEE 802.16 and for the high data rate apply the WIMAX
technology. Which focus on the average throughput and delay
analysis.
Index Terms- IEEE 802.16 MAC; Single-hop; Multi-hop;
WIMAX technology; Wireless sensor network
W
I. INTRODUCTION
ireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are one of the most
promising solutions in the field of communication. A
WSN consists of a number of tiny sensor nodes deployed over a
sensing field. Each node is a low power device capable of
sensing physical information from the surrounding environment
(e.g., temperature, pressure and vibrations), processing the
acquired data locally, and sending them to one or more collection
points, referred to as sinks or base stations [1]. Hence, a WSN
can be regarded as a distributed sensing system that may be
adequate for many monitoring and control applications.
In this paper, we focus on IEEE 802.15.4 WSNs [2] and
show that they provide a very low reliability in terms of packet
delivery ratio (i.e., the percentage of data packets correctly
delivered to the sink node) when power management is enabled.
We found that this behavior is caused by the 802.15.4 MAC
protocol and therefore, throughout we will refer to it as the
802.15.4 MAC [3] unreliability problem. Specifically, we found
that this problem – which is originated by the CSMA/CA
(Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)
algorithm used for channel access – becomes critical when power
management is enabled due to the default MAC parameters
setting suggested by the standard.
Indeed, the IEEE 802.16 standard allows some flexibility
in choosing CSMA/CA parameters, as it defines a range of
allowed values for each of them. Our results show that, with an
appropriate parameters setting, it is possible to mitigate the MAC
unreliability problem and increase the delivery ratio, up to 100%,
at least in the scenarios considered in this paper. However, this is
achieved at the cost of a significantly higher latency, which
might not be acceptable for industrial applications with stringent
timing requirements. In addition, in some scenarios, a high
Department of ECE
A.I.T.S Rajampet, A.P, India
delivery ratio can only be obtained by using CSMA/CA [4]
parameter values which are not compliant with the standard.
We validated our simulation results through an extended
experimental analysis carried out on a real WSN. The
experimental measurements confirm the simulation results and
show that the solution envisaged to mitigate the MAC
unreliability problem is viable, at least in some application
scenarios. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first paper
investigating the sensitiveness of the 802.16 performance to the
CSMA/CA parameters setting, by using both simulation and
measurements on a real WSN.
IEEE 802.16 is a standard for low-rate, low-power, and
low-cost Personal Area Networks (PANs)[5]. A PAN is formed
by one PAN coordinator which is in charge of managing the
whole network, and, optionally, by one or more coordinators
which are responsible for a subset of nodes in the network.
Ordinary nodes must associate with a (PAN) coordinator in order
to communicate. The supported network topologies are star
(single-hop), cluster-tree and mesh (multi-hop).
WiMAX is based on IEEE 802.16 specification and it is
expected to deliver high quality broadband services.
II. MODULE DESCRIPTION
A. Design of Wireless Sensor Network
The MAC layer provides an interface between the application
layer and the PHY layer. The MAC layer provides services to the
application layer through two groups: the MAC Management
Service (called the MAC Layer Management Entity, or MLME)
and the MAC Data Service [6] (called the MAC Common Part
Layer, or MCPS). The MCPS provides data transport services
between peer MACs. The MLME provides the service interfaces
through which layer management functions may be invoked. The
MLME is also responsible for maintaining a database of
managed objects pertaining to the MAC layer. This database is
referred to as the MAC layer PAN information base (PIB). The
MLME also has access to MCPS services for data transport.
B. Multiple sink with PAN coordinator
(i) Generating network beacons if the device is a coordinator: A
coordinator can determine whether to work in a beacon enabled
mode, in which a superframe structure is used. The superframe
is bounded by network beacons and divided into
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aNumSuperframeSlots (default value 16) equally sized slots. A
coordinator sends out beacons periodically to synchronize the
attached devices and for other purposes.
(ii) Synchronizing to the beacons: A device attached to a
coordinator operating in a beacon enabled mode can track the
beacons to synchronize with the coordinator.
(iii) Supporting personal area network (PAN) association and
disassociation: To support selfconfiguration, 802.15.4 embeds
association and disassociation functions in its MAC sublayer.
This not only enables a star to be setup automatically, but also
allows for the creation of a selfconfiguring, peer-to-peer
network [7].
(iv) Employing the carrier sense multiple access with collision
avoidance (CSMA-CA) mechanism for channel access: Like
most other protocols designed for wireless networks, 802.15.4
uses CSMA-CA mechanism for channel access.
C. Estimation of packet loss rate in IEEE 802.16
The estimation of packet loss rate in IEEE 802.16 is as shown
in Fig.1. Where two function call for the estimation of the packet
loss rate [8].
Function calls MAC functions have to be called from the
application in order to initiate an action in the communication
stack at the MAC level. MAC functions are prefixed with wpan_
and suffixed with either _request or _response. A sample
construct of a call to a MAC function is:
wpan_mlme_associate_request.
Callback functions When the MAC needs to invoke a function
in the application, it calls a callback function. If the callback
function is not implemented by the application, it will be
replaced by an empty function from the library. Callback
functions are prefixed with usr_ and suffixed with either
_confirm or _indication. A sample construct of a callback to an
application function is: usr_mlme_associate_indication.
Fig1: Data Flow Diagram of communication stack at the MAC
level
III. USE CASE DIAGRAM
The model representing the message transfer is shows in
Fig.2. A network site is wireless sensor network; by using
routing protocol wireless sensor node will select and get a signal
from a PAN. PAN is device who will give the signal as well as
there is any overlapping signals are there that can be reduced.
Congestion occurs means according to the time it will select
routing calls and event it will be calculating by using IEEE
802.16. Radio propagation model is nothing but according to the
radio signals ranges, what is the spreading from that will be
select the destination. Each and every time it will check the radio
propagation mode and justify the PAN.
Fig.2: The model representating the message transfer from a
sensor to central controller and destination
IV. SIMULATION ENVIRONMENT
It is assumed that 50 mobile nodes move over a square area of
300 × 1500m2. Each simulation has been run for 900 seconds of
simulation time. The propagation channel of two-ray ground
reflection model is assumed with a data rate of 2 Mbps. The
environment noise level of -83 or -90 dBm is modeled as a
Gaussian random variable with the standard deviation of 1 dB.
Noise level of -90 dBm is considered ignorable and interference
from other transmitters dominates. On the other hand, noise level
of -83 dBm is used to simulate a harsh communication
environment.
V. SIMULATION RESULTS
In this section, we show and analyze the simulation results of
Packet delivery ration, Average throughput [10], Traffic
comparison, Packet transmission and Performance analysis of
our system. Fig.3 shows the comparison of packet delivery ratio
between first sink and second sink (i.e. between two
destinations), at the first sink of 50 th node packet delivery ratio
[9] can be 81 percent and the same time and node the second sink
packet delivery ratio is 94 percent. Here packet delivery ratio can
be increase from sink1 to sink 2. Fig.4 represents the data sent
with average neighbor, this can be calculating between average
neighbor and data (bytes per second). Here neighboring nodes
can be improved from 2 to 10 corresponding data can transferred
be increased from 10 to 23.
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Fig.3: Comparison of packet delivary ratio
Fig.4: Data sent with average neighbour
Fig.5 gives mobility of the continuous packet transmission,
where goes on increasing data with speed and it give the better
mobility. Fig.6 gives the performance analysis [1] between
packets, here analysis can done between received packets and
dropped packets. In this analysis at one point only dropped
packets are high (i.e.2ms) and average performance of received
packets be high.
Fig.5: continuous packet transmission
Fig 6: Performance analysis
Fig.7 shows the traffic comparison, in our case considered the
three traffics like CBR, TCP and POISSION. This traffic can
calculate by the number of packets transmission (throughput) per
second. While in TCP the traffic is very high when compared to
other types and the CBR traffic is very low compared other
traffics. So the best type of traffic is CBR for our consideration
network.
Fig 7: Traffic comparison
VI. CONCLUSION
The Wireless PAN is an air interface specified in IEEE
Standard 802.16 provides a platform for the development and
deployment of standards based personal area networks providing
broadband wireless access in many regulatory environments. The
standard is intended to allow for multiple vendors to produce
interoperable equipment. However, it also allows for extensive
sink differentiation. For instance, the standard provides the base
station with a set of tools to implement efficient scheduling.
However, the scheduling algorithms that determine the overall
efficiency will differ from sink to sink and may be optimized for
specific traffic patterns. Likewise, the adaptive burst profile
feature allows great control to optimize the efficiency of the PHY
transport.
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The publication of IEEE Standard 802.16 is a defining
moment in which broadband wireless access moves to its second
generation and begins its establishment as a mainstream
alternative for broadband access. Through the dedicated service
of many volunteers, the IEEE 802.16 Working Group succeeded
in quickly designing and forging a standard based on forwardlooking
technology. IEEE Standard 802.16 is the foundation of
the wireless metropolitan area networks of the next few decades.
REFERENCES
[1] J. Zhang, G. Zhou, S. Son, J. Stankovic, and K. Whitehouse, ―Performance
analysis of group based detection for sparse wireless sensor networks,"
IEEE ICDCS, Beijing, China, 2008
[2] J. Misiˇc, S. Shafi, and V. B. Misiˇc, ―Performance of a beacon enabled
IEEE 802.15.4 cluster with downlink and uplink traffic," IEEE Trans.
Parallel Distributed Syst., vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 367-376, 2006.
[3] I. Ramachandran, A. K. Das, and S. Roy, ―Analysis of the contention access
period of IEEE 802.15.4 MAC," ACM Trans. Sensor Netw., vol. 3, no. 1,
2007.
[4] C. Buratti and R. Verdone, ―Performance analysis of IEEE 802.15.4 non
beacon-enabled mode," IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. 58, no. 7, pp.
3480-3493, 2009.
[5] L. Gu, et al., ―Lightweight detection and classification for wireless sensor
networks in realistic environments," ACM Sensys, 2005
[6] G. Bianchi, ―Performance analysis of the IEEE 802.11 distributed
coordination function," IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun., vol. 18, no. 3, pp.
535-547, 2000.
[7] T. A. Henzinger, ―The theory of hybrid automata," Verification Digital
Hybrid Syst., vol. 170, pp. 265-292, 2000.
[8] S. Meguerdichian, F. Koushanfar, M. Potkonjak, and M. B. Srivastava,
―Coverage problems in wireless ad-hoc sensor networks," IEEE Infocom,
Anchorage, AK, 2001.
[9] M. Hefeeda and M. Bagheri, ―Randomized k-coverage algorithms for dense
sensor networks," IEEE Infocom, Anchorage, AK, 2007.
[10] O. Dousse, C. Tavoularis, and P. Thiran, ―Delay of intrusion detection in
wireless sensor networks," ACM MobiHoc, Florence, Italy, 2006.
First Author – Mr. Mada Amarnadh, M.Tech, AITS, Rajampet
Email Id: amarnadh.ece@gmail.com.
Second Author – Mr. M. Venkata Dasu, Assistant Professor,
AITS, Rajampet . Email Id: dass_marri@yahoo.co.in.
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Measures to combat tuberculosis in colonial Mysore
Dr. Thriveni
Abstract- The research article has made an attempt to focus on
the challenges pertaining to the TB one of the prominent
epidemic disease which bothered Princely mysore. There was a
serious shortage of medical personal and facilities in the state, to
provide more medical aid certain efforts were made for
minimizing the spread of TB. The rulers of mysore had modern
views in redressing public grievances and determined to protect
their subjects.
T
I. INTRODUCTION
he epidemic disease became frequent and widespread during
the 19 th century in India as well in the Princely Mysore.
Tuberculosis has killed more people than any disease in the
history of the world and this became one of the greatest scourage
of the early 20 th century. TB is a chronic bacterial infectious
disease caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis, spread from
person to person through airborne droplets. Both humans and
cattle can transmit it and it can affect almost any tissue or organ
of the human body. In 1993 the world health organization
declared that TB a global emergency.
There was widespread distress as well as loss of life
throughout the State due to the disease of tuberculosis. A special
hospital was constructed in the year 1907 & 08 as Tuberculosis
Sanatorium. His Highness Nalwadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar III
considered it necessary to organize an efficient Tuberculosis
service in the State as it was causing considerable loss of life.
II. ANTI TUBERCULOSIS MEASURES
A. Special hospitals and clinics
Princess Krishnajammanni Sanatorium, which was called
after His Highness late sister at Mysore, who fell a victim of the
disease along with her 3 daughters. A special building was
constructed in 94 acres to combat tuberculosis in the state at
mysore in this regard Princely State invited Mr. E. W. Frichley,
Architect from Bombay visited Mysore for 5 days and prepared
hospital design with approximate estimation of Rs.92, 599/ on
2 nd June 1917. 22 In the year 1919, Rs.25, 370/ was sanctioned to
built a big ward in the PKTB hospital at Mysore. 23 It was opened
in the year 1921. The accommodation available in 1921 was for
eight paying patients and 20 poor patients. As a memorial to the
Golden Jubilee of his rule Nalwadi, a new 22 bedded emergency
ward was constructed.
In the year 1930 a Tuberculosis Sanatorium was established
at Bangalore, similar to those at Mysore. To provide facilities for
treatment of Bangalore patients those who were admitted to
Epidemic diseases hospital for treatment so, the government
22 Palace Maramath file no B-60 of 1917, p.242 Divisional Archives Mysore.
23 Palace Maramath file no B-24 of 1920 p.349 Divisional Archives Mysore.
Maharajas College, University of Mysore, Mysore, India
decided to provide separate Tuberculosis sanatorium, a new
building was constructed costing Rs. 3, 35000 at Bangalore. It
also established dispensaries and clinics for the treatment of
Tuberculosis for early detection of cases. 24 Tuberculosis
dispensary was constructed in Bangalore city with generous
contribution of Rs. 25000/ from Indian Red Cross society. 25
The lady Willingdon anti Tuberculosis clinic was
established in Bangalore in 1938 was an out-patient clinic where
provision also made for six beds. A specialist was placed incharge
of this clinic and arrangements were made for home visits
of patient for diagnosis and both in-door and out-door patient
were treated in the Tuberculosis Dispensary. 26 A tuberculosis
Hospital was established at Davanagere, on 2 nd April 1939
with generous contribution by Mr. Hanagavadi Murigappaiya. A
specially trained Sub-Assistant Surgeon was in-charge of the
Dispensary. E.T.C.M. Hospital Kolar and St. Theresa’s
Sanatorium, Yeswanthpur also received grants. His Highness,
generously donated Rs.10.-000 from his privy purse to the ―Anti-
Tuberculosis Fund‖ which was started by Her Excellency Lady
Linlithgow. 27 Steps were taken to establish Tuberculosis Clinics
at the head Quarters of all districts. 28
B. Investigation committee
Princely State appointed Dr. P.S.Chandra Shekar., M.D.
Madras, to conduct investigation of the conditions prevalent in
the state regarding to Tuberculosis and survey of the state. Dr.
P.S.Chandra Shekar, who toured all over the State and visited all
districts, Municipal and epidemic hospitals to examine the
conditions of the people and he considered that disease was not
frequently occurring in the State, and the disease was fairly
prevalent in towns and cities more frequently than rural parts.
He collected 146 reports from medical officers of the state, most
of them considered that the disease in towns and cities are more
frequent than rural parts. 29
C. Special Campaign
A committee was constituted with 16 members for the
campaign, they took steps in different methods of propaganda in
bringing knowledge and creating awareness about the disease
and its proper treatment to the notice of the public. Special
Lectures were delivered on T B, Practical demonstration of case
being conducted every year, popular instructions were given by
means of colour posters, lantern slides and issued pamphlets. 30
24 Letter no G C 158, Public Work Department files no 123 of 1945.
25 Administration Report of Mysore, 1932, p. 51. Divisional Archives
Mysore.
26 Administration Report of Mysore, 1938, p. 151, Divisional Archives
Mysore.
27
August, 1939, Mysore Information Bulletin.
28
Administration Report of Mysore, 1945, p. 151.
29
Mysore Health department Bulletin, no.2.1927. Karnataka State Archives
Bangalore.
30
Palace Maramath file no B-138 of 1920 p.1-14, Divisional Archives Mysore
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D. Special Course
Medical Department started a post graduation training course
for medical officers in the treatment of T B for selected four
assistant surgeons every year for a period of 3 months at Princess
Krishnajammanni Tuberculosis Sanatorium Mysore with
special allowance of Rs.20. 31 Special Lectures were also
conducted at Bangalore for a week in every year to the MBBS
students. 32
E. Special Training
A medical officer from the Gunamba maternity and child
welfare trust Mysore was sent as the recipient of the Carlo
Forlanini Institute scholarship of Rome for a course of study in
the treatment and care of Tuberculosis. Princely mysore adopted
Methods for organizing the Tuberculosis Services in the State,
and Constituted an Anti – Tuberculosis Association at Mysore
in the year 1927. 33
F. Bureau of Health Education
The bureau educates the public on health matters through
propaganda, publicity and exhibitions. The Government Policy
towards expansion of medical relief in the State, particularly in
rural areas had led to a steady increase in the number of medical
institutions in the State. In the year 1936, a Health trainingcum-Demonstration
Centre was established in Ramanagaram
near Bangalore with the financial and technical assistance of the
Rockefeller Foundation. 34 The arrangement was made to the
Public health department to have a motor vehicle Van
working to create awareness among public and it covered 714
miles in the year1940, by screening special cinema shows on
health education. 35
III. CONCLUSION
The mortality rate was considerably reduced with the rapid
implementation of welfare services in the state.
AUTHORS
Dr.Thriveni, Maharajas College, University of Mysore, Mysore,
India. Email id - thriveniurs@gmail.com
31 Mysore Health Department Bulletin, no.2.1927.
32 Government order no G- 9151-68, 1929.
12 Medical Department files no 43 of 1927 p. I-5, Karnataka State Archives,
Bangalore.
34 Kamath U Suryanatha Karnataka State Gazetteer Vol-II p.675
35 Mysore Information Bulletin July 1940
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To study the prevalence of overweight and obesity
among school children (13-17yrs) in relation to their
socioeconomic status and Eating habits
Garvita Jain 1 , Dr (smt) S.K Bharadwaj 2 , Dr (smt) Abhaya R. Joglekar 3
1 Research scholar, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh
2 Principal, Govt. D.T College, Utai, Durg, Chhattisgarh
3 Professor, Department of Home science, Dr.R.B Govt Navin Kanya College, Raipur, Chhattisgarh
Abstract- Overweight and obesity are important determinants
of health leading to adverse metabolic change and increase the
risk of non communicable diseases. The objective of this study
was to assess the prevalence of overweight and obesity as
defined by the CDC growth chart among school going children in
Bhilai Nagar, Chhattisgarh correlated with their socioeconomic
status and eating habits. The study was carried out in 500
students of 13-17yrs of age having different SES. The obesity
and overweight were considered using an updated BMI
reference. SES and eating habits were determined using pretested
questionnaire. The prevalence of overweight/obesity is a
problem of affluent children going to various schools in Bhilai
city. In the present study it is found that the magnitude of
overweight (23.8%) and obesity (8.4%) is very high and
alarming for both the sex. eating habits like junk food, chocolate,
eating in front of TV etc remarkable effect on prevalence on
overweight and obesity among low to high SES group. The study
also suggested that under nutrition rates remain high (10.2%) in
children. Therefore Special attention has to given for their overall
nutrition.
T
I. INTRODUCTION
hirty years ago, fundamental changes in social and economic
situation occurred all over the world, thus leading to the
presence of modern conveniences in homes as well as in the
work place. These changes have shifted societies from
communicable to non-communicable diseases (NCD) 1,2,3 .
Overweight and obesity are a serious health problem, since they
are associated with other diseases, and they contribute to ill
health 4 .The world Health Organization (WHO) describes
overweight and obesity as one of today‘s most important public
health problems, which is escalating as a global epidemic 5 . It is
also increasingly recognized as a significant problem in
developing countries and countries undergoing economic
transition 6 . The problem of overweight and obesity is confined
not only to adults but also being reported among the children and
adolescents of developed as well as developing countries. Since,
adolescence is a period of transition from childhood to
adulthood; it assumed critical position in the life cycle of human
beings, characterized by an exceptionally rapid rate of growth 7 .
The prevalence of overweight and obesity among children and
adolescents has increased significantly in the developed countries
during the past two decades 8,9 and similar trends are being
observed even in the developing world 10 .In India the problem of
obesity has been scantily explored even in the affluent population
groups. Studies from metropolitan cities in India have reported a
high prevalence of obesity among affluent school children 11,12 .
On the other hand some studies reported a high prevalence of
under nutrition among rural school children and children in urban
slums 13,14,15,16 . 50-80% of obese children will grow up to become
obese adults 17 and it is harder to treat obesity in adults than in
children18 In children, the development of obesity is associated
with the simultaneous deterioration in chronic diseases risk
profiles. 19,20 . Excess weight in this age is the leading cause of
pediatric hypertension, and overweight children are at a high risk
for developing long-term chronic conditions, including adultonset
diabetes mellitus, coronary heart disease, orthopedic
disorders and respiratory diseases 19,21 .Therefore, it was proposed
to carry out a study to asses and identify the prevalence and
determinants of overweight and obesity among urban school
going children covering statistically adequate sample in
Chhattisgarh, Bhilai city which is one of the economically,
industrially and culturally fast growing state. Obesity prevalence
depended on many factors. During the scanning of relevant
literature not a single study was found in impact of obesity in
school children has been examined in Chhattisgarh.
Our main objective was to examine the prevalence of
overweight and obesity in school children using internationally
based cutoff points and compare the relationship between SES
factors and eating habits.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study was conducted from April 2009 to December 2010.
From a list of all public and BSP schools in Bhilai Nagar were
selected randomly using a random table. Permission of the school
Principals was taken before conducting the study. Total of about
500 children‘s, i.e. 100 children‘s each of 13-17 yr, about 125
from each of the four selected schools studying in class standards
7th to12th were included in the study. Classes were selected
randomly from each of the four schools and all the children‘s
present in the selected classes were asked to take part in the
study. Their informed and written consent to the study was taken.
Their exact ages were as ascertained from the school register.
Data was collected in the form of general information. Semi
non quantitative food frequency questions were asked in simple
language to facilitate better results. Total 31 items were recorded
as daily/more than once, once/day, 2-3 times /week, seldom and
never; scoring was done accordingly as per the responses. Sociodemographic
data were collected in the form of family income,
parents‘ educational status, number of family members and
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working status of the parents. All the anthropometric
measurement was taken in school premises with standard
procedure. We have recorded body weight to the nearest 0.1 kg
using a standard balance scale with subjects barefoot and
wearing light indoor clothing. Body Height was measured by
scale was used up to an accuracy of 1mm. Body mass index
(BMI) was defined as the ratio of body weight to body height
squared, expressed as kg/m 2 . Overweight and obesity was
assessed by BMI for age (6). Student who had BMI for age >85th
and < 95 th percentile of reference population were classified as
overweight. Students who had BMI for age > 95 th percentile of
reference population were classified as obese. We examined the
prevalence of overweight and underweight in each gender by age
group, sex and SES. Group comparisons were performed using
ANOVA as appropriate.. A p value below or equal to 0.01 was
considered to be statistically significant. Influence of various
factors on prevalence of underweight, normal, overweight and
obesity were expressed in form of percentage. The collected data
was entered into the computer using software program MS Excel.
III. RESULT
A total number of 500 with age group between 13-17 years
from different school were screened for their height, weight and
body mass index. Out of 500 children 273 (%) were boys and
227 (%) were girls. The BMI were little higher in girls than boys
(table1). However, these differences were not significantly
different with respect to gender. Among the 500 subjects,
23.44% of the males were overweight, and 8.02% were obese,
55.67% normal and 12.82% were underweight. While 24.22% of
the female were overweight and 8.81% were obese, 59.91%
normal and 7.04% were under weight (table1; figure1).
The prevalence of overweight and obesity and its relationships
with socioeconomic status are present in table2. The subjects
belonging to high socioeconomic status would score significantly
higher on body mass index than the subjects from low
socioeconomic status group (figure2). The BMI of subjects
consuming excessive food is significantly higher than the
subjects who consume low calorie food beyond .01 level of
significance (table 2). Vegetarian diet or non-vegetarian diet did
not have any effect on prevalence of underweight, overweight
and obesity, but junk food , beverages and eating meal pattern in
front of T.V have more prevalence of obesity and overweight
than underweight indicates that caloric intake is associated with
increase in BMI.
Table 1: Overweight /obesity of Subjects on the Basis of Gender and BMI Categories
BMI Categories
Gender
Male
(N=273)
Female
(N=227)
Total
(N=500)
Underweight Normal Over Weight Obese
N % N % N % N %
35 12.82 152 55.67 64 23.44 22 8.02
16 7.04 136 59.91 55 24.22 20 8.81
51 10.2 288 57.6 119 23.8 42 8.4
Figure1: Relationship of sex of school children with BMI
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Figure 2: Mean and SD of BMI (Kg/m 2 ) of subjects at their Socio-Economic Status Levels
IV. DISCUSSION
The present study showed that the prevalence of overweight
was high among children, 23.44% boys, and 24.22% in girls. The
relatively high prevalence of overweight (23.8%) is alarming.
Overweight children often become overweight adult and
overweight in adulthood is a health risk. The obesity was seen in
8.05% of boys and 8.81% of girls. An important finding of this
study is an ever burgeoning prevalence of obesity among the
school going children when compared to previous survey in
India. This study has shown higher figures which is suggestive of
the obesity epidemic in 21 st century. The reason for higher
prevalence of obesity among children‘s due to selection of the
subjects from very affluent societies and few schools. The
prevalence of overweight and obesity was significantly higher
among girls in the present study, which is comparable with
figures reported for other developing countries 22,23 .
A clear socioeconomic gradient in the prevalence of
overweight and obesity was observed in the present study, which
is consistent with those earlier studies who reported that BMI is
influenced by different SES backgrounds 22 . The finding of
present study showed significantly positive correlation between
BMI and excessive food consumption. This agrees with a study
done by Thompson et al; 24 where they reported that the
frequency of eating quick food was positively associated with
BMI z-score in their longitudinal study among girls at
Massachusetts institute of technology. Present study focused
their analysis on type of diet (vegetarian, eggetarian and
nonvegetarian), junk food, frequency of eating pattern and eating
behavior in front of TV etc because that they have special role in
obesity. The dietary indulgence in high fatty foods intake and
sedentary life styles in the higher socioeconomic group are well
known causes for overweight and obesity. This study has thus
highlighted the need to not only improve the awareness on
prevention of obesity among children but a need to motivate and
reinforce them to practice healthy lifestyle is utmost essential
V. CONCLUSION
Overweight (23.8%) and obesity (8.4%) is very high and
alarming for both the sex. The prevalence is comparable to other
national studies; again there is paucity of data. The study also
suggested that under nutrition rates remain high in children.
Therefore Special attention has to given for their overall
nutrition.
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[13] Sachdev HPS. Recent transitions in anthropometric profile of Indian
children: clinical and public health implications. F.I. Bull. 2003; 2 4: 6-8.
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[14] Bhargava SK, Sachdev HPS, Fall CHD, Osmond C, Lakshmy R, Barker
DJP, Biswas, SKD, Ramji S, Prabhakaran D and Reddy KS. Relation of
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in young adulthood. N. Engl. J. Med.2004; 350: 865-875.
[15] Vedavathi S, Jayashree R, RafiM. Prevalence of Overweight & Obesity in
Affluent adolescent school girls in Chennai in 1981 & 1998. Indian
Pediatrics, 2003; 40; 775-779.
[16] Kapil U et al. Prevalence of obesity among Affluent adolescent school
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[17] Styne DM. Childhood obesity and adolescent obesity: PCNA. 2001; 48:
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[18] Park K. Park‘s textbook of Preventive and Social Medicine: Banarsidas
Bhanot Publishers, 18th Edition. 2005; 316- 319.
[19] Dietz WHJ. Obesity in infants, children, and adolescents in the United
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117-137.
[20] Aristimuno GG, Foster TA, Voors AW, Srinivasan SR, Berenson GS.
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[21] Dietz WH. Childhood weight affects adult morbidity and mortality. J Nutr
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[22] Kaur S, Kapil U, Singh P. Pattern of chronic diseases amongst adolescent
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AUTHORS
First Author – Garvita Jain Research scholar, Pt. Ravishankar
shukla university, Raipur, Chhattisgarh.
Email id - garvita_jain24@rediffmail.com
Second Author – Dr (smt) S.K Bharadwaj Principal, Govt. D.T
College, Utai, Durg, Chhattisgarh.
Third Author – Dr (smt) Abhaya R. Joglekar Professor,
Department of Home science, Dr.R.B Govt Navin Kanya
College, Raipur, Chhattisgarh.
Email id - abha_abhaya@yahoo.co.in
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 380
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Condition based reporting of multi-machine monitoring
system using GSM
Jinia Datta(Das), Soumyajit Datta, Sumana Chowdhuri and Jitendranath Bera
Abstract- This work describes a condition based reporting
technique of a multi-machine System using GSM technology. In
this present approach, a dedicated microcontroller based
hardware unit (DHU) has been developed to continuously
measure the parameters of the motors viz. voltage, current, speed
etc. to monitor the running condition of each motor in a plant. In
a multi-machine monitoring system each motor is connected with
one such DHU, which are also connected to a Global System for
Mobile Communication (GSM) modem. The preliminary level of
fault or abnormality in operation of each machine is diagnosed
by the respective DHU and the fault or abnormalities details are
reported to the pre-assigned operator through an SMS service. In
extreme case, the provision of machine shut down by a return
SMS is also provided. A proto-type lab model is set up and is
working satisfactorily.
Index Terms- GSM Modem, Machine Fault Reporting, Multi-
Machine Monitoring, SMS Service.
E
I. INTRODUCTION
lectrical machines, installed in different locations in a plant,
are needed to be monitoring and control for their healthy
operation and smooth running of the plant. It is not always
possible, rather difficult, to keep track of all the machines at a
time simply by days long manual observation. On the other side,
modern civilization is advancing at very faster pace with the
adoption of wireless technology. The convergence of wireless
technology and the embedded technology with the different
transducers makes these supervisory systems more reliable, much
efficient as well as cost effective one. Keeping this in mind, the
present approach has been made to apply the advantages of
wireless communication and embedded technology towards
electrical machines condition monitoring and automation. This
work describes the development of a supervisory automated
reporting system for remote condition based monitoring,
analyzing and control of electrical parameters of different
machines of a plant or in power station, sub-station etc so as to
enhance the overall system performance using GSM (The Global
System for Mobile Communication) communication.
A detailed discussion [1] on electrical drive condition based
monitoring, diagnostic research and development is made for the
smooth running of the machines. In Ref. [1] the authors dealt
with a state-of-the-art discussion of the electrical drive condition
monitoring, diagnosis, research and development, highlighting
analytical and technical considerations as well as various issues
related to different failures.
Among different parameters of induction machine monitoring
of stator voltage, stator current, rotor speed are most important
for early detection of fault in the machine. Speed and winding
current estimation is helpful to determine the mechanical stresses
like bearing failure or shaft failure, turn to turn short circuit,
cracked/broken rotor [2]-[4],[8]-[10]. Continuous current
monitoring to obtain the running condition of an induction
machine is important and has been discussed in [5]-[7].
Now-a-days wireless and mobile communication is the major
tool that can be used to provide the information to the operator or
concerned authority for their supervisory control. These issues of
mobile communication technology in the recent years have been
extensively used in different form in different application areas
[18], [19], [21]-[23].
The application of less expensive but more powerful
microcontroller will lead this data acquisition system more
simple. The convergence of microcontroller based hardware with
the wireless communication system (like GSM, GPRS) is
becoming very popular choice to the researchers and scientists
for such type of fault detecting, reporting, diagnosis and control
applications.
In this scheme, a state-of-the-art stand alone Dedicated
Hardware Unit (DHU) is developed using microcontroller for
monitoring the machine parameters like instantaneous voltage,
current and speed of a machine in a typical plant. The DHU is
responsible for measuring the machine basic parameters and
controlling the supply to the motor and hence DHU is located at
the machine site with one card per machine basis. The card is
also interfaced with GSM modem for GSM based wireless
accessing. There will be multiple cards for multiple machines
system. Each DHU compares the measured value with pre-set or
limiting values of the above mentioned parameters and if any
abnormalities are detected an SMS is generated and is sent to the
pre-located mobile or central station. The receiver may then send
a return SMS requesting the details of the abnormalities. Upon
receiving this request the details of the fault are then sent through
another SMS by the DHU and it will take the appropriate action
as per the content of the return message.
I. MATERIALS AND METHODS
The developed GSM based remote fault reporting system
consists of three main blocks viz. DHU, GSM Modem, Mobile
unit or central control Station as shown in Fig 1. In a plant with
multi-machine operating, each machine is associated with a DHU
for data acquisition to measure different parameters. All such
units in this multi-machine system are interfaced with any remote
mobile station through GSM technology. A preliminary level of
abnormal running condition is detected by the DHU when the
measured parameter exceeds beyond their set or limiting values.
At this situation /stage, the DHU generates a message and sends
it to the pre-assigned operator in form of SMS through GSM
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modem. Realising the criticalness of the SMS or in case of an
emergency situation the operator/the receiver of this SMS will be
able to turn off this particular machine by sending another SMS
from his/her mobile to that DHU. Hence the total work can be
divided into two parts –where the development of
microcontroller based DHU for different parameters
measurement with some emergency control as first part and the
development of GSM modem based SMS service system as
second part.
Fig. 1 Block diagram of PC based wireless monitoring of multimachine
system
A. Dedicated Hardware Unit for Data Acquisition
The DHU is designed around an 8 bit microcontroller along
with different transducers for parameters measurements, as
shown in Fig 2.
Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of a particular DHU
In each DHU, the microcontroller is interfaced with different
sensors like potential transformer (PT), current transformer (CT)
or hall sensor (HS), proximity sensor (PS) through proper
hardware circuitry in order to measure the applied voltage,
inflowing current and speed of the motor. The firmware is
designed in such a way that it is able to detect preliminary
abnormal situations like over voltage, under voltage, over
current, over load, short circuit current, over speed, single
phasing etc. The fault or abnormal conditions are also classified
into different levels or priorities. Depending upon the priority of
the type of abnormal conditions the DHU decides its action. In
case of highest priority abnormal conditions the machine will be
isolated from supply. Once a fault of such kind is initiated, other
than taking the preliminary action the DHU also dictates the
GSM modem to communicate the abnormality along with its
type, as occurred in the system, by generating a fault respective
SMS.
On receiving the SMS, the person or the operator at Mobile
unit and/or central control Station may have some details query
and accordingly a message requesting the details of the abnormal
situation(s) can be sent to that DHU. On its reply, the DHU will
send some details of voltage, current, speed etc. at the time of
abnormal situation(s) through another message.
B. GSM Modem Interfacing with DHU
The GSM modem (i-300 GSM Modem. It supports GSM
07.07, 07.05 and SIMCOM enhanced AT commands) is built
with a COM port with RS232 protocol based interfacing facility.
Hence the microcontroller is connected with the modem using
9600, N, 8, 1 protocol after the necessary hardware interfacing
for proper TTL to RS 232 level conversion. As the modem works
on AT command sets, following AT commands are to be sent to
the modem in order to execute the SMS services.
[25] First the microcontroller has to send ―AT‖ command word.
A response ―ok‖ is returned from the GSM modem. The
microcontroller sends another query by sending
―AT+CPIN?‖ to get the PIN (Personal Identification
Number).If the SIM card is ready for the use, the response
―+CPIN: READY‖ is returned. After this, following AT
commands are to be sent for the required SMS services.
[26] For the configuration of the GSM modem in text mode of
SMS the AT Command AT+CMGF = 1 is to be sent.
[27] In order to send the SMS, the desired mobile number is to be
sent with ―AT+CMGS=+91xxxxxxxxxx‖AT Command.
[28] The desired message, containing a maximum of 160
characters, is to be constructed and to be sent to the modem.
After then the ASCII code for ‗CTRL+Z‘ character is also to
be sent to the modem in order to transmit the message to
mobile phone +91xxxxxxxxxx.
In a similar way, any message received by the GSM modem
will be sent to the microcontroller for its decoding and
proper action.
C. Hand held Mobile unit or GSM Modem at the central
control station
The Hand held Mobile station may be of any mobile unit who
can roam around but still have the facility to monitor the status of
the motor through SMS services with the corresponding DHU. In
extreme case or for any emergency situations this station can stop
the motor from its running through a return SMS. At the same
time the operator at the central control station can be instructed
for the due course of action based on the SMS from the DHU.
The DHU can also send the same SMS to the central control
station where a PC based monitoring, and reporting system is
installed. On receiving the SMS from DHU or getting instruction
from the hand held station the operator at the central control
station performs the required task through a return SMS to the
DHU. The PC software has the capability to store this
communications for future analysis.
A GSM modem is thus installed at the central control station
in order to have the SMS communication with the DHU and it is
connected with the PC through its COM port.
The SIM numbers of the hand held station as well as the
central station must be pre-loaded to the DHU.
II. PARAMETERS MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE
A. Voltage and Current Measurement
Input voltage to the drive is reduced for the measurement
purpose to a level, by Potential Transformer (PT) and Potential
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Divider (PD), compatible to ADC of DHU. The transformation
ratio from input to DHU end will enable to find out the actual
voltage. The transformation ratio and the gain of the PD are
adjusted so that +5V and 0 V at the ADC input corresponds to +
360.6 V and -360.6 V peak value of supply voltage.
The measurement of current is accomplished by Hall Sensor
(HS), with sensitivity (S). The sensor‘s output is current which is
converted to voltage by passing this output current through the
series resistor, Rm as an ohmic drop. Here also this output voltage
across the series measuring resistance Rm (100Ω-320 Ω) of HS,
is reduced by Potential divider (PD) accordingly to make it
compatible to ADC. The current is calibrated as,
V
i
SR m
B. Speed Measurement
Shaft speed information is provided by using one Proximity
Sensor (PS) mounted on the stator housing along with one
metallic screw connected to the rotor shaft. This arrangement
generates pulsed output, the frequency of which depends on
speed of the motor. This signal is fed to the interrupt pin of the
microcontroller of DHU for its measurement, where it interrupts
the microcontroller at its every falling edge. The interval between
successive interrupts i.e. the pulse period is measured with a 16
bit counter where the counter increases its count value at the
clock frequency fclk which is generated by the over flow rate of
timer 0 of microcontroller. If Nsp be the count value of the
counter for the pulse period, which is actually the counts between
successive edges, the speed in rpm (ω) can be calculated by the
equation as,
fclk
60
N
SP
The timing diagram of the reference clock frequency and
different count values for the measurement of speed, frequency
and power factor is shown if Fig.3.
(2)
(1)
Fig. 3 Timing diagram to measure speed
C. Abnormality detection state Chart Diagram with DHU
An elegant way to depict a real time system is to use state
Chart Diagram [22].In this work the abnormality detection and
GSM activation by DHU is represented by state chart (Fig 4).
Here different states are represented by rectangular boxes. For
example, Voltage, current and speed are measured continuously.
If any abnormality appears the DHU sends warning to the GSM
modem or otherwise if any request comes from the remote
station then DHU also sends the requested information. Depths
of different states are indicated by drawing small boxes within
the large box. The state transitions are indicated by the arcs
joining the boxes. Concurrencies of different states are indicated
by dotted lines.
Fig. 4 State Chart diagram of DHU algorithm
III. GSM BASED SMS REPORTING STRUCTURE
In case of an emergency situation or faulty condition the DHU
generates the SMS and sends it to the pre-assigned node number
/operator through GSM Modem. Then the operator gets
notification about the type of fault, caution level and details of
the fault through this message.
SMS structure generated by the microcontroller will be as
follows
Where represents the blank space, Machine (M/C) number
(NO) is represented by a three digit number (nnn), running
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Voltage (V) is three digit value (mmm) V, current (A) is two
digit value (qq), speed (N) is four digit (pppp) RPM. This is a 40
digit message structure.
If abnormal condition occurs or if request comes from central
station then the message structure will be as below followed by
the type of abnormality.
DHU generates SMS to indicate the cause of abnormality. There
are different levels of fault detection (UV) and over voltage (OV)
detection is made. But in case of current there are three levels of
abnormal condition. Like up to a certain percentage of rated
current the system will show over current (OC), then above this
value up to another level the system shows over load condition
(OL) and beyond another level of current the system gives short
circuit (SC) condition ( Table 2). In speed messaging only one
level (OS) is detected. Among all these abnormal conditions,
DHU may be then dictated for shut down in some of the extreme
cases.
Table 7: Different levels of fault conditions
[1] Conditions [2] Message
indication
[3] Over Voltage [4] OV
[5] Under voltage [6] UV
[7] Over Current [8] OC
[9] Over Load [10] OL
[11] Short
Current
Circuit [12] SC
[13] Over Speed [14] OS
IV. RESULTS
The experimental setup of multi-machine system from remote
mobile station is shown below
Fig. 5 Experimental Set-up
The SMS format for reporting of a particular type fault of
multi-machine system from remote mobile station is shown
below
[15] Rated
Curr
ent
Table 2: Current based SMS level status
[16] Current
Drawn
[17] Report
Status
[18] Probable
action
from
operator
via
replay
[19] 1
Amp
[23] 1
Amp
[27] 1
Amp
[31] 1
Amp
message
[20] < 1Amp [21] Nil [22] Allow
[24] 1.1 Amp [25] Over
Current
[28] 1.5 Amp [29] Over
Load
[32] Above 2
Amp
[33] Short
Circuit
Conditi
on
V. DISCUSSION AND FUTURE SCOPE
[26] Allow
[30] Take
necessary
action
[34] Shut
down
The uniqueness of the proposed system is that the abnormal
running conditions of electric machines installed at different
geographical locations in a plant are detected, diagnosed and
reported to any mobile and /or central control station.
The self developed DHU, other than sending the SMS to any
desired SIM of mobile unit or central control station, can also
take the preliminary action to stop the motor either of its own or
by an instruction received from a return SMS.
The desired SIM numbers are pre-loaded within the memory
of each DHU and the same message is sent to all of them one by
one.
In the central control station, a PC is interfaced with the GSM
modem which will store the messages for any future analysis of
the faults. Simple VB based software is developed to capture the
SMSs through its serial port and to store them in a DOC file.
The prototype system is tested with one Induction machine
and it can easily be extended to any number of machines by
connecting the DHU and the GSM modem.
The GPRS technology can also be incorporated for details
diagnosis of the system monitoring continuous data of the
machine from the central control station.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work is under the auspices of UGC –SAP-DRS-I Project
Authors Acknowledge Mr. Ranjit K. Paul for his untiring help in
technical development of this work.
REFERENCES
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condition monitoring and diagnostic research-/a survey,‖ Electric Power
Systems Research Vol. 64 No. , Elsevier Science, pp. 145-158, 2003.
[2] Der Minassians, H. MeshginKeik, H.A. Toliat, Milimonfared,and Subhasis
Nandi, ―A Novel Approach for Broken Rotor Bar Detection in Cage
Induction Motors,‖ IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications vol.35,
no.5, pp.1000-1006,Sept./Oct 1999.
[3] Neelam Mehla, Ratna Dahiya, ―An Approach of Condition Monitoring of
Induction motor Using MCSA‖ International Journal of Systems
Applications, Engineering & Development vol 1. Issue1, pp 13-17, 2007.
[4] Gerhard P. Hancke, Chris F.T. Viljoen, ―The Microprocessor Measurement
of Low Values of Rotational Speed and Acceleration‖, IEEE Transactions
on Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol. 39, No. 6, pp. 1014-1017,
December 1990.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 384
ISSN 2250-3153
[5] C.M. Riley, ―Stator current harmonics and their causal vibrations: a
preliminary investigation of sensorless vibration monitoring applications,‖
IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., Vol. 35 (1), pp 94-99, 1999.
[6] C.M. Riley, B.K. Lin, T.G. Habetter, R.R. Schoen, ―A method for sensorless
on-line vibration monitoring of induction machines,‖ IEEE Trans. Ind.
Appl. , Vol. 34 (6), pp 1240-1245,1998.
[7] F.J. Watson, G.D. Dorrell, ―The use of finite element methods of improve
techniques for the early detection of faults in three-phase induction motors,‖
IEEE Trans. Energy Conversation, Vol.14 (3), pp 655- 660, 1999.
[8] Randy R. Schoen and et.al, ―An Unsupervised, On-Line System for
Induction Motor Fault Detection Using Stator Current Monitoring,‖ IEEE
Transactions on Industry Applications, vol.31, no.6, pp1280-1286,
Nov./Dec.1995.
[9] G.B. Kliman, J. Stein, ―Methods of motor current signature analysis‖,
Electric Power Systems and Components, Taylor and Francis Publ., Vol. 20
(5), pp 463-473, 1992.
[10] K.R. Cho, J.H. Lang, S.D. Umans, ―Detection of broken rotor bars in
induction motors using state parameter estimation‖ IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl.
,Vol. 28 (3), pp. 702-708.,1992.
[11] S. Vitturi, ―PC-based automation systems: an example of application for
the real-time control of blowing machines,‖ Computer Standards &
Interfaces, Vol. 26, Elsevier Publication, pp. 145–155, 2004.
[12] Min-Chun Pan, Po-Ching Li, Yong-Ren Cheng, ―Remote online machine
condition monitoring system,‖ Measurement, Elsevier Publication, Vol. 41,
pp 912–921, 2008.
[13] Kin Yeung, Jie Huang, ―Development of a remote-access laboratory: a dc
motor control experiment‖, Computers in Industry, vol.52, Elsevier
Publication, pp. 305–311, 2003.
[14] W. Wang, P.W. Tse, J. Lee, ―Remote machine maintenance system
through Internet and mobile communication,‖ International Journal of
Advanced Manufacturing Technology ,vol. 31, pp. 783–789, 2007,
[15] B. Wu, B.-H. Zhou, L.-F. Xi, ―Remote multirobot monitoring and control
system based on MMS and web services,‖ Industrial Robot, Emerald, vol.
34 (3), pp. 225–239., 2007.
[16] L. Peretto, S. Rapuano, M. Riccio, D. Bonatti, ―Distance learning of
electronic measurements by means of measurement set-up models‖,
Measurement, Elsevier Publication, Vol. 41, pp 274–283,2008.
[17] Kostas Kalaitzakis*, Eftichios Koutroulis, Vassilios Vlachos
―Development of a data acquisition system for remote monitoring of
renewable energy systems‖, Measurement, Elsevier Publication, Vol. 34,pp
75–83,2003.
[18] Jinia Datta (Das)*, Sumana Chowdhuri, Jitendranath Bera, Gautam Sarkar
―Remote monitoring of different electrical parametersof multi-machine
System using PC‖ Measurement, Elsevier Publication, Vol. 45, pp 118–
125, 2012.
[19] L.Boquete*, I.Bravo, R.Barea, M.A.Garcia,―Telemetry and control system
with GSM communication‖, Microprocessor and Microsystems, Elsevier
Publication, Vol. 27, pp 1–8, 2003.
[20] Joe-Air Jianga, Chwan-Lu Tsengb, Fu-Ming Lua, En-Cheng Yangc, Zong-
Siou Wua, Chia-Pang Chena, Shih-Hsiang Lina, Kuang-Chang Linb,
Chih-Sheng Liaob‖ A GSM-based remote wireless automatic monitoring
system for field information: A case study for ecological monitoring of the
oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel)‖ Computer and Electronics
in Agriculture, Elsevier Publication, Vol. 62, pp 243–259, 2008.
[21] Chawn-Lu Tsenga, Joe-Air Jianga ,Ren-Guey Lee,Fu-Ming Lu,Cheng-
Shiou Ouyang,Yih-Shaing Chen,Chin-hsiang Chang―Feasibility study on
application of GSM-SMS technology to field data acquisition‖ Computers
and electronics in agriculture, Elsevier Publication,Vol.53, pp 45-59,
2006.
[22] David Harel, ― Statecharts: A Visual Formalism for Complex Syatems‖,
Elsevier Publication, Science of Computer Programming Vol.8, pp 231-
274, 1987.
AUTHORS
First Author - J. Datta(Das) is with the Birbhum Institute of
Engineering and Technology, Suri (corresponding author)
Email id - dattajinia@gmail.com
Second Author – S. Datta is now with the Department of
Applied Physics, Junior Research Fellow, University of Calcutta.
Email id - sjit.cordite@gmail.com
Third Author – Dr. S. Chowdhuri is with the Applied Physics
Department, University of Calcutta, Kolkata
Email id - sumana_cu05@rediffmail.com
Fourth author: Dr. J. N. Bera is with the Applied Physics
Department, University of Calcutta, Kolkata
Email id - jitendrabera@rediffmail.com)
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 385
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Income Elasticities of Demand for major consumption
items.
Case study of Kashmir University Teachers
Abstract- Kashmir University teachers belong to upper
sedentary and rich class is not a fact as the consumption behavior
shown by them is similar to middle class society. The sample
under examination differ in size of the family, age, designation,
property ownership and other characteristics; in general we
expect the household with above given different characteristics to
have different expenditure plans but the analysis shows same
expenditure by every income bracket which confirms
Duessenbary‘s relative income hypothesis. While analyzing the
income pattern of Kashmir university teachers we find that all
observations do not lie on the straight line because in addition to
the income other variables also affect consumption pattern.
Direct taxes have more immediate effect on Consumption and
Kashmir university teachers being healthy payer of taxes thereby
their consumption pattern also shows a different behavior.
Index Terms- consumption, disposable income,
Duessenbary‘s relative income hypothesis, income elasticity of
demand, consumer durables
N
I. INTRODUCTION
o body denies the importance of consumers in the economy
or ignores the momentous results that may flow from their
decisions.
The most appealing feature of economic research into
consumer behavior is the close relationship between theoretical
specification and appropriate estimation technique. There are two
major approaches to the estimation of income elasticity, as they
are usually derived from budget surveys, used by national and
international agencies for the purpose of commodity projection.
This is most apparent when empirical analysis and testing takes
place at micro level.
Attempts to discover consumer habits and preferences now
depend not only on intuitive theories but also on objective
research. Psychologists and economists make survey, often by a
sampling process, to learn how, when, and if possible, why
consumer at various incomes levels and in various places spend
their money. Economists accumulate and interpret statistical
information about consumer‘s habits in the past and their
intentions to buy or not to buy various classifications of goods in
future. Most certainly, any theory of consumer behavior must
recognize the importance of social forces to shape consumer
behavior.
Samira Khan
Department of Economics, University of Kashmir, India
The idea that consumers are the supreme arbiters of what is
produced under a system of free enterprises has a long and
central place in the history of economic thought. It has to be
sharply distinguished from the teleological version, that the
consumer should be sovereign, which has an even older origin in
Adam Smith without whose dictum ―Consumption is the true end
and purpose of all production‖ no book on the political economy
of consumers would be complete.
The traditional relationship between the amount of family
income and the pattern of family expenditure was discovered in
1857 by the German Civil Servant Ernst Engel, in the
examination of an extensive collection of family budgets .It is
known as Engel‘s Law. In present context Engel‘s great
contribution is the clarification and elaboration of the concept of
the income elasticity of demand, which a frame work within
which numerical measurement of consumer behavior could be
affected. Prior to 1936 economists would believe that interest
determines the level of consumption.
According to Keynes consumption spending and saving are
explained by the level of income; the relationships between
spending, saving and the level of income are shown by the
consumption function and the saving function. In the elementary
Keynesian model, the rise in real income of households will lead
households to increase the amount of goods purchased and viceversa.
To consider how consumption expenditures are related to
disposable income we may begin by posting that consumption
expenditures, vary directly with disposable income. Second we
can quantify i.e. saying how much consumption increases with a
specific increase in disposable income. Keynes did this in his
―fundamental psychological Law‖ which states that ―men are
disposed, as a rule and on the average, to increase their
consumption as their income increases but not as much as the
increase in their income‖. Four general theories currently exist on
the determinants of total consumer spending: the absolute income
hypothesis, the relative income hypothesis; the permanent
income hypothesis and life cycle income hypothesis. Each
hypothesis postulates a relationship between consumption and
income though the concepts underlying these terms may vary
substantially.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 386
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II. OBJECTIVES:
The present investigation has been carried out to study the
Income Elasticities of academia. The investigation is taken with
the following objectives:-
1. To know the consumption preferences of academia.
2. To study whether the consumption preferences of university
teachers are different from accepted consumption
hypothesis.
3. To study the asset preference in university teachers.
III. LITERATURE REVIEW
Realizing the importance of consumer in the economic aspect
many scholars and researchers from various disciples ranging
from commerce, management etc intervene in the study of
consumer behavior. Among a few studies directly or indirectly
dealing with the similar prospective have been under taken by
Stone – Geary; Cable and Godge 1994; E.M.Ojala 1952; Lewis
Scheppar;A.S.Oswald; Paris Quirino 1970;Muelbaures and
Deapon 1980; Richard Blundell 1954 have done comprehensive
work in this field. In a study The impact of food price on
consumption,feb2010 a systematic review of research on price
elasticity of demand for food, by Tatiana Andreyeva ,Michael
W.Long and Kelly D.Brownell lights the proposals to improve
diets by shifting food prices ,results potray percentage wise
increase in price and its impact on consumption.
Ethiopian development research institute (EDRI) in a research
note 90,FOOD DEMAND ELASTICITIES IN ETHIOPIA 2011,
By Kibrom Tafere,Alemayehu seyoum Taffesse,S
Tamiru,Nigussie Tafera and Zelekawork Paulos ;investigates
howhouseholds have adjusted their demand for various food and
non food items to change in price and income. The results
suggest that ETHIOPIAN households display significant
responses to change in price and income. In both rural and urban
areas consumption increases of teff, animal products, and non
food items exceeds the proportional income increase. The price
elasticity of demand for cereals are roughly same throughout the
country.
The present study will be an improvement over the existing
knowledge. This analysis is carried out with the objectives to
capture behavioral parameters of University teachers a white
collar group and measuring Income Elasticities of academia and
shall study the consumption preferences.
I. It is believed that consumption preference in case of
high income brackets are oriented to consumer durables
than necessities.
II. University teachers though falling in high income
brackets have not high disposable income, however
their consumption preference need to be investigated,
whether they are oriented to durables or basic consumer
items.
IV. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Methodology of the present study proceeds along the
following lines
1. Statement of the problem
2. Specification of econometric model
3. Obtaining the data
4. estimating the Engel Elasticities and behavioral parameters
of econometric model
5. Testing hypothesis.
The present study uses linear regression economic model.
X= a+bY +U
Where X is consumption, Y is income, a is autonomous
consumption/ intercept and b is the slope coefficient or marginal
propensity to consume. U is known as the disturbance or error
term in a random variable (stochastic variable) that has well
defined probabilistic properties. The term U may well represent
all those factors that affect consumption but are not taken into
account explicitly.
To estimate the Income Elasticities and the behavioral
parameters of the econometric model the primary data required is
collected by questionnaires.
The data for the study is outcome of a series of
questionnaires collected from a random sample of the Kashmir
University Teachers. The series consisted of the 110 waves of
questionnaires taken from Kashmir University teachers. The data
under investigation is fragmented into 5 income brackets The
size of the first bracket is 7. Teachers falling under second
bracket is equal to 26, in the third bracket we have 29 teachers
while in the 4 th there are 18 teachers, in the last group i.e is the
highest income bracket the number of respondents is 9.
V. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION
To analyze the consumption expenditure of Kashmir
University Teachers in general we first estimate the income
Elasticities of various items separately e.g. food, non-food
consumer durables etc. This could be done in;
a) The consumption –income relationship has to be
analyzed with the help of Engel Functions
b) An income distribution has to be compared with
Consumption distribution.
The important economic determinants usually considered are
income, price, level of assets held. Prices are kept constant and
only income is allowed to vary among household. Our main
objective is to compare the consumption income behavior of
Teachers within Kashmir University. For this we derive Income
Elasticities by fitting various types of functional forms.
With a view to assess, the impact of higher income on
standard of living, we use suitable econometric and statistical
techniques
An attempt has been made in this regard
(I) To assess the differences in consumption pattern of
University teachers.
(II) To work out the distribution of consumption
expenditure. The proposed analysis will proceed as,
first; the consumption pattern of Kashmir University
Teachers will be examined. This will be followed by the
analysis of the composition of the consumption
expenditure taking into account, the consumer durable
etc. as part of consumption. Side by side we analyze the
income data and take into consideration the total
disposable income. Viewing the complex of ceaseless
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change to which the human affairs are subject; the
economist could claim the end of human development is
the increase in income, giving ―Income‖. A definition
broad enough to include those elements of well being
that can be measured in terms of money. In the present
area of research the income of Kashmir University
Teachers includes their own salaries, earning of their
spouse, income of their parents, income from primary or
tertiary sector. All when added gives as a gross figure
from which direct and indirect taxes are deducted to get
the disposable income.
It needs to be mentioned here that there is slight difference in
consumption level of Kashmir University Teachers although
there is a attributable difference in income levels.
Table: 1 Mean Values and APC
Status according to Income
Level
Mean value of
income
The mean values for expenditure on individual components
has been given in increasing order according to income levels in
below mentioned table 1.
Salaries are very much age related; thus age factor of a
teacher become major factor determining his appropriate salary
Non-academic out side earnings are obtained by a small
proportion of teachers. Kashmir University teachers all form a
same income group have never about same life style will
manifest a wide range of difference in their choice and decision
behavior.
NSS data do not give figures of income by categories but only
total consumption expenditure .All these consumption
expenditures figures exclude saving, and as savings are likely to
go up.
Mean value of
expenditure on
food items
Average Propensity to consume
1 st Bracket 5.24 4.6 0.87
2 nd Bracket 5.80 4.8 0.82
3 rd Bracket 5.9 5.01 0.84
4 th Bracket 5.2 4.05 0.79
High Income Bracket 5.01 3.02 0.6
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Income Brackets
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 388
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Table: 2 Value of Income Elasticities of Demand for major consumption items.
Income elasticity of expenditure on
food items
Income elasticity of expenditure on
non- food items
1 st Bracket 0.5 0.46
At 1% ‗level of significance‘ at 5% ‗level of significance‘, that is
under confidence limit 99% and 95% the above data is relevant.
Among various forms the double log form is best fit on each item
VI. CONCLUSION
Income elasticity of expenditure on
consumer durables.
The study of Income elasticity and consumption parameters of
Kashmir University Teachers is of inestimable importance for the
help in understanding an estimating Engel elasticities and
consumption parameters .The present study of academia has
yielded an interesting and fascinating information regarding the
preference of academia for food items, non-food items and
consumer durables. The prosperity of academia is attributed to
higher and better education as well as the better quality
evocations.
Empirical application express that consumption expenditure is
function of income as well other variables. Saving rate does not
depend upon income but on the relative position of income scale.
Major part of the effort in the research has been on consumption
and consumption expenditure on particular commodities which
direct to determine the regression of consumption on income.
The study shows strong tendency among teachers to emulate
other colleagues and at the same time strive constantly for higher
standard of living. Pigouian Real Balance Effect is absent
because there is negligible impact of wealth on consumption
shown by Kashmir university teachers.
It is believed that consumption preference in case of high
Standard deviation
0.68 0.15 0.06
Standard error
Value of T
T- test
2 nd Bracket 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.15 0.19 -2.36 0.67
3 rd Bracket 0.37 0.3 0.8 0.09 0.01 1.00 0.54
4 th Bracket 0.2 0.38 0.87 0.15 0.09 1.11 0.62
High Income
Bracket
-2.5
of expenditure .In each case we test for the statistical significance
of the elasticity coefficients at 5% level and 1% level.
income groups are oriented to consumer durables than
necessities, though University Teacher belong to the middle
class, still the preference for consumer durable, is very high.
Their consumption preference when investigated shows their
orientation to durables not to basic consumer items. An important
factor of consumer economics that direct access shows
immediate effect on consumption, mainly when taxation is
progressive in nature. Since whole University teacher staff are
tax payers therefore, their consumption is also effected by tax
system.
REFERENCES
[1] Ando,A & Modigliant (1963), The life cycle hypothesis Volume No.53 An
American Economic review.
[2] Blundell Richard (1954) , Consumer behaviour theory and empirical
evidence a Survey.
[3] Deaton and Muellbaures, 1980 Cambridge University Press,Economics and
Consumer Behaviour.
[4] Feguson Goulds (1988), Micro Economic theory, Princeton University
press.
[5] Friedman Milton (1956), Consumer Behaviour ,Oxford & IBH, publishing.
[6] F.Knox (1969) , Consumers and Economy ,By George G.Harrap& Co.Ltd
[7] Intriligator D.M.(1978), Econometric models techniques and applications
Prentice Hall, Inc.
[8] John .D.Hey (1979), Stastistics in Economics Martin Robert son.
Coefficient of determination R 2
0.80
0.018 0.2 0.9 0.11 0.037 2.43 0.63
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 389
ISSN 2250-3153
[9] Kelejian , Introduction to Econometrics.
[10] Kothari C.S.(1985), Research methodology, Whishwa Parakashan
[11] Koutsoyiannis.A (1973), Theory of Econometrics, Palgrave publishers Ltd
[12] Marquez Jaine, Economic theory and Econometrics.
[13] Meghnad Dessi (1976),Applied Economics,Tata McGREW- HILL
Publishing company.
[14] Ojala E.M.(1952), Agriculture Economic progress, Oxford University
Press.
[15] Oswald A.S.( Vol II), Survey in Economics.
[16] Quirino Paris(1970), An appraisal of income Elasticities for total food
consumption in developing countries.
[17] Richard Hevin (1991), Statistics for management studies, Pre
[18] The Royal Economic society(1973), Surveys of applied economics.Volume
II Macmillan Press Ltd
[19] Royal economic society (1966) ,Surveys of economic theory,Volume III
Macmillan Press Ltd
[20] American journal of public health, VOL 100 NO 2.
[21] Journalof International food policy research institute IFPRI
AUTHORS
First Author – Samira Khan, PhD. Scholar PG Department of
Economics. University of Kashmir, India
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 390
ISSN 2250-3153
Enhancing a Future version of the Nigerian SME
Technology Incubation Model: Lessons for other
developing countries
Nkem Okpa Obaji 1 , Aslan Amat Senin 2 , Cameron Keith Richards 3
1, 2
Department of Management and Human Resources Development Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Perdana School of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 3
Abstract- The Nigerian government‘s implementation of an
SME incubation model has not been particularly successful. The
challenges faced in Nigeria perhaps reflect how policies or
models taken from elsewhere need to be adapted to local contexts
for better chances of success. This is especially policies or
models borrowed from developed countries and implemented in
developing country contexts. Therefore this paper will focus on
the case study implications for other developing countries of an
inquiry into the requirements for enhancing a future version of
the Nigerian SME incubation model.
Keywords: Business incubator, Developing countries, SMEs,
Technology Incubation Model
T
I. INTRODUCTION
his research aims to improve on the existing business
incubation model in Nigeria and developing countries
generally which has been marred with series of flaws and
weakness which have resulted into failure of the program. The
rationale is to institute best practices that will move the program
at par with related schemes in other countries especially USA
and other Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) countries.
The entrepreneurs who are formally described as SMEs are
usually recognized as the foundation for the urban and economic
growth of many nations. Globally, SMEs are noted for their
massive assistance to the advancement procedure as well as
engine for economic growth (Obitayo, 2001). The main benefit
of this segment according to Aremu and Adeyemi (2011) is its
job creation prospect at modest investment outlay. Kumar and
Ravindran, (2012) also concur on this as they declare that
entrepreneurship is vital to the growth of a country through
employment generation, innovative products development as
well as methods through modernization. Libecap, (2011) also
declares that when policymakers as well as macroeconomists are
anxiously looking for measures that could drive economic
development, spurn inactivity as well as promote employment
formation, private enterprise is usually the spotlight for
consideration. Technology business incubation scheme is the
particular mechanism that will actualize the above mentioned
macroeconomic strategies. In citing NBIA, (2010), Al-Mubaraki,
(2012) declares that business incubators assist business
enterprises to transform their thoughts into practicable as well as
strengthening their ventures by assisting them from
commencement to when they will be able to survive on their
own. Business incubators are mechanism for value addition to
firms and incubatees. Incubation program is aimed at achieving
three main macroeconomic objectives of job creation, economic
development and international Networking.
Most industrialized and developing nations have implemented
TBI scheme to accelerate the establishment of innovative
knowledge-related businesses because of its above eighty percent
success level of innovative business enterprise formation, as well
as its support arising from its spinoff effects such as Technology
transfer, job creation as well as capital.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
The Technology Business Incubation (TBI) in Nigeria was put
into practice in 1993 when the first Center was set up in Agege,
Lagos (FMST, 2005). Ihenacho, (2005) pinpoints that there is
proliferation of TBIs in Nigeria, but the performances of almost
all of them are below expectation due to inadequate task
execution and abysmal administrations. A crucial evaluation
according, to Adegbite, (2001) shows that TBIs have failed to
accomplish the basic purpose of developing sustained successful
ventures. The growth of the initiative has been hindered by
adaptation problem, incoherent financial support, structural
difficulties in administrative dealings as well as ineffectively
construed relationships with appropriate establishments as well
as inconsistent government policies as they relate to Science,
technology and innovation (STI) and Technology Incubation in
particular. Other Achilles‘ heel to the Nigerian model which is
similar to other developing countries include heavy reliance on
government patronage as well as paying particular attention to
physical amenities instead of services of intangible value.
Business incubation initiatives have really thrived seriously in
places like Western Europe and North America where the idea of
business incubation program was conceived, nursed and brought
to the fore.
Most developing countries just like Nigeria aspire to institute
best practices that will move the program at par with related
schemes in other countries with success stories on incubation
program particularly USA and other OECD countries but the
dilemma faced by Nigeria as a developing country also affect
majority of the developing countries in their path to a better
incubation model. Since the initiative was a borrowed technology
from the OECD Countries to developing countries the issue of
adaptability has been a major predicament for some of the
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emerging countries, for instance, Nigeria which adapted the
scheme from the USA with recommendation and design from the
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has social
infrastructural problems, therefore how is the initiative going to
succeed without the country first tackle the infrastructural
problem.
III. DEVELOPING COUNTRIES CONTEXT – CHINA AND BRAZIL
China and Brazil are chosen as country cases because these
two nations combined together host over 1000 incubators and are
ranked third and fourth respectively in numerical terms. The
choice of Brazil as a country of comparison in this study is based
on the fact that as the entrepreneurship movement in Brazil has
grown rapidly in recent years, the Business Incubators also
follow this trend of rapid growth. Therefore this trend is ripe for
detailed analysis of both movements given the fact that Brazil
was being listed among the countries with highest entrepreneurial
activity worldwide with comparable indices including USA.
Government participation in incubation programme in most
developing countries is still very high in terms of establishment
and funding. There is also lack of public – private partnership,
hence the for-profit notion is not yet established (Akcomak 2009:
Adegbite 2001). In terms of funding, there is lack of information
on how much governments spend on the incubators as most
funding for incubator promotion is integrated to other major
funding programmes. For instance, most incubators in
developing countries are supported by international financial
institutions like the World Bank and UNDP, as the World Bank
does not have a precise programme initiative for incubators but
always fund particular projects (Scaramuzzi 2002). This will
make incubator performance and evaluation not to be accurate as
there is no clear cut information on the funding of the incubators.
In most developing countries, incubator establishment and
funding is always the prerogative of the governments, hence,
governments attitudes towards the program will dictate the
achievement or failure of the initiative (Stefanovic et al., 2008).
IV. BUSINESS INCUBATION IN CHINA
Business incubation initiative is an important strategy to help
entrepreneurship and innovation in both developed and
industrializing nations (OECD, 1999; UN, 2000). Scaraborough
and Zimmerman (2002) suggest that the reason for business
incubation lies on two facts. The first being the small business is
an important constituent of economic growth and social
development. The second fact is that the failure rate of small
business is high, especially at the start-up stage. In view of these
high failure rates of small and new businesses vis-a-vis the
important help they render to government and society, various
ideas and plans have been invented to help these enterprises.
Such strategies relate to the establishment, development and
survival of new and small businesses (Cromie 1991; Xu 2010).
One of the existing concepts and strategies adopted was the
business incubation which began in China since 1987. The
Chinese Business Incubators are funded by government. They
use Business Incubators as a strategic mechanism for market
creation by providing financial funding for both construction and
operations of the business incubator. This, the government
accomplish through the TORCH Program of the Ministry of
Science and Technology (MOST) which was set up in the 1990s
by the central government to support the creation and growth of
incubators in China. The government provides various lines of
dedicated Funds to support incubation programs, for example,
‗Construction‘ Funds for incubators, ‗Seed Capital‘ Funds for
start-ups and ‗Innovation‘ Funds for SMEs that are in the growth
stage of their life cycle. The Torch Program has made huge
success in China. It was reported that as of 2003, fifty-three
national Science & Technology Industrial Parks (STIPS) created
over 3.5 Million jobs and $200 Billion which translated to18% of
China GDP for that year. Also, 465 technology incubators are
dynamically operational for sustainable advancement.
NBIA in 2007 estimated that about 5000 business incubators
exist worldwide. The Chinese business incubation industry is
generally accepted as the largest in developing countries and the
second largest worldwide after USA.
V. BUSINESS INCUBATION IN BRAZIL
Brazilian incubation development started in the 1980s. The
first incubator was set up in 1986 and by 1996, there were
already forty incubators. Most incubators there were located in a
university or a research institute and more than eighty percent of
the tenants were spin-offs from the academia and other firms
(Lalkaka and Bishop, 1996). At the start of the incubator
movement, the chief impotence was lack of good relations with
the university personnel and inadequate business support services
(Akcomak 2009). The Brazilian Incubators exhibit the triple
helix of the university, industry and government which enhances
a synergy (Etzkowitz et al. 2005). Incubation models of different
incubators in Brazil are based on the local needs which include
easing of poverty, employment creation, economic development
and technology commercialization (Lalkaka and Schaffer, 1999).
Another fascinating feature of the Brazilian incubators is where
already existing and reliable incubators are asked to develop
newer incubators (Chandra 2007).
Scaramuzzi (2002) explains that micro and Small enterprises
account for 98 percent of the existing firms in Brazil employ
about 60 percent of the active population and contribute to 21
percent of its GDP. Although, according to him, 80 percent of
such firms tend to fail before the expiration of their first year as a
result of bureaucratic barriers, administrative barriers and lack of
core management skills. Almeida (2005) in his study explains
that in 2003 there were over 1000 incubatee firms with more than
15000 employees.
VI. FINDINGS
From the foregoing study, it has been shown that technology
business incubation program is a good scheme for the survival
and promotion of the Small and Medium businesses as well as an
economic development strategy for countries especially the
developing countries. The developing countries approaches to the
scheme have been almost the same, especially in the areas of
depending solely on government for financial support and other
assistance. This is the case with Nigerian model, however, the
Chinese model of business incubation have shown that despite
government patronage, the incubation program in China has
grown to be a major factor in contributing to both job creation as
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 392
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well as huge contributor to the GDP of the country. The same is
obtainable for Brazil; therefore some developing countries are on
the right path to achieving the best practices of the incubation
model.
VII. CONCLUSION
This paper has presented a general idea on business incubation
especially as it relates to technological firms in developing
countries with particular reference to Nigeria. There is need for
stakeholders especially the policy makers to find a lasting
solution to the problems facing the initiative as well as making
the program to reflect the public-private partnership whereby
government will reduce its stake on the program and concentrate
on providing a conducive business environment in the area of
infrastructural development which ought to be a prerequisite to
the smooth running of the initiative. There is need for
government policies especially as they relate to Technology
Incubation to be properly and effectively implemented so as to
achieve the objectives of the policy documents which are always
extraordinary on paper but implementation always fall short of
the expectations of the final beneficiaries.
REFERENCES
[1] Adegbite, Oyeyemi, ― Business Incubators and Small Enterprise
Development: The Nigerian Experience‖. Small Business Economics 17:
157-166, 2001.
[2] Akcomak, I.S. (2009). Incubators as Tools for Entrepreneurship Promotion
in Developing Countries: World Institute for Development Economics
Research. Research Paper No. 2009/52
[3] Chandra, A. (2007). Approaches to Business Incubation: A Comparative
Study of the United States, China and Brazil. Working paper 2007–WP–29.
Indianapolis: Network Financial Institute.
[4] Cromie, S. (1991). The problems experienced by young firms. International
Small Business Journal, Vol. 9, No.3, pp.51-69.
[5] FMST, (2005). Federal Ministry of Science and Technology Quarterly,
vol.2, 2005, Abuja, Nigeria.
[6] Gary D. Libecap. ―Advances in the Study of Entrepreneurship, Innovation
& Economic Growth‖ Advances in the Study of Entrepreneurship,
Innovation & Economic Growth, Volume 22), Emerald Group Publishing
Limited, pp. ix – xii.
[7] H.M. Al-Mubaraki and M. Busler. ― Incubators economic Indicators:
Mixed Approach‖ Journal of Case Research in Business and Economics,
2012.
[8] Ihenacho, R.N., (2005). A study of the Dynamics of institutional support
Measures to SMEs in Nigeria. A Ph.D Dissertation in Management. St
Clements University, USA.
[9] K.M. Obitayo. ― Creating an enabling environment for Small and Medium
Industries, CBN 25(3).
[10] K.S. Kumar and D.S.R. Ravindran. ―A Study on Elements of Key Success
Factors Determining the Performance of Incubators‖ European Journal of
Social Sciences ISSN 1450-2267 Vol.28 No.1 (2012), pp. 13-23.
[11] Lalkaka, R. and Bishop, J. (1996). Business Incubator in Economic
Development: An initial Assessment in Industrialized Countries. New York,
UNDP/UNIDO/OAS.
[12] Lalkaka, R. and Shaffer, D.(1999). Nurturing Entrepreneurs, Creating
Enterprises: Technology Incubation in Brazil. International Conference
on Effective Business Development Services. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
[13] M.A. Aremu and S.L. Adeyemi. ― Small and Medium scale Enterprises as a
survival strategy for employment generation in Nigeria. Journal of
Sustainable Development 2011. 4(1), 200-206,
[14] OECD,(1999). Small Business, Job creation and Growth: Facts, Obstacles
and Best Practices. OECD, Paris.
[15] Scaramuzzi, E. (2002). Incubators in developing countries: Status and
Development Perspectives. InfoDev programme. The World Bank,
Washington DC.
[16] Scarborough, N.M. and Zimmerer, T.W. (2002). Effective Small Business
Management: An entrepreneurial Approach, 4th edition, Prentice Hall,
Upper Saddle River, NJ.
[17] Stefanovic, M., Devedzic, G. and Eric, M (2008). Incubators in Developing
Countries: Development Perspectives. International Journal for Quality
Research, Volume2, No.3. 2008.
[18] United Nations (2000). Best Practice in Business Incubation. United
Nations, New York and Geneva.
[19] Xu, Lilai. (2010). Business incubation in China: Effectiveness and
Perceived Contributions to Tenant Enterprises. Management Research
Review. Vol.33 No.1. 2010 Pg 90 – 97. Emerald Group Publish Limited.
[20] Verma, S. (2004). Success factors for business incubators: An empirical
study of Canadian Business Incubators. A Masters of Management Thesis
submitted To the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research, Eric Sprott
School of Business, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario.
AUTHORS
First Author - Nkem Okpa Obaji Ph.D Candidate, Department
of Management and Human Resources Development, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia
Email id - amazonsng@yahoo.com
Second Author - Aslan Amat Senin, Department of
Management and Human Resources Development Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia
Third Author - Cameron Keith Richards, Perdana School of
Science, Technology and Innovation Policy Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia
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The Effect of Ionic Composition on Structural and
Optical Properties of CdxZn1-xS Thin films Grown by
Spray pyrolysis
Ravangave L. S. 1 , Biradar U. V. 2 , Misal S. D. 3
1 Department of physics, Shri Sant Gadge Maharaj College,Loha.(M.S.) India.
2 Department of physics, Mahatma Basweshwar College, Latur. (M.S.) India.
3 Department of physics, Kumar Swami College,Ausa. (M.S.) India.
Paper Received: May 15, 2012, Paper Accepted: May 21, 2012, Paper Published: June 04, 2012
Abstract- In this work we prepared cadmium zinc sulphide
(CdxZn1-xS) thin films on glass substrate using spray pyrolysis
chemical deposition technique. The effect of Cd composition on
structural and optical was studied. The XRD pattern of CdxZn1-xS
films shows hexagonal wartzite symmetry of CdZnS material.
The XRD data confirmed that the crystallites were increased with
composition of Cd 2+ content. The intensity of (002) peak is
increased for x= 0.6 and 0.8. The variation of grain size with
composition was investigated from XRD data. The optical
energy band gap obtained from data of the absorption spectra
confirmed that the band gap is increased with Zn content in
CdxZn1-xS thin films. The transmittance spectra reaveled the %
transmittance was increased with increase of Zn content in
CdxZn1-xS thin films.
Keywords: - Spray Pyrolysis, CdxZn1-xS thin film, Optical
energy Band gap, Solar cells.
C
I. INTRODUCTION
dS thin film absorbs the light energy in the blue region of
the solar spectrum and have smaller optical band gap of 2.42
eV (1). For high performance of solar cell devices an appropriate
window material should be necessary. CdZnS has larger band
gap and convenient to made as window layer instead of CdS. The
CdxZn1-xS films would advantages for application in solar cell
because they also offer a wider band gap (larger than 2.5 eV) as
compared to the CdS films (2). There have been many report on
the deposition of CdZnS thin films with different concentration
of Zn +2 using different methods of depositions (3,4,5). It is of
great technological interest that the cadmium zinc sulphide
(CdZnS) thin film have been widely used as a wide band gap
window material in hetrojunction solar cells and in
photoconductive devices. The synthesis and characterization of
nanoparticle thin films of cadmium and zinc chalcogenides have
became an area of great interest over last few years. The thin
films of CdZnS have extensive applications in various optical,
electronic and optoelectronic devices and especially in wide
band gap photovoltaic solar cells with different polycrystalline
absorber materials like CdTe (6),.
Keeping in view, more attention is being made in fabricating
good quality CdxZn1-xS thin films and study the structural and
optical properties of the prepared thin films.
A number of thin film deposition techniques are used for
deposition of the thin films. Of the most spray pyrolysis is the
practically attractive because of its simplicity in comparison with
methods requiring vacuum conditions on complex equipments.
It is fast, inexpensive vaccuumeless and suitable for mass
production. It is basically a chemical deposition technique in
which solutions of desired material are sprayed onto a preheated
substrate. Continuous films are deposited onto substrate by
thermal decomposition of reactants(7).
In the present investigations the spray pyrolysis technique was
used for deposition of CdxZn1-xS thin films. Prepared CdxZn1xS
films are characterized with XRD, and UV-Visible
spectroscopic technique for structural and optical study.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Aqueous solutions of CdCl2, ZnCl2 and (NH2)2CS were used
as sources of cd 2+ , Zn 2+ and S 2- ions respectively. The entire
chemical used in the present study and reagent used were of
analytical reagent grade. For the preparation of good quality
films concentration of CdCl2 (0.1M), ZnCl2 (0.05M) and (0.1M)
NH2-CS-NH2 were previously optimized and used as stock
solutions. To obtain homogeneity of uniform deposition each
solution was stirred for 5 minute before the film deposition.
Deionised water was used as a solvent.
CdxZn1-xS films were deposited on ultrasonically precleaned
microscopic glass substrates. With different Cd 2+ concentrations
(for x= 00, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1) using chemical spray pyrolysis
technique. Here x represents the concentration in the spraying
solution. The solution was spray at the rate of 1 ml per minute at
optimized temperature of 573 0 K, at 1 Kg/m 2 pressure. Prepared
CdxZn1-xS films were characterized by XRD and UV Visible
spectroscopic techniques. The structural and optical properties of
the deposited films were studied using data obtained from XRD
and UV-Visible technique.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
i. Structural properties
The XRD spectra of prepared CdxZn1-xS thin films are
recorded using Regacu Miniflex II diffractometer and displayed
in Fig. 1 a to f. All the peaks assigned to (100), (002) , (101),
(102) (110), (103), and (200) orientations of hexagonal phase of
CdxZn1-xS The intensity of (002) of XRD patterns for
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 394
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composition x=0.6 and x=0.8 was significantly increased as
compared to intensity of (002) peak for other compositions. Y.
Raviprakash et al.(2009) were reported earlier the hexagonal
plane symmetry of CdxZn1-xS for CdCl2 and ZnCl2 based
CdxZn1-xS thin films (8). The observed diffraction patterns are
in good agreement with the standard crystallographic data for the
CdS and ZnS metals of JCPDS card 02-0549 and 80-0007. The
(002) diffraction peak gives the lattice matching to the
chalcogenide semiconductor such as CuInxGa1-xSe2 and CuIn(S1-x
Sex)2 ,which are used in photovoltaic solar cells (9). The lattice
constant a and c for hexagonal planes of the CdxZn1-xS thin
films are calculated from XRD data using the following equation.
1/d 2 =4/3 (h 2 +hk+k 2 )/a 2 + l 2 /c 2 …… (1)
The values of lattice constant observed to vary as composition
of cadimium( from x=0 to1). The variation of lattice parameters
versus temperature is given in table 1, and displayed in fig. 2.
The value of lattice constant ‗a‘ and ‗c‘ varies with composition
from 0.377 to 0.4037 nm and 0.652 to 0.688 nm respectively.
The increase in values of lattice parameters with composition of
Cd confirmed the increase of uite cell size.
The grain size was calculated from XRD data using Sherrie‘s
formula (10).
D=0.94 λ/βCosθ ----- (2)
Where λ is the wave length of X-ray used (1.54 nm Cukα line),
β is the broadening of the diffraction peak measured at half of its
maximum intensity (FWHM) and θ is the Braggs angle. Table 1
shows the variation of grain size with Cd composition and
presented in fig 3. It is observed that the grain size of the
CdxZn1-xS increased with increase in Cd composition. The
average grain size is observed increased from 3.4 to 14 nm.
ii. Optical Characterization
The optical absorption of the CdxZn1-xS films for x=0.0, .2,
0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1 were recorded using Systronic Ddouble beam
UV-Visible spectrophotometer 2201 in the wavelength range 350
to 900 nm. The absorption spectra are presented in fig. 4. The
spectra have been used to evaluate the absorption coefficient (α),
energy band gap (Eg ) and nature of transition involved. Optical
energy band gap (Eg) can be calculated using absorption
coefficient (11).
α=A (һυ-Eg) 1/2 -------------3
һυ
A is constant, һν is photon energy. Thickness of the CdS films
was estimated by weight difference method using
t = m/ρA --------------------- (4)
Where m is the mass of the film deposited on the substrate, A
is area of the deposited film on the substrate and ρ the density of
the bulk material. The variation of film thickness with
concentration was shown in Table 1.
The spectra shows that the absorption edges are blue shifted.
Blue shifting of the absorption edge confirmed that the
crystallites in the films decreased with composition of Zn. The
experimental values of (αһν) 2 plotted against һν for different
composition is shown in Fig. 5. All the films show high
absorption coefficient (α=10 12 cm -1 ). The linear portion of the
curve extrapolated to (αһν) 2 =0 gives the value of optical energy
band gap (Eg). The optical band gap Eg obtained at (αһν) 2 = 0
was vary from 2.42 to 3.49 eV. (121). The 3.49 eV maximum
energy band gap is observed Cd0.0Zn1.0S. The increase of band
gap can prevent the window absorption losses. The variation of
optical band gap with composition is shown in Table 1. and
displayed in Fig.6.
The variation of % transmittance against wavelength for
different composition x is presented in Fig. 7. It is observed that
% transmittance increased with increase the Zn content in the
CdxZn1-xS thin films. The % transmittance varied from 10 to 53
as x varies from 1 to 0.0.
IV. CONCLUSION
CdxZn1-xS thin film was successfully synthesized using
aqueous solutions of CdCl2, ZnCl2 and (NH2)2CS by spray
pyrolysis technique. The XRD study revealed the hexagonal
phase of the CdxZn1-xS thin films. The intensity of the (002)
peak was improved for x=.06 and 0.8. The grain size is observed
increased with Cd incorporation study confirmed that the CdZns
compound has hexagonal phase. The (002) diffraction peak was
dominant for CdxZn1-xS thin films gives the lattice matching to
the Cu Inx Ga1-xSe2 and CuIn(S1-x Sex)2 chalcogenised
semiconductors which are used in photovoltaic solar cells. The
change of lattice parameters was observed with Cd composition.
Optical study confirmed that energy band gap of CdS, (direct
band gap semiconductor), is increased with incorporation of Zn
content. The % transmittance was observed increased with
increase of Zn content of CdxZn1-xS thin films.
Table 1. The Lattice parameters, Grain size (XRD), Energy band
gap, Film Thickness.
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Fig. 1: XRD spectra of CdxZn1-xS for (a) x=00, (b) x=0.2, (c)
x=0.4 (d) x=0.6, (e0 x=0.8 and (f) x=1
Fig. 2: The varation of lattice parameters with composition x 1.
Lattice constant ‗a‘, 2 lattice constant ‗c‘.
Fig. 3: Variation of grain size with composition of CdxZn1-xS
Fig.4: The absorption spectra of Cdx Zn1-x S for (a) x=1.0, (b)
x=0.8 (c) x=0.6 (d) x=0.4 (e) x=0.2 (f) x=0.0
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 396
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Fig.5: The plot of (αһυ) 2 versus һυ of CdxZn1-xS films with (a)
x=1, (b) x=0.8 (c) x=0.6 (d) X=0.4 (e) x=0.2 (f) x=00
Fig. 6: Dependence of optical band gap of Cdx Zn1-x Sfilms on
composition parameter x.
Fig.7: % transmittance is plotted against wavelength for Cdx Zn1x
S for (a) x=1.0, (b) x=0.0.8 (c) x=0.6 (d) x=0.4 (e) x=0.2 (f)
x=0.0
REFERENCES
[1] Chang Y.J. Munsee C. L., Herman G. S. Wager J. F. Mugdur P., Lee D. H.,
Chang C. H., ―Growth, Characterization and application of CdS thin films
deposited by chemical Bath Deposition‖, Surface and Interface Analysis
Vol.37 (4), 2005, 398-405
[2] Lee Jae-Hyeong, Song Woo-Chang, Yi Jun-Sin , Yoo Yeong-Sik,
―Characteristics of the CdZnS thin Film Doped by ThermalDiffusion of
Vacuum Evaporated Indium Films‖, Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells
,759, 2003, 227-234.
[3] Zhou J., Wu X., Teeter G., To B., Dhere R. G. and Gessert T. A., ―CBD
Deposited CdxZn1-xS Thin Films and Their Application in CdTe‖, Solar
Cell. Phy. Stat. Sol., 24 (13), 2004, 775-778.
[4] Burton L.C. , Hetch T.L., ZnxCd1-x S Films for use in Hetrojunction Solar
Cells.Appl.phys,Lett . 29, 1976, 612.
[5] Valkonen M. P., Kanniainen T., Lindroos S., Leskela M. and Rauhala E.,
‗‘growth of Zns, CdS and multilayer ZnS/CdS Thin Films by Silar
Technique‘, Applied Surface Science, 115, 1997, 386-392.
[6] Oladeji I., Chow L., Ferekdes C., viswanathan V.. and Zhao Z., Metal/
CdTe/ CdS /Cd1-ZnxS/TiO/glass, A New Cdte Thin Film Solar Cell
Structure‖, Sol. Ener. Matter.sola.Cells, 61(2), 2000, 203-211.
[7] Y. Raviprakash, V. Kasturi , Bangera G., K. Shivakumar,‘ ―Growth,
Structural and Optocal Properties of CdxZn1-x S thin films deposited using
Spray Pyrolysis Technique‖ , Current Applied Physics 10, 2010, 193-198.
[8] Y. Raviprakash, V. Kasturi , Bangera G., K. Shivakumar,‘ ―Preparation and
Chacractrization of CdxZn1-x S thin films by Spray Pyrolysis Tec‖,
Applications.Sola Technique for Photovoltaic r Energy 83, 2009, 1645-
1651
[9] Borse S.V.,Chavhan S.D., Sharma,Ramphal, ―Growth structural and optical
properties of Cd1-xZnxS alloy thin films grown by Solution Growth
technique(SGT)‖.Alloy.Cmopd.436, 2007, 407.
[10] Azaroff L. V., Elements of X-ray Crystallography, McGraw –Hill
Company (1968), pp 485.
[11] Moss, T.S., Optical properties of semiconductors, 1961, Butterworth and Co
Pub. Ltd London 2
[12] Pentia, E., V. Draghici, G. Sarua, B. Mereu, L. Pintilie, F. Sava and M.
Popescu structural electrical and photoelectrical properties of CdxPb1-xS
thin film prepared by chemical bath deposition, J. Electrochem. Soc. Vol.
151 (11), 2004, 729-733
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AUTHORS
First Author - Ravangave L. S, M. Sc. M.Phil. Ph. D. Shri Sant
Gadge Maharaj College loha dist Nanded (M. S.) India PIN
431708
Email id - lsravangave@gmail.com
Second Author - Birajdar U. V. M. Sc. M. Phil. Department of
physics, Mahatma Basweshwar College, Latur. (M.S.) India
Email id - umakantvbiradar60@gmail.com
Third Author - Misal S. D., M. Sc., Department of physics
,Kumar Swami College,Ausa. (M.S.) India.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 398
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Hybrid Algorithm for Segmentation of Left Ventricle in
Cardiac MRI
Abstract- According to estimates from the American Heart
Association, each year 17 million people die of cardiovascular
disease (CVD). More than 30% of all deaths in world are due to
cardiovascular disease. Hybrid algorithm using k-means
clustering and level- set is proposed in this paper in order to
improve the efficiency of segmentation. K-means algorithm is
used to initially locate the position of left ventricle and the
accurate segmentation has been achieved with the help of level
set algorithm. Preprocessing has been carried out with the help of
5*5 kernel median filter and speckles inside the heart region are
faded. The preprocessing has sufficiently reduced speckle noise
and preserved the LV edges.
Index Terms- K-means clustering, speckle noise, level set,
CVD
G
I. INTRODUCTION
enerally cardiac examination involves assessing a
combination of the four following physiological measures:
cardiac structure, function, perfusion and myocardial viability.
Different imaging modalities, including Ultrasound (US), singlephoton
emission computer tomography (SPECT), computed
tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are
used in performing cardiac examinations. Among existing
methods, cardiac MRI [7](CMR) has attracted significant interest
in the research community, as a single imaging technique capable
of retrieving all cardiac measures appropriately.
More specifically the aim for this work is to segment the left
ventricle in the heart using cardiac MRI and to find out various
clinical parameters. Currently, medical practitioners are using
manual segmentation which is very tedious task. This automated
segmentation will reduce the burden on medical practitioners.
Automated segmentation is important for assessment of LV
filling because cavity volumes must be measured on hundreds of
short-axis cine images, making manual tracing impractical for
widespread clinical application [3]. Figure 1 shows that the left
ventricle shape and its endo-cardial and epi-cardial contours. We
can note that the shape of heart changes from apex to bottom and
each heart is having slightly different position. So to detect the
exact location of left ventricle in individual person is a dynamic
process.
So it is very difficult to have a global algorithm which can be
able to detect left ventricle.
We need to address the following challenges to develop an
automatic LV detection system.
R.Sreemathy 1 , Rekha S. Patil 2 , Priyanka Shirude 3
Pune Institute of Computer Technology, Pune, India 1,3
Dr. D. Y. Patil Technical Campus,Talsande, Kolhapur 2
1. The position and orientation of the LV is unconstrained in an
image.
2. A 2D image loses a lot of useful information about a 3D
object.
3. The LV shape changes significantly in a cardiac cycle.
4. There are large variations in the image intensity.
Figure 1 includes various levels approximately 8-10 levels for
patients and each level consist of approximately 20 frames.
Figure 1: (a) LV endocardial contours (b) LV epicardial contours,
Data from MRI is more accurate than that derived from LV
angiocardiography, where the calculation is based on the
assumption that the LV is ellipsoidal in shape. Volume
measurements by MRI are independent of cavity shape, with the
area from contiguous slices integrated over the chamber of
interest.
Here in this paper an attempt has been made to identify left
ventricle by using k-means clustering algorithm [2] and a more
precise segmentation of endocardium has been carried out with
level set[5]. The area measured with this hybrid algorithm has
been compared with the ground truth which is marked by experts
in this field.
II. METHODOLOGY
Small variations in the magnetic field introduced by the
radiofrequency (RF) system (the B1 field introduce slowly
undulating (low frequency) in homogeneities in the image which
can be visually distracting), can impact the textural significance
of an area, and because they can substantially reduce the contrast
in different image regions, is a barrier to using any kind of
segmentation or region delineation tool which is based on
thresholding.
Thresholding techniques produce segments having pixels
with similar intensities. They can handle any underlying image
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 399
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model as long as each intensity is associated with the only one
segment. [1]
The following steps are used in order to achieve the final
segmentation
1). Median filtering
2) K-means clustering
3) Connected components finding
4) Centroid detection
5) Levelset algorithm
Figure 2 shows the methodology used for the implementation of
hybrid algorithm for detection of left ventricle.
Input
Image
Levelset
Segmentation
Median
Filtering
Centroid
Detection
A. Median filtering
Median filter of size 5*5 kernel has been used on original image
in order to reduce the noise and to sharpen the edges. The
original input image is shown in Figure3 and the final median
filtered image is shown in Figure4.
Figure 3: Original Image
Figure 4: Filtered Image
K-means
clustering
Connected
Component
Finding
Figure 2: Block Diagram for automated segmentation
B. K-means clustering
K-means clustering [7] is an algorithm to classify or to group
objects based on attributes/features into K number of group. K is
positive integer number. The grouping is done by minimizing the
sum of squares of distances between data and the corresponding
cluster centroid. Thus, the purpose of K-mean clustering is to
classify the data.
K-means algorithm is summarized as follow:
1. Choose k initial class means.
2. Assign each pixel to the class with the closest mean.
3. Reassign one pixel to a new class such that the move best
reduces the overall sum of square distances criterion.
4. Recompute the class means using the new assignments.
5. If the criterion was improved, go to Step 3.
Figure5 shows the K-means clustered output on the filtered
image.
Figure 5: Clustered Image with 3 regions
C. Connected components labeling
Next step is to find the connected components in the clustered
image and to select proper component containing left ventricle.
Results of it are shown over Figure6.
Figure 6: connected components finding
D. Centroid detection
After rigorous study, it is found that the label of the left ventricle
is found to be one. Now the centroid of this label is found. Thus
we are able to locate a central point on left ventricle.
E. Levelset segmentation
Figure 7: Centroid Detected
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 400
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The level-set method is one computational technique for
tracking a propagating interface over time, which in many
problems has proven more accurate in handling topological
complexities such as corners and cusps, and in handling
complexities in the evolving interface such as entropy conditions
and weak solutions. It is a robust scheme that is relatively easy
to implement.
The general idea behind the level-set method is to apply a
function Φ (t) to the space the interface inhabits, where Φ is a
point in that space, t a point in time. The function is initialized at
t = 0, and then a scheme is used to approximate the value of Φ (t)
over small time increments.
Levelset algorithm can be summarized as follows:
1. Introduce a co-ordinate system
2. Embed the interface in the x-y plane.
3. Invent the function z = Φ (x, y, t). This is level set function.
Using the centroid located in section D and with minimum
radius of the left ventricle initial contour of the level set
algorithm is drawn automatically with the centroid as center.
Thus by detecting the centroid, the change in location of left
ventricle is found easily. And hence the final segmentation is
more accurate as we are able to change the position of the initial
contour automatically and easily. Hence tracking the left
ventricle with respect to various levels has become simplified.
Figure 8 shows final segmented left ventricle for one image of
level1.
Figure 8: Level set segmented contour
III. RESULTS
The database used [8] has about 33 patients. The algorithm is
tested by using above database. Accuracy of algorithm has been
tested on sufficient number of images. The above mentioned
algorithm has worked successfully on all levels starting from
base to apex. The algorithm is working successfully in the base,
middle and apical slices and the algorithm is able to locate a
point successfully on the left ventricle which made the job of
drawing initial contour simple.
A. Result Analysis of k-means clustering
While performing k-means clustering, endo-cardium and
epicardium are merged with each other.
B. Result analysis of centroid detection
The centroid of first 5 levels is located exactly in left ventricle.
But in apical levels centroid of left ventricle is getting shifted
slightly. And because of the same reason for those levels we are
facing problems in initializing the contour for level set. Here
Figure 9 shows the bar chart for centroid detection against
different levels, which shows that for 1 st five levels, we are
having 100% success rate and from 6 th to 8 th level we are having
80%-85% success rate.
Figure 10 shows the area segmented using the above proposed
algorithm on one of the levels. The x-axis represents the frame
number and y-axis represents the corresponding area of left
ventricle
100
80
60
40
20
0
1st
level
4th
level
7th
level
success rate%
Figure 9: Bar chart for success rate on different levels
Figure 10: Graph of segmented area of left ventricle using hybrid
algorithm
The mean area error between ground truth and the above
algorithm is 0.5%.
IV. CONCLUSION
A new hybrid algorithm using k-means and level set algorithm
has been proposed in this paper. K-means algorithm has been
used as an initial tool to locate the left ventricular region. The kmeans
algorithm has made the segmentation task automatic as
we are able to easily locate a point on the left ventricle. This
point is used as initial seed for the final level set segmentation.
REFERENCES
[1] Salem Saleh Al-amri, N.V. Kalyankar and Khamitkar S.D ―Image
Segmentation by Using Thershold Techniques‖, journal of computing,
volume 2, issue 5, May 2010, issn 2151-9617
[2] M. Lynch, O. Ghita, P.F.Whelan, ‖Automatic segmentation of the left
ventricle cavity and myocardium in MRI data‖, Computers in Biology
and Medicine 36 (2006) 389–407
[3] Si Yong Yeo, Liang Zhong, Yi Su, Ru San Tan, Dhanjoo N. Ghista,
―Analysis of Left Ventricular Surface Deformation during Isovolumic
Contraction”, Proceedings of the 29th Annual International Conference of
the IEEE EMBS Cite International, France, 2007
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 401
ISSN 2250-3153
[4] Tapas Kanungo, David M. Mount, Nathan S. Netanyahu, Christine D.
Piatko, Ruth Silverman, and Angela Y. Wu, ―An Efficient k-Means
Clustering Algorithm: Analysis and Implementation‖, IEEE transactions on
pattern analysis and machine intelligence, vol. 24, no. 7, July 2002.
[5] Sethian, J. A., ―Level Set Mehods: Evolving interfaces in geometry, fluid
mechanics, computer vision, and material science‖, Cambridge University
Press, 1996.
[6] M Puvaneswary, ‖Cardiac MR Imaging‖, JP brothers Medical Publishers(P)
Ltd, 2005
[7] Kanungo, T.; Mount, D. M.; Netanyahu, N. S.; Piatko, C. D.;
Silverman, R.; Wu, A. Y. 2002. "An efficient k-means clustering
algorithm: Analysis and implementation". IEEE Trans. Pattern
Analysis and Machine Intelligence 24, p. 881–892.
[8] Alexander Andreopoulos, John K. Tsotsos, ―Efficient and Generalizable
Statistical Models of Shape and Appearance for Analysis of Cardiac MRI‖,
Medical Image Analysis, Volume 12, Issue 3, June 2008, Pages 335-357.
First Author – R. Sreemathy, ME(Electronics) and
MS(Electronics and control), Pune Institute of Computer
Technology. Email id - sreemathyr@yahoo.com.
Second Author – Rekha S. Patil, PhD (Electronics), Dr. D. Y.
Patil Technical Campus. Email id - prekha46@yahoo.com.
Third Author – Priyanka B. Shirude, BE(E&TC), Pune Institute
of Computer Technology. Email id - p.shirude2@gmail.com.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 402
ISSN 2250-3153
Effect of in-plane forces on frequency parameters
Abstract- Vibration and buckling characteristics of stiffened
plates subjected to in-plane uniform and non-uniform edge
loading at the plate boundaries are investigated using the finite
element method. Rectangular stiffened plates possessing
different boundary conditions, aspect ratios, varying mass and
stiffness properties and varying number of stiffeners have been
analyzed for buckling and vibration studies. The characteristic
equations for the natural frequencies, buckling loads and their
corresponding mode shapes are obtained from the equation of
motion. The effects of the position of stiffeners and number of
stiffeners, aspect ratios, boundary conditions, stiffeners
parameters upon the buckling load parameter and fundamental
frequency of the stiffened plates are investigated. The results are
obtained considering the bending displacements of the plate and
the stiffener. Eccentricity of the stiffeners gives rise to axial and
bending displacement in the middle plane of the plate.
Comparison with published results indicates good agreement. In
the structure modelling, the plate and the stiffeners are treated as
separate elements where the compatibility between these two
types of elements is maintained.
Index Terms- Finite element method, Stiffened plate,
Buckling and frequency parameter, Stiffeners parameters
Notations
a - Plate dimension in longitudinal direction
b - Plate dimension in the transverse direction
t - Plate thickness
E, G - Young‘s and shear moduli for the plate material
b s , d s - web thickness and depth of a x-stiffener
, - Non –dimensional element coordinate
A S - Cross sectional area of the stiffener
I S - Moment of inertia of the stiffener cross-section about
reference axis
{q} r - Vector of nodal displacement a r th node
[D P ] - Rigidity matrix of plate
[D S ] - Rigidity matrix of stiffener
[K e ] - Elastic stiffness matrix of plate
[K S ] - Elastic stiffness matrix of stiffener
M
M , - Consistent mass matrix of plate, stiffener
p
S
[K G ] - Geometric stiffness matrix
A.K.L. Srivastava, S.R.Pandey
* Department of Civil Engineering, N. I. T. Jamshedpur- 831014, India
[N] r - Matrix of a shape function of a node r
P cr - Critical buckling load
P (t) - In plane load
T - Torsional constant
S
P - Polar moment of inertia of the stiffener element
S
T
I. INTRODUCTION
he dynamic behaviour of stiffened plates has been the
subject of intensive study for many years. For aerodynamic
considerations, stiffener will be provided inside the hull of
aircraft and for space structures the stringer can be provided
outside if that is more structurally efficient. Stiffened plates are
structural components consisting of plates reinforced by a system
of ribs to enhance their load carrying capacities. These structures
are widely used in aircraft, ship, bridge, building, and some other
engineering activities. In many circumstances these structures are
found to be exposed to in-plane loading.
The buckling and vibration characteristics of stiffened plates
subjected to uniform and non-uniform in-plane edge loading are
of considerable importance to aerospace, naval, mechanical and
structural engineers. Aircraft wing skin panels, which are made
of thin sheets are usually subjected to non-uniform in-plane
stresses caused by concentrated or partial edge loading at the
edges, and due to panel stiffener support conditions
Diez et al. [1] studied the effect of combined normal and
shear in-plane loads by the Galerkin method. Transverse
vibration of rectangular plates subjected to in-plane forces under
various combinations has been studied by Singh and Dey [2] by a
difference based variational approach.
The vibration and buckling of partially loaded simply
supported plates were studied by Deolasi et al. [3]. Recently
Sundersan et al. [4] have studied the influence of partial edge
compression on buckling behaviour of angle ply plates for a few
orientations.
A brief literature survey reveals that a variety of methods
have been proposed to study the vibration of stiffened plates. The
most common method used in early literature was to approximate
the stiffened plate as equivalent orthotropic plates, using the
smeared stiffener approach. In more recent literature, with the
help of high-speed computers, the plate and stiffeners were
treated separately. Such numerical methods as the finite element
method and finite difference method are widely used.
Aksu [5] has presented a variational principle in conjunction
with the finite difference method for analysis of free vibration of
uni-directionally and cross-stiffened plates considering in-plane
inertia and in plane displacements in both directions.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 403
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Shastry and Rao [6] have used the 3 noded conforming
element and refined beam-bending element for arbitrary oriented
stiffeners.
Olson and Hazell [7] have presented a critical study on
clamped integrally stiffened plate by the finite element method.
The mode shapes and frequencies have been determined
experimentally using the real time holographic technique. The
effect of change in rib stiffness on various modes has been
studied.
Bapu Rao et al. [8] have also reported their work on
experimental determination of frequencies with real time
holographic technique for skew stiffened cantilever plates.
Mukhopadhyay [9] has applied the semi-analytic finite difference
method to the stability analysis of rectangular stiffened plates
based on the plate beam idealization.
Sheikh and Mukhopadhyay [10] applied the spline finite strip
method to the free vibration analysis of stiffened plates of
arbitrary shapes. They analyzed the plate of rectangular, skew
and annular shapes with concentric as well as eccentric stiffeners.
Large amplitude, free flexural vibration of stiffened plates has
been investigated by the spline finite strip method by Sheikh and
Mukhopadhyay [11]. The stiffener has been elegantly modelled
so that it can be placed anywhere within the plate strip.
Harik and Guo [12] have developed a compound finite
element model to investigate the stiffened plates in free vibration
where they have treated the beam and plate element as the
integral part of a compound section, and not as independent
bending components.
Bedair [13] has studied the free vibration characteristics of
stiffened plates due to plate/stiffener proportions. He has
considered the plate and the stiffener as the discrete elements
rigidly connected at their junctions and the nonlinear strain
energy function of the assembled structure has been transformed
into an unconstrained optimization problem to which Sequential
quadratic programming has been applied to determine the
magnitudes of the lowest natural frequency and the associated
mode shape
Allman [14] has carried out the analysis of buckling loads of
square and rectangular stiffened plates using triangular element.
He has presented the results both by including and neglecting the
torsional stiffness of the stiffeners. Vibration of stiffened plates
with elastically restrained edges has been analyzed by Wu and
Liu [15] using Rayleigh-Ritz method. The first four lower
frequencies for restrained plates up to six intermediate stiffeners
are calculated.
Mukhopadhyay [16] has extended the static and vibration
analysis of plates to analyse the stability of ship plating and
allied plated structures using the semi-analytic method.
An isoparametric stiffened plate bending element for the
buckling analysis of stiffened plate has been presented by
Mukherjee and Mukhopadhyay [17]. Here the stiffener can be
positioned anywhere within the plate element and need not
necessarily be placed on the nodal lines.The general spline finite
strip method has been extended by Sheikh and Mukhopadhyay
[18] to analyse stiffened plate of arbitrary shape. Stiffened plates
having various shapes, boundary conditions and also possessing
various dispositions of stiffeners have been analyzed by the
proposed method. The stability of partially stiffened, simply
supported and clamped square plates is studied by Roy et al.
[19]. A high precision triangular finite element and a compatible
stiffener element are used in the finite element analysis. Buckling
of stiffened plates has been studied by Bedair [20]. An
investigation on stiffened plates has been conducted to determine
the elastic parameters as well as the cross-sectional dimensions
of rectangular stiffeners from experimental modal data and finite
element prediction, using model-updating technique by
Chakraborty and Mukhopadhyay [21].
A differential quadrature analysis for the free vibration of
eccentrically stiffened plates is studied by Zeng and Bert [22].
The plate and the stiffeners are separated at the interface with
equilibrium and continuity condition satisfied. Vibration and
dynamic stability of stiffened plates subjected to in-plane
uniform harmonic edge loading is studied using finite element
analysis by Srivastava et al. [23] considering and neglecting inplane
displacements. Further Srivastava et al [24] extended their
work to study the principal dynamic instability behaviour of
stiffened plates subjected to non-uniform harmonic in-plane edge
loading. Various methods used for vibration analysis such as Ritz
technique, Levy‘s solution, finite difference method, finite
element method, Galerkin method, differential quadrature
method and method using boundary characteristics orthogonal
polynomials (BCOP) have been reviewed extensively by Leissa
[25]. The effect of the gap between the stiffener tip and the
supporting edge on the natural frequencies has been investigated
by Nair and Rao [26]. The panel is represented by triangular
plate bending elements and the stiffener by beam elements.
The applied load is seldom uniform and the boundary
conditions may be completely arbitrary in practice. The problem
becomes complicated when the numbers of stiffeners are
increasing regardless of the position of stiffeners not necessary
along the nodal lines. Loading is non-uniformly distributed over
the edges and along the stiffeners thus affecting the boundary
conditions. Analysis of stiffened plate is carried out normally by
energy method by adding energies due to plate and stiffener. The
energy stored in the stiffener will depend on its cross section and
if a thin walled open section, the effect of twisting as well as
warping have to be included. These studies for most part being
concerned with the numerical analysis of the theoretical buckling
load and also mostly related to unstiffened plates.
The present paper deals with the problem of vibration and
buckling of rectangular stiffened plates subjected to in-plane
uniform and non-uniform edge loading. Finite element
formulation is applied for obtaining the non-uniform stress
distribution in the plate and also to solve the buckling load and
frequency parameters in various modes with different boundary
conditions, aspect ratios and various parameters of stiffened
plates. The analysis presented determines the stresses all over the
region. In the present analysis, the plate is modeled with the nine
nodded isoperimetric quadratic element where the contributions
of bending and membrane actions are taken into account. Thus
the analysis can be carried out for both thin and thick plates.
Moreover it can be applied to a structure having irregular
boundaries. The formulation of the stiffener is done in such a
manner so that it may lie anywhere within a plate element. In
order to maintain compatibility between plate and stiffener, the
interpolation functions used for the plate are used for the
stiffeners also.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 404
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II. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION
The governing equations for the buckling and vibration of
stiffened plates subjected to in-plane harmonic edge loading are
developed. The presence of uniform and non-uniform external
in-plane loads, boundary conditions, stiffeners locations and
cutouts if any in the plate induce a non-uniform stress field in the
structures. This necessitates the determination of the stress field
as a prerequisite to the solution of the problems like vibration,
buckling and vibration behaviour of stiffened plates. As the
thickness of the structure is relatively smaller, the determination
of stress field reduces to the solution of a plane stress problem in
the plate skin and stiffeners (where the thickness and breath are
small compared to length). The stiffened plates are modeled and
the governing equations are solved by finite element method. In
the present analysis, the plate is modelled with nine noded
isoparametric quadratic elements where the contributions of
bending and membrane actions are taken into account. One of the
advantages of the element is that it includes the effect of shear
deformation and rotary inertia in its formulation. Thus the
analysis can be carried out for both thin and thick plates.
Moreover it can be applied to a structure having irregular
boundaries. Also it can handle any position of cutout, different
boundary and position of in-plane concentrated loads or loading
conditions. In order to maintain compatibility between plate and
stiffener, the interrelation functions used for the plate are used
for the stiffeners also. Numerical methods like finite element
method (FEM) are preferred for problems involving complex in
plane loading and boundary conditions as analytical methods are
not easily adaptable. The formulation is based on Mindlin's plate
theory, which will allow for the incorporation of shear
deformation. The plate skin and the stiffeners/composite are
modelled as separate elements but the compatibility between
them is maintained. The nine noded isoparametric quadratic
elements with five degrees of freedom (u, v, w, X and y ) per
node have been employed in the present analysis.
The in-plane displacements u and v need to be considered
only when the stiffeners are connected eccentrically to the plate.
If the plate and stiffeners are connected concentrically, no in
plane stresses develop The effect of in-plane deformations is
taken into account in addition to the deformations due to
bending, which will help to model the stiffener eccentricity
conveniently. The element matrices of the stiffened plate element
consist of the contribution of the plate and that of the stiffener.
in the power of the thickness co-ordinate as:
The explicit evaluation of integrals involved in the evaluation
of element stiffness and mass matrices of the plate is tedious and
as such is not attempted. A Gaussian integration technique has
been adopted for this purpose for its high accuracy and also it can
be implemented easily. A exact integration needs an order of 3 x
3. However, a reduced integration proves to be more effective
and cheaper. To integrate the element matrices a 2 x 2 Gaussian
integration has been adopted, however, the order of integration
has been mentioned.
To integrate the element matrices a 2 x 2 Gaussian integration has been adopted, however, the order of integration has been
mentioned.
The displacement at any point within the element can be expressed as:
u
v
w
x
y
=
r
Strain displacement relation can be written as:
9
1
N r
I
5
u
r
vr
w
r
xr
yr
B p r q r B p q
(1)
(2)
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 405
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and
B
P
r
N
r
x
0
N
r
y
0
0
0
0
0
The generalized stress-strain relationship for a plate element is
where the stress resultant vector is
p Dp p
p
T
N
x
N
y
N
x
0
N
y
N
x
y
0
0
0
0
0
r
r
M
x
0
0
0
0
0
0
N
x
N
y
r
r
M
y
0
0
0
N
x
0
N
y
Using the isoparametric coordinates, the element stiffness matrix is expressed as:
1
1
T
b B p D p B p
p
K J p
1
1
The element mass matrix can be expressed in iso parametric coordinate as:
1 1
M J p
1 1
T
p e N
m p N
Geometric stiffness matrix expressed in isoparametric coordinates as:
1
1
T
B B
KG P
G p P G p p
1
1
N
0
d
d
r
r
r
M
x
d
d
J d
d
0
0
0
0
N
y
N
x
0
N
y
r
r
r
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(3)
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 406
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Geometric stiffness of stiffener
P
x t
xy t
0
0
0
0
The strain matrix can be expressed as
and
where
xy
t
y
0
0
0
0
t
0
0
t
x
12
0
xy
12
0
t
3
3
0
0
0
t
y
12
0
xy
t
12
3
3
0
0
t
xy
12
0
t
x
12
0
3
3
0
0
0
xy
12
0
t
t
y
12
9
r 1
3
3
q B q
S
G
B GS
0
r
0
BGS GS
0
0
N
r
x
0
A
0
N
r
x
r
0
0
0
x S
S
0 X S S
where AS is the area, FS the first moment of area about reference plane, SS the second moment of area about reference plane, TS the
torsional constant and PS the polar moment of area of the stiffener cross-section.
The expression for the geometric stiffness matrix can be formed by equating the internal work done by the stresses to the external
work done by the nodal forces.
The geometric stiffness of the stiffener element can be expressed in iso-parametric co- ordinate as:
The derivatives of x and y with respect to x / are given by
x
cos
/
x
KG S
1
G S S GS S
1
(13)
T
B B J d
y
/
x
sin
The components of generalized strain vectors are obtained as follows:
/ /
u
u
/
x x
x
/
x
/
u
y
y
/
x
/
x
/
/
x
x
/
x x x y
/
x
y
x
/
r
(14)
(15)
(16)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(9)
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 407
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We can substitute the values and finally we get as:
/ x
/ /
/
y
y x
y
/
/
x x x y
y
/
x
(17)
u
2 1 u
v
v
2
cos ( ) sin 2
sin
x
2 y
x
y
2 1
x
x y
y 2
cos ( ) sin 2
sin
x
2 y
x
y
w
w
(
x ) cos
(
y ) sin
x
y
1
2
x y
x
y 2
(
( ) sin 2
sin cos )
2 x
y
y
x
The generalized strain components in the stiffeners in x / and y / coordinates are given by
/ x
x T
Where [T] is the transformation matrix and is given by
x
where
T
2
cos
2
sin
0.
5sin
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
cos
2
sin
0.
5sin
0.
5sin
0
0
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
cos
sin
0
0
0
0.
5sin
2
0.
5sin
2
2
cos
2
sin
0
0
u v u
v
y
x
y
x w w
, , ( ), , , , , (
x ), (
y )
x y y x x y x y x y
9
x
BS r r BS
r 1
B B B B B
S
S
1 S 2 S r S
9
(19)
(20)
(18)
(22)
(23)
(21)
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 408
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and
B
B S
D S
/
x r
The equivalent nodal forces are given by
S
Nr
x
0
r
0
0
'
x
EA
EF
0
0
S
S
0
N
r
cos
x
N
r
sin
x
0
0
0
0
0
EF
ES
0
0
0
0
Nr
x
S
S
0
0
0
GT
0
Nr
2
cos
x
N
r
x
S
Nr
sin 2
x
2
Nr
cos
Nr
sin 2
x 2
Nr
2
cos
x
T
F N P t J d
d
e
o
0
Nr
0
0
0
0
GAS
/ 1.
2
0
0
0
N
r
x
Nr
2
sin
x
Nr
sin 2
x
2
N
r sin
N
r sin 2
x 2
N
2
r
sin
x
The intensity of loading within the patch is assumed to be uniform. In such situations it becomes necessary to obtain the equivalent
nodal forces when a concentrated load is acting within the element. Again, the equivalent nodal forces are expressed as:
2.1 Governing Equations
P
r
P
o
T N J
The governing equations for specified problems like vibration, static and dynamic stability are as:.
Free vibration:
2 M
q 0
K b
(28)
(29)
(27)
(24)
(25)
(26)
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 409
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Vibration without in-plane load:
Vibration with in-plane load:
Static stability or buckling
Or
0 q K q
M b
0
q K P K q M
b
G
2
P K M q
0
Kb c r G
PK
q 0
K G
(30)
(31)
(32)
b (33)
where K b ,
K G ,
M are overall elastic stiffness, geometric stiffness, and mass matrices respectively,
vector. To evaluate the overall elastic stiffness, geometric stiffness, and mass matrices K b ,
K G ,
q is the displacement
M respectively, it is
necessary to use the same shape functions for both plate and stiffener elements The element matrices for the plate and stiffener are
generated separately and then added up to form overall matrices.
The equations are solved using the technique proposed by Corr
and Jennings [28 ] where the matrices [K], [M] and [KG] are
stored in single array according to skyline storage algorithm. In
all the cases, the stiffness matrix [K] is factorized according to
Cholesky‘s decomposition technique. With this, the solution for
displacement is simply obtained by its forward elimination and
backward substitution techniques. These displacements
components are used to find out the stress field. These stresses
are used to calculate the geometric stiffness matrices. The
solutions of equations go through a number of operations.
Moreover it requires a number of iterations to get the solution
since these equations come under the category of eigenvalue
problem. In such cases, the solution of eigen vector and eigen
Frequencies of vibration ( ) b t D
2
value is more than one where the different solutions correspond
to different modes of vibration or different modes of buckling.
The mode which gives lowest value of the eigen value is quite
important and it is known as fundamental mode.
2.3 Non-dimensionalisation of Parameters
Majority of the model parameters and results are presented in
non-dimensional form to make them independent of the plate
size, thickness, material properties, etc for the convenience of the
analysis. The non-dimensionalisation of different parameters like
vibration, buckling and excitation frequency for dynamic
stability analysis is taken as given below:
2 2
Buckling load ( ) (1) Distributed load b D
3
2
N X
(2) Concentrated load b D
Where D is the plate flexural rigidity, D = E t 12(
1
) , P is the applied load, Pc r is the buckling load, is the density of the
plate material and t is the plate thickness. In addition, certain quantities are expressed as the ratio of that quantity to some reference
quantity. Assuming a general case of several longitudinal ribs and denoting
EI S the flexural rigidity of a stiffener at a distance (Dx) from the edge y = 0, the stiffener parameter terms
and are defined as: AS bt
= Ratio of cross-sectional area of the stiffener to the plate, where A S is the
area of the stiffener.
I bD
E S = Ratio of bending stiffness rigidity of stiffener to the plate, where S
the stiffener cross-section about reference axis.
Pc r
I is the moment of inertia of
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2.4 Problem Identification
The basic configuration of the problem considered here is a unstiffened and stiffened plate subjected to various uniform and nonuniform
edge loadings as shown in figures 1 (a-d). The cross-section of the stiffened plate is shown in figure 4.2 for rectangular crosssection
and figure 4.3 for Skew rectangular plate cross section under uniaxially loading.
(a) Uni-axial loading (b) Bi-axial loading
(c) In-plane shear loading (d) In-plane Shear loading
The problem considered here consists of a rectangular plate (a x
b) with stiffener subjected to various types of loading. In Figures
1 (a-d), the plates are subjected to uniformly distributed in plane
uniaxial, biaxial, shear edge loading. The length (a) of the
stiffened plate considered above is varied keeping its other
A
A
A
b
a
Figure 1 (a-d): Plate subjected to inplane uniform edge loading
1 in
Figure 2: Stiffened plate cross section
t
b
a S b
c
parameters unchanged. The cross-section of the stiffener is
shown in figure 2 and 3. Rectangular skew plates under general
uniformly distributed in-plane edge loading are considered also
as shown in figure 4.3 to study the vibration and dynamic
stability behaviour of skew stiffened plates.
S d
Figure 3: Skew rectangular plate under uniaxially loading
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A parametric study is carried out here for the plates to present
some new results in the present studies.on the topic using the
present finite element approach. Different kind of loading cases
as written below are applied for buckling, vibration of stiffened
plates.
III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Convergence and validation studies with previous results
In a finite element analysis, it is desired to have the convergence
studies to estimate the order of mesh size to be necessary for the
numerical solution. The problem of isotropic rectangular
a/b
1
0.5
2.5
Boundary
Condition
1. In-plane Uniaxial compression
2. In-plane biaxial Compression
3. In-plane shear load
4. Biaxial compression and in-plane shear
unstiffened plates with uniform loading is investigated in table 1
for buckling and vibration for a/b = 1, 0.5, 2, 2.5 and validated
with available results of Leissa [25]. As the convergence study
shows that a mesh size of 10x10 is sufficient enough to get a
reasonable order of accuracy. The analysis in the subsequent
problems is carried out with this mesh size.
.
Table 1: Buckling and Vibration studies of rectangular unstiffened plate
Buckling
Parameter
Non dimensional frequency parameter
Reference Mode No
1 2 3 4
SSSS 3.99 Present 19.73 49.35 49.35 78.96
Leissa [ 25] 19.732 49.438 49.438 78.95
CCCC 10.07 Present 35.98 73.43 -- 108.21
Leissa [25] 35.992 73.221 73.221 108.27
SCSS 4.84 Present 23.64 51.12 58.23 86.34
SSSS 6.24 Present 49.33 78.94 128.76 167.45
CCCC 19.31 Present 98.29 127.56 179.97 254.56
SCSS 10.37 Present 69.23 94.789 140.09 207.45
SSSS 4.13 Present 11.643 16.97 24.356 35.98
Leissa[25] 11.44 16.18 24.08 35.135
CCCC 7.85 Present 23.64 27.81 35.46 46.93
Leissa [25 ] 23.648 27.817 35.446 46.770
SCSS 4.116 Present 11.74 17.123 25.56 38.76
A square plate clamped in all edges having a centrally placed
concentric stiffener as presented by Nair & Rao [26] using a
package stift1, Mukharjee [17] , Mukhopadhyay [16], and Seikh
[18] using FEM , semi analytical method, and spline finite strip
method respectively has been analyzed presently in table 2. Seikh
[18] has given results neglecting and including mass moment of
inertia which has been validated in present results marked as
Plate size = 600mm x 600 mm Plate thickness = 1.0 mm,
Poisson‘s ratio = 0.34 Mass density = 2.78e-6 Kg /
E = 6.87
7
2
10 N / mm , As = 67.0 mm 2
Present (1) for M.I. Neglecting and Present (2) as mass moment
of inertia including. The first six frequencies are compared. The
agreement is excellent. In Mukhopadhyay [16] in-plane
displacement is not considered in the analysis so results cause
slightly varying. Table2 also present convergence study showing
good convergence of results.
mm
, Is = 2290 mm 4
Js = 22.33 mm 4
Table 2: Frequency in (rad / s) of clamped stiffened plate with a concentric Stiffener
Source Mode
No
Present 6 x 6
8 x 8
10 x 10
Present 10 x 10
1 2 3 4 5 6
318.62
317.36
317.00
317.00
404.53
401.66
400.84
400.84
474.30
472.34
471.74
471.74
541.56
538.26
537.32
537.32
727.81
719.23
716.35
716.35
3
771.47
763.23
759.54
759.54
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 412
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Nair and Rao [26]
Mukharjee [17]
Mukhopadhyay [16]
(1) Seikh [18]
(2) Seikh [18]
317.54
322.34
305.12
316.85
316.85
400.12
412.23
382.34
400.35
400.35
The Effect of the stiffener for the same plate but with a stiffener
of 20 mm by 3 mm size has been solved and presented in table 3.
Dimension of the stiffened plate is shown in figure 4. Seikh [18]
solved this problem by spline finite strip method and finite
600 mm
A A
AAA 3 mm
600mm
Figure 4: Eccentrically clamped square stiffened plate
472.23
506.87
454.76
471.69
471.68
537.14
599.34
519.17
536.95
536.94
714.14
772.15
696.18
716.04
716.02
760.17
860.93
741.15
759.14
759.12
element method respectively. The results are compared and are
found to agree well. Nair also solved placing the stiffener at
various eccentricities.
1 mm
20 mm
Table 3: Convergence of the frequency with Mesh Division
Mesh Division
3 x 3 4 x 4 6 x 6 8 x 8 9 x 9 10 x 10
Sheikh Mode 1 324.703 319.921 317.433 316.949 316.94 316.799
[18] Mode 2 403.147 403.147 401.627 400.611 400.369 400.327
Present Mode 1 342.473 325.62 318.64 317.66 317.25 316.79
Mode 2 410.06 420.62 404.53 401.66 403.10 400.32
3.2 Buckling of longitudinally stiffened plate under
uniaxial load
3.2.1 Validation Studies for Buckling Studies of a Central
concentric stiffened plate
The present formulation is validated for buckling analysis of
rectangular stiffened plate. The buckling load parameters have
been obtained for various aspect ratios, bending stiffness rigidity
and stiffener area ratios for one central longitudinal stiffener in
table 4. The plate thickness ratio (a/h) and isotropic plate and
stiffener material (ν) are taken as 100 and 0.3 respectively. The
dimension ‗a‟ is varied keeping b as constant to get different
values of aspect ratio (a/b). The plate is subjected to uniform
compression in the x-direction. The mesh division chosen for the
whole plate is 10 x 10. A good agreement is observed with the
result obtained by Timoshenko and Gere [27]. In table 4 A is for
Timoshenko and Gere [27].
Table 4: Comparison of buckling load parameters of a rectangular stiffened plate with one longitudinal central stiffener
subjected to uniform normal edge loading along x- direction.
a/b
= 5
=10
= 0.05 = 0.1 = 0.05 = 0.10
Present A
[27]
Present A
[27]
Present A [27] Present A [27]
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0.6
1.0
1.2
1.6
2.0
3.0
16.54
11.98
9.85
8.17
8.01
8.31
16.5
12.0
9.83
8.01
7.95
8.31
16.54
11.03
9.02
7.35
7.28
7.67
After the validation of free vibration analysis and buckling
analysis of stiffened plates, detailed studies has been done for
variation of buckling and vibration load parameters of stiffened
plates for different aspect ratios, various boundary conditions
with varying load P/Pcr with different number of stiffeners.
The variation of buckling and frequency parameters with P/Pcr
for rectangular eccentric stiffened plate with 1, 2, 3 longitudinal
equispaced stiffeners subjected to in-plane uniform uni-axial for
various aspect ratios (a/b = 1, 1.5, 2) and boundary conditions
(SSSS, CCCC, SCSS) are studied in details and presented in
table 5-8 for different boundary conditions and aspect ratios for
the sake of getting various interlinking results of number of
stiffeners and aspect ratios. Here n is number of stiffeners.
16.5
11.11
9.06
7.38
7.29
7.62
16.54
15.99
15.34
11.43
10.20
12.03
16.50
16.00
15.30
11.40
10.20
12.0
16.54
15.99
14.09
10.48
9.34
11.10
16.5
16.0
14.2
10.5
9.35
11.1
It is observed from the above studies that frequency parameters
at any value of P/Pcr will be more for square stiffened plate.
These values decrease with the increase of aspect ratios.
Similarly it is also concluded that buckling loads parameters will
decrease, as the aspect ratios will increase. It may be concluded
from above observation that buckling load parameter and
frequency parameter will increase with increase of number of
stiffeners. The value will also increase with the increase of
degree of restraints. Thus the buckling and frequency parameter
of CCCC is more than SSSS and SCSS. In the same manner the
buckling and frequency parameter of SCSS is more than SSSS.
Table 5: Variation of frequency parameter and buckling load parameter ( ) in the case of different boundary condition and
various aspect ratios for one longitudinal stiffener at the centre having ( = 0.1 and = 5).
a/b
1
1.5
2
Boundary
Condition
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
11.03
24.90
17.02
7.56
23.73
11.07
7.285
22.47
8.89
Frequency parameter
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 0.9
46.39
87.89
62.70
25.60
52.48
33.47
18.84
37.97
22.49
40.17
79.47
54.91
22.17
46.41
29.20
16.32
33.54
19.64
32.80
69.76
45.60
18.10
39.17
24.09
13.32
28.22
16.22
23.19
57.64
33.24
12.84
29.53
17.29
9.41
21.04
11.667
Table 6: Variation of frequency parameter and buckling load parameter ( ) in the case of different boundary
a/b
1
1.5
condition and aspect ratios for two longitudinal stiffener having ( = 0.1 and = 5)
Boundary
Condition
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
14.44
43.50
26.10
8.72
29.54
14.0
2.31
7.95
1.81
1.28
----
1.77
0.94
2.20
1.20
Frequency parameter
-1 -0.5 0 0.4 0.6 0.9
53.07
---
77.26
27.49
56.88
37.65
45.96
94.46
67.35
23.81
49.89
32.79
37.52
79.78
55.46
19.44
41.28
26.96
29.07
64.95
43.34
15.06
32.51
21.06
23.73
55.48
35.57
12.29
26.83
2.65
8.73
1.37
1.37
3.07
1.94
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2
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
7.68
25.11
10.27
19.35
39.46
24.18
16.79
34.64
21.07
13.69
28.81
17.35
10.60
22.80
13.56
8.66
18.89
11.13
Table 7: Variation of frequency parameter and buckling load parameter ( ) in the case of different boundary condition and
a/b
1
1.5
2
aspect ratios for three longitudinal stiffener having ( = 0.1 and = 5).
BoundaryC
ondition
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
17.04
60.64
32.08
9.69
34.12
16.30
8.03
27.2
11.38
0.96
2.18
1.26
Frequency parameter
-1 -0.5 0 0.4 0.6 0.9
57.67
---
85.63
28.97
60.95
40.63
19.78
40.92
25.46
49.94
---
74.55
25.09
53.25
35.37
17.13
35.82
22.18
Table 8: Variation of frequency parameter and buckling load parameter ( ) for stiffened plate (Equispaced, one stiffener, two
40.78
88.85
61.27
20.49
43.95
29.05
14
29.67
18.24
31.58
69.93
47.76
15.87
34.42
22.64
10.83
23.35
14.24
25.79
57.79
39.15
12.96
28.29
18.36
8.85
19.25
11.68
2.88
6.61
4.41
1.45
3.20
2. 09
0.99
2.19
1.32
stiffener, three stiffener) with different aspect ratio and boundary condition having ( = 0.1, = 5)
a/b
1
2
1.5
No of Stiffener
Boundary
Condition
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
11.03
24.90
17.02
7.285
22.47
8.89
7.56
23.73
11.07
1 2 3
32.80
69.76
45.60
13.32
28.22
16.22
18.10
39.17
24.09
3.3 Unstiffened/stiffened plates under in-plane biaxial
load
3.3.1 Convergence and validation study
The accuracy of the proposed method for unstiffened plates
under in-plane biaxial load are first established by comparing the
results of various problems with those of earlier investigators‘
available in the literature. The analysis has been done for
buckling load factor for square plates having various boundary
14.40
43.50
26.70
7.68
25.11
10.27
8.72
29.54
14.03
37.52
79.78
55.46
13.69
28.81
17.35
19.44
41.28
26.96
17.04
60.64
32.08
8.03
27.2
11.38
9.69
34.12
16.30
40.78
88.85
61.25
14.00
29.67
18.24
20.49
43.95
29.05
conditions (SSSS, CCCC, CSCS) under bi-axial load considering
compressive in-plane load and validated in table 9. To study the
aspect of convergence, a simply supported square plate subjected
to in-plane compressive load in both directions has been
undertaken in table 10. In this case, the result is compared with
finite difference solution by Singh and Dey [2]. The result is
observed to converge satisfactorily at 8 x 8 and 10 x 10 mesh
divisions.
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Further frequency parameter ( ) for a simply supported square
plate subjected to bi-axial load. (Nx = Ny = N and Nxy = 0), =
Boundary
Conditions
SSSS
CCCC
CSCS
0.3, P/Pcr = 0.5 is analyzed and validated in table 9 with the result
of Singh and Dey [2] and analytical solution of Diez [1].
Table 9: Buckling load factor for square plate under biaxial load
Non-dimensional buckling load
Present Ref [2]
Mode1 Mode 2 Mode1 Mode 2
1.99
5.60
3.82
4.999
9.333
5.948
Table 10: Convergence and validation study of frequency parameter for a simply supported square plate subjected to biaxial
load. (Nx = Ny = N, Nxy = 0), = 0.3, P/Pcr = 0.5
Mode No.
1
2
3
4
After convergence and validation study for buckling and free
vibration of unstiffened plates in well condition for bi-axial edge
loading, the analysis is now extended to unstiffened/stiffened
plates subjected to bi-axial load for buckling and vibration
analysis.
3.4 Vibration and buckling studies
The variation of frequency parameter with in-plane load intensity
factor of a plate of various aspect ratio and edge condition
compressed uniformly on all edges (Nx = Ny = N & Nxy = 0) is
2.0
5.61
3.83
Frequency Parameter
Present
4 x 4 6 x 6 8 x 8 10 x 10 Singh and Dey
[2]
13.974 13.959 13.957 13.956 13.96
44.729 44.253 44.148 44.144 44.13
44.729 44.253 44.148 44.144 44.13
75.015 74.078 73.892 73.865 73.86
5.0
9.42
5.92
Analytical [1]
13.96
43.35
43.35
73.87
studied in this section. The fundamental frequency parameter for
plate having different boundary conditions (SSSS, CCCC, SCSS
) are studied in table 11.
The trend of the results for a simply supported plate shown in
table 11 is almost similar for CCCC plates and SCSS, except for
its gradient of rise. For CCCC plate, there is a steep increase in
frequencies with increasing aspect ratios. The natural frequencies
are found to increase with decreased magnitude of compressive
in-plane forces.
Table 11: Variation of frequency parameter with in-plane load intensity factor of a late of various aspect ratio and edge
condition compressed uniformly on all edges (Nx = Ny = N & Nxy = 0), = 0.3.
a/b
1
0.5
2
Boundary
Condition
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
Buckling
Parameter
1.99
5.30
2.66
4.99
15.67
8.61
1.24
3.92
1.34
Frequency parameter
at P/Pcr
0 0.2 0.5 0.8 0.995
19.73
35.98
23.64
43.33
98.29
69.31
12.34
24.57
12.91
17.65
32.28
21.26
44.13
88.22
62.10
11.03
22.06
11.55
13.95
25.65
16.76
34.88
70.17
49.29
8.72
17.54
9.14
8.82
16.32
10.62
22.06
44.73
31.24
5.56
11.18
5.78
0.438
0.815
0.53
0.109
0.224
0.115
0.270
0.558
0.286
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Now the study is extended to stiffened plates subjected to biaxial
in-plane edge loading. The variation of buckling and
frequency parameters with P/Pcr for rectangular stiffened plate
with 1, 2, 3 longitudinal equispaced stiffeners (Stiffener
parameters = 0.1 and = 5) subjected to in-plane uniform bi-
axial for various aspect ratios (a/b= 1, 1.5, 2) and boundary
conditions (SSSS, CCCC, SCSS) are studied in detail and shown
in table 12-14 for the sake of getting various interlinking results
of number of stiffeners and aspect ratios.
Table 12: Variation of frequency parameter with in-plane load intensity factor of stiffened Plate with one central stiffener
having ( = 0.1 and = 5) compressed uniformly on all edges (
a/b
1
0.5
2
Boundary
Condition
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
5.00
9.33
5.36
7.99
17.23
10.64
1.67
6.18
2.38
x y x y
,
0
),
0.
3
Frequency parameter
at Load intensity factor P/Pcr
-2 -1 -0.5 0 0.25 0.5 0.8
53.86
95.28
65.79
131.57
221.34
163.97
23.06
48.12
27.98
44.65
83.89
56.86
111.94
186.09
137.97
18.126
38.98
22.54
39.21
77.32
51.64
100.09
154.12
115.56
15.99
33.98
19.12
32.80
69.75
45.60
78.98
127.22
94.87
13.21
28.43
16.34
29.03
63.78
42.11
68.12
110.76
81.76
11.23
23.98
14.09
24.69
52.22
36.56
55.098
89.98
67.45
Table 13: Variation of frequency parameter with in-plane load intensity factor of stiffened plate with two equispaced stiffener
having ( = 0.1 and = 5) compressed uniformly on all edges (
a/b
1
2
Boundary
Condition
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
7.35
14.21
10.24
1.88
6.39
2.91
x y x y
9.01
20.34
11.23
,
0
),
17.87
33.18
23.13
35.34
56.78
42.34
5.12
11.98
7.12
0.
3
Frequency parameter
at Load intensity factor P/Pcr
-2 -1 -0.5 0 0.25 0.5 0.8
62.89
---
83.50
23.70
48.32
29.99
51.80
97.82
71.09
19.35
39.95
24.51
45.23
89.60
63.70
16.76
34.89
21.24
37.52
79.78
55.46
13.69
28.81
17.35
33.0
73.62
50.00
11./85
25.13
15.03
27.73
65.33
45.12
9.68
20.70
12.28
19.61
46.50
31.09
6.12
13.26
7.77
Table 14: Variation of frequency parameter with in-plane load intensity factor of stiffened plate with three equispaced
stiffeners having ( = 0.1 and = 5) compressed uniformly on all edges. (
a/b
1
Boundary
Condition
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
8.27
18.96
13.24
x y x y
,
0
Frequency parameter
At Load intensity factor P/Pcr
-2 -1 -0.5 0 0.25 0.5 0.8
66.59
--
92.66
52.21
---
78.63
48.54
99.40
70.51
40.78
88.85
61.27
36.28
82.80
56.05
31.13
75.88
50.27
)
23.52
54.01
32.53
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2
SSSS
CCCC
SCSS
2.08
7.19
3.39
24.42
49.84
31.53
19.78
41.18
25.77
The analysis is also presented below in figure 5 for simply supported stiffened plate which has been above for 1, 2, 3 stiffeners to
show as a combined effects and overview.
Non dimensional frequency parameter
70
60
50
17.13
35.96
22.33
13.99
29.67
18.24
12.11
25.87
15.80
9.89
21.29
12.91
40
Simply supported
30
stiffened plate
Aspect ratio=1
20
N =N =N
x y
=0.1&=5
10
1 stiffener
2 stiffener
3 stiffener
0
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
P/P cr
Figure 5: Variation of Non-dimensional frequency parameter vs P/Pcr for stiffened plate subjected by uniform compression on
all edges.
3.5 Unstiffened and stiffened plates uunder shear edge
loading
3.5.1 Validation studies with unstiffened plate
The variation of frequency parameter with various in-plane load
intensity (P/Pcr) of unstiffened square plate having boundary
Boundary
Condition
SSSS
CCCC
CSCS
6.26
13.69
8.17
conditions (SSSS, CCCC, CSCS) subjected to inplane shear load
at all edges have been analyzed in various modes and the results
are obtained in table 15 and validated with the result of Singh
and Dey [2].
Table 15: Buckling load factors for square plate under shear load.
3.6 Buckling and Vibration Studies of stiffened pates
subjected to Shear Load
After validating the results for buckling of unstiffened plates
under shear, it is extended for further study for stiffened plates in
order to get details insight and with the view to get some new
numerical results under in-plane shear load.
The variation of frequency parameters with P/Pcr for simply
supported rectangular stiffened plate with 1, 2, 3 longitudinal
equispaced stiffeners (Stiffener parameters = 0.1 and = 5)
Buckling Load Parameter
Present Ref [2]
Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode1 Mode 2
9.32
11.568
9.33
11.56
14.65
16.958
14.66 16.96
12.58
14.228
12.58 14.23
subjected to uniform shear has been studied for (a/b= 1, 1.5, 2) in
table 16-19 4.27- 4.30. Variation of non-dimensional frequency
parameter ( ) vs P/Pcr for simply supported stiffened plate
having ( =0.1 and =5) subjected by in-plane uniform shear
may be drawn. This is for the sake of getting various interlinking
results of number of stiffeners and aspect ratios. It is observed
from the above studies that frequency parameters at any value of
P/Pcr will be more for square stiffened plate. These values
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 418
ISSN 2250-3153
decrease with the increase of aspect ratios. Similarly it is also
concluded that buckling loads parameters will decrease, as the
aspect ratios will increase.
Table 16: Variation of frequency parameter with in-plane load intensity factor (P/Pcr) of a simply supported stiffened plate
with one central stiffener having ( = 0.1, = 5) subjected to edge shear only. (
a/b
1
1.5
2
20.38
11.41
9.44
Frequency parameter at P/Pcr
0,
x y x y
0 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8
32.80
18.10
13.32
32.10
17.73
13.06
29.71
16.53
12.23
27.58
15.54
11.55
24.42
14.19
10.64
9.44
9.27
7.72
),
0.
3
Table 17: Variation of frequency parameter with in-plane load intensity factor (P/Pcr) of a simply supported stiffened plate
with two equispaced stiffeners ( = 0.1, x y 0,
x y
= 5) subjected to edge shear only. (
), 0.
3
.
a/b
1
1.5
2
35.76
17.22
11.82
Frequency parameter at P/Pcr
0 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8
37.52
19.44
13.44
36.75
19.07
13.44
34.21
17.88
12.66
32.05
16.89
12.01
29.04
15.53
11.13
Table 18: Variation of frequency parameter with in-plane load intensity factor (P/Pcr) of a simply supported stiffened plate
with three equispaced stiffeners ( = 0.1, = 5) subjected to edge shear only. (
a/b
1
1.5
2
57.78
21.39
13.58
Frequency parameter at P/Pcr
--
10.7
8.20
0,
x y x y
0 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8
40.78
20.49
13.99
39.77
21.12
13.74
36.36
18.93
12.95
33.19
17.93
12.30
14.56
16.56
11.42
---
11.8
8.52
),
0.
3
Table 19: Variation of frequency parameter with in-plane load intensity factor (P/Pcr) and buckling load parameter of a
simply supported stiffened plate with equispaced stiffeners ( =0.1 and =5) subjected to edge shear only.
x y 0,
x y
(
), 0.
3
.
No of
stiffeners
1
a/b Buckling
Parameter
1
1.5
2
20.38
11.41
9.44
Frequency parameter at P/Pcr
0 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8
32.80
18.10
13.32
32.10
17.73
13.06
29.71
16.53
12.23
27.58
15.54
11.55
24.42
14.19
10.64
9.44
9.27
7.72
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 419
ISSN 2250-3153
2
3
1
1.5
2
1
1.5
2
35.76
17.23
11.82
57.78
21.39
13.58
37.52
19.44
13.69
40.78
20.49
13.99
36.75
19.07
13.44
39.77
20.12
13.74
34.21
17.88
12.66
36.36
18.93
12.95
32.05
16.89
12.01
33.19
17.93
12.30
29.04
15.53
11.13
14.56
16.56
11.42
--
10.77
8.20
---
11.81
8.52
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 420
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IV. CONCLUSION
The results from the study of the compressive buckling and
vibration behaviour of a stiffened plate subjected to in-plane
uniform and non-uniform edge loading can be summarized as
follows.
The stability resistance increases with increase of restraint at
the edges for all types of loading, stiffener parameters and plate
aspect ratios. The stability resistance increases with increase of
number of stiffeners. The variation of buckling load with the
position of the concentrated load on the edges is more
pronounced for the stiffened plates of the smaller aspect ratios.
The buckling load parameter of unstiffened plates simply
supported along all the edges increase as the loads are nearer to
the support. For plates with small aspect ratios, the boundary
condition on the loaded edge has the significant effect on the
load required to cause elastic stability. Natural frequencies of
stiffened plates always decrease with the increase of the in-plane
compressive load. The fundamental frequency becomes zero at
the respective values of the buckling load. The inclusion of inplane
displacements reduces the frequency of the stiffened plates.
The buckling load of the stiffened plates reduces with the
eccentricity of the stiffeners. The eccentricity of the stiffened
plate element should not be neglected, especially for higher
modes of vibration.
REFERENCES
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of rectangular plates subjected to in-plane normal and shear forces. Journal
of Sound and Vibration, 59, 503-508,1978.
[2] Singh, J.P. and Dey, S.S. Transverse vibration of rectangular plates
subjected to in-plane forces by a difference based variational approach.
International Journal of Mechanical Sciences. 32(7), 591-598, 1990.
[3] Deolasi, P.K., Datta, P.K., and Prabhakar, D.L. Buckling and vibration of
rectangular plates subjected to partial edge loading (Compression or
tension). Journal of Structural Engineering, 22(3), 135-144, 1995.
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rectangular composite plates subjected to partial edge compression.
International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 40(11), 1105-1117, 1998.
[5] Aksu, G. Free vibration analysis of stiffened plates including the effects of
in-plane inertia. Journal of Applied Mechanics, Trans of ASME, 49, 206-
212, 1982.
[6] Shastry, B. P. and Rao, G. V. Vibration of thin rectangular plates with
arbitrarily oriented stiffeners. Computer and Structures, 7, 627-635, 1977.
[7] Olson, M.D and Hazell, C.R. Vibration studies of some integral rib
stiffened plates. Journal of Sound and Vibration. 50 , 43-61,1977.
[8] Bapu Rao, M. N., Guruswami, P., Venketeswara Rao, M. and Pavitran, S.
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Sound and Vibration, 57 (3), 389-402, 1978.
[9] Mukhopadhyay, M. Vibration and stability analysis of stiffened plates by
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displacement only. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 130 (1), 27-39, 1989.
[10] Sheikh, A.H. and Mukhopadhayay, M. Free vibration analysis of stiffened
plates with arbitrary planform by the general spline finite strip method.
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[11] Sheikh, A.H., and Mukhopadhyay, M. Large deflection free flexural
vibration of stiffened plates. AIAA Journal, 24 (11), 1996.
[12] Harik, I.E. and Guo, M. Finite element analysis of eccentrically stiffened
plates in free vibration. Computer and Structures, 49 (6), 1007-1015, 1993.
[13] Bedair, O.K. Fundamental frequency determination of stiffened plates using
sequential quadratic programming. Computer and Structures, 199, 88-106,
1997.
[14] Allman, D. J. Calculation of the elastic buckling loads of thin flat
reinforced plates using triangular finite elements. International Journal of
Numerical Methods in Engineering, 9, 415-432, 1975.
[15] Wu, J. R. and Liu, W. H. Vibration of rectangular plates with edge restraints
and intermediate stiffeners. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 123(1), 103-
113, 1988.
[16] Mukhopadhyay, M. A semi analytic solution for rectangular plate bending.
Computer and Structures, 9, 81-87, 1978.
[17] Mukherjee, A and Mukhopadhyay, M. Finite Element Buckling Analysis of
stiffened plates. Computer and Structures, 34 (6), 795-803, 1990.
[18] Sheikh, A. H. and Mukhopadhyay, M. Analysis of Stiffened plates with
arbitrary planform by the general spline finite strip method. Computer and
Structures, 42(1), 53-67, 1992.
[19] Arun Roy, Y., Shastry, B. P. and Rao, G. V., Stability of partially stiffened
square plates using high precision finite element. Computer and Structures,
37 (4), 613-615, 1990.
[20] Bedair, O.K., A contribution to the stability of stiffened plates under
uniform compression. Computer and Structures, 66, 535-570, 1998.
[21] Chakraborty, S. and Mukhophyay, M. Estimation of In-plane elastic
parameters and stiffener geometry of stiffened plates, Journal of Sound and
Vibration, 231 (1), 99-124, 2000.
[22] Zeng, H and Bert, C. W. A differential quadrature analysis of vibration for
stiffened plates. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 241 (2), 247-252, 2001.
[23] Srivastava, A. K. L., Datta, P. K., Sheikh, A. H., ‗Vibration and Dynamic
instability of stiffened plates subjected to in-plane harmonic edge loading,‘
International Journal of Structural Stability and Dynamics, 2002, 2(2), 185-
206.
[24] Srivastava, A. K. L., Datta, P. K., Sheikh, A. H., ‗Dynamic stability of
stiffened plates subjected to non-uniform harmonic in-plane edge loading,‘
Journal of Sound and Vibration, 2003, 262 (5), 1171-1189.
[25] Leissa, A.W. Recent studies in plate vibration: 1981-1985, Part-I, Classical
theory. Shock and Vibration Digest, 19(2), 11-18, 1987.
[26] Nair, P. S. and Rao, M. S., On vibration of plates with varying stiffener
length. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 95(1), 19-29, 1984.
[27] Timoshenko, S.P. and Gere, J. M. Theory of Elastic Stability. McGraw-Hill,
Newyork, 1961.
AUTHORS
First Author – A.K.L. Srivastava, Department of Civil
Engineering, N. I. T. Jamshedpur- 831014, India, Email:
aklsriv.nitjsr@yahoo.com
Second Author – S.R.Pandey, Department of Civil Engineering,
N. I. T. Jamshedpur- 831014, India, Email:
ravi_sujay@yahoo.com
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 421
ISSN 2250-3153
An Efficient Synthesis of Bio Active Azetidinones and
Thiazolidinones of 3-METHYL-1-PHENYL-1H-
PYRAZOL-5-OL
Ravindra Kumar*, Abha Shukla**, and D.S.Tyagi***
* Department of Chemistry, Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar-249404, India
** Department of Chemistry, K.G.M. Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar-249404, India
** Department of Chemistry, L.R.P.G.College, Sahibabad, Ghaziabad, U.P., India
Abstract- A series of Azetidinone; 3-chloro-1-{4-[8-(2hydroxy-4-methylphenyl)-6,10-dimethyl-4,12-diphenyl-
2,4,5,11,12-pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0 3,7 ]dodeca-1(9), 3(7), 5,10tetraen-2-yl]phenyl}-4-aryl
azetidin-2-one (3a-e) and
thiazolidinones; 3-{4-[8-(2-hydroxy-4-methylphenyl)-6,10dimethyl-4,12-diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0
3,7 ]dodeca-1(9), 3(7), 5,10-tetraen-2yl]phenyl}-2-aryl-1,3-thiazolidin-4-one
(4a-e) were synthesized
using new schiff base; 2-(6,10-dimethyl-4,12-diphenyl-2-{4-
[(E)-(arylmethylidene)amino]phenyl}-2,4,5,11,12pentaazatricyclo
[7.3.0.0 3,7 ]dodeca-1(9), 3(7), 5,10-tetraen-8-yl)-
5-methyl phenol (2a-e). The schiff base were synthesized by the
reaction of aromatic aldehyde and 2-[2-(4-aminophenyl)-6,10dimethyl-4,12-diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0
3,7 ]dodeca-1(9), 3(7), 5,10-tetraen-8-yl]-
5-methyl phenol (1) under microwave and conventional methods.
Our results show that the synthesis of schiff bases under solvent
free microwave conditions is the most efficient method of
synthesis having highest yield than both conventional method
and microwave with solvent. The newly synthesized compounds
were characterized on the basis of different spectroscopic (IR,
1 HNMR, Mass) and elemental (C, H, N) analysis techniques.
Compounds (3a-e and 4a-e) were screened for their biological
activities against the panel of nine bacterial strains.
Index Terms- Antibacterial activity, azetidinones derivatives,
microwave method, thiazolidinones derivatives,.
M
I. INTRODUCTION
icrowave assisted heterocyclic synthesis is an efficient and
eco-friendly synthetic strategy and has now become a
power full tool for green chemistry. Microwave irradiation has
been applied to organic reactions in the absence of solvent and or
in the presence of a solid support such as clay, alumina and
silica, resulting in shorter reaction time and better product yields
than those obtained by using conventional heating (1-7) . Much
attention has been paid to the synthesis of heterocyclic
compounds (8-11) .
Thiazolidinone is one of the most important pharmacores. 4thiazolidinone
derivatives exhibit a broader spectrum of
biological activity (12) . In recent years 4-thiazolidinones are the
most extensively investigated class of compounds, and its
derivatives have been found to have potentially chemotherapic
activities such as anticonvulsant, antibacterial, antifungal,
antinflammatory (13) , anticancer, and antipsychotic properties (14) .
With a view to further assess the pharmacological profile of this
class of compounds contains nitrogen and sulphur, we thought to
synthesize some Azetidinone and thiazolidinones moieties in a
single molecular frame work. Conventional methods are used for
the synthesis of compounds (1). It was prepared by the reaction
of 3-methyl-1-phenyl-5-pyrzolone, p-phenylene diamine and 4methyl-salicylaldehyde
in ethanol condensation of compounds in
ethanol gave the corresponding schiff base (2). Compound (2)
was prepared by both methods conventional and microwave
procedures. Cyclisation of schiff basses (2) with chloroacetic
acid, POCl3 in presence of triethylamine and with thioglycolic
acid in dichloromethane afforded azetidinones and
thiazolidinones respectively. Purity of the compounds was
checked by TLC, and characterized by elemental analysis, IR,
1 H-NMR and mass spectrometric techniques. . The antibacterial
activities of the title compounds were evaluated against the
different bacterial strains (15-18) .
II. RESEARCH ELABORATIONS
All solvents and alcohols employed were distilled once before
use and purchased form S.D. fine chemicals Ltd. India.,
Qualigens fine chemical, India. Melting points were taken in an
open capillary in an electro thermal apparatus and are
uncorrected. IR (KBr) Spectra were recorded on a Perkin-Elmer
spectrophotometer. 1H-NMR spectra were recorded on a Brucker
AMX 560 MHz in DMSO-d6 using TMS as internal standard.
Samsung microwave oven (Model No.M1630N, 2450MHz) was
used for irradiation. The microwave assisted synthesis of schiff
base compounds were carried out in a Samsung laboratory
microwave reactor. EL-MS spectra were determined on a LCQ
ion tap mass spectrometer. (Thermo Fisher, San Jose, CA. USA)
equipped with an El-Source.
2-[2-(4-aminophenyl)-6,10-dimethyl-4,12-dipheneyl-
2,4,5,11,12-pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0 3,7 ]dodeca-1(9),3(7),5,10tetraen-8-yl]-5-methylphenol
(1): A mixture of 5-methyl-2phenyl-1H-pyrazol-3-one
(0.2 mol), 4-methyl Salicylaldehyde
(0.1 mol) in ethanol (10 ml) was refluxed for about 3-4 hours.
After cooling, the reaction mixture was poured in ice cold water,
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 422
ISSN 2250-3153
the solid precipitate was obtained and then filtered, dried and
crystallized from chloroform to give light yellow solid.
2-(6,10-dimethyl-4,12-diphenyl-2-{4-[(E)-
(arylmethylidene)amino]phenyl}-2,4,5,11,12pentaazitricyclo[7.3.0.0
3,7 ]dodeca-1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-8-yl)-
5-methylphenol (2a-e):
Microwave method with solvent: 0.01 mol of 2-[2-(4aminophenyl)-6,10-dimethyl-4,12-dipheneyl-2,4,5,11,12pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0
3,7 ]dodeca-1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-8-yl]-5methylphenol
(1), and aromatic aldehyde and ethanol were taken
in a glass tube which was loosely closed and irradiated in
microwave oven for 2 minutes. The completion of the reaction
was monitored by TLC. The reaction mixture was allowed to
attain room temperature. The solvent was removed and the crude
product was recrystallized with chloroform. (figure -1)
Classical method: 0.01 mol of 2-[2-(4-aminophenyl)-6,10dimethyl-4,12-dipheneyl-2,4,5,11,12pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0
3,7 ]dodeca-1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-8-yl]-5methylphenol
(1), and aromatic aldehyde and 2-3 drops of acetic
acid in ethanol(10 ml) was refluxed for 4-5 hours. The reaction
was monitored by TLC. After completion of the reaction, the
reaction mixture was set in one side to cool. Then the reaction
mixture was poured in ice cold water and solid precipitate was
separated out, filtered and recrystallized from chloroform.
2-(6,10-dimethyl-4,12-diphenyl-2-{4-[(E)-
(phenylmethylidene)amino]phenyl}-2,4,5,11,12pentaazitricyclo[7.3.0.0
3,7 ]dodeca-1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-8-yl)-
5-methylphenol (2a): m. p.: 165 0 C, IR(KBr); 760(1-2
disubtituted benzene ring), 1285 (C-N), 1572(C=C), 1618(C=N),
2920(Ar-CH), 2998 cm -1 (Ar-OH); 1 H-NMR: δ=2.23(m, 6H, Ar-
CH); 3.08 (s, 6H, (N-CH3)2); 4.12 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 4.47 (d, J=8.5
Hz, 2H, Ar-CH); 6.72-6.94 (m, 6H, Ar-CH), 7.08 (m, 6H, Ar-
CH); 7.27-7.37 (m, 6H, Ar-CH); 7.51 (t, J=7.12 Hz, 3H, Ar-CH),
7.80 (d, J=8.24 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH); 8.33(s, 1H, N=CH); 9.61 (s, 1H,
Ar-OH); Analysis Calculated for C41H34N6O: C, 78.50; H, 5.42;
N, 13.40; Found: C, 78.07; H, 4.37; N, 12.97; Mass spectra, m/z
= 644 (100%).
2-(2-{4-[(E)-[(2-hydroxyphenyl)methylidene]amino]phenyl}-
6,10-dimethyl-4,12-diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12pentaazitricyclo[7.3.0.0
3,7 ]dodeca-1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-8-yl)-
5-methylphenol (2b): m. p.: 185 0 C, IR(KBr); 733 (1-2
disubtituted benzene ring), 1210 (C-N), 1553 (C=C), 1605
(C=N), 2850 (Ar-CH), 3015 cm -1 (Ar-OH); 1 H-NMR: δ=2.63(m,
6H, Ar-CH); 3.35 (s, 6H, (N-CH3)2); 4.17 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 4.64
(d, J=8.2 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH); 6.82-7.24 (m, 6H, Ar-CH), 7.45 (m,
8H, Ar-CH); 7.47-7.64 (m, 7H, Ar-CH); 7.71 (s, 1H, Ar-CH);
8.38 (s, 1H, N=CH); 9.74 (s, 1H, Ar-OH); 11.24 (s, 1H, Ar-OH);
Analysis Calculated for C41H34N6O2; C, 76.55; H, 5.29; N,
13.40; Found: C, 75.81; H, 4.37; N, 12.97; Mass spectra, m/z =
660 (100%).
2-(2-{4-[(E)-[(4-hydroxyphenyl)methylidene]amino]phenyl}-
6,10-dimethyl-4,12-diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12pentaazitricyclo[7.3.0.0
3,7 ]dodeca-1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-8-yl)-
5-methylphenol (2c): m. p.: 135 0 C, IR(KBr); 775 (1-2
disubtituted benzene ring), 1293 (C-N), 1523 (C=C), 1635
(C=N), 2935 (Ar-CH), 3035 cm -1 (Ar-OH); 1 H-NMR: δ=1.93(m,
6H, Ar-CH); 3.18 (s, 6H, (N-CH3)2); 3.95 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 4.34
(d, J=8.5 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH); 6.52-7.14 (m, 8H, Ar-CH); 7.25-7.45
(m, 6H, Ar-CH); 7.55-7..71 (m, 6H, Ar-CH); 7.83 (d, J = 8.2 Hz,
2H, Ar-CH); 8.64 (s, 1H, N=CH); 9.54 (s, 1H, Ar-OH); 9.94 (s,
1H, Ar-OH); Analysis Calculated for C41H34N6O2; C, 76.55; H,
5.29; N, 13.07; Found: C, 76.01; H, 5.09; N, 12.75; Mass spectra,
m/z = 660 (100%).
2-(2-{4-[(E)-[(4-methoxyphenyl)methylidene]amino]phenyl}-
6,10-dimethyl-4,12-diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12pentaazitricyclo[7.3.0.0
3,7 ]dodeca-1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-8-yl)-
5-methylphenol (2d): m. p.: 175 0 C, IR(KBr); 762 (1-2
disubtituted benzene ring), 1253 (C-N), 1513 (C=C), 1655
(C=N), 2915 (Ar-CH), 3065 cm -1 (Ar-OH); 1 H-NMR: δ=2.33 (m,
6H, Ar-CH); 3.42 (s, 6H, (N-CH3)2); 3.85 (s, 3H, Ar-OCH3);
4.24 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 4.48 (d, J=8.5 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH); 6.32-6.94
(m, 6H, Ar-CH); 7.05-7.25 (m, 8H, Ar-CH); 7.34-7.41 (m, 6H,
Ar-CH); 7.88 (d, J = 8.3 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH); 8.54 (s, 1H, N=CH);
9.74 (s, 1H, Ar-OH); Analysis Calculated for C42H36N6O2; C,
76.74; H, 5.48; N, 12.79; Found: C, 75.81; H, 5.01; N, 12.44;
Mass spectra, m/z = 674 (100%).
2-(2-{4-[(E)-[(3-nitrophenyl)methylidene]amino]phenyl}-
6,10-dimethyl-4,12-diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12pentaazitricyclo[7.3.0.0
3,7 ]dodeca-1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-8-yl)-
5-methylphenol (2e): m. p.: 145 0 C, IR(KBr); 752 (1-2
disubtituted benzene ring), 1273 (C-N), 1583 (C=C), 1613
(C=N), 2914 (Ar-CH), 3054 cm -1 (Ar-OH); 1 H-NMR: δ=2.43(m,
6H, Ar-CH); 3.32 (s, 6H, (N-CH3)2); 3.83 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 4.24
(d, J=8.3 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH); 6.62-7.04 (m, 6H, Ar-CH); 7.12-7.25
(m, 6H, Ar-CH); 7.41-7..59 (m, 7H, Ar-CH); 7.73 (s, 1H, Ar-
CH); 8.08 (d, J = 8.2 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH); 8.62 (s, 1H, N=CH); 8.84
(s, 1H, Ar-OH); 9.34 (s, 1H, Ar-OH); Analysis Calculated for
C41H37N7O3; C, 73.24; H, 4.91; N, 14.59; Found: C, 72.71; H,
4.31; N, 14.15; Mass spectra, m/z = 689 (100%).
3-chloro-1-{4-[8-(2-hydroxy-4-methylphenyl)-6,10-dimethyl-
4,12-diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12-pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0 3,7 ]dodeca-
1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-2-yl]phenyl}-4-arylazetidin-2-one (3ae):
A mixture of schiff base (0.002 mols) chloroacetic acid
(0.002 mols) was dissolved in dichloromethane (15 ml.) in
stoppered conical flask, cooled and stirred. The reaction mixture,
triethylamine (TEA, 0.002 mols) was added in it, which is
followed by dropwise addition of POCl3 in dichloromethane
(0.002 mols) with vigorous stirring. The reaction mixture was
then stirred for additional 18 hrs. The completion of the reaction
was monitored by TLC. The reaction mixture was washed with
water and dried over sodium sulphate. The products that were
obtained after removing the solvent were purified from
chloroform.
3-chloro-1-{4-[8-(2-hydroxy-4-methylphenyl)-6,10-dimethyl-
4,12-diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12-pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0 3,7 ]dodeca-
1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-2-yl]phenyl}-4-phenylazetidin-2-one
(3a). Yield: 61%; m. p.: 185 0 C, IR (KBr):764 (1, 2 disubtituted
benzene ring),1285 (C-N), 1318 (C-N, β-lactam ring), 1573
(C=C), 1738 (C=O, β-lactam), 2920 (Ar-CH), 2999cm -1 (Ar-
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 423
ISSN 2250-3153
OH); 1 H NMR: δ = 2.22 (m, 6H, Ar-CH); 3.09 (s, 6H, (N-
CH3)2); 4.10 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 4.46 (d, J = 8.3 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH);
5.12 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 5.38 (s, 1H, CH-Cl); 6.52 (d, J = 8.4 Hz,
2H, Ar-CH); 6.72-6.89 (m, 6H, Ar-CH); 7.02-7.19 (m, 6H, Ar-
CH); 7.26-7.42 (m, 9H, Ar-CH); 9.58 (s, 1H, Ar-OH); Analysed
Calculated For C43H35N6O2Cl : C, 73.38; H, 4.98; N, 11.94;
Found: C, 73.01; H, 4.45; N, 11.24 ; Mass spectra, m/z = 720
(100%).
3-chloro-1-{4-[8-(2-hydroxy-4-methylphenyl)-6,10-dimethyl-
4,12-diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12-pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0 3,7 ]dodeca-
1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-2-yl]phenyl}-4-(2-hydroxyphenyl)
azetidin-2-one (3b). Yield: 55%; m. p.: 212 0 C, IR (KBr):723 (1,
2 disubtituted benzene ring), 1212 (C-N), 1338 (C-N, β-lactam
ring),1554 (C=C), 1718 (C=O, β-lactam), 2851 (Ar-CH), 3013
cm -1 (Ar-OH); 1 HNMR: δ = 2.29 (m, 6H, Ar-CH); 2.92 (s, 6H,
(N-CH3)2); 3.84 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 4.37 (d, J = 8.3 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH);
5.22 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 5.48 (s, 1H, CH-Cl); 6.61 (d, J = 8.2 Hz,
2H, Ar-CH); 6.62-6.71 (m, 8H, Ar-CH); 6.98-7.22 (m, 8H, Ar-
CH); 7.49 (m, 4H, Ar-CH); 9.58 (d, J = 8.5 Hz, 2H, Ar-OH);
Analysis Calculated For C43H35N6O3Cl : C, 71.74; H, 4.87; N,
11.68; Found: C, 71.16; H, 4.26; N, 11.08 ; Mass spectra, m/z =
730 (100%).
3-chloro-1-{4-[8-(2-hydroxy-4-methylphenyl)-6,10-dimethyl-
4,12-diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12-pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0 3,7 ]dodeca-
1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-2-yl]phenyl}-4-(4-hydroxyphenyl)
azetidin-2-one (3c). Yield: 67%; m. p.: 175 0 C, IR (KBr):769 (1,
2 disubtituted benzene ring), 1287 (C-N), 1334 (C-N, β-lactam
ring), 1520 (C=C), 1729 (C=O, β-lactam), 2943 (Ar-CH), 3028
cm -1 (Ar-OH); 1 H NMR: δ = 2.03 (m, 6H, Ar-CH); 3.08 (s, 6H,
(N-CH3)2); 4.02 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 4.18 (d, J = 8.3 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH);
5.11 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 5.48 (s, 1H, CH-Cl); 6.53 (d, J = 8.5 Hz,
2H, Ar-CH); 6.72 (d, J = 8.4 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH); 6.78-6.88 (m, 6H,
Ar-CH); 7.13 (m, 8H, Ar-CH); 7.31 (m, 4H, Ar-CH); 9.39 (s, 1H,
Ar-OH); 9.68 (s, 1H, Ar-OH); Analysis Calculated For
C43H35N6O3Cl : C, 71.74; H, 4.87; N, 11.68; Found: C, 71.06; H,
4.36; N, 11.38 ; Mass spectra, m/z = 731 (100%).
3-chloro-1-{4-[8-(2-hydroxy-4-methylphenyl)-6,10-dimethyl-
4,12-diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12-pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0 3,7 ]dodeca-
1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-2-yl]phenyl}-4-(4-methoxyphenyl)
azetidin-2-one (3d). Yield: 70%; m. p.: 248 0 C, IR (KBr):758
(1, 2 disubtituted benzene ring), 1248 (C-N), 1362 (C-N, βlactam
ring), 1518 (C=C), 1752 (C=O, β-lactam), 2920 (Ar-CH),
3065 cm -1 (Ar-OH); 1 HNMR: δ = 2.32 (m, 6H, Ar-CH); 3.18 (s,
6H, (NCH3)2); 3.92 (s, 3H, Ar-CH3); 4.28 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 4.48
(d, J = 8.5 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH); 5.25 (s,1H, Ar-CH); 5.35 (s, 1H,
CH-Cl); 6.35 (d, J = 8.5 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH); 6.75-6.95 (m, 8H, Ar-
CH); 7.10-7.25 (m, 8H, Ar-CH); 7.42 (m, 4H, Ar-CH); 9.18 (s,
1H, Ar-OH); Analysis Calculated For C44H37N6O3Cl : C, 72.01;
H, 5.05; N, 11.46; Found: C, 71.27; H, 4.18; N, 11.07 ; Mass
spectra, m/z = 750 (100%).
3-chloro-1-{4-[8-(2-hydroxy-4-methylphenyl)-6,10-dimethyl-
4,12-diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12-pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0 3,7 ]dodeca-
1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-2-yl]phenyl}-4-(3-nitrophenyl) azetidin-
2-one (3e). Yield: 72%; m. p.: 228 0 C, IR (KBr):752 (1, 2
disubtituted benzene ring), 1275 (C-N), 1355 (C-N, β-lactam
ring), 1585 (C=C), 1765 (C=O, β-lactam), 2915 (Ar-CH), 3050
cm -1 (Ar-OH); 1 H NMR: δ = 2.12 (m, 6H, Ar-CH); 3.02 (s, 6H,
(N-CH3)2); 3.85 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 4.25 (d, J = 8.7 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH);
4.89 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 5.15 (s, 1H, CH-Cl); 6.25 (d, J = 8.3 Hz,
2H, Ar-CH); 6.45-6.85 (m, 6H, Ar-CH); 7.15-7.25 (m, 6H, Ar-
CH); 7.55 (m, 4H, Ar-CH); 7.75 (d, J = 8.3 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH);
8.05 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 8.25 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 9.45 (s, 1H, Ar-OH);
Analysed Calculated. For C43H34N7O4Cl: C, 68.96; H, 4.54; N,
13.10; Found: C, 67.99; H, 4.18; N, 12.40; Mass spectra, m/z =
767 (100%).
3-{4-[8-(2-hydroxy-4-methylphenyl)-6,10-dimethyl-4,12diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12-pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0
3,7 ]dodeca-
1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-2-yl]phenyl}-2-aryl-1,3-thiazolidin-4one
(4a-e). A Mixture of Schiff base (0.002 mols) and
thioglycolic acid (0.002 mols) was dissolved in ethanol (10 ml)
and the reaction mixture was refluxed for 14-16 hrs. The
completion of the reaction was monitored by TLC. After the
completion of reaction, it was poured in ice cold water and the
solid precipitate was separated out. Collect the solid deposit by
filtration and the crude product was recrystallized from
chloroform.
3-{4-[8-(2-hydroxy-4-methylphenyl)-6,10-dimethyl-4,12diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12-pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0
3,7 ]dodeca-
1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-2-yl]phenyl}-2-phenyl-1,3-thiazolidin-4one
(4a). Yield: 60 %; m. p.: 212 0 C, IR (KBr): 620 (C-S-C, 4thiazolidinone),
758 (1, 2 disubtituted benzene ring), 1275 (C-N),
1576 (C=C), 1616 (C=O, thiazolidinone), 2920 (Ar-CH), 3000
cm -1 (Ar-OH); 1 H NMR: δ = 2.25 (m, 6H, Ar-CH); 3.15 (s, 6H,
(N-CH3)2); 3.95-4.05 (d, J = 8.7 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH, thiazolidinone);
4.05 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 4.42 (d, J = 8.3 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH); 6.45 (s,
1H, Ar-CH, thiazolidinone); 6.58 (d, J = 8.6 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH);
6.75-6.85 (m, 6H, Ar-CH); 7.20-7.40 (m, 6H, Ar-CH); 7.42-7.72
(m, 9H, Ar-CH); 9.65 (s, 1H, Ar-OH); Analysis Calculated For
C43H36N6O2S : C, 73.62; H, 5.14; N, 11.99; S, 4.57; Found: C,
73.01; H, 4.45; N, 11.50 ; S, 4.11; Mass spectra, m/z = 720
(100%).
3-{4-[8-(2-hydroxy-4-methylphenyl)-6,10-dimethyl-4,12diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12-pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0
3,7 ]dodeca-
1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-2-yl]phenyl}-2-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-1,3thiazolidin-4-one
(4b). Yield: 60 %; m. p.: 263 0 C, IR (KBr):
640 (C-S-C,4-thiazolidinone), 737 (1,2 disubtituted benzene
ring), 1210 (C-N), 1540 (C=C), 1650 (C=O, thiazolidinone),
2850 (Ar-CH), 3020 cm -1 (Ar-OH); 1H NMR: δ = 2.60-2.62 (m,
6H, Ar-CH); 3.20 (s, 6H, (N-CH3)2); 4.10 (s, 2H, Ar-CH,
thiazolidinone); 4.16-4,20 (d, J = 8.5 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH); 4.50 (d, J
= 8.1 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH); 6.50 (s, 1H, Ar-CH, thiazolidinone); 7.00-
7.70 (m, 2H, Ar-CH); 9.80 (s, 1H, Ar-OH); 10.90 (s, 1H, Ar-
OH); Analysed Calculated For C43H36N6O3S : C, 71.98; H, 5.02;
N, 11.72; S, 4.46; Found: C, 71.17; H, 4.56; N, 11.38 ; S, 4.05;
Mass spectra, m/z = 728 (100%).
3-{4-[8-(2-hydroxy-4-methylphenyl)-6,10-dimethyl-4,12diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12-pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0
3,7 ]dodeca-
1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-2-yl]phenyl}-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1,3thiazolidin-4-one
(4c). Yield: 70 %; m. p.: 242 0 C, IR (KBr):
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 424
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625 (C-S-C, 4-thiazolidinone),780 (1, 2 disubtituted benzene
ring), 1280 (C-N), 1530 (C=C), 1610 (C=O, thiazolidinone),
2950 (Ar-CH), 3020 cm -1 (Ar-OH); 1 H NMR: δ = 2.20 (m, 6H,
Ar-CH); 2.80 (s, 6H, (N-CH3)2); 3.95 (s, 1H, Ar-CH,
thiazolidinone); 4.15 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 4.30 (d, J = 8.1 Hz, 2H, Ar-
CH); 6.40 (s, 1H, Ar-CH, thiazolidinone); 6.40-6.50 (m, 5H, Ar-
CH); 6.75-7.05 (m, 6H, Ar-CH); 7.10-7.40 (m, 6H, Ar-CH); 7.60
(m, 4H, Ar-CH); 7.80 (d, J = 8.3 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH); 9.50 (s, 1H,
Ar-OH); 9.70 (s, 1H, Ar-OH); Analysed Calculated For
C43H36N6O3S: C, 71.98; H, 5.02; N, 11.72; S, 4.46; Found: C,
71.27; H, 4.66; N, 11.28 ; S, 4.05; Mass spectra, m/z = 725
(100%).
3-{4-[8-(2-hydroxy-4-methylphenyl)-6,10-dimethyl-4,12diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12-pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0
3,7 ]dodeca-
1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-2-yl]phenyl}-2-(4-methoxyphenyl)-1,3thiazolidin-4-one
(4d). Yield: 70 %; m. p.: 272 0 C, IR (KBr):
620 (C-S-C, 4-thiazolidinone), 770 (1, 2- disubtituted benzene
ring), 1260 (C-N), 1520 (C=C), 1660 (C=O, thiazolidinone),
2920 (Ar-CH), 3060 cm -1 (Ar-OH); 1 H NMR: δ = 2.32 (m, 6H,
Ar-CH); 3.10 (s, 6H, (N-CH3)2); 3.70 (s, 3H, Ar-OCH3); 4.20 (s,
1H, Ar-CH, thiazolidinone); 4.30 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 4.40 (d, J = 8.7
Hz, 2H, Ar-CH); 6.40 (s, 1H, Ar-CH, thiazolidinone); 6.60 (d, J
= 8.2 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH); 6.70-6.80 (m, 7H, Ar-CH); 7.20-7.30 (m,
8H, Ar-CH); 7.40-7.50 (m, 4H, Ar-CH); 7.80 (d, J = 8.4 Hz, 2H,
Ar-CH); 9.60 (s, 1H, Ar-OH); Analysed Calculated For
C44H38N6O3S : C, 72.24; H, 5.20; N, 11.49; S, 4.38; Found: C,
71.77; H, 4.43; N, 11.37 ; S, 4.25; Mass spectra, m/z = 750
(100%).
3-{4-[8-(2-hydroxy-4-methylphenyl)-6,10-dimethyl-4,12diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12-pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0
3,7 ]dodeca-
1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-2-yl]phenyl}-2-(3-nitrophenyl)-1,3thiazolidin-4-one
(4e). Yield: 68%; m. p.: 242 0 C, IR (KBr): 660
C
H 3
N OH
N
2 +
NH 2
NH 2
+
HO
CH 3
CHO
EtOH
N
HO
C
H 3
N
CH 3
N
(C-S-C, 4-thiazolidinone), 760 (1, 2- disubtituted benzene ring),
1260 (C-N), 1590 (C=C), 1660 (C=O, thiazolidinone), 2920 (Ar-
CH), 3050cm -1 (Ar-OH); 1 H NMR: δ = 2.40 (m, 6H, Ar-CH);
3.30 (s, 6H, (N-CH3)2); 4.10 (s, 1H, Ar-CH, thiazolidinone);
4.10 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 4.40 (d, J = 8.3 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH); 6.10 (s,
1H, Ar-CH, thiazolidinone); 6.80 (d, J = 8.5 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH);
6.70-6.90 (m, 5H, Ar-CH); 7.10 (m, 4H, Ar-CH); 7.40-8.00 (m,
8H, Ar-CH); 8.10 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 8.00 (s, 1H, Ar-CH); 8.20-
8.30 (d, J = 8.1 Hz, 2H, Ar-CH); 9.90 (s, 1H, Ar-OH); Analysed
Calculated For C43H35N7O4S : C, 69.18; H, 4.38; N, 13.14; S,
4.29; Found: C, 68.50; H, 4.38; N, 12.61 ; S, 3.99; Mass spectra,
m/z = 764 (100%).
III. RESULTS
2-[2-(4-aminophenyl)-6,10-dimethyl-4,12-dipheneyl-
2,4,5,11,12-pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0 3,7 ]dodeca-1(9),3(7),5,10tetraen-8-yl]-5-methylphenol
(1): was prepared in quantitative
yield. By the reaction of compound 1 with different aldehydes,
we have synthesized 2-(6,10-dimethyl-4,12-diphenyl-2-{4-[(E)-
(arylmethylidene)amino]phenyl}-2,4,5,11,12pentaazitricyclo[7.3.0.0
3,7 ]dodeca-1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-8-yl)-5methylphenol
(2a-e), in good yields by using neat conditions
under microwave irradiation in presence of solvent as well as
solvent free as compared to that of conventional reflux reactions
in ethanol (Figure 1). The comparison of isolated yields and
reaction time of the three conditions employed showed
microwave-assisted reactions as the most efficient synthetic
method in terms of energy and time consumption (Table 1). The
comparison of the isolated yield by different methods has been
depicted graphically as shown in Figure 2.
N
CH 3
N
MW EtOH
EtOH
MW solvent free
N
NH2 (1)
Ar H
Figure – 1
(2a-e)
Synthesis of Schiff bases (2a-e) by MW, MW Solvent free and classical technique.
N
HO
C
H 3
N
CH 3
N
N
CH 3
N
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 425
ISSN 2250-3153
Compds
. Ar
Table – 1: Time and yield comparison between classical and MW Irradiation.
MWI
(Solvent free)
Reaction time (min/sec) Yield (%) a
MWI
(EtOH)
Classical
(EtOH)
MWI
(Solvent free)
MWI
(EtOH)
Classical (EtOH)
2a -C6H5 2 min 2 min 300 min 92 87 77
2b 2-OHC6H4 2 min 2 min 300 min 85 73 65
2c 4-OHC6H4 2 min 2 min 300 min 82 67 62
2d 4-OCH3C6H4 2 min 2 min 300 min 87 77 72
2e 3-NO2C6H4 2 min 2 min 300 min 79 72 64
a Isolated Yield
Figure – 2: Comparison of the yields of compounds (2a-e) using different methods.
Compounds 2 reacts with chloroacetic acid in presence of triethylamine, POCl3 and mercaptoacetic acid to afford 3-chloro-1-{4-[8-(2hydroxy-4-methylphenyl)-6,10-dimethyl-4,12-diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12-pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0
3,7 ]dodeca-1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-2yl]phenyl}-4-arylazetidin-2-one
and 3-{4-[8-(2-hydroxy-4-methylphenyl)-6,10-dimethyl-4,12-diphenyl-2,4,5,11,12pentaazatricyclo[7.3.0.0
3,7 ] dodeca-1(9),3(7),5,10-tetraen-2-yl]phenyl}-2-aryl-1,3-thiazolidin-4-one respectively (Figure 3).
HO
H3C N
N
Ar
(3a-e)
CH 3
N
N
Cl
O
CH 3
N
N
POCL 3, DCM, TEA
Chloroacetic acid
N
HO
C
H 3
N
CH 3
N
N
Ar H
N
CH 3
N
Thioglycolic Acid
EtOH
HO
H3C Figure – 3: Synthesis of azetidinones (3a-e) and thiazolidinones (4a-e).
N
N
Ar
S
CH 3
N
N
(4a-e)
O
CH 3
N
N
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 426
ISSN 2250-3153
IV. ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY
Antibacterial activities of all the compounds were studied against
nine different bacterial strains [E. coil (mixed), B. subtilis,
Pseudomonas sp., S.aureus, P.vulageris, Salmonella sp. , E. coil
(+ve strain), Rhodococci, B. stearothermopelus] by measuring
the zone of inhibition on agar plates. The compounds possess
Bacterial strain
moderate to good activity against all stains in comparison with
standard drug (Table 2). It can be observed from these results
that compounds 3a-e and 4a-e have shown positive bacterial
activity against different bacterial species, which are also known
as human pathogenic bacteria. It was also observed that within
the synthesized compound extracts, all compounds show good
activity against all bacterial strains
Table – 2: Biological activities of azetidinones and thiazolidinones.
Zone of inhibition in mm along without well diameter (5mm)
Chemical Compounds
3a 3b 3c 3d 3e 4a 4b 4c 4d 4e
E. coil (mixed) 14 13 8 12.8 – 8 15 10 9 10 16
B. subtilis 3 3.5 5 - 4 4 5 3 10 6 6
Pseudomonas sp. 9 5 12 10.2 8 7 8 11 7 3.6 12
S. aureus 4 - 5.5 6.6 4 7.9 9 7.5 6 8.8 9
P. vulageris 11 14 10.6 14.5 16 12.5 6.5 12 15 9 16
Std.
Nystatin
Salmonella sp. 11 15 16.5 18 14 16 11 13 10 16 18.8
E. coil (+ve strain) - 8 7.2 5.3 10 6.5 10 5 - 4 10
Rhodococci 2 - - 3 4.5 4.8 5 3.8 4 2.6 6
B. Stearothermopelus 4 3 5.1 6.4 3.6 6.4 4.8 3 11 5.8 7.2
―-―represent ―not active‖
V. CONCLUSION
Microwave irradiation technique is becoming a popular
method of heating and replaces the classical chemical route,
because of its features like clean, cheap & convenience. Often, it
affords higher yields and results within short reaction times. In
this paper we have reported synthesis of imines 2a-e using
microwave irradiation, which are far superior over existing
procedures. In microwave synthesis the yield of all the products
are more and the reaction time is considerably reduced to 2
minute instead of 5 hours in the classical way. From data of
antimicrobial activity of the compounds of the series, 3a-e and
4a-e show good comparable activity against standard drugs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are thankful to Head, department of chemistry,
Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar and Head, department of
chemistry, L.R.P.G.College, Sahibabad, Ghaziabad for
encouraging and providing the research facilities.
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Satuluri – Bull. Korean Chem. Soc. 31 (5) (2010) 1219.
[14] A. Verma, S. K. Saraf - Eur. J. Med. Chem. 43 (5) (2008) 897.
[15] E. C. Oka for – Jour. Inorg. Nucl – chem.; 42 (1980) 1155.
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[17] W. S. Hamama, M. A. Smail, S. Shaaban, H. H. Zoorob – J. Het Chem 45
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2 (3) (2010) 294.
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AUTHORS
First Author – Author name, qualifications, associated institute
(if any) and email address. Ravindra Kumar, M. Phill, Ph. D.
student, Department of Chemistry, Gurukul Kangri University,
Haridwar, India, Email: ravi_tyagi18@rediffmail.com
Second Author –Abha Shukla, M. Sc. (Ph. D.), Department of
Chemistry, K.G.M., Gurukul Kangri University, Haridwar,
India., Email-id : rks.hdr@gmail.com
Third Author –Prof. D. S. Tyagi, Department of Chemistry,
L.R.P.G.College, Sahibabad, Ghaziabad, India.
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Colposcopy and carcinoma buccal mucosa: finding
significance, a pilot study
Dr.Abhishek Singh Nayyar 1 , Dr.Gayitri H.C. 2 , Dr.Mubeen Khan 3 , Dr.U.D.Bafna 4 , Dr.Siddique Ahmed 5
Post-graduate 1 , Post-graduate student 2 , Professor and Head 3 , Professor and Head 4 , Professor and Head 5
Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology, Government Dental College and Research Institute 1, 2, 3 , Department of Gynecology, Kidwai Memorial
Institute of Oncology 4 , Department of Pathology, Bowring and Lady Curzon Hospitals 5 , Bangalore-560 002, Karnataka, India
Abstract- Introduction and objectives: The diagnosis of
malignant and potentially malignant epithelial lesions of the oral
mucosa cannot be based solely on clinical findings. Therefore,
histologic evaluation of a representative biopsy specimen is
necessary. However, the site for the biopsy is always a subjective
choice that sometimes raises doubts about its representativeness.
Colposcopy, a well-known gynaecological diagnostic procedure,
is helpful in the selection of these sites of epithelial dysplasia
depending upon the vascular pattern. Hence, this study was
planned to assess the role of Colposcopic examination in the
selection of biopsy site for carcinoma buccal mucosa.
Materials and methods: 30 patients between the ages of 30-60
years clinically diagnosed with carcinoma buccal mucosa were
included in the study. For each of the subject, a thorough clinical
examination followed by Colpospopic assessment was carried
out and the most representative site was selected for biopsy from
the involved buccal mucosa. The biopsy specimens measuring 6
mm were taken using a punch biopsy and subjected to
histopathological examination. The histopathological findings
were then compared in the two cases.
Results: The sensitivity and specificity of biopsy done on the
basis of clinical criteria was found to be more than as compared
to the ones directed through colposcopic examination.
Conclusion: From the study, it was concluded that clinical
criterion was found to be more appropriate for the selection of
biopsy specimens in cases of carcinoma buccal mucosa.
Keywords- Colposcopy, potentially malignant epithelial lesions,
histopathological, epithelial dysplasia, vascular pattern.
O
I. INTRODUCTION
ral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is the most common
cancer in the oral cavity. It accounts for more than 90% of
all oral cancers. 1 Each year, globally, there are 222,000 new
cases of oral cancer diagnosed in men (5% of all cancer) and
90,000 new cases diagnosed in women (2% of all cancer). 2
The incidence of premalignant lesions and oral cancers is
steadily increasing globally. In spite of advancement in the early
detection, there is seen increased mortality and morbidity related
to oral cancers. 3 In India, the incidence of leukoplakia and
carcinoma buccal mucosa is 46% as reported by Paymaster JC
(1962). 4 Carcinoma of buccal mucosa, in particular, deserves
special mention with increased incidence because of numerous
premalignant lesions and conditions seen predominantly in this
part of oral mucosa, the most common being leukoplakia and
pouch keratosis, attributed commonly to the quid habit in Indian
population.
Clinical diagnosis of squamous cell carcinomas of the oral
mucosa is not difficult when the lesion is obviously invasive or,
when the patient experiences pain, functional limitation, or,
regional lymphadenopathy. Conversely, it is more difficult to
diagnose dysplasia and carcinomas mainly in potentially
malignant epithelial lesions (PMELs). With the aim of improving
the efficiency of these diagnoses, techniques are being developed
to complement clinical examination and to facilitate the
identification of early dysplastic changes and initial carcinomas. 5
Though, biopsy with histopathological examination is still
considered the gold standard in the diagnosis of oral cancer and
precancerous lesions and conditions, the selection of the site for
biopsy is the most important criteria to arrive at a correct
diagnosis. But, as biopsy site is a subjective choice, it is possible
that biopsy specimens are taken from unrepresentative sites of
the lesion or, before the morphologic changes could be detected
in it.
At present, though there are simple chairside methods
including staining with toluidine blue and exfoliative cytology to
aid the diagnosis of such changes, there is a high risk of false
positives which can be as high as 30%. 6 Therefore, a technique
for non-invasively detecting dysplastic changes or, helping the
clinician choose the appropriate site for biopsy can save patients
from multiple biopsies and allow a broader range of diagnoses
which can aid early detection of oral cancers. 7
Colposcopy (direct intra-oral microscopy) offers advantages in
selecting the more representative sites for biopsy than routine
clinical examination alone and is a simple, painless, chair side
diagnostic method. 8 Colposcopic criteria included vascular
pattern, inter-capillary distance, surface pattern, color tone, and
opacity, as well as clarity of demarcation of the mucosal lesions. 8
The accuracy of colposcopic examination for the detection of
mucosal changes approximates between 70% and 98%. 9-11
Various authors have tried to adapt gynecologic methods of
examination to the oral cavity as there is similarity between the
two types of mucosa. 12 Colposcopy is one such method used to
observe the mucosa of cervix for premalignant and malignant
changes. So far, a few studies have highlighted the value of
Colposcopy (direct intra-oral microscopy) in the diagnosis of oral
mucosal lesions. Hence, the study has been planned to assess the
role of Colposcopic examination in the selection of biopsy site to
aid early diagnosis of epithelial dysplasia in cases of carcinoma
buccal mucosa.
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II. OBJECTIVES
1. To assess the feasibility of using Colposcopic examination for
carcinoma buccal mucosa;
2. To compare the Colposcopic examination findings with
clinical criteria for selection of biopsy site in carcinoma buccal
mucosa;
3. To correlate the histopathological findings with Colposcopic
findings and clinical criteria; and
4. To assess the sensitivity and specificity of Colposcopic
examination in selecting the biopsy site in carcinoma buccal
mucosa.
III. MATERIALS AND METHODS
A. Source of data
The study was conducted in the Department of Oral Medicine
and Radiology, Government Dental College and Research
Institute, Bangalore and Kidwai Memorial Institute of Oncology,
Bangalore, for a period of 1 year from May 2010 to May 2011.
The study group consisted of 30 cases of clinically diagnosed
cases of carcinoma buccal mucosa between the age group of 30-
60 years and control group consisting of 25 healthy individuals
with matched age.
B. Method of Collection of Data
Patients were selected according to the defined inclusion and
exclusion criteria. Before selecting the patients for study, details
of the study were explained to the patients and written informed
consent was obtained for inclusion in the study. The ethical
clearance for the study was obtained from the ethical committee
of Government Dental College and Research Institute, Bangalore
and Kidwai Memorial Institute of Oncology, Bangalore.
C. Selection criteria
i. Inclusion Criteria:
1. Clinically diagnosed cases of carcinoma buccal mucosa; and
ii. Exclusion Criteria:
1. Patients with carcinoma buccal mucosa with secondary
infection;
2. Patients with carcinoma buccal mucosa having other systemic
diseases; and
3. Patients undergoing treatment for carcinoma buccal mucosa.
D. Methodology
A total of 30 carcinoma buccal mucosa cases were selected for
the study based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. The
significance of the number of samples was analyzed statistically
before their inclusion into the study. For each of the subjects, a
detailed case history and thorough clinical examination was
carried out and under good illumination, intra-oral examination
of the lesion was performed. Inspectory and palpatory findings
were recorded in a prepared proforma. Following clinical
examination of the lesion, the most representative site of the
lesion was selected for biopsy based on set clinical criteria for
dysplastic changes in leukoplakia and carcinoma buccal mucosa.
Clinical criteria for selection of biopsy site for carcinoma buccal
mucosa included erythema, induration and ulceration. The
outline of the lesion was marked with a black color pen and the
biopsy site with a red color pen with the help of a grid placed on
the buccal mucosa. All the cases were then subjected to the
Colposcopic examination. Before taking up the patients for
Colposcopic evaluation, the normal Colposcopic findings were
standardized based on the Colposcopic criteria. Colposcopic
assessment was done and the most representative site for biopsy
was selected from the involved buccal mucosa depending upon
the Colposcopic criteria as mentioned by the author Göran W.
Gynther. 13
All patients were subjected to routine blood investigations
(Hb, BT, CT, RBS, TLC, DLC and ESR) before the routine
biopsy for histopathological examination and punch biopsy after
Colposcopic evaluation with 6mm diameter under local
anesthesia were performed. Biopsy specimen was immediately
immersed in 10% neutral buffered formaldehyde solution and
was coded. Later it was embedded in paraffin by routine methods
and subjected to histopathological examination.
E. Colposcopic Examination
Following clinical examination, mucosa was wiped with saline.
After the mucosa was wiped with saline, abnormal epithelium
appeared much darker than the normal epithelium. (Fig. 1)
Using the blue (or, green) filter and higher-power magnification
(Fig. 2), abnormal vascular patterns were evaluated.
Then 5% acetic acid was applied to the lesion for about 60
seconds. The grid was placed again on the buccal mucosa. Area
that estimated to have the most extensive cell changes based on
Colposcopic criteria was selected for biopsy and the area of the
biopsy site was marked on the grid with a green pen (Fig. 3).
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Colposcopic criteria included vascular pattern, inter-capillary
distance, surface pattern, color tone, and opacity, as well as
clarity of demarcation of the mucosal lesions. In the normal
mucosa of the uterine cervix, two basic types of capillary
networks can be seen with direct microscopy (ie, Colposcopy):
hairpin capillaries (Fig. 4a)
and network capillaries (Fig. 4b).
In areas of dysplasia and carcinoma-in-situ of the uterine cervix,
a specific vascular pattern, punctation (previously called ground),
is seen commonly. Punctation (Fig. 4c) is characterized by
dilated, often twisted, irregular, hairpin-type vessels.
Another pattern of the vessels in dysplasia is called mosaic (Fig.
4d). If the vessels do not reach the epithelial surface but extend
only partially into the epithelium, they appear as red lines as
surrounding blocks of epithelium. The Colposcopic image
resembles tiles of a floor. After application of acetic acid, this
pattern is accentuated because of acetowhiteness of the atypical
epithelium, forming a honey comb pattern. True mosaic vessels
are usually seen in sharply demarcated areas.
When it is difficult to describe the pattern of the vessels, the term
atypical vessels (Fig. 4e) is used.
Capillary, punctation, mosaic, or atypical patterns are
encountered in malignant lesions. Therefore, if one of them is
present, this is an indication for biopsy and histopathological
examination.
When the area selected for biopsy by clinical criteria and
Colposcopy was superimposed (red and green area), then only
one common biopsy sample was obtained. When two different
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areas were selected from the same lesion, two different areas
which were marked with red and green pen (Fig. 3) were
biopsied and subjected to histopathological examination. Biopsy
specimens were taken with 6 mm punch, biopsy wounds were
sutured (Fig. 5) and histo-pathological examination of the same
was performed.
F. Histopathological procedure
All the biopsied tissue specimens were sent for histo-pathological
evaluation. The biopsied tissue was immediately transferred to
the bottle containing 10% buffered formalin solution.
Heamotoxylin and Eosin staining was done for the microscopic
examination of the sections.
Comparison of the histo-pathlogical diagnosis obtained with
routine clinical examination and direct intra-oral microscopy was
performed, and the data was subjected to statistical analysis.
G. Grid preparation:
Printed graph on OHP sheet was used as a grid in marking the
biopsy site. Each lesion was measured and the grid was prepared
to the approximate size of the lesion. The entire lesion was
divided into 6 x 6 mm squares on a transparent grid. The outline
of the lesion was marked with black color pen, the red color pen
was used to mark the area of the biopsy site with clinical criteria
and green color pen was used to mark the area of the biopsy site
performed with Colposcopic criteria.
Age
IV. RESULTS
The study group consisted of 30 cases of clinically diagnosed
carcinoma buccal mucosa and a control group consisting of 25
healthy individuals.
Age and gender distribution: The age and gender
distribution of the cases and controls has been illustrated
in the figures. (Table 1)
Commoner clinical presentation observed in cases: Out
of the 30 patients, induration in was observed 18 while
ulceration was observed in 12 patients.
Vascular pattern observed in cases: Out of the 30
patients, punctation vessel pattern was observed in 10
(33%) cases, mosaic pattern in 4 (13%) cases, atypical
vessel pattern in 4 (13%) cases while in 12 (40%) cases,
vascular pattern was not appreciated because of
secondary infection and/or, ulceration. In the control
group, out of the 25 controls, network capillary pattern
was observed in 12 (48%) cases and hair-pin pattern in
9 (36%) cases while in 4 (16%) cases, vascular pattern
could not well be appreciated.
Histopathological findings observed in the biopsy specimen
obtained from clinical presentation: Out of 30 cases,
histopathological report of 19 (66.3%) cases were showing welldifferentiated
squamous cell carcinoma, 7 (23.3%) cases,
moderately differentiated squamous cell carcinoma, 2 (6.7%)
cases, carcinoma-in-situ while 2 (6.7%) cases presented with
severe dysplasia.
Histopathologic findings in Colposcopically directed biopsy
specimens: Out of 30 cases, histopathological report of 15 (50%)
cases revealed well-differentiated squamous cell carcinoma, 9
(30%) cases, moderately differentiated squamous cell carcinoma,
3 (10%) cases, poorly differentiated squamous cell carcinoma
while 3 (10%) cases were showing carcinoma-in-situ.
Sensitivity and specificity for biopsy samples taken from
clinical presentation in cases: A sensitivity of 0.6842 (68%) and
a specificity of 0.5455 (57%) was obtained for biopsy samples
taken from clinical presentation in the patients. (Table 2)
Sensitivity and specificity of Colposcopically directed biopsy
specimens in cases: Sensitivity for Colposcopically directed
biopsy specimens in patients came out to be 0.7826 (78%) with a
specificity of 0.5714 (57%). (Table 2)
Table 1: Age distribution and Gender distribution in the study sample
Age in years
Carcinoma
buccal mucosa
patients
Controls
No % No %
31-40 2 6.7 3 12.0
41-50 5 16.7 12 48.0
51-60 23 76.7 10 40.0
Total 30 100.0 25 100.0
Mean ± SD 54.07±6.55 49.72±7.17
Samples are
age matched
between cases
and controls
with P=0.397
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Gender
Male 10 33.3 15 60.0 Samples are
gender
matched
Female 20 66.7 10 40.0 between cases
and controls
with P=0.191
Total 30 100.0 25 100.0
Table 2: Sensitivity and Specificity for biopsy specimens taken from Clinical examination and directed by Colposcopic examination in
Carcinoma buccal mucosa patients
Clinical
examination
Colposcopy
Histopathology
Positive Negative Total
Positive 18 3 21
Negative 5 4 9
Total 23 7 30
Positive 13 5 18
Negative
6 6 12
Total 19 11 30
V. DISCUSSION
Oral squamous cell carcinoma is a well-known malignancy
which accounts for more than 90% of all oral cancers. The
overall 5-year survival rate of oral squamous cell carcinoma has
not significantly increased in the last few years despite
tremendous advancements made in the plethora of diagnostic and
treatment modalities in the last 2-3 decades. Hence, the most
important task is to establish an early diagnosis at the first stages
of the disease. 14
The present study aimed at assessing the vascular patterns by
Colposcopic findings and selecting the biopsy site in clinically
diagnosed cases of carcinoma buccal mucosa and compares the
two methods, clinical criteria and Colposcopic examination for
selecting the biopsy site.
In our study, maximum patients were seen in the age group of
51 to 60 years and there was seen a female predominance in this
group. This suggested the habit of quid to be more common in
females and smoking more common in males. The findings of
our study were consistent with the age and gender of the oral
cancer patients reported by other studies by Silverman 15 ,
Neville 16 and Swango 17 .
Sensitivity Specificity PPV NPV
0.7826
(78%)
0.6842
(68%)
0.5714
(57%)
0.5455
(54%)
0.8571 0.4444
0.7222
0.5000
In our study, 18 patients of oral carcinoma presented indurated
lesions while ulceration was noted in 12 out of 30 patients. These
findings suggested that the patients reported to the clinicians only
when they developed symptoms of pain invariably associated
with ulceration in confirmation with the various other studies.
Jose Bagan 18 reported in his study that the clinical presentation of
these early malignant lesions was usually seen in the form of
well demarcated, indurated erytholeukoplastic lesions, often
associated with pain and ulceration.
A sensitivity of 0.7826 (78%) and specificity of 0.5714 (57%)
of the biopsy specimens taken with the help of clinical criteria
for carcinoma buccal mucosa were in accordance with the studies
reported by Lingen MW, Kalmar JR, Karrison TC, Speight PM 19
who reported similar findings in their study. Lingen, in his study,
suggested the conventional oral examination (COE) using normal
(incandescent) light as one of the standard method for oral cancer
screening. A study by Fedele S 20 with 9 years randomized
controlled trial also revealed that screening via visual
examination of the oral mucosa under white light is effective in
reducing mortality in individuals exposed to risk factors.
Simple visual examination, however, is well known to be
limited by subjective interpretation and by the potential, albeit
rare, occurrence of dysplasia and early oral squamous cell
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carcinoma within areas of normal looking oral mucosa. As a
consequence, adjunctive techniques have been suggested to
increase the ability to differentiate between benign changes of
the mucosa from dysplastic/malignant changes as well as to
identify areas of dysplasia/early oral squamous cell carcinoma
that are not visible to the naked eye.
Ellen H Hopman 21 , in his study stated colposcopy as an effective
tool for diagnosing cervical intra-epithelial neoplasia. It was
suggested that micro-invasive carcinoma was suspected when
mosaic, punctation and acetowhite epithelium was seen with a
thick white epithelium that had a clear and elevated margin with
an irregular surface contour and raised capillaries.
Devi Charan Shetty, 22 in his study, stated that the
histopathological assessment of a biopsy specimen is regarded as
the most reliable criterion for a correct diagnosis in cases of
epithelial dysplasia; consequently the specimen must be taken
from the most representative area of a suspicious looking lesion
for increasing the diagnostic accuracy.
In our study, we used the criteria for vascular changes
described in Colposcopic literature for the selection of biopsy
site. 21, 23, 24 These included the vascular pattern, inter-capillary
distance, surface pattern, color tone and opacity as well as the
clarity of demarcation of the mucosal lesions. The results of our
Colposcopic examination regarding the selection of biopsy sites
for carcinoma buccal mucosa reported a sensitivity of 0.6842
(68%) with a specificity of about 0.5455 (54%). The results of
our study were similar to the previously reported studies
including the one conducted by Goran W. Gynther 13 for
assessing the value of Colposcopy in diagnosing the mucosal
lesions and the one reported by Devi Charan Shetty 22 who
correlated the relevance of tumor angiogenesis pattern with the
histopathological results in oral epithelial dysplasia.
The results of Colposcopic findings are actually based on
vascular and tissue changes. The capillary changes preceding
tumor growth with the pattern of tumor angiogenesis are
different from the usual neo-vascularization taking place during
repair and regeneration processes. At a cellular level, various
molecules such as vascular endothelial growth factor, basic
fibroblast growth factor, and transforming growth factor alpha
are implicated. Direct optical visualization of these patterns
would be helpful in the early determination of the underlying
pathology and also aid in marking out the site of biopsy. 25
In the present study, we found that the biopsy specimens
selected with Colposcopic criteria appeared to be more
representative of the histopathological findings at least in certain
cases than those selected with routine clinical examination
(COE). The altered vascular patterns, in the initial stages of
lesion progression, definitely helped with the correct selection of
the biopsy site, which in turn helped us reach a more definitive
diagnosis, thus avoiding false-negative results. The study
however concludes with the conventional oral examination
having a superior edge in carcinoma buccal mucosa patients
against colposcopy criteria. (Table 2) This could be explained by
the fact that keratinization and thickness is more in carcinoma
buccal mucosa cases compared to leukoplakia cases, hence,
vascular patterns could not be visualized. However further
studies are required to conclude the results.
VI. CONCLUSION
This is a preliminary study that emphasized the selection of
biopsy site using Colposcopic examination as a method to select
the most representative sites of epithelial dysplasia in frank
malignant and potentially malignant epithelial lesions (PMELs).
VII. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE AUTHORS
Literature search, manuscript preparation, manuscript editing
and manuscript review.
VIII. ETHICAL DECLARATION
The study has been approved by the ethical committee
appointed by the Government Dental College and Research
Institute, Bangalore and Bangalore Medical College and
Research Institute, Bangalore and has therefore been performed
in accordance with the ethical standards laid down in the 1975
declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments in 2000 after a
written informed consent from the patients for their inclusion in
the study. Details that might disclose the identity of the patient
have been omitted.
IX. COMPETING INTERESTS AND OTHER DECLARATIONS
None
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We thank all the people who directly and indirectly
contributed for the study as the study required intense efforts
from the people outside our Department including Department of
Oral Pathology, and Department of Gynecology and Department
of General Pathology, Bangalore Medical College and Research
Institute and Associated Hospitals.
LEGENDS FOR FIGURES
Figure.1: Carcinoma buccal mucosa (nodular variety) on left
buccal mucosa before biopsy
Figure.2: Patient positioning for Colposcopic examination
Figure.3: Placement of grid for selection of biopsy site (green
color for colposcopy and red color for clinical criteria)
Figure.4a-e: Vascular patterns seen in colposcopy:
Figure.4a: Hair pin capillary pattern in normal buccal mucosa
Figure.4b: Network capillary pattern in normal buccal mucosa
Figure.4c: Punctation vessel pattern in carcinoma buccal mucosa
Figure.4d: Mosaic pattern in carcinoma buccal mucosa
Figure.4e: Atypical vessel pattern in carcinoma buccal mucosa
Figure.5: Sutured biopsy wounds in relation to carcinoma buccal
mucosa after biopsy at two different sites
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AUTHORS
First Author - Dr.Abhishek Singh Nayyar, Post-graduate,
Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology, Government
Dental College and Research Institute, , Bangalore-560 002,
Karnataka, India
Email id - singhabhishek.rims@gmail.com
Second Author - Dr.Gayitri H.C, Post-graduate student,
Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology, Government
Dental College and Research Institute, Bangalore-560 002,
Karnataka, India
Third Author - Dr.Mubeen Khan, Professor and Head,
Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology, Government
Dental College and Research Institute, Bangalore-560 002,
Karnataka, India
Fourth Author - Dr.U.D.Bafna, Professor and Head,
Department of Gynecology, Kidwai Memorial Institute of
Oncology, Bangalore-560 002, Karnataka, India
Fifth Author - Dr.Siddique Ahmed, Professor and Head,
Department of Pathology, Bowring and Lady Curzon Hospitals,
Bangalore-560 002, Karnataka, India
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 435
ISSN 2250-3153
On a class of g**-closed sets in topological spaces and
some mappings
Dr. D.Saravanakumar, K.M.Sathishkumar
Department of Mathematics, K.L.N. College of Information Technology, Sivagangai
Abstract- In this paper, we introduced the concepts of
g ** -closed sets as well as g ** -open sets and studied some of
their basic properties. Further we defined g ** -continuous
mappings and investigated their basic properties. In addition we
obtained g ** -irresolute mappings and some of their properties
are derived.
AMS (2000) subject classifications: 54A05, 54A10, and 54D10.
Keywords: g ** -closed, g ** -open, g ** -continuous,
g ** -irresolute.
T
I. INTRODUCTION
he concept of generalized closed (g-closed) sets in a
topological space was introduced by Levine [8] and concept
of T1/2 spaces was initiated by Dunham [5] further investigated
the properties of T1/2 spaces and defined a new closure operator
cl * by using generalized closed sets. We begin with some basic
concepts. A subset A of a topological space (X, ) is called
-open[12] (resp. semi open[9]) if A int(cl(int(A)))
(resp. A cl(int(A))). Also A is said to be -closed (resp. semi
closed) if X – A is -open (resp. semi open). The collection of all
-open (resp. semi open) subsets in (X, ) is denoted by (resp.
SO(X)). The -closure (resp. semi closure) of a subset A is
smallest -closed (resp. semi closed) set containing A and this is
denoted by cl(A) (resp. scl(A)) in the present paper. We recall
definitions of some generalized closed sets. A subset A is called
g-closed[10] (resp. g-closed [10], g # -closed[13]) if cl(A)
U whenever A U and U is an -open (resp. open, g-open) set
in (X, ). Moreover G. Sai Sundara Krishnan et.al [16]
introduced the concept of g ** -open sets and defined a subset A
of X is said to be g ** - open if and only if there exist an open set
U of X such that U A cl ** (U). Also its complement is called
g ** -closed. A topological space (X, ) is said to be a g ** -T½ space
if every g ** -closed set is closed. J.Chitra and D.Saravanakumar
[2] introduced the concept of sg ** -closed sets and defined a
subset A of X is said to be sg ** - closed if scl(A) U whenever
A U and U is a g ** -open set in (X, ).
In this paper we introduced the concept of
g ** -closed sets, which is analogous to -generalized closed sets
and introduced the notion G ** C(X) which is the set of all
g ** -closed sets in a topological space. In addition, we defined
the concept of g ** -open sets and studied of its some basic
properties. Finally we introduced the concept of
g ** -continuous and g ** -irresolute maps in a topological space
and investigated relationship between them. Throughout this
paper we denoted cl * by cl ** and we represented the topological
spaces (X, τ), (Y, ) and (Z, ) as X, Y and Z respectively.
Unless otherwise no separation axiom mentioned.
II. g ** -CLOSED SET
In this section we introduce a new class of closed set called
g ** -closed set and study further some of their properties.
Definition 2.1. Let A be subset of a topological space X. It is
called g ** -closed set if cl(A) ⊆ U whenever A ⊆ U and U is
g ** -open. The set of all g ** -closed sets denoted by G ** C(X). A
subset A of X is called g ** -open if X – A is g ** -closed in X.
Example 2.1. If X = {a, b, c, d}, X, {c, d}}, then
g ** -closed sets of X are X, {a}, {b}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {a, d},
{b, c}, {b, d}, {a, b, c}, {a, b, d}, {a, c, d}, {b, c, d}}.
Remark 2.1. The concepts of -open and g ** -open are
independent.
Let X = {a, b, c} and = {X, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}. Then {a, c}
and {b, c} are g ** -open sets but not -open.
Let X = {a, b, c} and = {X, {a}}. Then {a, b} and {a, c} are
-open sets but not g ** -open.
Remark 2.2.The concepts of g-closed sets and g ** -closed sets
are independent.
Let X = {a, b, c, d} and X, {b}, {b, c}, {a, b, c},
{b, c, d}}. Then {a, b, d} is a g-closed set but not g ** -closed.
Also {c}, {a, c} and {c, d} are g ** -closed sets but not g-closed.
Theorem 2.1. Let A be a subset of a topological space X and if
A is a -closed set in X, then A is g ** -closed.
Proof: Let A be a -closed set in X and A U where U is
g ** -open. Since A is -closed, cl(A) = A U. Hence A is
g ** -closed in X.
The reverse implication does not hold.
Example 2.2. Let X = {a, b, c, d} and X, {a}, {b},
{a, b}, {b, c, d}}. Then {b, c} is a g ** -closed set but not closed.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 436
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Theorem 2.2. Let A be a subset of a topological space X and if
A is a g ** -closed set in X, then A is g-closed.
Proof: Let A be a g-closed set in X and A U where U is
open. Since every open set is g ** -open and A is g ** -closed,
cl(A) U. Hence A is g-closed in X.
The reverse implication does not hold.
Example 2.3. Let X = {a, b, c, d} and X, {a}, {a, b},
{a, c}, {a, b, c}, {a, b, d}}. Then {a, c, d} is a g-closed set but
not g ** -closed.
Remark 2.3. The concepts of g-closed and g ** -closed are
independent.
Let X = {a, b, c} and = {X, {a}}. Then {a, b} and {a, c} are
g ** -closed sets but not g-closed.
Let X = {a, b, c, d} and = {X, {a}, {a, b}, {c, d}, {a, c, d}}.
Then {b, c} and {b, d} are g-closed sets but not g ** -closed.
Remark 2.4. The concepts of g # -closed and g ** -closed are
independent.
Let X = {a, b, c, d} and X, {a}, {b}, {a, b}, {b, c, d}}.
Then {b, c} and {a, b, c} are g ** -closed sets but not
g # -closed.
Let X = {a, b, c, d} and X, {b}, {b, c}, {a, b, c},
{b, c, d}}. Then {a, b, d} is a g # -closed set but not g ** -closed.
Remark 2.5. From the Theorems 2.1, 2.2 and Remarks 2.3, 2.4,
we have the following diagram
g # -closed
where A B represents A imply B, A B represents A does
not imply B.
Theorem 2.3. If A is a g ** -closed set in X, then it is
sg ** -closed.
Proof: Let A be a g ** -closed set such that AU, where U is
g ** -open. By Definition 2.1, we have cl(A) U. Since cl(A)
is a semi closed set and scl(A) is the least semi closed set
containing A, we have scl(A) cl(A) U. Hence A is sg ** -
closed.
The reverse implication does not hold.
Example 2.4. Let X = {a, b, c, d} and = {, X, {a}, {b},
{a, b}, {a, b, c}}. Then {a}, {b}, {a, c} are sg ** -closed sets in X
but not g ** -closed.
Theorem 2.4. Let A be a g-closed set in a topological space X.
Then A is g ** -closed if X is g ** -T1/2.
Proof: Let A be a g-closed set in X and A U where U is
g ** -open. Since X is a g ** -T1/2 space and A is g-closed, every
g ** -open set is open and hence cl(A) U. Therefore A is
g ** -closed in X.
Corollary 2.1. If X is g ** -T1/2, then every g-closed set is
g ** -closed.
Proof: Follows from the above Theorem 2.4.
Corollary 2.2. If X is g ** -T1/2, then every g # -closed set is
g ** -closed.
Proof: Follows from the above Theorem 2.4.
Theorem 2.5. Let {Ai : i J} be the collection of g ** -closed
sets in a topological space X. Then iJ Ai is also a
g ** -closed set in X.
Proof. Let iJ Ai U where U is g ** -open. Then Ai U for
each i J. Since Ai is g ** -closed for each i J, we have cl(Ai)
⊆ U for each i J. This implies that cl(iJ Ai) = iJ cl(Ai)
⊆ U. Hence iJ Ai is g ** -closed in X.
Remark 2.6. (i) Intersection of two g ** -closed sets need not be
g ** -closed.
Let X = {a, b, c}, X, {a}}. Then g ** -closed sets of X
are X, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}}.
If A = {a, b} and B = {a, c}, then the sets A and B are
g ** -closed but A B = {a} is not g ** -closed.
Theorem 2.6. If a set A is g ** -closed in X, then cl(A) – A
contains no non-empty g ** -closed set.
Proof: Let F be a g ** -closed set such that F cl(A) – A. Since
X – F is g ** -open and A X – F, from the definition of
g ** -closed set it follows that cl(A) X – F. Thus F
X – cl(A). This implies that F cl(A) (X – cl(A)) = .
Corollary 2.3. Let A be a g ** -closed set in X. Then A is
-closed if and only if cl(A) – A is g ** -closed.
Proof: Necessity. Let A be -closed in X. Then cl(A) A.
This implies that cl(A) – A = . Therefore cl(A) – A is
g ** -closed.
Sufficiency, Suppose cl(A) – A is g ** -closed. Then by Theorem
2.6, cl(A) – A contains does not contain any non-empty
g ** -closed set and hence cl(A) – A = . This implies that
cl(A) = A. Therefore A is -closed in X.
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Theorem 2.7. Suppose that X is an -space (i.e., = ). A
g ** -closed set A is -closed in X if and only if cl(A) – A is
-closed in X.
Proof: Necessity. If A is -closed in X, then cl(A) A. This
implies that cl(A) we have cl(A) is -closed in
X.
Sufficiency, Suppose that A is g ** -closed and cl(A) is
-closed. It follows from the assumption that = .
Then cl(A) is g ** -closed in X. By Theorem 2.6, we
have cl(A) this implies that cl(A) enceis
-closed in X
Theorem 2.8. Let A be a g ** -closed set in X. If A is
g ** -open, then cl(A) – A = .
Proof: Let A be g ** -open in X. Since A is g ** -closed, cl(A)
A. This implies that cl(A) – A = .
Theorem 2.9. Every subset is g ** -closed in X if and only if
every g ** -open set is -closed.
Proof: Necessity. Let A be g ** -open in X. Then by hypothesis A
is g ** -closed in X. By Theorem 2.8 cl(A) – A = . Hence A
is -closed.
Sufficiency. Let A be a subset of X and U a g ** -open set such
that A U. Then by hypothesis, U is -closed. This implies that
cl(A) cl(U) U. Hence A is g ** -closed.
Theorem 2.10. If A is a g ** -closed set in X and A B
cl(A), then B is g ** -closed in X.
Proof: Let BU where U is g ** -open. Since A is g ** -closed in
X and A U, it follows that cl(A) U. By hypothesis, B
cl(A) and hence cl(B) cl(A). Consequently, cl(B) U
and B becomes g ** -closed in X.
Theorem 2.11. For each x X, {x} is g ** -closed or its
complement X – {x} is g ** -closed in a space X.
Proof: Suppose that {x} is not g ** -closed in X. Since X – {x} is
not g ** -open, the space X itself is only g ** -open set containing
X – {x}. Therefore, cl(X – {x}) X holds and so X – {x} is
g ** -closed.
III. g ** -OPEN SET
In this section, we introduce a new class of open set called
g**-open set and study some of their properties.
Definition 3.1. A subset A of a topological space is called semi
g ** -open (briefly g ** -open) if and only if X – A is
g ** -closed. The set of all g ** -open set denoted by G ** O(X).
Theorem 3.1. Let {Ai : i J} be the collection of g ** -open sets
in a topological space X. Then iJ Ai is also a g ** -open set in
X.
Proof. Since Ai is g ** -open in X for each i J. This implies that
X – Ai is g ** -closed in X for each i J. Then by Theorem 2.5,
we have X – iJ Ai = iJ (X – Ai) is also g ** -closed in X.
Hence iJ Ai is g ** -open in X.
Remark 3.1. Union of two g ** -open sets need not be
g ** -open.
Let X = {a, b, c}, X, {a}}. Then g ** -open sets of X are
X, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}}
If A= {b} and B={c}. Then the sets A and B are g ** -open but
A B = {b, c} is not g ** -open.
Theorem 3.2. A set A is g ** -open in X if and only if
F int(A) whenever F is g ** -closed and F A.
Proof: Necessity, Let A be g ** -open and suppose F A where
F is g ** -closed. By Definition 3.1, X – A is g ** -closed. Also
X – A is contained in the g ** -open set X – F. This implies that
cl(X – A) = X – int(A). Hence X – int(A) X – F.
Therefore F int(A).
Sufficiency. If F is a g ** -closed set with F int(A) whenever
FA, it follows that X – A X – F and X – int(A) X – F.
Thus cl(X – A) X – F. Hence X – A is g ** -closed and
A becomes g ** -open. This proves the theorem.
Theorem 3.3. If int(A ) B A and A is g ** -open in X, then
B is g ** -open.
Proof: By hypothesis, X – A X – B X - int(A).
Thus X – A X – B X – (X - cl(X – A)) = cl(X – A). Now
X –A is g ** -closed and hence by Theorem 2.10, X – B is
g ** -closed. Hence B is g ** -open in X.
IV. g ** -CONTINUOUS MAP and
g ** -IRRESOLUTE MAP
In this section we introduce the concepts of
g**-continuous map and g**-irresolute map and study
relationship between some other mappings.
Definition 4.1. A map f : X Y is called g ** -continuous if
f –1 (V) is g ** -closed in X for every closed set V of Y.
Definition 4.2. A map f : X Y is called g ** -irresolute if
f –1 (V) is g ** -closed in X for every g ** -closed set V of Y.
Theorem 4.1. Let f : X Y be g ** -continuous. Then f is
g-continuous but not conversely.
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Proof: Let V be a closed set in Y. Then f –1 (V) is g ** -closed in
X since f is g ** -continuous. By Theorem 2.2, every g ** -closed
set is g-closed. Therefore f –1 (V) is g-closed in X. Hence f is
g-continuous. The converse need not be true as seen from the
following example.
Example 4.1. Let X = {a, b, c, d}, = {, X, {b}, {b, c}, {a, b,
c}, {b, c, d}}, Y = {1, 2, 3, 4} and = {, Y, {1}, {2}, {1, 2},
{2, 3, 4}}. Define a map f : X Y by f(a) = 3, f(b) = 2, f(c) = 1,
f(d) = 4. Then f is g-continuous. f –1 ({2, 3, 4}) = {a, b, d} is not
g ** -closed in X for the closed set {2, 3, 4} of Y. So f is not
g ** -continuous.
Theorem 4.2. Let f : X Y be a mapping from a topological
space X into a topological space Y. Then the following
statements are equivalent.
(i) f is g ** -continuous;
(ii) the inverse image of each open set in Y is g ** -open in X.
Proof: Straight forward from the Definition 3.1.
Definition 4.3. A space X is called g ** -T1/2 space if every
g ** -closed set is g ** -closed.
Theorem 4.3. Let f : X Y be a map. If f is g ** -continuous,
then f is g ** -irresolute where X is g ** -T1/2 and Y is g ** -T1/2.
Proof: Let V be g ** -closed in Y. Since Y is g ** -T1/2, we have V is
closed in Y. Then f –1 (V) is g ** -closed in X, since f is
g ** -continuous. But X is g ** -T1/2 and so f –1 (V) is
g ** -closed. Hence f is g ** -irresolute.
Theorem 4.4. Let f : X Y be a map. If f is g ** -continuous,
then f is g ** -irresolute where X is g ** -T1/2 and Y is g ** -T1/2.
Proof: Let V be g ** -closed in Y. Since Y is g ** -T1/2, we have V
is g ** -closed in Y. Then f –1 (V) is g ** -closed in X, since f is
g ** -continuous. But X is g ** -T1/2 and so f –1 (V) is g ** -closed.
Hence f is g ** -irresolute.
Note that if f : X Y and g : Y Z are both
g ** -continuous, then the composition g f : X Z is not
g ** -continuous mapping.
Example 4.2. Let X = Y = Z = {a, b, c}, = {, X, {a}, {b},
{a, b}}, = {, Y, {a}} and = {, Z, {a}, {a, b}, {a, c}}.
Define f : X Y by f(a) = c, f(b) = a and f(c) = b and define
g : Y Z by g(a) = a, g(b) = c, g(c) = b. Then f and g are
g ** -continuous mappings. The set {b} is closed in Z.
(g f) –1 ({b}) = f –1 (g –1 ({b})) = f –1 ({c}) = {a} which is not
g ** -closed in X. Hence g f is not g ** -continuous.
Theorem 4.5. Let f : X Y and g : Y Z be two mappings.
(i) If f is g ** -irresolute and g is g ** -continuous, then the
composition g f is g ** -continuous;
(ii) If f and g are g ** -irresolute, then the composition g f is
g ** -irresolute;
(iii) Let a space Y be g ** -T1/2. If f : X Y is g ** -irresolute
g : Y Z is g ** -continuous, then the composition g f : X Z
is g ** -continuous.
Proof: (i) Let V be closed in Z. Then g ** -continuity of
g implies that g –1 (V) is g ** -closed in Y. Since f is
g ** -irresolute, it follows that f –1 (g –1 (V)) is g ** -closed in X.
Hence g f is g ** -continuous.
(ii) Let V be g ** -closed in Z. Then g ** -irresolute of g implies
that g –1 (V) is g ** -closed in Y. Since f is g ** -irresolute, it
follows that f –1 (g –1 (V)) is g ** -closed in X. Hence g f is
g ** -irresolute.
(iii) Let V be closed in Z. Then g ** -continuity of g implies that
g –1 (V) is g ** -closed in Y. Thus g –1 (V) is g ** -closed in Y since
Y is g ** -T1/2. Therefore f –1 (g –1 (V)) is g ** -closed in X, because
f is g ** -irresolute. Hence g f is g ** -continuous.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 439
ISSN 2250-3153
AUTHORS
First Author - Dr. D.Saravanakumar, Assistant professor,
Department of Mathematics, K.L.N. College of Engineering,
Sivagangai, Email id – saravana_13kumar@yahoo.co.in
Second Author - K.M.Sathishkumar, Assistant professor,
Department of Mathematics, K.L.N. College of Information
Technology, Sivagangai,
Email id - sathish_infinity@yahoo.co.in
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ISSN 2250-3153
I
The White Tiger: Quest of Existence
I. INTRODUCTION
ndian English literature is full with the novelists who presented
their protagonist character in relation with the humanism.
Mulkraj Anand‘s Bakha, Tagore‘s Gora, Coolie of the Mulkraj
Anand and Arvind Adiga‘s Balram Halwai alias Munna.
Everybody craves for his identity, his existence, in this world.
Balram halwai has done same act He attempted to get life of
human being but his attempts with the moral are in vain. Who
born on this earth, he asks the question to the creator ―Who am
I‖? Some becomes ascetic in search of this, life begins and ends,
nothing remains in our hand because we are mere pawns in the
hands of destiny. But things are not true with the Balram, he is
not ascetic, but he pursued this question in the novel. Although
he is the person who born among low class, but like hero of the
postmodern fruit he challenged his destiny.
―Today, I am really Indian.‖(Rabindranath Tagore-406) Like
Gora he never declared his existence, so it is not only quest of
Balram but it is of the reader too. Reader goes through the page
to page in search of humanity. The novelist has used epistolary
form for novel to express the feelings of the Balram. Balram has
several names among the novel in them he finds his existence.
Balram is the name given by his teacher named Krishna.Balram
is the kickside of the Krishna. Like Coolie journey for search of
existence starts in his life from small village, Laxmangarh, in
Bihar in the heart of darkness. The animal imagery is used to
suggest the Balram Halwai amoral victim of the society.
The white tiger is the nickname of the protagonist Balram
Halwai. He earned name from an education inspector, even
Adiga described as ―so that‘s how I became the White Tiger,
There will be third and fourth name too, but that late in the
story.‖Arvind Adiga-page-35 Like Coolie of Mulkraj Anand he
had several names. Difference among them is Coolie died with
the identity of Coolie, Balram proceeds life as owner of the
White Tigers Company. Like coolie he is working on the tea
stall, when Balram hitting the piece of coal he is hitting
unknowingly, his childhood. A huge portrait of the Mahatma
Gandhi was watching the every chunk of coal burning the
childhood of the Balram. He got another name with new
profession ―the coal breaker‖. He remarks about children in India
are weak, fragile, looks like ―the guilty conscience of the
government‖
At the tea shop one boy asked ―What is the creature that comes
along only once in a genration ―? ―The coal braker‖ Arvind
Adiga-page-37 Feelings of alienation aroused in him. Balram is
gradually turning himself towards explosion.Every incident
making him shellto explode. Balram is not the original thinker
but he was original listener. he listened carefully, so he turned
himself into the new profession of driving. Though he had lost
Prof. Sakate Bharat Shamarao
M.A. NET
Balwant College vita
his childhood days, with humanitarian view he is dreaming to
start Language school. Where he wants teach not about Gandhi,
God- ―nothing but facts of life for these kids. A school full of
White Tigers, unleashed on Banglore……..‖ Arvind Adiga-page-
319 Balram Halwai alias Munna is the son of rikshaw puller
Vikram Halwai .Balram is the youth of 25- 35 blackish in
complexion, oval face, five feet four inches youth. But he is
craving for identity his anguish is in Indian society father forget
to giove names to their children But he is craving for identity his
anguish is in Indian society parents forget to give names to their
children. Time makes them orphan. Alienation made Balram to
passes comments ―now what kind of place is it where people
forget to name their children‖. - Arvind Adiga-page-14.
Balram speaks about Buddha‘s philosophy, scared Ganga,
Hanuman the Hindu god in the Ramayana as wellas fidelity, love
and devotion, which reader as well as Balram, couldn‘t see
anywhere it is the feelings of alienation. He had surrendered to
the society of the evil like Dr. Faustus in search of physical
luxury. Even on a tea shop owner named him thug. He searched
his identity in the half baked, person of the postmodern world.
Balram driver fascinated so much due to the moll wants to enter
in the moll where only big bellies have permission to enter, when
he entered the guard pushed him outside of the moll. These small
Bellies had not right to enter into the society of the big bellied
person. As driver, he had new name given by the society
‗country mouse‘. Rootlessness is slowly developed in the mind
of the Balram. Cleaned society needs clean clothes but they
neednot clean mans. Balram changed roles as per demand of the
period, because he observed on the tea stall, the people use the
paper to wrap greasy samosas, wherw written the philosophy
―May be once in hundred years there is revolution that frees the
poor.‖ Arvind Adiga - page - 303. But the representative of the
poor, Balram had had his view. According to him revolution
wouldn‘t take place in India because people are waiting for the
war which would give him freedom. But it would come from
from somewhere else. Apathy of related life can be clearly seen
on the face of Balram Halwai by through this opinion. He
became murder, thief by snatching the amount from his master
Ashoka whom he considers Ram and Seeta. He founds the white
tigers company.
He ponders over country, culture. He wrote that if people
started to biting judge then what is the future of this country. The
protagonist calls himself half baked,even he noted that his story
is ―The Autobiography of a Half Baked‖, who made of the halfbaked
clay We can see sense of loss in his dialogue and action.
Still he has compassion about poor people, he helped to the
parents of victim. Reader has to search Balram existence He
admitted his crime in front parents although he rescued from
court. Reader has to search Balram existence According to
Adiga- ―The novelist U R Anatha Murthy in an essay published
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in Kannad newspaper last year, pointed that Dickens had hsd
virtually no impact on his contemporaries. Thoms hardy and
Gorky showed them how to describe the social forces (capital,
tradition and patriarchy) that constrained the protagonists of their
novels, also how to withhold any overt commentary on these
forces. Dickens in contrast is shamelessly didactic and
sentimental; a writer who shows us divided society not to
demand revolution but only ―change of the heart‖ from rich and
poor alike. No self-respecting Indian novelist has wanted to
imitate him‖. The Times of India- page-3
Arvind Adiga is interested not only in demand of revolution
but also change of heart. So Balram Halwai changed many roles,
to get value of human beings. Rootlessness, alienation, loss
identity, attitude of big bellies made him loose his identity
among the hands of corrupt people. So he wrote ―I‘ve made it!
I‘ve broken out of the coop‖ Arvind Adiga-page-320 ―That‘s
why I was cheated of my destiny to be fact, and creamy skinned
and smiling.‖ (Arvind Adiga-page-64)
These lines remarks that he is White Tiger in the society of the
beasts. The destruction of the identity laid him to prove existence
by hook or crook. He would not want to die like his father
suffering from the TB.So he proved his existence with beastly
way.
REFERENCES
[1] Arvind Adiga.The White Tiger.Harper Collins Publishers India &India
Today Group. New Delhi.2008
[2] Arvind Adiga: A Tale of Two Artists .Times of India, (Newspaper) Pune
Saturday March, 3 2012.
[3] Mulakraj Anand. Untouchable. Published by Gulabo Vazirani for Arnold
Heineman publishers (India) Delhi.1981
Mulakraj Anand, Coolie (London: Bodley Head 1972)
[4] Ravindranath Tagore.Gora. Macmilan India limited Edition -1999
AUTHORS
Prof. Sakate Bharat Shamarao, M.A. NET, Balwant College vita
Email id - kingofindia.1696@rediffmail.com
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 442
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Integrity Checking Mechanism with Effective 1nd
Realistic Approach in Distributed Database
Pallavi Saxena, Nitin Dubey, Sonali Pathak
Lovely Professional University, Department Computer Science Phagwara, Punjab, India
Abstract- In Constructing of a successful distributed
database we require to introduce the strong integrity checking
mechanism as less adhering may possibly breach security
aspects. The mechanism should represent the semantic
properties of stored data. Verifying the integrity of data from
various outsourced safety is a challenge for database
researchers, this paper proposes a specific approach to bring
pureness of data by employ checking method to substantiating
send back query result in distributed database. To accomplish
our goals, a unique property is dynamically inserted into each
tuples called faux attribute as well as this method also detects
the unauthorized alteration on data.
Index Terms- faux attribute; verification; validation;
trigger manager
T
I. INTRODUCTION
he race between confidentiality, integrity and availability
has put terrible pressure for the need of out-of-box
thinking. The increase in cruciality of information to the
business has inflated the challenges in protecting and managing
the data. The bulk of data that business must manage has
driven planning to make data available on 59‘s rule that is
99.999%.The goal of business continuity is to assure
information security. The main aspects are to increase the
accessibility of information without compromising of security
measures. Distributing data is one of the ways to provide
business continuity. Distributed database is a aggregation of
different databases that are logically distributed and stored in a
variety of outsourced database system that aspects client as a
centralized application where each database application may
involve different database technology and different computer
architecture that contribute the execution of global query. With
the more promotion of internet technologies, the major
problem is to preserve the integrity of data. Integrity is the
unity of stored data. In decentralized environment, the more
advanced view of Integrity as shown in Fig.1 is degree of
correctness, completeness, freshness, timeliness, efficient,
accuracy, entireness and identity of data set. Infects, there are
more research on data confidentiality and integrity on
centralized system but very little have been focused on
integrity checking in distributed system keeping in mind the
cloud environment that have brood of storage array‘s contain
multiple fragment of data .Based on researches on traditional
integrity maintenance techniques and methods, this paper
design Real time integrity checking through Verifying and
Validate Query result by accommodate the trusted third party
in distributed system This is set up by dynamically inserting a
unique attribute on every tuples of each fragment by using
trigger called faux attribute.
Figure1: Advanced view of integrity
.
Structure of the paper are as follow. In section 2, we briefly
discuss the previous work on integrity and next section contain
method and performance countermeasure and atlast we
summarize our solution and outline the future work.
II. RELATED WORK
A Glimpse of pre-implemented techniques for integrity in
distributed database
As with the increase in requirement of distributed data,
different threats of database like Excessive Privilege Abuse,
Legitimate Privilege Abuse, Privilege Elevation, Database
Platform abuse, SQL Injection, Weak Audit Trail, Weak
authentication, Backup Data Exposure, weak audit trail and
Denial of service sneak their way inside which greatly breach
the integrity of decentralized system. From the analysis as
illustrated in fig. 2, it may be shown that the excessive
privilege abuse and sql injection greatly affects the integrity of
the global schema. By keeping in mind of these kinds of
threats, the integrity can be categorized into different group.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 443
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Figure 2: Effect of database treats on distributed system
From the last 5 year, there have been many research fruits
on these vulnerabilities. Some discussion on the multilevel
using security policy or tag to achieve integrity, as in [5],
author upholds a integrity of data in term of completeness and
freshness by using fake attribute, as in [2], but this fake
attribute is generated manually by owner not dynamic,
moreover in distributed environment because for every
fragment to insert a fake attribute manually is very time
consuming also privacy of fake attribute is compromised, when
malicious user will able to break through the fake attribute.
Some research focus on intrusion-tolerant mechanism to
maintain integrity and confidentiality in distributed
environment, as in [9], the approach like strategies of the
control, test of the integrity, the test of efficiency and legality
of data from client to assure the integrity of data with the
technology of tighten, defaulting, ruling, in database, as in [6],
and author use the concept of traditional hashing and
encryption techniques by assembling a hash function through
the application of grouping of encryption algorithm to
simultaneously provides data confidentiality and integrity
during storing and operating to protect illegally stolen and
distorted in database application. This database assurance can
be obtained from the encryption, as in [5], However from the
encryption the main drawback is to big amount of key and
more complex management of key. Adopting one-way hash
function signature ensure the client as tuples receive by them
are not tampered or destroy by malicious transaction In hashing
some serious drawback is before digest the database tuples
must be sorted and cannot support dynamic update properly,
update will generate a new value that is time consuming work.
Moreover Table I shown that there will be more number of
collision attacks in different hashing algorithm.
Table 8: List of Attacks on Hash Algorithm
Algor Design
ithm ers
MD2 Ronald
Rivest
in
1989
MD5 Ronald
Rivest
in
1992
SHA-
0
SHA-
1
Nation
al
Securit
y
Agenc
y
Nation
al
Securit
y
Agenc
y
Diges
t size
128
bits
128
bits
160
bits
160
bits
Attack year Scout
er
Finding
a preimage
attack with tim
e complexity
equivalent to
2 104 2004 Mulle
r
applicatio
ns of the
compaction
function.
Vulnerable to
a primate
attack against
MD5 This
attack is only
theoretical,
with a time
complexity of
2 123.4 2009 Toe
Xie
and
dengg
uo
feeng
.
Determine the
collision attack
with time
complexity 2 51
The attacks
can find
collisions in
the full version
of SHA-1,
requiring time
complexity
smaller than
2 69 operations.
2004 Joux,
Carri
bault,
Lemu
et,
and
Jalby
2005 Profe
ssor
Wang
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Concepts
In this paper ,the main concepts behind this is the owner store
the encrypted database that contain faux attribute on the service
provider and meanwhile for the verification and validation of
data transmit the encrypted total sum value of faux attribute to
the trusted third party. The encrypted value in trusted third
party should be able to protect and secure reasonable data and
should be in accordance with the data in service provider.
III. METHODOLOGY
A. Preliminaries
The sensitivity of metadata for distributed storage. At present
most enterprise network, use distributed system to store files in
different nodes, we need to store Data definition call catalog
files in specialized server that facilitates the management,
access and retrieval of massive fragment of schema. catalog
files are used for the translation, optimization and execution of
transaction and their statistics is also updated when data
definition changed with respect to local autonomy of each site.
The catalog consists of a global schema module includes the
global relation‘s attributes, Fragments distribution modules
includes the attributes belong to each fragment, qualification
of fragment ,fragment mapping or allocation module consists
of binding the name of physical images to the local data stored
at each site in related to access matrix module includes
accessibility of fragments with respect to remote and site
autonomy, statistics module consists of profile of each of the
fragments, and state management module comprise lock and
recovery information. Catalog management system located in
corresponding with different fragment to ensure the files access
efficiency for users. We don‘t need to access all sites for
finding location of data just focus on catalog for fast retrieval
of data which enhances the performance and scalability of
Distributed System.
Faux attribute. The idea of the approach is to consider faux
attribute which is the basic protection unit in distributed
system. We use trigger to generate faux attribute, as trigger is
an stored procedure which is automatically fired when
insertion, deletion and updating happen in database. When
insertion of data goes on, trigger manager automatically inserts
unique faux attribute on every tuples into the schema.
Definition. For the purpose of convenience, ”FA” in this
paper means faux attribute, and refers to the faux tuple of Row
N and column M “RPN” stands for random parity number.
S(FA) means the process of adding parity number to faux
attribute. TS(FA) stands for the process of adding faux
attribute and generation total sum of it. E(TS((FA)) means
the process of encrypting total sum by key “K”.
Techniques of generating Faux attribute. Let us suppose a
tuple R where t1 is an attribute of the R0 and t1 is
of any data type to fulfill our mechanism we add a faux
attribute call tf ,now the tuple become Rf. The
generated faux attribute will correlate with every tuples, Fig.3
shows the structure. Irrespective of this random parity number
is added to the faux attribute it is same as in case of CRC in
networking to check whether the value of faux attribute receive
by user is same as send by providers, this improve the privacy
of faux attribute then calculate the total sum of all faux
attribute after that encrypt sum from symmetric key with
algorithm triple DES.
Figure 3: Structure of faux attribute
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 445
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B. Verification.
We use five participants in our approach, Fig. 4 show the
procedure
Figure 4: Structure of verification mechanism
Trigger manager. Here trigger manager has responsibility to
manage special kind of catalog which stores the information
related to different trigger for different fragments. Whenever new
tuples insert into fragment, trigger manager automatically fires
trigger for that fragments that will insert faux attribute in respect
of that tuple.
Owner. Owner refers to the current authorization identifier
which creates the database. Owner firstly make some operation,
they breakup the whole global schema into logical units called
fragments meanwhile with the help of trigger manager generate
faux attribute by using (1) and insert it into the fragments of each
database and then allocate those fragments into service provider.
S(FA) = ((tf1)+t(RPN))+(tf2+t(RPN))+…(tfn+t(RPN)) (1)
T(S(FA)) = FA1+FA2+FA3+…FAn (2)
T(S(FA)) = E(TS((FA)) (3)
Service Provider. After inserting faux attribute, owner resides
the encrypted database on the premises of provider. It is an
organization that provides access to database. It processes the
user query and facilitates verification and validation of data.
TTP. Trusted Third Party is a constitution that assists the real
time integrity checking of data by different users. The owner
send the encrypted total sum value E(TS((FA)) of faux attribute
to the TTP. When user get result from service provider at the
same time will receive the E(T(FA)). TTP ease interaction
between service provider and user who both have trust to TTP.
User. When one authenticate user desire to access the
database, he will fetch query to the service provider, user receive
the predicted result that hold the integrity checking module
TS((FA)) generated by the service provider by Using(2), In the
meantime user gets the E(T(FA))from the TTP, decrypt it. The
same value ensures the verification of result and implies no
alteration take place. Since faux attribute relates with every
tuples as suppose tuples will contain data {x,y,z} then
faux attribute will be tf1 = {( xyz)+RPN},.If any unauthorized
modification will happen and tuple changed to {r,y,z}, then faux
attribute value clearly interpolate the inconsistency by matching
it with each tuples and detect where violation of integrity occur.
Furthermore, user recalculates the value of faux attribute by
deducting it with RPN to assure that faux attribute is not
manipulated during transmission by malicious transaction.
IV. PERFORMANCE COUNTERMEASURE
Compared with the traditional method for integrity checking
as hash function like MD5 and CRC a more compact hash (< 128
bits) are convenience and do attention about performance but
very prone to security attacks while SHA-256 or SHA-512 where
security is predominant but for a network system with high
traffic, these hash functions can take a substantial toll on the
CPU. Moreover this algorithm is more vulnerable to attack and
susceptible to collision attack. The addition of faux attribute that
is numeric for Simplicity will have great impact on security and
performance, illustrate in Fig.5. .
Figure 5: Performance Result
1) More secure as for every row there will be unique faux
attribute it is difficult for attacker to guess which
attribute is fake, Moreover addition of RPN which is
only known to user and service provider increase the
confidentiality of faux attribute as it ensure that
authenticate users will get the result.
2) Save storage space as only one column is added to the
original table this reduce the cost of transmission,
therefore increase performance.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 446
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3) Sustain integrity between data as Faux attribute is
related with every tuples, it will be easy to find where
violation can take place by examine the faux attribute.
4) Although, no manually work is perform by owner for
insertion, updating and deletion of faux attribute.
Trigger manager will automatically insert and update
faux attribute when require in each fragment of table,
improve the speed of system.
V. CONCLUSION
The main motive of the paper is to check the unity of
important and sensible data system by infix faux attribute in each
fragment of distributed system. The faux attribute bring real time
integrity check value which can be used to provide verification
and validation of data. This method also provides trust to service
provider by verifying result of send back query with TTP.
Moreover, the solution requires less consuming power as
compared with other solutions. Uniqueness of faux attribute will
be bottleneck, but with effectual use of advanced trigger can
impart to the problem solving approach
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First of all we would like to thank IJSRP for providing us
with the platform to present our work to people and for giving us
opportunity to get our research completed. We thank Lovely
professional University for its support throughout the research
work. This project was supported by the University efficiently,
so we thank everyone involved throughout the work. We would
like to thank the university for providing us with tools required to
complete the research work
REFERENCES
[1] Bertino, E, Sandhu, R, ‖ Database Security –concepts and challenges,‖ on
IEEE Transaction on Dependable and Secure Computing, vol.2 (1), 2005,
pp.2-19.
[2] Dai Jiazhu, Zhang Yurong, Li Xin, Luo Shuangyan, ‖A completeness and
freshness guarantee scheme for outsourced database,‖ on Second
International Conference on Networking and Distributed Computing,
2011, pp.201-205.
[3] Min Xie, Haixun Wang, Jian Yin, and Xiaofeng Meng. Integrity auditing of
outsourced data. In VLDB, 2007.
[4] Li-xin Xu, Dong Sun, and Dan Liu, ‖ study on method for data
confidentiality and data integrity in relational Database,‖ in 3rd IEEE
International Conference on Computer Science and Information Technology
(ICCSIT),vol(1),2010,pp.292-295.
[5] S. Jajodia and R. Sandhu, "Polyinstantiation Integrity in Multilevel
Relations," in Proc IEEE Symposium on Research in Security and
Privacy, 1990, pp. 104-105.
[6] S. Jajodia and R. Sandhu, "Integrity Mechanisms in Database
Management System," in Proceedings of the 13th NINS-NCSC
National Computer Security Conference, 1990-10, pp. 526-540.
[7] V. Daza and J. Herranz, "A Distributed and Computationally Secure
Key Distribution Scheme. ISC'02. LNCS 2433.," on
http://eprint.iacr.org/2002/069 , 2002.
[8] Zubi, Z.S. ‖ On distributed database security aspects,‖ in International
Conference on Multimedia Computing and Systems, pp231-235, April 2009
[9] Gu-Ping Zheng andLu-Feng Xu, ‖ Distributed database system security
model of power enterprise based on intusion tolerance technology, ‖ on
International Conference on Power System Technology, pp1-4,
October2006
[10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MD2_(cryptography)
AUTHORS
First Author – Pallavi Saxena, M.Tech, Student, Lovely
Professional University,Department.Computer Science
Phagwara, Punjab, India, Email: pallavisaxena021@gmail.com
Second Author – Nitin Dubey, Assistant Professor, Lovely
Professional University,Department.Computer Science
Phagwara, Punjab, India, Email: nitmeerut@gmail.com
Third Author – Sonali Pathak, M.Tech, Student, Lovely
Professional University,Department.Computer Science
Phagwara, Punjab, India, Email: Pritipathak.pathak@gmail.com
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 447
ISSN 2250-3153
Empowerment of Women in India- An Attempt to Fill the
Gender Gap (June, 2012)
Dr. Ravi N. Kadam
Associate Professor,Department of P.G. Studies and Research in Economics, Jnana Sahyadri, Kuvempu University, Shankarghatta, Shimoga Dist.
Karnataka, India.
Abstract- The discriminated and exploited of women is seen
all over the world. The empowerment is an aid to help women to
achieve equality with men or, at least, to reduce gender gap
considerably. Women play a very strategic role in the
development of society in particular and development of
economy in general. Woman is the leader planner of the family,
the first trainer; supplier of labour power and by playing focal
role in the development of agriculture, industry, service sector,
socio-culture etc. creates a civilized society. Women contribute
directly or indirectly for economic development. Though the
nature has given the genetic power of reproduction especially to
the women, the socio-economic status of women is so poor and
the incidence of poverty is more on woman only. Empowering
women is the only solution for all questions. Her potential
hidden power is to be utilized for which, her status in the society
must be improved and economically she should be strengthened.
The poverty is the main cause for her low bargaining power
hence poverty should be removed. Empowering women and
removal of poverty go hand in hand. Woman if is educated and
empowered, her potential power can be utilized for the economic
development. Mahatma Gandhiji says, ―You educate a man, you
educate an individual. You educate a woman, you educate an
entire family‖.
The paper contains need, objectives, methodology of the
study, Better and Bitter conditions of Women, Need for Women
Empowerment, Women Empowerment of India, Government
Schemes of Empowerment, Conclusion, etc
Index Terms- Empowerment, Safeguarding, opportunity,
development, potential
T
I. INTRODUCTION
he discriminated and exploited of women is seen all over the
world. The empowerment is an support to help women to
accomplish equal opportunity with men or to reduce the gap
between men and women. Women play a very strategic role in
the development of society in particular and development of
economy in general. Woman is the leader planner of the family,
the first trainer; supplier of labour and by playing focal role in
the development of different sectors like agriculture, industry,
service, etc. and she contrbutes for the creation of a enlightened
society. Women contribute directly or indirectly for economic
development. Though the nature has given the genetic power of
reproduction especially to the women, the socio-economic status
of women is so poor and the incidence of poverty is more on
woman only. Empowering women is the only solution for all
questions. Her potential hidden power is to be utilized for which,
her status in the society must be improved and economically she
should be strengthened. The poverty is the main cause for her
low bargaining power hence poverty should be removed.
Empowering women and removal of poverty go hand in hand.
Woman if is educated and empowered, her potential power can
be utilized for the economic development. Mahatma Gandhiji
says, ―You educate a man, you educate an individual. You
educate a woman, you educate an entire family‖.
Women make up 496 million (48 pecent) of the India‘s
population, comprise 127 million workers with 26 percent of
work participation rate (31percent discriminated and exploited.
India is not exception for this (as per 2001 census). The intensity
of exploitation and subjugation varies from society to society.
But there is no such a society which has eliminated the
exploitation and subjugation. The patriarchal system has
confined the women to specific areas such as kitchen and the bed
room and fixed gender roles like bearing and rearing children,
cooking and cleaning. Even today a woman is viewed as
‗property‘ and not a human being who has her own likes and
dislikes. Opportunities for self development are denied to them.
Need and Importance of the Study:
Women play an important role in all the fields of
development. Socially economically if she is strengthened then
she will create wonders. Women contribute directly and
indirectly for the economic development. Though the nature has
given the genetic power of reproduction especially to the women,
the socio-economic status of women is so poor and the incidence
of poverty is more on woman only. Empowering women is the
only solution for all questions. Hence it is essential to study the
past and present position of women and suggest measures for
their upliftment.
II. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The study has following objectives,
1. To study the scenario of status of women and efforts
made in past and present,
2. To study the necessity of empowerment of women and
3. To know the available schemes for women
empowerment in India.
III. METHODOLOGY:
For the preparation of this paper secondary data is used.
BETTER AND BITTER CONDITION OF WOMEN:
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 448
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Women in Ancient India
The status of women is changing from time to time. The
history of women in India has been exciting. Over the past few
millennia, the status of women in India has been subject to many
changes. Women enjoyed equal status with men in all fields of
life in ancient days of India. Works by ancient Indian
grammarians such as Patanjali and Katyayana point out that,
women were educated in the early Vedic period. The Rigvedic
verses tell that, the women married at a mature age and were free
to select their life partner. Rig Veda and Upanishads, the holy
books mention that, There were many women sages and seers,
like Gari and Maitreyi. Stri. Dharma Paddhati, the text of
Tryambakayajvan reflects the role of women and tells that,
‗women were enjoined to be of service to their husbands‘. In
some kingdoms of ancient India, tradition like Nagar Vadhu i.e
bride of the city was practiced. Amrapali was the famous Nagar
Vadhu. Women were competing to win the popular title of the
‗Nagar Vadhu‘.
During the early Vedic Period women enjoyed equal
position and rights. Later around 500 B.C the position of women
started to decline with the Manusmiti and with the Mughal
invasion of Babur and the Mughal empire and later Christianity
cut the freedom and rights of women. Even though penitentiary
movements like Jainism allowed women to be admitted to the
religious order by and large, the women in India faced captivity
and restrictions. Around sixth century, the practice of child
marriages started.
Medieval Period
During the medieval period, the position of Indian woman
in the society further deteriorated. Among some communities in
India, practice of Sati, Child Marriages and a ban on remarriages
of widows became part of social life. The Muslim conquest
brought the purdah practice in the Indian society. The Jauhar was
practiced among the Rajputs of Rajasthan. The practices of
temple women (Devadasi) was in practice and were sexually
exploited in some parts of India. Among Hindu Kshatriya rulers
polygamy was widely practiced. Women were restricted to
Zenana areas in many Muslim families.
During and after British rule the condition of women is not
very good. The women are not viewed with equal status. In India,
woman herself doesn‘t feel equal and many times she ill treats
herself.
IV. NEED FOR WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
The empowerment is an aid to help women to achieve
equality with men or, at least, to reduce gender gap considerably.
Without empowerment certain social roles cannot be performed.
Women play a distinct role in the economic development. She is
the chief architect of family, the first teacher; supplier of labour
power and by playing main role in the development of
agriculture, industry, service sector, socio-culture etc. creates a
civilized society. In the visible and invisible form women
contribute for economic development. The nature has given the
biological power of reproduction especially to the women. She
can create social, cultural and economic wonders. Even then the
socio-economic status of women is so poor. Often the women are
victimized in the cases like rape, dowry harassments, sexual
harassments, kidnapping, female infanticides and sex selective
abortions, domestic violence, trafficking, etc. The verdicts of
many of such cases go against women because of the nonavailability
of witness, discontinuation of suits, difficulty of
proving the incidents etc. Hence she should be strengthened and
her status should be improved; she should be physically,
mentally, economically, socially, politically and culturally
strengthened so that the country can make use of hidden potential
power for the economic development. Therefore empower the
women.
V. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT IN INDIA
It is the man who has to take initiative for women
empowerment. The efforts for the upliftment of conditions of
Indian women have been noticed before and after British rule in
India.
During British Rule
In the 19th century European scholars observed that, the
Hindu women are naturally innocent, faithful and more virtuous
than other women. During the British Rule, many reformers like
Rajaram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Jyotirao
Phule, etc. struggled for the upliftment of the conditions of
women in India. The first free school for girls (Kalikrishna Girls'
High School) in Barasat (Calcutta) was started by Peary Charan
Sarkar, (student of Hindu College, Calcutta and a member of
Young Bengal) in 1847. missionaries' wives like Martha Mault
née Mead and her daughter Eliza Caldwell née Mault pioneered
the education and training of girls in south India
In 1829, the efforts of Raja Rammohan Roy resulted in the
abolition of the practice of ‗Sati‘ under Governor- General
William Bentinck. The Widow Remarriage Act of 1856 was the
result of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's movement for the
improvement in conditions of widows. The efforts of women
reformer, Pandita Ramabai also helped for upliftment of
conditions of women in India. The Indian National Congress
supported the first women's delegation which met the Secretary
of State to demand women's political rights in 1917. In 1927, The
All India Women's Education Conference was held at Pune. The
efforts of Mahhommad Ali Jinna, resulted in passing of Child
Marriage Restraint Act in 1929. Mahatma Gandhi called upon
the young men to marry the child widows and urged people to
boycott child marriages.
Independent India
After independence India is free to take new and innovative
steps for women empowerment. The Indian Constitution
guarantees about, women equality, no discrimination, equality of
opportunity, equal pay for equal work for all Indian women and
it allows the State to make special provisions in favour of women
and children, renounces practices insulting to the dignity of
women and for provisions for securing just and humanitarian
conditions of work and for maternity relief. The cases of
trafficking of young girls and women have been reported. These
women are either forced into prostitution, domestic work or child
labour to prevent this, the Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act was
passed in 1956. In 1961, the Government of India passed the
Dowry Prohibition Act and the Dowry Prohibition (maintenance
of lists of presents to the bride and bridegroom) rules were
framed in 1985. In India all the medical tests that can be used to
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decide the sex of the child have been banned. Female infanticide
is still prevails in some areas. In India the abuse of the dowry
tradition has been one of the major reasons for sex-selective
abortions and female infanticides. During late 1970s the feminist
activism got momentum and the protest due to the issue of rape
of young girl Mathura in police station by a policeman compelled
the government to amend the Evidence Act, the Criminal
Procedure Code and the Indian Penal Code and introduce the
category of custodial rape. Female activists amalgamated the
issues of female infanticide, gender bias, women health, and
female literacy. The Government of India passed the Muslim
Women's (Protection of Rights Upon Divorce) Act, on the base
of Supreme Court Judjment in 1986. Women-oriented NGOs
were formed with the help of grants from foreign donors in
1990s. Self Help Groups, Self Employed Women‘s Association
(SEWA), etc. played a key role in protecting women's rights by
which many women have emerged as leaders of local movements
in India. In 1997, the Supreme Court of India in important
judgment took a strong stand against sexual harassment of
women in the workplace and the Court laid down guidelines for
the prevention and redressal of grievances. Subsequently the
National Commission for Women elaborated these guidelines
into a Code of Conduct for employers.
In 2001, the Government of India declared the year 2001 as
the Year of Women's Empowerment (Swashakti) and the
National Policy for the Empowerment of Women was passed. In
2005, the Hindu law of inheritance has been amended and now
the women have been provided the same status as that of men
have i.e right of having share in ancestral property. In 2006, the
rape case of Imrana was highlighted, the announcement of some
Muslim religious leader that, ‗Imrana should marry her father-inlaw‘
(the rapist) caused widespread protests and resulted in
conviction verdict for 10 years imprisonment which was
welcomed by many women's groups and the All India Muslim
Personal Law Board. On 26 th October, 2006, the Protection of
Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 has come into force.
Rajyasabha passed Women's Reservation Bill, ensuring 33
percent reservation to women in Parliament and State Legislative
bodies on 9 th March, 2010. According to the 73rd and 74th
Constitutional Amendment Acts, all local elected bodies reserve
one-third of their seats for women. Even though the percentages
of women in various levels of political activity have risen
considerably, women are still under-represented in governance
and decision making positions.
VI. GOVERNMENT SCHEMES FOR WOMEN
EMPOWERMENT
The government of India has been trying to empower the
women through various schemes some of schemes related to
women empowerment in India are-
Creches/ Day Care Centres for the children of working and
Ailing mothers.Swayamsidh, Swa-Shakti Project, Support to
Training and Employment Programme for Women (STEP),
Swawalamban, Hostels for working women, Swadhar, Rashtriya
Mahila Kosh (RMK), Self Help Groups (SHGs) etc.
VII. CONCLUSION:
The women play a strategic role in the society and in the
economy. The status of women in India is not even in all the
times. In ancient period they enjoyed equal status with men, in
the medieval period, the position of Indian women deteriorated.
During British rule and after independence many efforts are
being made for improving the status of women in India. The
government of India, by passing timely and essential Acts and
implementing rules and regulations trying to empower and
strengthen the women. No doubt the government of India has
many weapons to fight for women empowerment, the prompt and
strict implementation is quite essential. Unless the Acts, Policies,
Rules, Regulations, etc, are strictly implemented the idea of
women empowerment remains unachieved. Hence the efforts of
the government are still inadequate and the process of
empowering women in India is long way to go.
REFERENCES
[1] Neera Desai & Mathreyi Krishnaraj: ―Women & Society in India‖ (1990) -
Ajanta book International, Delhi.
[2] Neera Desai & Usha Thakkar: ―Women in Indian Society‖ (2001) - NBT,
New Delhi.
[3] C. N. Shankar Rao (2005) –― Indian Society Structure and Change‖, Jai
Bharath Prakashana, Manglore. Ref.1.pp.161
[4] Ruddar Dutt & K.P.M. Sundaram: Indian Economy‖ (2006) - S Chand&
Company Ltd. 7361, Ram Nagar, New Delhi-55.
[5] H. R. Krishnamurthy: ―Economic Development ion India‖ (2006) - Sapna
Book House, Bangalore.
[6] Web pages.
AUTHORS
First Author –Dr.Ravi N.Kadam, Associate Professor, Dept. of
Economics, Kuvempu University, Shimoga, Karnataka,
09480024629, e-mail:ravinkadam123@yahoo.com
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Energy Efficient Multi Hop Clustering Protocol for
Wireless Networks
M.Shankar, G.JegaJothi, S. Karthigaiveni, M.Ganesan, L Dinesh
Abstract- Bluetooth and wireless LAN communication models
are used in mobile devices. Mobile devices are equipped with
multi radio features for WLAN and Bluetooth communications.
IEEE 802.11 standards are used for WLAN communication.
Bluetooth supports bandwidth level of 2 Mbps with a range of 10
meters. Wireless LAN communication requires high energy
resources. Wireless LAN communication model is integrated
with Bluetooth communication mechanism. Bluetooth Personal
Area Network (PAN) is formed with one cluster head and a set of
nodes. Low power Bluetooth is used to access WLAN resources.
Cooperative networking (CONET) protocol is used to
dynamically cluster the nodes. Node‘s bandwidth requirement,
energy use, and application type details are used in cluster
construction process. Clustering is performed independently of
WLAN access points. CONET protocol reduces the energy
consumption in WLAN. CONET protocol supports single hop
clustering model. Limited coverage and constraint based WLAN
access are the main problems in CONET protocol. CONET
protocol is enhanced with multi hop clustering model. Max-Min
D-Clustering algorithm is integrated with CONET protocol. Cost
functions are optimized to multi hop clustering. Coverage
maximization is achieved with Bluetooth.
Index Terms- Polarization, Reflection guide map, Mask layers
W
I. INTRODUCTION
ireless local area network (WLAN), or IEEE 802.11, has
created a wave of popular interest because of its sufficient
bandwidth and well-constructed infrastructures. However, a
serious problem of WLAN is its considerable energy
consumption, energy consumed by WLAN interfaces accounts
for more than 50 percent of the total energy consumption in
hand-held devices and up to 10 percent in laptops. Because
mobile devices are usually driven by limited battery power, it is
essential to devise novel solutions to reduce the power
consumption due to the WLAN interface without degrading its
performance.
About 70 percent of smart phones in the market have a
Bluetooth interface as a secondary radio for personal area
networking [2]. The Bluetooth standard is primarily designed for
low-power consumption, requiring only about a 10th of the
WLAN power. However, because of its limited power, Bluetooth
supports a low bandwidth of only 2 Mbps, with a short range of
10 meters (class 2). In this work, we explore the idea of using
this coexistence of high-power/high-bandwidth WLAN and lowpower/low-bandwidth
Bluetooth in a single mobile platform to
solve the power consumption problem in WLAN-based
communication systems. Several previous works have exploited
Bluetooth as a secondary radio to reduce the overall power
consumption [1]. Bluetooth is mainly used to provide always a
connected channel between mobile devices and the WLAN
access point (AP). In On Demand Paging and Wake on Wireless,
mobile devices and the AP exchange control messages, e.g.,
wake-up messages, via low-power channels.1 this allows a
mobile device to turn off the WLAN interface when it is not
being used. CoolSpots and SwitchR use Bluetooth more actively
to lengthen the power-off time of WLAN: Bluetooth is used not
only for the wake-up channel, but also for data communication
when applications demand low data rates. WLAN is powered up
only when the data rate reaches the Bluetooth limit. However,
these approaches usually assume that APs also have both WLAN
and Bluetooth interfaces. This assumption guides the hardware
and software modifications to our wireless infrastructures.
Unlike these previous works, our approach is based on
clustering. Clustering is commonly used in sensor networks for
network scalability, load balancing [8], data aggregation [7], or
energy efficiency. In our work, clustering makes nodes that share
their WLAN interfaces with each other. Depicts the concept of
our approach and compares it to the previous approaches. A
cluster is a Bluetooth Personal Area Network (PAN) that consists
of one cluster head (CH) and several regular nodes (RNs). CHs
are responsible for coordination among the nodes within their
clusters and the forwarding of packets from the PANs (clusters)
to the WLAN, and vice-versa. CHs keep their WLAN interfaces
on to provide links to the WLAN AP, allowing RNs to use only
Bluetooth and turn their WLAN interfaces off in order to save
energy. Clustering is periodically performed in a distributed
manner based on the energy uses and bandwidth requirements of
the nodes.
In this work, clustering is performed independently of
WLAN APs. Therefore, our approach does not require
modifications to existing infrastructures, while the previous
approaches require specialized APs with dual radios. Moreover,
we solved the scalability problem of the previous works. Because
of the large difference between the communication ranges of
WLAN and Bluetooth, only a few devices close to the dual AP
can use the low-power radio. In our case, on the other hand, since
clusters can be created anywhere, most devices can obtain the
benefit of energy saving.
One unique requirement which distinguishes our approach
from the traditional clustering problem in sensor networks is that,
unlike sensor nodes which are left unattended after deployment,
mobile devices are arbitrarily controlled by their users. This
necessitates the consideration of node mobility as well as a large
variance of bandwidth requirements of various applications.
Moreover, because all devices have equal significance, rotating
the CH role among all devices is necessary to distribute energy
consumption. Mobile devices also can be turned off at any time
and powered again depending on the users‘ needs, which
necessitates the consideration of unexpected link failures.
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This paper presents a distributed clustering protocol,
Cooperative Networking protocol (CONET). CONET has four
main objectives:
1. Improving the energy efficiency of wireless networks
by exploiting a secondary radio,
2. Dynamically configuring clusters to meet the bandwidth
requirements of all nodes,
3. Producing well-distributed cluster heads, and
4. Minimizing control overhead.
CONET dynamically clusters the network according to each
node‘s bandwidth, energy, and application type. We have
implemented the CONET prototype using wearable computers to
evaluate its performance on real hardware systems. We also
simulate CONET for large networks of more than 100 mobile
nodes and evaluate the performance. Both results demonstrate
that CONET is effective in reducing the power consumption of
WLAN-based communication systems.
II. RELATED WORK
Many previous studies have investigated techniques that
reduce the energy consumption due to WLAN interfaces in
single radio mobile devices. They optimize the power
consumption at various layers, such as the application layer,
transport/network layer [9] and MAC layer [5]. The IEEE 802.11
standards also define several low-power modes, such as PSM in
the legacy 802.11 and Automatic Power Save Delivery (APSD)
in 802.11e. They allow nodes to keep their WLAN cards in the
sleep state when they do not have to communicate and switch to
active state periodically (PSM) or at application-specific instants
of time APSD to retrieve data buffered in the access point.
Although the majority of the WLAN interface‘s circuitry is
turned off in the sleep state, the base power consumption for the
minimal host card interaction and state transition is not
negligible, which is typically 200-400 mW. On the other hand,
CONET allows RNs to completely turn off their WLAN
interfaces and use only Bluetooth. Moreover, since Bluetooth
also supports low-power modes, such as sniff mode, which
operate in similar manner to PSM but consume an order of
magnitude less power than PSM, RNs can save more energy
using Bluetooth low power modes. Of course, CHs can operate
using PSM or APSD to communicate with the access point,
resulting in lower average power consumption than PSM or
APSD.
Some advanced WLAN chipsets dramatically reduce the idle
power consumption, but require cost and time for hardware
upgrade or worldwide deployment. As a result, the majority of
today‘s hand-held products still have power consumption
problem due to the WLAN interface [4]. In contrast, CONET
needs only a simple software patch at OS level, resulting fast
deployment to existing mobile devices and infrastructures.
As mobile devices increasingly feature multiple radios, the
idea of using a secondary low-power radio to reduce the power
consumption of the WLAN interface. In [3], a VoIP device
exploits a secondary radio as a wake-up channel, but this incurs
long latencies for activating the sleeping device. For general
applications, several paging schemes have been proposed, but
they also contain the latency problem to activate the WLAN
channel. CoolSpots and SwitchR use the secondary radio not
only for control signaling but also for data communication. They
alleviate the latency problem and save more energy by
lengthening the power-off time of WLAN interfaces. However,
they require hardware/software modifications of existing LAN
environment for deployment. Conceptually, CoolSpots and
SwitchR can be special cases of CONET: if a dual AP exists, it
can be regarded as a stationary node whose cost is always zero
(lowest) thus always acts as a cluster head.
III. PROBLEM STATEMENTS
The mobile devices that we consider in this paper are popular
user terminals, such as smart phones or wearable computers. For
the rest of this paper, we simply refer to a mobile device as a
node. We assume the following properties about the nodes and
wireless networks:
1. Each node has one WLAN interface (primary) and one
Bluetooth interface (secondary).
2. There is at least one WLAN access point in the field.
Each node can communicate with the access point using
its WLAN interface, regardless of its location and time.
3. The WLAN access points do not have Bluetooth
interfaces. This is typical for most existing wireless
environments. Therefore, the previous approaches are
inapplicable.
4. Each node i knows the total bandwidth required, Need
BWi, and the free bandwidth of its Bluetooth link, Free
BWit.
5. Each node i can measure its residual energy Eit.
6. All Bluetooth interfaces have the same communication
range.
The final goal of our CONET is to reduce the power
consumption in wireless networking applications. For this
purpose, we first classify popular applications into two types:
group networking and individual networking. Next, we propose a
general clustering protocol that considers both application types.
Our goal is to design a general clustering protocol that
satisfies the requirements of the above application types. To
accomplish this, we separate cost functions from the clustering
algorithm and provide two cost functions for each of application
type. Users can select proper cost functions for their applications.
Depending on the selected cost function, a different set of nodes
is selected as cluster heads to meet the user requirements. Also,
the following requirements must be met:
1. Clustering should be completely distributed. Each node
independently makes its decisions based only on local
information.
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2. For each cluster Cj, the sum of bandwidth requirements
of all regular nodes within the cluster must not exceed
the maximum data rate of Bluetooth RB, i.e., RNK
.NeedBWk(t) < AR B , where RNk is the regular node of
ID k and NeedBWk(t) is the required bandwidth for
node k at time t.
3. At the end of the clustering process, each node should
be either a cluster head or a regular node that belongs to
exactly one cluster.
4. Clustering should be efficient in terms of processing
complexity and message exchange.
IV. THE CONET PROTOCOL
This section describes CONET in detail. First, we present the
protocol design. Next, we define the parameters and cost
functions.
A. PROTOCOL OPERATION
Fig. 2 shows the details of our protocol. Nodes exchange
clustering messages via Bluetooth. For easy understanding, we
describe our protocol based on the example a group networking
scenario: nodes 1, 2, and 3 have a common collaborative task and
attempt to maximize the group lifetime.
A.1 CLUSTER HEAD ADVERTISEMENT
When a node is newly booted up, it becomes a CH, as shown
in the flow chart (Fig. 1). Assume that all three nodes of the
example are booted up at the same time. Then, since all of them
independently become CHs, three clusters are created. However,
the only member of each cluster is the cluster head itself. Like
these clusters, a cluster which has no RNs is called a trivial
cluster, and the head of the trivial cluster is called a trivial cluster
head (tCH). Therefore, tCHs do not need to use Bluetooth for
packet forwarding, but only for advertising. Note that tCH is a
subset of CH.
When a node becomes a CH, it starts to advertise its resource
information periodically via Bluetooth. It repeats advertising as
long as it is a CH. The advertisement message of node i contains
the clustering cost Ci, the amount of bandwidth available for
packet forwarding FreeBWi, and some required information,
such as the ID and the network address. Each node manages a set
S , which stores the information advertised by neighboring
CH
i
CHs.
Because act as gateways that connect Bluetooth nodes (RNs)
to the WLAN access point, FreeBWi of CH i should be the
smaller value between Free BW w
i and FreeBW B
i , the amount of
free bandwidth on Bluetooth and WLAN links, respectively. To
estimate the free bandwidth on a wireless link, we can use wellstudied
bandwidth estimation techniques [6].
Fig. 1: Flow chart of CONET clustering protocol.
For example, we can estimate the free bandwidth using the
idle channel time. A channel is considered to be idle if the node
is not sending or receiving data through the channel and a carrier
or interference signal is not sensed on that channel. By
monitoring the idle channel times of WLAN and Bluetooth
i
channels ( w
i T and T B , respectively) during a period of time T,
each node i can estimate its Free BW w
i and FreeBW B
i using a
moving average with weight 2 =0, 1 as follows:
Free BW w
i = Free BW w T
i + (1- )
T
I W
R W - R mar , (1)
Free BW w
i = Free BW w T
i + (1- )
T
I B
R B - R mar, R, (2)
Where R W and R B are the transmission rates of WLAN
and Bluetooth, respectively. R mar is a predefined constant used to
maintain the free bandwidths to be slightly lower than the
bandwidth actually available. It is necessary to switch between
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radio interfaces dynamically based on the current data rate. Later,
in this section, we explain the details of interface switching. Our
current design assumes that R W is a predefined constant, but the
IEEE 802.11 standard provides multiple transmission rates
depending on Signalto Noise Ratio (SNR). We plan to improve
CONET to support multiple rates in our future research.
Although only CHs advertise their resources, RNs also
measure free bandwidth for cluster head election (discussed
later). However, because RNs use only Bluetooth, their
FreeBW W values are always zero, and thus, meaningless.
Therefore, the free bandwidth of RNs should be set to FreeBW B .
In summary, the free bandwidth of node i, FreeBWi, can be
obtained as follows:
W
B
Min(
Free BWi
, FreeBWi
),
, (3)
if node i is a CH
B
FreeBWi
, otherwise.
FreeBw i
Note that CONET does not limit the bandwidth estimation
technique. It can also operate with other techniques with minor
modifications.
A.2 RESPONDING TO JOINT REQUESTS
In stage (B) of Fig. 1, each CH waits for JOIN requests from
other nodes for a short time. The JOIN message of node i
includes the amount of required bandwidth NeedBWi. Upon
receiving a JOIN message, the CH goes to stage (C) and
compares its FreeBW with the sender‘s NeedBW. If the CH has a
sufficient amount of free bandwidth for the sender, it will accept
the request, but, otherwise, reject it. After responding to the
request, the CH returns to the initial stage. The sentence,
―Become a CH,‖ in stage (A) means ―keep the CH role‖ for the
nodes that are already CHs. At the initial moment, because no
node has sent a JOIN message yet, all the nodes go down to stage
(D).
A.3 CLUSTER HEAD ELECTION
When there is no JOIN request, the CH counts the number of
RNs within its clusters (stage (D) in Fig. 1). If there is at least
one RN in the cluster, the CH returns to the first step and keeps
its current role. This allows RNs to select their next CHs by
themselves, which is necessary for network stability: If CHs stop
their roles of packet forwarding regardless of the associated RNs,
the RNs will occasionally lose their links to the WLAN access
point. Furthermore, clusters will be reformed quite frequently if
CHs ignore the status of each RN, such as the first association
time. The chance for energy saving is given to trivial CHs
(tCHs), which turned out to have no RNs within their clusters at
the end of stage (D). A tCH selects its next CH by itself. In stage
(E), each tCH calls the FIND_NEXT_CH procedure, which
presents the CH election process of CONET. Assume that node i
calls FIND_NEXT_CH. It then executes the following
procedure:
FIND_NEXT_CH:
1) Prune the node which has insufficient bandwidth. Let
Si C H and Si CH be the original and pruned
neighboring CH set of node I, For each node K Si CH
,if MIN (Free BWi ,Free BWK) > Need BWi, then copy
K into S i CH
2) Find i‘s next CH candidate which has the lowest cost
among I and all nodes in Si CH
3) Return the Selected node.
Even though all nodes estimate FreeBW using (3), the
estimation results of two neighboring nodes could be different
due to the limited radio range. For example, let us assume that
there is a hidden flow on the left side of node 1, which is in node
1‘s radio range, but out of nodes 2‘s radio range. In this case,
FreeBW1 will be estimated to be smaller than FreeBW2 because
the flow only interferes the idle channel time of node 1.
Therefore, the maximum bandwidth between nodes 1 and 2 is
bounded by the smaller value FreeBW 1 . This indicates that the
free bandwidth on the link between nodes i and k should be the
minimum value between FreeBWi and FreeBWk, i.e.,
MIN(FreeBWi ,FreeBWk) because there is no hidden flow and all
nodes have equal available bandwidths of 2 Mbps, neither node 2
nor 3 is pruned when node 1 calls the FIND_ NEXT_CH
procedure. Therefore, node 1‘s pruned
CH
S1 setCHSet CH
S1 Next, node 1 selects the lowest cost node among the nodes in
CH
S 1 and itself. For simple explanation, let us assume that the
cost of each node i, Ci, is simply the reciprocal of its residual
energy Ei, i.e., C i =1/Ei. The purpose of this cost function is to
select the node with the highest residual energy as the CH for
other low-energy nodes. Because node 1 has the lowest cost in
the case, it returns to stage (A) and repeats the above processes.
Similarly, nodes 2 and 3 elect node 1 as their CH and send JOIN
messages to it. As their requests are accepted by node 1, they go
to stage (F) and become the RNs of node 1. Finally, nodes 1, 2,
and 3 are clustered together.
B. APPLICATION TYPES AND COST FUNCTIONS
In this section, we present two cost functions designed for
group networking and individual networking.
B.1 GROUP NETWORKING
The main objective of group networking is to prolong the
group lifetime. In sensor networks, one popular cost function
used to maximize the network lifetime is primarily based on the
residual energy of each node, e.g., (maximum energy)/(residual
energy). This cost function distributes energy dissipation over the
network particularly well when the power consumption rates are
equal for all nodes. In CONET, however, a variety of nodes types
made by different venders are clustered together, breaking the
homogeneity of the power consumption rate. Therefore, our cost
function for the group networking case is based on each node‘s
estimated lifetime, the estimated time for a node to survive in the
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future. We define the cost of being a CH for node i at time t, Cit,
as follows:
Ci(t) =
1
( t)
L i
……………(4)
Where i t L~ is node i‘s estimated lifetime. We assume that each
node i knows its current power consumption Pi(t) and residual
energy Ei(t). Then, the lifetime estimation is based on the moving
average of the current and past power usage.
B.2 INDIVIDUAL NETWORKING
For individual networking, energy saving should be as equal
as possible to all cooperating nodes. This motivates us to use the
energy saving ratio (ESR) as the cost for individual networking.
Our goal is to equalize ESR among all cooperating nodes.
Consider node i, which was booted up at t = 0 and has cooperated
with others using CONET for [0, t] t >0. The role (CH or RN) of
the node and cluster organization may have changed with time,
depending on its resource usage. Using the cumulative amount of
energy consumption, the energy saving ratio of node i at time t,
ESRi(t), can be defined as follows:
where Pit represents the future power consumption
estimated at time t. Once Pit has been estimated, the node can
calculate its Lit as follows:
tr co
co
ESRi (t) =
Ei
( t)
Ei
( t)
Ei
( t)
1
,
tr
tr
E ( t)
E ( t)
i
Where E (t)
tr
i represents the expected energy that would
be consumed if node i had communicated in the traditional
WLAN-only manner (i.e., without CONET) during I =0; t
E co
(t)
i represents the energy actually consumed by the node
when it has used CONET. Therefore, E (t)
co
i mainly depends
on the history of the node‘s current and past roles: when the node
is an RN, E (t)
co
i will increase more slowly than E (t)
tr
i
because RNs use only Bluetooth, resulting in an increase in
ESRit. Otherwise, when the node is a CH, E (t)
co
i will increase
as fast as (or slightly faster than) E (t)
tr
i thus, ESRit will
decrease. According to (5), high ESR means that by cooperating
with others, the node could save more energy than the others.
Therefore, every time nodes rotate their roles, CONET selects
high-ESR nodes as the next CHs, allowing low-ESR nodes to
become RNs for energy saving. We define the cost of being a CH
for node i at time t, Cit, as follows:
Ci (t) = 1- ESRi (t) =
co
Ei
( t)
~ tr
E ( t)
With appropriate role switching periods, our protocol
equalizes ESR among nodes.
i
i
(5)
(6)
V. CONET PROTOCOL WITH MULTI HOP
CLUSTERING MODEL
CONET protocol is enhanced with multi hop clustering
model. Max-Min D-Clustering algorithm is integrated with
CONET protocol. Cost functions are optimized to multi hop
clustering. Coverage maximization is achieved with Bluetooth.
The system is designed to improve data communication under
the wireless LAN environment with energy management. The
private area networks are formed to manage data transmission
using Bluetooth. The clustering techniques are used for the PAN
construction process. The system is divided into five modules.
They are Network analysis, Single hop clustering, Multi hop
clustering, PAN management and Data communication.
The network analysis module is designed to discover the
nodes and their neighbors. The node grouping is performed under
the single hop clustering process. Multi hop clustering module is
designed to cluster the nodes with multi hop model. PAN
construction module is designed to group up the bluetooth nodes.
Data communication module handles the communication
between the wireless nodes.
A. NETWORK ANALYSIS
The network analysis is performed to detect the node and
network status. The WLAN nodes are connected through the
access points. Nodes and their neighborhood nodes are identified
in the network analysis. Nodes radio and energy details are
collected in the network analysis.
B. SINGLE HOP CLUSTERING
Clustering process is carried out to manage energy and
network load. CONET protocol is used for the clustering process.
The bandwidth requirements are managed by the clusters. The
clusters are configured dynamically.
C. MULTI HOP CLUSTERING
Max-Min D-Clustering algorithm is used for the multi hop
clustering process. The CONET protocol is enhanced to support
multi hop clustering process. The PAN construction is also tuned
for multi hop clustering environment. Cluster head selection is
optimized for multi hop clustering model.
D. PAN MANAGEMENT
The private area network is constructed with Bluetooth
enabled nodes. Cluster head (CH) manages the nodes under
PAN. Regular nodes (RN) communicate with cluster head (CH).
Cluster head is connected with wireless LAN access points.
E. DATA COMMUNICATION
Data communication is done with WLAN and Bluetooth
protocols. Secondary radio based communication is used to
achieve energy efficiency. Cluster head manages the data
transmission within its area. Cluster level transmissions are done
through PAN nodes.
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VI. SCREENSHOTS
VII. CONCLUSION
Wireless communication standards are used in Wireless
Local Area Networks (WLAN). Clustering techniques are used
to group up the mobile devices with Bluetooth communication.
Cluster head manages the communication between the WLAN
and bluetooth environment. CONET is a bandwidth aware and
energy-efficient clustering protocol for multiracial mobile
networks. CONET uses Bluetooth to reduce the power
consumption of WLAN in mobile devices. It dynamically
reconfigures the clusters based on the bandwidth requirements of
applications to avoid the performance degradation. We have
classified the applications into two cases: group networking and
individual networking.
Multi hop clustering scheme is used to handle data
communication process. The system supports high frequency and
low frequency environment. Multi hop is constructed. Cluster
head manages the data transmission process. The system reduces
the energy consumption.
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REFERENCES
[1] Jong-Woon Yoo and Kyu Ho Park, ―A Cooperative Clustering Protocol for
Energy Saving of Mobile Devices with WLAN and Bluetooth Interfaces‖,
IEEE Transactions On Mobile Computing, Vol. 10, No. 5, April 2011.
[2] GSMArea,http://www.gsmarena.com/search.php3, Dec. 2009.
[3] Y. Agarwal, R. Chandra, A. Wolman, P. Bahl, K. Chin, and R. Gupta,
―Wireless Wakeups Revisited: Energy Management for VoIP over Wi-Fi
Smartphones,‖ Proc. ACM MobiSys, pp. 179-191, 2007.
[4] N. Banerjee, S. Agarwal, P. Bahl, R. Chandra, A. Wolman, and M. Corner,
―Virtual Compass: Relative Positioning to Sense Mobile Social
Interactions,‖ Microsoft Technical Report MSR-TR-2010-5, Jan. 2010.
[5] Y. He and R. Yuan, ―A Novel Scheduled Power Saving Mechanism for
802.11 Wireless LANs,‖ IEEE Trans. Mobile Computing, vol. 8, no. 10, pp.
1368-1383, Oct. 2009.
[6] Y. Yang and R. Kravets, ―Contention-Aware Admission Control for Ad
Hoc Networks,‖ IEEE Trans. Mobile Computing, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 363-377,
July/Aug. 2005.
[7] Y. Wu, X.-Y. Li, Y. Liu, and W. Lou, ―Energy-Efficient Wake-Up
Scheduling for Data Collection and Aggregation,‖ IEEE Trans. Parallel and
Distributed Systems, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 275-287, Feb. 2010.
[8] M. Cheng, X. Gong, and L. Cai, ―Joint Routing and Link Rate Allocation
under Bandwidth and Energy Constraints in Sensor Networks,‖ IEEE Trans.
Wireless Comm., vol. 8, no. 7, pp. 3770-3779, July 2009.
[9] X.-Y. Li, Y. Wang, H. Chen, X. Chu, Y. Wu, and Y. Qi, ―Reliable and
Energy-Efficient Routing for Static Wireless Ad Hoc Networks with
Unreliable Links,‖ IEEE Trans. Parallel and Distributed Systems, vol. 20,
no. 10, pp. 1408-1421, Oct. 2009.
AUTHORS
First Author – M. Shankar, M.E (Software Engineering),
Department of Information Technology, Periyar Maniammai
University, Thanjavur, India.
Second Author – Dr. G. Jegajothi, Head of the Department,
Department of Information Technology, Periyar Maniammai
University, Thanjavur, India.
Third Author – S. Karthigaiveni, Assistant Professor,
Department of Information Technology, Periyar Maniammai
University, Thanjavur, India
Fourth Author – M. Ganesan, M.E (Computer Science and
Engineering), Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Karpagam University, Coimbatore, India.
Fifth Author – L. Dinesh, M.E (Software Engineering),
Department of Information Technology, Periyar Maniammai
University, Thanjavur, India. Emai: l_dinuma@yahoo.co.in
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Migration of Mobicents SIP Servlets on Cloud Platform
Mr. Manish Giri, Sachin Waghmare, Balaji Bandhu, Akshay Sawwashere, Atul Khaire
Department of Computer Engineering, Maharashtra Academy of Engineering, Alandi, Pune, India
Abstract- Mobicents Sip Servlets helps the users to create,
deploy, and manage services and applications that integrate
voice, video and data in real time over IP networks. These
applications require high resources to run. Mobicents Sip
Servlets has not offered a cloud support yet. Running Mobicents
Sip Servlets in a cloud would allow the users to adapt the
resources used by Mobicents Sip Servlets to the real time load of
the applications. We have proposed a solution to migrate
Mobicents Sip Servlets on a cloud platform. Our solution
provides a set of cloud images that support the Mobicents Sip
Servlets platform. Besides, our solution provides an auto-scaling
algorithm that automatically scales the number of instances of
Mobicents Sip Servlets. It is now possible to deploy SIP
applications in a cloud and the platform will adapt its resource
according to the need.
Index Terms- Cloud Computing, SIP servlet, JBOSS AS,
Cloud images.
M
I. INTRODUCTION
obicents Sip Servlets is an application server which runs
on top of JBoss AS and which provides an Implementation
of the SIP Servlet specification. The purpose of this platform is
to help the users to create, deploy, and manage services and
applications that integrate voice, video and data in real time over
IP networks. Because of the large amount of data the applications
must process, they require high resources to run. Most vendors
of application servers now offer an Amazon image in order to
use their products on a cloud. Indeed, a cloud can provide the
high resources needed by the applications since it is easy to add
or remove some resource allocated to the application in a cloud.
Mobicents Sip Servlets has not offered a cloud support yet. In
order to offer a cloud support, Mobicents Sip Servlets should
offer cloud images that would contain the Mobicents Sip Servlets
platform. Besides offering these images, another problem arises
in cloud environment. This problem is how to scale the number
of instances of these images according to the real time load. A
cloud platform needs an entity which control the resources usage
and which can allocate more or less resources depending on the
load. This document will study the migration of Mobicents Sip
Servlets on a cloud platform. We will provide cloud images that
will contain the Mobicents Sip Servlets platform. Besides, we
will propose a solution to scale up and down the resources used
by the cloud.
2. Cloud Architecture
II. CLOUD
Cloud computing is a client-server approach where the server
is a network of nodes. The job of the server is distributed among
several nodes that form a cloud. Some nodes can be dynamically
added or removed at runtime to the cloud .Depending on the
cloud, the client may either send its request to any node in the
cloud, or it may send its request to a load balancer, which will act
as an entry-point for the cloud and forward the request to a node.
Where, a node is an instance of a virtual machine. Thus a node is
also called an instance. The virtual machines are executed on a
set of inter-connected physical machines. The set of physical
machines is called a cluster. There are three types of cloud
service models.
2.1.1 IaaS
If the user uses an IaaS, she is basically gaining a computer.
The user has access to a virtual machine. She can decide which
OS and software install on it. Then, she can use it as any server.
An example of IaaS provider is Amazon Web Services.
2.1.2 PaaS
If the user uses a PaaS, she is gaining software or a
framework. A PaaS is a hosted tool that the user can leverage to
build something on. An example of PaaS is Google AppEngine.
With AppEngine, the user can run her web apps on Google's
infrastructure. AppEngine provides the hardware, the OS and the
framework. All she has to provide is her application. Then, the
clients can access her application.
2.1.3SaaS
If the user uses a SaaS, she is gaining business functionality.
Basically, a SaaS is an software the user uses, but that is installed
on a provider's hardware. For example, all web applications are
SaaS. The user uses the software, but she has not had something
to install.
2.2 Cloud Properties
Cloud has two main properties: pay per use and elasticity.
2.2.1 Elasticity
The user can scale resources usage up and down rapidly. In
the IaaS cloud model, this means that it is possible to start new
instances or stop existing instances rapidly. The newly created
instances must be used by the cloud in order to decrease the load
of the other instances.
2.2.2 Pay per use
The user only pays for the resources that she actually uses.
The IaaS cloud providers usually charge an instance on an hourly
basis.
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III. MOBICENTS SIP SERVLETS
Mobicents Sip Servlets is used to build real time system, such
as VoIP software‘s. The user wants her application to be able to
handle a large amount of traffic in a very short time. Mobicents
is the most popular Open Source SIP Application Server for the
Java platform. It facilitates the implementation of new services in
a simple way and quickly enables the development of a Market
oriented and cost effective Service Delivery Platform.
IV. RELATED WORK
4.1 Current situation
Mobicents Sip Servlets is used to build real time systems,
such as VoIP software‘s. The user wants her application to be
able to handle a large amount of traffic in a very short time.
Some applications may face a huge amount of traffic. Those
applications will require a consequent computation power in
order to process all this traffic. In order to ensure a quick
response time, a single machine may not be able to handle all the
traffic by itself. In this case, the application can be deployed on a
cluster. A SIP load balancer receives the traffic from outside and
distributes it to the nodes of the cluster. A more sophisticated
configuration would contain several SIP load balancers. The
JBoss AS cluster provides three properties: elasticity, high
availability and failover. Since Mobicents Sip Servlets is built on
top of JBoss, those properties are also ensured by the former.
Those properties ensure that it is possible to add or remove nodes
at runtime in the cluster. The new nodes are automatically added
to the cluster and are responsible for processing a part of the
traffic. If a node fails or is removed, the traffic that was handled
by this node is redirected to the other nodes of the cluster.
4.2 Problem in Current situation
The problem that may occur is that the number of clients of
the user's application may vary considerably in a short period of
time. At some time in the day, there might be a lot of clients, and
at some other time, there might be a few clients. As a result,
some resources of the cluster in which the application is running
may be unused, or on the contrary, the cluster may be overloaded
by the amount of traffic it has to process. A first solution would
be to add or remove nodes in the cluster depending of the needs.
In order to do so, one would have to monitor the status of each
node of the cluster. The monitoring process would then decide if
some nodes need to be added or removed, and would do so.
However, this solution has two drawbacks. First, it is hard to
predict the amount of traffic the application will meet. As a
consequence, it is also hard to predict the amount of resources
that should be added to or removed from the cluster. Such a
prediction would be useful, as it is needed to have those
resources available in order to put them in the cluster. Secondly,
the resources that are not currently used in the cluster are not
costless. Indeed, the user needs to own those resources in order
to be able to add them quickly in the cluster. In other words, the
problem that a Mobicents Sip Servlets cluster is facing is the
waste of unused resources (because they are reserved in case of
higher load), or on the contrary, the overload of the cluster
(because no other resource is available).
V. PROPOSED SOLUTION
5.1 Requirements
The solution of the problem requires that we migrate,
Mobicents Sip Servlets to a cloud platform. The goal for the user
is to be able to access in some way to some cloud images and to
use them. The user shall be able to start a set of images that will
compose a Mobicents Sip Servlets platform. The user shall be
able to use this platform as a Mobicents Sip Servlets cluster.
Finally, to achieve a full usage of the resources, the user shall be
able to adjust the number of instances allocated to the Mobicents
Sip Servlet platform depending on the load of this platform.
Thus, the cloud images are the building blocks of the solution.
Once Mobicents Sip Servlets will run on a cloud, we will be able
to solve the problem. We will have the resources we need in
order to scale according to the load. Because of the pay per use
property of the cloud, no resource will be wasted anymore.
5.1.1 Scaling Mode
There are two types of scaling modes provided.
5.1.1.1 Manual-scaling
The user is responsible of the scaling. The scaling is made
consecutively to a manual action of the user. This requirement
will be fully achieved if Mobicents Sip Servlet runs on a cloud,
as the user will be able to start or stop some Mobicents Sip
Servlets instances.
5.1.1.2Auto-scaling
The environment scales automatically depending of the
load. This requires the development of a management solution.
The management solution will especially need to define the
factors whereby the scaling is made.
5.2 Images
In order to put Mobicents Sip Servlets in the clouds, we
will define the role of the images that need to be provided. We
will provide three images: a Mobicents Sip Servlets image, a
Mobicents load balancer image and a management image.
5.2.1 The Mobicents Sip Servlets image
The Mobicents Sip Servlets image will contain an instance
of Mobicents Sip Servlets running in clustering mode. The JBoss
AS clustering mode will allow several instances of this image to
work as a cluster. Besides, thanks to the elasticity provided by
the JBoss AS clustering mode, new instances will be
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automatically detected by the cluster and added therein. Existing
instances will also be allowed to leave the cluster. This image
will also contain the applications of the user. Finally, this image
will need to be monitored. The monitoring will provide
measurements of the auto-scaling factors. Thus, this image will
contain an agent, which will communicate with an instance of the
management image.
5.2.2 The Mobicents load balancer image
Since the Mobicents Sip Servlets image will work as a JBoss
AS cluster, a SIP load balancer is needed in order to route the
traffic among the running instances of the Mobicents Sip Servlets
image. Although it is possible to have multiple instances of the
SIP load balancer running a distributable algorithm, we plan to
initially have only one instance of the SIP load balancer. The
Mobicents load balancer image will contain, as its name
indicates, the SIP load balancer. The Mobicents Sip Servlets
instances will need to know somehow the IP address of the
Mobicents load balancer instance in order to register to the SIP
load balancer.
5.2.3 The Management image
The management image is responsible for collecting
measurements of the monitoring factors from the Mobicents Sip
Servlets instances. According to those data, the management
instance will be responsible for starting or stopping new
instances of the Mobicents Sip Servlets image.
5.3 Auto-scaling
Auto-scaling is the fact that, depending of the states of all
Mobicents Sip Servlets instances, some instances may be started
or stopped. The goal to achieve is to have all the instances
running to be in a state such as they are not idle, i.e. they are
processing a substantial part of the traffic. Also, none of the
instances running should be in state such as they are overloaded,
i.e. they are not lacking some resources to process the traffic.
Auto-scaling is a process that can be decomposed in three steps
5.3.1 Monitoring
It is the action of retrieving the state from an (Mobicents Sip
Servlets) instance. This step is done by the agent.
5.3.2 Deciding
It is the ability to decide if an instance should be started or
stopped. This step is done by the management system.
5.3.3 Scaling
It is the ability to start or stop instances. This step is done by
the management system.
We must also define the state of an Mobicents Sip Servlets
instance. This state is defined by a set of metrics. Those metrics
are the following:
The uptime of the instance.
The CPU load.
The memory usage.
The Java heap memory usage of the Java virtual
machine, Mobicents Sip Servlets is running on.
The number of active SIP sessions.
The number of active SIP application sessions.
We will define two thresholds: the minimum threshold and
the maximum threshold. Each threshold will contain a value for
each metric that is monitored. Periodically, the scalar will get the
list of the instances of each environment it has to monitor from
the Nginx (Engine-x) server. Auto Bench is a tool which gives
the above parameters. It will then trigger the monitor method and
get some values for each metric monitored for each instance. We
will have the parameter MONITOR_INTERVAL, which allows
the user to set the duration of the periods. Here three sets will be
created: below, averages and above. The instances for which all
the metrics are below the minim threshold are put in the bellow‘s
set. The instances for which at least one of the metrics is above
the maximum threshold are put in the above set. The others (for
which the metrics are between the minimum and maximum
thresholds) are put in the averages set. If there is not any instance
in both the below and the above sets, the system is stable and no
action is taken. If there are as many instances in the below as in
the above set, the system is well distributed, and no action will be
taken. If there are more instances in the below set than in the
above set, one instance is stopped. On the other hand, if there are
more instances in the above set than in the below set, one new
instance is started.
VI. IMPLEMENTATION DETAILS
Below fig shows our proposed system for this project.
6.1 Eucalyptus and NginX
Eucalyptus enables the creation of on-premise private clouds,
with no requirements for retooling the organization's existing IT
infrastructure or need to introduce specialized hardware.
Eucalyptus implements an IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service)
private cloud that is accessible via an API compatible with
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Amazon EC2 and Amazon S3. We stored the virtual machine
image in EUCALYPTUS, which cached it on all three NCs.
Nginx is a HTTP and mail proxy server capable of load
balancing. We used Nginx as a load balancer because it offers
detailed logging and allows reloading the configuration file
without termination of existing client sessions. We installed the
Nginx as a load balancer on the front-end node and the Tomcat
application server on the virtual machine. Our Web application
contains one Java servlet that performs a matrix calculation. The
Jboss server hosts the Web application while Nginx balances the
load. We used Httperf and Autobench to generate a HTTP
workload for the Web application. We developed a software
component named VLBManager to monitor the average response
time of requests by real-time monitoring of Nginx logs. We
developed another software component named VLBCoordinator
to invoke the virtual machines on the EUCALYPTUS-based
cloud. Both components interact with each other using XML-
RPC.
The VLBManager detects the violation of the average
response time for each virtual machine in the load balancer due
to the heterogeneous testbed cloud.
Whenever VLBManager detects a violation of the average
response time, it signals the VLBCooridnator to invoke another
virtual machine and add it to the load balancer.
6.2 Mobicents SIP servlet s Application: ClicktoCall
This simple Application shows how SIP Servlets can be used
along with HTTP servlets as a converged application to place
calls from a web page
This application consists of following steps:
1. Alice and Bob each register a SIP Softphone
2. Alice clicks on the "Call" link to place a call to Bob
3. Alice's phone rings
4. When Alice picks up her phone, Bob's phone rings
5. When Bob answers his phone, the call is connected
6. When one of them hangs up, the other one is also
disconnected
Starts two sip phones. Open up a browser to
http://localhost:8080/click2call/. If you have no registered Sip
clients you will be asked to register at least two.
Configure your SIP clients to use the sip servlets server as a
register and proxy. (Ip address: 127.0.0.1, port: 5080)
By default it will accept any password, see below for instructions
on how to enable security and authentication. After the
registration you will see a table where each cell will initiate a call
between the corresponding clients. You can also navigate to
http://localhost:8080/click2call/simplecall.html, which is a
simplified version that doesn't require registered clients. You will
see the index page where you can enter two SIP URIs. Enter the
URIs of the two SIP phones you just started and click "Submit".
The SIP phones don't have to be registered. After you pick up
both phones the RTP session starts.
VII. CONCLUSION
It is possible to propose images with Mobicents Sip Servlets
that are ready to run on a cloud. The user only needs to upload its
applications to the appliance, and she will be ready to use
Mobicents Sip Servlets in a cloud. We have also proposed an
Auto-Scaling algorithm which will use the elasticity and pay per
use property of cloud. We have proposed to use JBoss as server
which will support clustering and uses high availability, failover
properties of clusters.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to express our gratitude towards a number of
people whose support and consideration has been an invaluable
asset during the course of this work. I would like to thank the
Mobicents community, and more generally the whole JBoss AS
community.
REFERENCES
[1] Securing Session Initiation Protocol in Voice over IP Domain .
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org . Authors: Alsmairat, I.; Shankaran, R.; Orgun,
M.; Dutkiewicz, E.
[2] Eucalyptus Systems, Inc.: Eucalyptus. http://www.eucalyptus.com/
[3] Mobicents :
http://www.mobicents.org
[4] The Session Initiation Protocol: Internet-centric signaling.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org .
Authors: Dutta, A.; Makaya, C.; Das, S.; Chee, D.; Lin, J.; Komorita, S.;
Chiba, T.; Yokota, H.; Schulzrinne.
[5] Eucalyptus Systems, Inc.: Eucalyptus. http://www.eucalyptus.com/.
[6] Mihir Kulkarni and Yannis Cosmadopoulos: Sip servlet 1.1. Specification
JSR 289, Oracle, August 2008,
[7] http://jcp.org/aboutJava/communityprocess/_nal/jsr289/index.html.
[8] Red Hat, Inc.: JBoss AS. http://www.jboss.org/jbossas/.
[9] Red Hat, Inc: Mobicents Sip Servlets. http://www.mobicents.org/products
sipservlets.html.
[10] Partitioning, and Clustering Working Group: Open Virtualization Format
Specification. Specification, [7] DSP0243, Distributed Management Task
Force, January 2010.
AUTHORS
First Author – Mr. Manish Giri, Master of Engineering,
Maharashtra Academy of Engineering, Pune, E-mail:
mbgiri@comp.maepune.ac.in
Second Author – Balaji Bandhu, Bachelor of Engineering,
Maharashtra Academy of Engineering, Pune, E-mail:
balajibandhu@gmail.com
Third Author – Sachin Waghmare, Bachelor of Engineering,
Maharashtra Academy of Engineering, Pune, E-mail:
sachinwaghmare3@gmail.com
Fourth Author – Akshay Sawwashere, Bachelor of Engineering,
Maharashtra Academy of Engineering, Pune, E-mail:
arsawwashere@gmail.com
Fifth Author – Atul Khaire, Bachelor of Engineering,
Maharashtra Academy of Engineering, Pune, E-mail:
atulkhaire.om@gmail.com
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Study of Fast Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum and
Jamming Systems
Er.Nilesh Agrwal**, Er.Navendu Nitin**, Manjay Yadav*
**Faculty and *PG Student ECE Department SHIATS-DU Allahabad India 211007
manjayyadav2010@gmail.com
Abstract- Frequency hopping spread spectrum is an efficient
technique to combat jamming. . In this paper we analysis the
effect of partial band noise jamming in Fast Frequency hopping
spread spectrum system. We consider a communication system
that transmits MFSK over a channel. The partial band noise
interference is model as AWGN Channel using the phase
analysis method. We consider (ρ) as a worst case partial band
noise fraction and Pb is bit error rate probability for given m and
signal to noise ratio.
Index Terms- Frequency hopping spread spectrum,
interference, partial band noise, AWGN
I
I. INTRODUCTION
n frequency hopping spread spectrum the signal is broad cost
over a random series of a radio frequency hopping from
Frequency to Frequency speech untrue a receiver. A receive
hopping between frequency in synchronization with the
transmitter, piece of the message signal attain to 'jam'. It is a
method of transmitting radio signal by radio rapidly switching a
carrier among many frequency channels, using a pseudorandom
sequence known to both transmitter and receiver. It is utilized as
a multiple access method in the frequency hopping code division
multiple access (FH-CDMA) Scheme. In FH-SS, the total
available band width of the system is dividing into many smaller
bandwidth Pulse guard spaces b/w each band width. Each band
width represents channel. Transmitter and receive stay on one of
these channel at one time & them hop on to another channel.
Larger numbers of frequencies are used in FH-SS system. So that
spread spectrum signal band width (WS) is much larger than
original signal band width. Jamming is usually defined as a
group of hostile communication or intentional interferers that
attempt to disrupt the communication of targeted users by
transmitting an interfering signal over the same communication
range Additive white Gaussian Noise channel is a channel model
in which the only impairment to communication is a linear
addition of wideband or white noise with a constant spectral
density and a Gaussian distribution of a amplitude.
II. SYSTEM MODEL
In the Fast Frequency hopping system the hopping rate is
higher then user data rate. Therefore there are many hopes per
frequency bit. It is given the block diagram of frequency hopping
spread spectrum Transmitter & receiver.
Fig. 1 Frequency hoping transceiver
Fig. 2 Frequency hoping receiver
A model of FFH-SS and Jamming system a partial band noise
jamming transmits noise over a fraction of the total spread
spectrum signal band spread noise of total power J evenly over
some frequency range of band width Wj. We define fraction (ρ)
[1] as the ratio
w
W
j
ρ ss …………………..(1)
Where ρ is (0,1) which is the fraction of the total spread
spectrum band and Ws is a subset the total spread band width.
J
W
J
J
W
ss
N
W
W
J
0
J
N
J
N
/ P
j
IP
…………..(2)
Suppose a Gaussian noise jammer choose to restrict its total
power to a fraction ρ of the full ss band width Wss .
Eb
N
E
N
b
…………(3)
t t ……….(4)
It is assumed in Figure that the jammer hops the jammed band
over Wss, relation to the FH dwell time 1/Rh, but often enough
to deny the FH system the opportunity to detect that it is being
jammed in a specific portion of Wss and take remedial action
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1
Pb
2(
M )
P
b
pP
b
p E
N
M
i
2
b
i
( 1)
M
i
e
( KpEb
/ N
J
) ( 11/
i)
.(5)
J ……………..(6)
From equation 4 and 5 the resulting average performance can be
expressed as.
max
0 p1
p
2(
M
M
1)
i2
1
M
( 1)
e
i
(
KpE / N ) ( 11/
i
b
J
)
Figure 3: Frequency hopping spread spectrum with
jamming.
III. RESULT OF DISTENSION
.(7)
As mentioned equation that if ρ is reduced, the probability that
an m-ary transmission is jammed is decreased. But jammed
signals suffer a higher conditional error rate.
Variation of Pb (probability error) with different value of ρ
Keeping M= 2
Table 1 Variation of Pb with different values of p.
EB/NJ =1 EB/Nj =.6 EB/NJ =.3
0.25 0.14 0.20 0.17 0.50 0.14
1.60 0.14 1.60 0.14 1.27 0.12
3.19 0.13 3.19 0.11 3.19 0.12
6.37 0.12 6.37 0.10 6.37 0.11
8.01 0.12 8.01 0.09 8.01 0.11
12.70 0.10 12.70 0.07 12.71 0.08
16.00 0.08 16.00 0.06 16.00 0.00
BitErrorRate
10 0
10 -1
M =2
p = 0.3
p=0.6
p =1
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
-2
Eb/Nj
Fig. 4 Performance of FH/BFSK system in partial-band noise
for several fixed values of r .
Table 2 Variation of Pb with different values of p keeping
M=4
EB/NJ =1 EB/Nj =.6 EB/NJ =.3
0.25 0.88 0.25 0.84 0.25 0.84
1.60 0.72 1.01 0.76 1.27 0.80
3.19 0.64 5.06 0.76 3.19 0.72
4.01 0.72 4.01 0.68 4.01 0.72
5.06 0.64 6.37 0.68 5.06 0.72
8.01 0.64 8.01 0.68 8.01 0.68
16.00 0.56 16.00 0.68 16.00 0.60
BitErrorRate
10 -0.1
10 -0.2
M =4
p = 0.3
p=0.6
p =1
0 2 4 6 8
Eb/Nj
10 12 14 16
Figure 5: Degradatub in FH/MFSK performance due to
worst case, PBNJ with M=4
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Table 3: Variation of Pb with different values of p keeping
m=8
EB/NJ =1 EB/Nj =.6 EB/NJ =.3
0.33 2.20 0.53 2.11 0.268 2.112
1.69 2.11 1.07 2.02 0.358 2.112
2.69 2.11 1.69 2.02 2.686 2.02
5.36 2.11 2.13 2.02 3,381 1.928
6.75 2.02 2.69 1.92 6.746 1.928
8.49 2.02 4.25 1.20 8.492 1.837
21.33 1.84 13.46 1.75 21.333 1.745
BitErrorRate
10 0.3
10 0.2
M =8
p = 0.3
p=0.6
p =1
0 5 10 15 20 25
Eb/Nj
Figure 6 Degradation in FH/MFSK performance due to
worst case, PBNJ with M=8
Table No. 4 Variation of Pb with different values of p keeping
M=10
EB/NJ =1 EB/Nj =.6 EB/NJ =.3
0.30 2.788 0.48 2.667 0.76 2.666
0.38 2.667 1.207 2.556 1.20 2.556
1.519 2.667 1.519 2.556 3.817 2.556
3.03 2.556 6.049 2.444 4.805 2.444
6-049 2.444 7.615 2.444 15.19 2.333
15.19 2.333 15.19 2.333 24.06 2.222
24.08 2.11 24.08 2.333
BitErrorRate
10 0.44
10 0.43
10 0.42
10 0.41
10 0.4
10 0.39
10 0.38
10 0.37
M =10
p = 0.3
p=0.6
p =1
0 5 10 15 20 25
Eb/Nj
Figure 7 Degradation in FH/MFSK performance due to
worst case, PBNJ with M=10
IV. CONCLUSION
This paper provide the study of fast frequency hopping spread
spectrum operating in the presence of partial band noise
jamming. The result has been presented for several cases. This
improves the system performance in all cases. Particular it
increases the value ρ of more drastically than it decrease the
value of Eb/Nj.
REFERENCES
[1] Hussain S. and Barton S., ―Non-Coherent Detection of FSK Signals in the
Presence of Oscillator Phase Noise in an AWGN Channel,‖ in Proceedings
of the 7th IEE European Conference Mobile Personal Communications,
Brighton, Proceedings 387, pp. 95-98, 1993.
[2] Massaro M., ―Error Performance of M-ary No coherent FSK in the Presence
of CW Tone Interference,‖ IEEE Transactions Commununication, vol. 23,
pp. 1367-1369, 1975[3] Husain S. and Barton S., ―Non-Coherent Detection
of FSK Signals in the Presence of Oscillator Phase Noise in an AWGN
Channel,‖ in Proceedings of the 7th IEE European Conference Mobile
Personal Communications, Brighton, Proceedings 387, pp. 95-98, 1993.
[3] S. W. Houston, "Modulation Techniques for Communication, Part I: Tone
and Noise Jamming Performance of Spread Spectrum M-ary FSK and 2,4ary
DPSK Waveforms," in Proc.IEEE NAECON, 1975, pp. 51-58.
[4] Hussain, S. and Button, S. K.; "Non-coherent Detection of FSK signals in
the Resence of Oscillator Phase Noise in an AWGN Channel", Seventh IEE
Erumpent Confine on Mobile Personal Comtnunica'ons, (Proc No. 383,
Brighton, 13-15 Dec 1993, pp.95-98.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 464
ISSN 2250-3153
The Compliance of Temporary Soft Lining Materials-An
in vivo & vitro study
Dr. N.Shanmuganathan, Dr.T.V.Padamanabhan, Dr.R.Subramaniam, Dr.S.Madhankumar
Abstract- Objective: The purpose of this study was to
evaluate the change in clinical compliance of the three selected
soft lining materials during use (in vivo) and also to analyze the
leached out component during use. (In vitro)
Methods and materials: Three soft-liner materials (Visco-gel,
Coe-soft, GC Soft liner) were studied. Three circular depressions
were made on the intaglio surface of the posterior palatal seal
region, and they were filled with the three selected soft lining
material and marked as A, B, C. Modified penetrometer was used
to test the clinical compliance of the material over a period of 2
hrs, 24 hrs, 1 week and 4 weeks after the denture was inserted.
An in vitro study was conducted to find out the leachable
components, both qualitatively and quantitatively with the use of
high performance liquid chromatography and the clinical
findings were correlated.
Results: Paired t-test was applied to analyze the data. It was
found that compliance of Visco-gel reduced the most in the 1 st
week which was followed by GC Soft liner over a period of 4
weeks followed by Coe Soft. In vitro study revealed that initial
loss of ethanol was shown by HPLC test which caused the
reduction in compliance.
Conclusion: The results of this study indicated that physical
property of the materials mainly depend on the type of
plasticizer used and not ethanol that is present in most of the
tissue conditioners. It could also be inferred that the use of
plasticizer with large molecular size like benzyl salicylate, would
preserve the physical property of the material over a longer
period of time.
Index Terms- Soft-liners, Clinical Compliance, High
performance liquid chromatography
T
I. INTRODUCTION
he inflammation and accompanying edema of the soft tissue
underlying ill-fitting dentures have been the concern for
many years. In the past, management of these patients, and those
with congenital or acquired abnormalities, systemic disturbances
or a combination of these, using hard and rigid polymers was
very difficult if not impossible. The use of material designed to
recondition abused denture supporting tissues and to restore a
normal healthy state was reported by Chase 12 . Since then, these
class of dental materials have stimulated several clinical and
laboratory studies and there are many products designed to
produce, tissue conditioning of the soft tissues underlying
dentures‖. Clinicians who have long been aware of these
materials can be effective in relieving the pain, discomfort and
inflammation associated with this situation. In these conditions,
tissue conditioners are used to treat the abused mucosa. These
materials will confirm to the anatomy of the residual ridge and
gel in that position and continue to flow slowly after application.
The purpose of the soft liner is to absorb some of the energy
produced by masticatory impact that would otherwise be
transmitted through the denture to the soft mucosal tissues.
The soft relining material can be either temporary or
permanent. The temporary soft relining material which set intraorally
inside the mouth, can be used for a short period (up to
several weeks) to improve the comfort and fit of the complete
denture until it can be remade or permanently relined. After a
few weeks they begin to foul smell and debond from the denture.
Hence this material has to be replaced often. The permanent soft
relining material (processed soft liners) is used in a patient who
is wearing a complete denture and experiencing chronic soreness
with their dentures, may be because of heavy bruxism or poor
oral health. These materials are processed in the laboratory in a
manner similar to denture base. They may remain resilient up to
a year. After which they tend to debond from the denture base or
become porous and foul smelling.
These soft lining materials are mainly made up of polyethyl
methacrylate or polymethyl methacrylate resin added with
plasticizer such as Dibutyl Phthalate or Ethanol. During use,
these materials may become more rigid and inelastic due to loss
of alcohol. The most important characteristic physical property
of resilient denture liners is their elastic modulus. The reciprocal
of the elastic modulus is called compliance, which is also
referred to compressibility of the material. A compliance
measurement gives the flexibility of the material. Reduction of
these properties as a result of constant use in an oral cavity has
been its great disadvantage. Hence this study was done to assess
the resilient property and the loss of this property during intraoral
use and to analyze the leachable component of these materials by
in vitro to correlate with loss in the resilient property of these
materials.
II. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Ten completely edentulous patients were selected randomly
among the patients attending the Dept of Prosthodontics in the
Saveetha Dental College, Chennai for replacement of their
missing teeth. Convenience sampling technique was adopted for
selecting the patients. The inclusion criteria included patients
from both the genders, having completely edentulous area in both
the maxillary and mandibular arch. All the individuals who were
selected for this study had extracted their teeth before one year,
with complete healing of the ridge, and it was also ensured that
no pathological conditions existed in the oral cavity at the time of
this study. Consent of the patient was obtained after explaining
the purpose of the study and its procedures that would be
followed during its conduct.
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Clinical phase: Ten patients were selected and complete
dentures were constructed in the conventional methods. On all
the ten selected maxillary dentures, three circular depression, in
the right (A) , centre (B) and left (C) on the intaglio surface of
the posterior palatal region measuring about 4mm diameter x
2mm depth in dimensions were made(figure-1). This region was
(Table 1)
Product Code Manufacturer Powder/ Liquid
Ratio by weight
Visco-gel VG DeTreyDivision, Dentsply Ltd,
Weybridge, Surrey, England
1.25
COE Soft
GC Soft-
Liner
CS Coe Laboratories Inc
GC G-C Dental Industry
Co,Tokyo,Japan
PEMA: Polyethyl methacrylic; PMMA: Polymethyl methacrylic;
BPBG: butyl pthalyl butyl glycolate; DBP: dibutylpthalate; BS:
benzyl salicylate; EtOH: ethyl alcohol. In which the right (A)
was filled with Visco-gel, centre (B) was filled with COE Soft
and left (C) was filled with GC Soft Liner.
Method of testing: The dentures were then tested for clinical
compliance of each of the three samples of soft liner material
using modified penetrometer and measured separately. This test
was done after a period of 2 hrs, 24 hrs, 1 week and 4 weeks,
after the denture was inserted. Modified flat end penetrometer
needle probe was used to test the clinical compliance of the
tested materials. Clinical compliance of each material, Visco-gel,
Coe Soft and GC Soft liner were measured separately. The tests
were performed according to Nicholas J.A Jepson et al. 9 A load
of 30g was held constantly for five seconds, strain cured in
during loading, recovery were recorded. Test was performed on
three separate points on each specimen.
III. LAB PHASE
An in-vitro study was conducted to find out the leachable
components, both qualitatively and quantitatively. This test was
done to correlate with the clinical findings. The technique, HPLC
(High performance liquid chromatography) was used for
analyzing the molecules that are dissolved in a solvent. These
solvents were qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed to find
the leachable components of the specimen. Three samples of the
relining material were made to the dimension 8.5mm in diameter
and 2mm thickness(figure-3) according to Hironori Tsuchiya et
al 11 .These samples were placed in nano purified water (figure-4).
Selectively the samples were removed from each test material
after a period of 2 hrs, 24hrs, 1week, and 4 weeks and analyzed.
The high performance liquid chromatography is a method used
for separating molecules dissolved in a solvent. The solvent is
selected due to the space available for the placement of test
sample as done by David M Casey et al. 10 These depressions
were filled with the following selected soft lining materials
(Table 1) and placed in the oral cavity (figure-2).
Composition
Powder Liquid
PEMA(86.2%) BPBG(86.9%)
PMMA(13.8%) DBP(8.2%)
EtOH(4.9%)
1.34 PEMA(100%) BS(35.1%)
DBP(49.7%)
EtOH(15.2%)
1.25 PEMA(100%) BPBG(80.9%)
DBP(4.3%)
EtOH(14.8%)
qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed to find the leached out
components of the specimen.
Figure 1: Three circular depression created on the intaglio
surface
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Figure 2: depressions filled with selected three different soft
lining materials
Figure 3: Dyes made for preparing the samples
Figure 4: All the three samples immersed in the nano purified
water
Similar study has been done by Minoru Kawaguchi et al 13
using the HPLC test to study the amount of leachable monomers
of a light activated reline resin. The different solutes will interact
with stationary phase to differing phase, due to difference in size,
adsorption, partitioning etc. These differences allow the mixture
components to be separated from each other and studied
separately. This instrument consists of a column with a fritted
bottom that holds the stationary phase. The mixture to be
separated is loaded on to the top of the column. The different
component in the solvents passes through the column at different
rates due to difference in their partitioning behavior. The
different solutes are studied using UV detector at different times
when it passes through the column.
Qualitative analysis: Identification of different components of
the samples was made by comparing retention time of different
analysts with that of the standard.
Quantitative analysis: Quantization was done by comparison of
the sample chromatogram with that of the standard. In this study,
the peak height of the chromatogram was taken in to
consideration.
IV. RESULTS
Data were analyzed with IBM SPSS 19.0 version software.
The descriptive statistics with ten numbers of samples in all the
groups were shown in the table number 1 with their mean and
standard deviation.
Table: 1 The table shows the mean and standard deviation of
clinical compliance at 2 hours,24 hours, 1 week and 4 weeks for
all the three groups. In group A, the mean value in 2 hours was
3.785 and it was decreased in the 4 week to 0.489. The same
trend was shown in group B and group C.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 467
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Table:1
Descriptive Statistics
N Mean
Std.
Deviation
Group
2hrs
A- 10 3.78520 .112252
Group
2hrs
B 10 4.78380 .009271
Group
2hrs
C 10 4.60800 .102940
Group
24hrs
A 10 3.39120 .026097
Group
24hrs
B 10 4.75200 .010893
Group
24hrs
C 10 4.2321 .01022
Group
1wk
A 10 1.44760 .010113
Group
1wk
B 10 3.92930 .010371
Group
1wk
C 10 2.76970 .010371
Group
4wks
A 10 .48920 .006579
Group
4wks
B 10 1.78330 .010371
Group
4wks
C 10 .59290 .010225
Table 2: Paired sample t test was implemented to find out the
significance between the groups A, B, and C during the time
duration of 2 hours, 24 hours, 1 week and 4 weeks respectively.
Paired t-test
Groups
Table: 2
Sig. (2-
T Df tailed)
Group A-2hrs - Group B
2hrs
-27.490 9 .000
Group B-2hrs - Group C
2hrs
-26.584 9 .000
Group C 2hrs - Group A-
2hrs
22.341 9 .000
Group A 24hrs - Group
B 24hrs
-128.142 9 .000
Group B 24hrs - Group
C 24hrs
89.648 9 .000
Group C 24hrs - Group
A 24hrs
98.790 9 .000
Group A 1wk - Group B -504.466 9 .000
1wk
Group B 1wk - Group C
1wk
292.305 9 .000
Group C 1wk - Group A
1wk
412.865 9 .000
Group A 4wks - Group
B 4wks
-307.413 9 .000
Group B 4wks - Group C
4wks
252.371 9 .000
Group C 4wks - Group
A 4wks
28.984 9 .000
The identified p value was .0001
Table 3: The following table shows the mean and standard
deviation of the three types of softliner during the duration of 2
hours, 24 hours, 1 week and 4 weeks respectively.
Table :3
Descriptive Statistics
N Mean Std. Deviation
VG 2 ETOH 6 .14050 .019398
CS 2 ETOH 6 .82000 .028014
GC 2 ETOH 6 .46183 .021321
VG 24 ETOH 6 .95900 .019647
VG 24 DBP 6 .14050 .018534
CS 24 ETOH 6 1.33967 .017189
CS 24 DBP 6 .45883 .019198
GC 24 ETOH 6 .46567 .024841
GC 24 DBP 6 .04617 .020913
VG 1W ETOH 6 2.16967 .018403
VG 1W DBP 6 .45083 .024045
VG 1W BPBG 6 1.16000 .018243
CS 1W ETOH 6 2.84867 .019997
CS 1W DBP 6 .95850 .025758
CS 1W BS 6 1.15850 .020226
GC 1W ETOH 6 2.95567 .023526
GC 1W DBP 6 .35967 .018085
GC 1W BPBG 6 1.05283 .028273
VG 4W ETOH 6 3.75050 .025774
VG 4W DBP 6 1.36500 .022680
VG 4W BPBG 6 2.16183 .023259
CS 4W ETOH 6 4.66283 .027007
CS 4W DBP 6 1.76067 .022367
CS 4W BS 6 1.86350 .023287
GC 4W ETOH 6 4.95533 .023636
GC 4W DBP 6 1.05283 .036141
GC 4W BPBG 6 2.36617 .029158
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 468
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Table4: Paired sample t test was implemented to find out the
significance between the soft liners with the time duration of 2
hours, 24 hours, 1 week and 4 weeks respectively. The table
shows there was a significant difference between the three soft
liners in the time period of 2 hours, 24 hours, 1 week and 4
weeks with the p value of .0001.
Table :4 Paired t-test
t
df
Sig.(2tailed)
VG 2 ETOH -
CS 2 ETOH
-50.389 5 .000
VG 2 ETOH -
GC 2 ETOH
-19.750 5 .000
GC 2 ETOH -
VG 2 ETOH
19.750 5 .000
VG 24 ETOH -
CS 24 ETOH
-33.817 5 .000
VG 24 ETOH -
GC 24 ETOH
65.166 5 .000
CS 24 ETOH -
GC 24 ETOH
85.758 5 .000
VG 24 DBP - CS
24 DBP
-30.522 5 .000
CS 24 DBP - GC
24 DBP
37.467 5 .000
GC 24 DBP - VG
24 DBP
-7.446 5 .001
VG 1W ETOH -
CS 1W ETOH
-67.720 5 .000
CS 1W ETOH -
GC 1W ETOH
-9.746 5 .000
GC 1W ETOH -
VG 1W ETOH
77.877 5 .000
VG 1W DBP -
CS 1W DBP
-32.927 5 .000
CS 1W DBP -
GC 1W DBP
35.483 5 .000
VG 1W DBP -
GC 1W DBP
7.817 5 .001
GC 1W BPBG -
VG 1W BPBG
-8.592 5 .000
VG 4W ETOH -
CS 4W ETOH
-59.107 5 .000
CS 4W ETOH -
GC 4W ETOH
-15.576 5 .000
GC 4W ETOH -
VG 4W ETOH
74.064 5 .000
VG 4W DBP -
CS 4W DBP
-25.659 5 .000
CS 4W DBP -
GC 4W DBP
63.990 5 .000
GC 4W DBP - -15.559 5 .000
VG 4W DBP
VG 4W BPBG -
GC 4W BPBG
-13.366 5 .000
V. DISCUSSION
It is admitted that ill fitting dentures are bane to the patients
and dental professionals. This may be due to poor fabrication of
the dentures, prolonged use of the dentures and also due to
systemic conditions like diabetes. These poor fitting dentures
often abuse the basal tissue. The reaction may range from simple
denture stomatitis to hyperplasia. The hard tissues may undergo
accelerated resorption. The reason for this could be due to the
pressure on the mental foramen; sharp bony spicules; thin,
atrophic mucosa; bony undercuts, particularly in the mylohyoid
region; irregular bony resorption; poor fit of the denture base;
incorrect occlusal relationship; bruxism; and/or debilitating
disease. 1 It is wise to decide whether the treatment should include
remaking the prosthesis rather than simply relining a prosthesis
for short-term benefit without a plan for long –term success.
Research site the use of tissue conditioners to treat an abused
mucosa during 1960s. 2-4 These materials stay intact to the
anatomy of residual ridge and gel in that position and continue to
flow slowly after application and distribute stress on denture –
bearing tissues 3-6 .These tissue conditioners have plasticizer or
ethanol which being a low molecular weight compound is
usually leached out in the saliva over a period of time. This
leaching out may result in reduction in softness of the material,
which may have a negative impact on the tissues. These
materials are very porous; porosity of these materials imparts the
quality of shock absorption. The adverse effect of the porosity is
that it forms a nidus for easy colonization with fungi and other
microorganisms. So prolonged therapy is usually not possible
with this class of material. The other disadvantage is the
marginal leakage between these liners and the denture base.
Extensive study has been done regarding these physical
properties and the influence of bacterial colonization and its
manifestation on the tissue liner. But studies to elicit the change
of physical properties of these materials in the oral environment
have not been dealt much. Hence this study was conducted to
measure the change in compliance of selected tissue conditioners
i.e.; Visco gel, Coe soft, GC Soft-liner and correlate it with the
type and amount of chemicals leached out from the tissue
conditioners over a period of time. The clinical compliance of
Coe soft, Visco gel, GC Soft liner were measured individually
using the modified penetrometer. The manufacture‘s
recommended period of use in the oral cavity is between 3-4
weeks and so it was decided to test the specimens at 2hrs, 24hrs,
1 week and 4 weeks. Concurrent with this study, evaluation of
the chemicals leached out from the test samples was studied
using High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The
results of this study that all the three test materials have similar
initial compliance when tested at 2 hrs had the mean value of
compliance at 2 hrs Group A (Visco gel) – 3.785, Group B (Coe
soft) – 4.783 and Group C (GC Soft liner) – 4.608.
There was a significant change in compliance over a period of 4
weeks for each of the tested materials. Group B (Coe soft)
showed the least change (mean value 1.781) there was a
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 469
ISSN 2250-3153
statistically significant difference of change in compliance when
the material Group A, B & C were compared with each other.
When the change in compliance between the material Group A
and C were compared at a time period of 2-24 hrs there was no
significant difference ( t value- 0.41). The HPLC analysis
showed that ethanol leached out first in all the three samples
which was seen in the 2 hrs test results with the mean value of
0.1405 for Visco gel, 0.8200 for Coe soft and 0.4618 for Soft
liner. Dibutyl phthalate was seen to leach out in all the three
samples and was present in the 24 hrs test sample, the mean
value for Visco gel was 0.1405 with a t-value of 74.23. The Coe
soft had a mean value of 0.4588 with a t-value of 83.73 and GC
Soft liner had the mean value of 0.0461 with the t-value 100.86.
Butyl pthalyl butyl glycolate leached out at 1week from the two
test samples. The mean value for Visco gel was 1.1600 with the
SD of .018243 and GC Soft liner was 1.0528 with the SD of
.028273. Benzyl salicylate leached out at 1 week from Coe soft,
the mean value was 1.1585 with the SD of .020226. Butyl
pthalyl butyl glycolate leached out at 4 weeks from the two test
samples. The mean value for Visco gel was 2.1618 with the SD
of .023259 and for GC Soft liner it was 2.3661 and .029158.
Benzyl salicylate leached out at 4 weeks from Coe soft and had
the mean value of 1.8635 with the SD - .023287. The amount of
ethanol, Dibutyl phthalate, butyl pthalyl butyl glycolate, benzyl
salicylate increased from leaching out at 2 hrs to 4 weeks was
measured.
Similarly there was an increase in the amount of Dibutyl
phthalate from leaching at 24 hrs to 4 weeks. Butyl pthalyl butyl
glycolate and benzyl salicylate was last to leach out and
increased from 1 week to 4weeks.Correlating the above said tests
for the various test specimens, it was found that the initial loss of
ethanol between 2 hrs- 24 hrs caused statistically insignificant
change in compliance of all the three test samples. On further
testing it was found that loss of ethanol and plasticizer produced
a significant change in compliance over a period of 1 week, loss
of butyl pthalyl butyl glycolate produced more significant change
in compliance ( as seen in Visco gel and GC Soft liner) than the
loss of benzyl salicylate as seen in the case of Coe soft. Further
test to a period of 4 weeks retreated the same result i.e. loss of
plasticizer like butyl pthalyl butyl glycolate produced more
change than loss of benzyl salicylate. This result can be inferred
as the loss of ethanol and Dibutyl phthalate for all the three test
samples were similar. These changes could be due to the
difference in molecular size. Benzyl salicylate being larger
molecule would be leached out slower than butyl pthalyl butyl
glycolate which would be leached out faster and hence lead to
deterioration of the physical properties as found by H.Murata et
al. 13
Differences in base-line properties between materials
probably reflect the combined effects of varying polymer
composition, ethanol concentration, plasticizer type, and powder:
liquid ratio. Reductions in compliance tended to reflect a
material‘s baseline softness- the higher the baseline initial
compliance, the greater the reduction. Baseline values of
compliance and the differences in these values between materials
were both significantly reduced such that at 28 days there were
only small differences in compliance values that ranged from
0.14 mm/ N for CC to 0.5mm/ N for VG. Several authors have
described that the viscoelastic properties best suited to their
specific use as tissue conditioners or functional impression or
temporary reline materials. These properties concern various
combination of softness, elastic recovery, and plastic flow but
have often been described only in relation to the gel formed after
initial mixing. Continued changes in these properties over time
are clearly important to their actual effectiveness. These were
modified over time through a rapid reduction in compliance and
increase in elastic recovery, a combination of properties ideally
suited to its use as a functional impression material. The
combination of high initial compliance and elastic recovery seen
for CC and to a lesser extent CS would indicate a soft elasticity
appropriate to tissue conditioning. 7-8
VI. CONCLUSION
The study identifies that the use of a simple, modified
penetrometer enabled a clear and reproducible characterization of
the viscoelastic properties of four temporary soft lining
materials. 10 These changes would be attributed to the loss of
ethanol and plasticizers. Initial loss of ethanol which was shown
by HPLC test was also the cause for reduction in compliance.
But loss of plasticizers let too drastic reduction in clinical
compliance. This was more apparent when butyl phthalate butyl
glycolate was the plasticizer used in the soft liner where as the
material using benzyl salicylate as the plasticizer showed less
change than earlier ones.
Hence it can be concluded that physical property of the
material mainly depends on the type of plasticizer used and not
ethanol that is present in most of the tissue conditioners. It can
also be inferred that use of plasticizer with large molecular size
like benzyl salicylate, would preserve the physical property of
the material over a longer period of time.
REFERENCES
[1] Storer R. Resilient denture base materials. Br Dent J 1962;113:95.
[2] Goll G, Smith DE, Plein JB. The effect of denture cleaners on temporary
soft liners. J Prosthet Dent 1983;50:466-472.
[3] Lytle RB. Complete denture construction based on a study of the
deformation of the underlying soft tissues. J Prosthet Dent 1959;9:539-551.
[4] Calikkocaoglu S. Tam Protezler. 2. cilt, Protez Akademisi ve Gnatoloji
Dernegi 2. Bilimsel yayini,1988.
[5] Qudah S Harrison A, Huggett R: Soft lining materials in prosthetic
dentistry: A review . Int J Prosthodont 1990;3:477-483.
[6] Jepson NJA, McCabe JF, Storer R: Evaluation of the viscoelastic properties
of denture soft lining materials. J Dent 1993;21:163-170.
[7] Graham BS, Jones DW, Thomson JP, Johnson JA: Clinical compliance of
two resilient denture liners. J Oral Rehabil 1990;17:157-63.
[8] Jepson NJ, McCabe JF, Storer R: Age changes in the viscoelasticity of a
temporary soft lining material. J Dent 1993;21:244-7.
[9] Nicholas J.A.Jepson, Joseph T.McGill, John F. McCabe: Influence of
dietary stimulating solvents on the viscoelasticity of temporary Soft lining
materials. J Prosthet Dent 2000;83:25-31.
[10] David M Casey, Ellen C.Scheer: Surface treatment of a temporary soft liner
for increased longevity J Prosthet Dent 1993;69:318-324.
[11] Hironori Tsuchiya,Yoshiyuhi Hoshino etal: Leaching and Cytotoxicity of
formaldehyde and methyl metacrylate from acrylic resin denture base
materials. J Prosthet Dent 1994;71:618-624.
[12] Chase W.W: Tissue conditioning utilizing dynamic adaptive stress. J
Prosthet Dent 1961;11: 804-815.
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[13] Murata H, Iwangaga H, Shigeto N, Hamada T: Initial flow of tissue
conditioners influence of compostion and structure on gelation. J Oral
Rehabi 1993;20:177-187.
AUTHORS
First Author: Dr. N.Shanmuganathan,
Professor, Department of Prosthodontics
Faculty of Dental Sciences, Sri Ramachandra University
Chennai – 600 116, India
Phone: +91 9840231829
Email: shansdr@yahoo.co.in
Second Author: Dr.T.V.Padamanabhan
Professor and HOD, Department of Prosthodontics
Faculty of Dental Sciences, Sri Ramachandra University
Chennai – 600 116
India
Third Author: Dr.R.Subramaniam
DEAN, Noor-ul Islam Institue of Dental sciences
Kerala, India
Forth Author: Dr.S.Madhankumar
Senior Lecturer, Department of Prosthodontics
Faculty of Dental Sciences, Sri Ramachandra University
Chennai – 600 116
India
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M
A Case Report – MELAS Syndrome
Dr Hariom Meena*, Dr Ramraj Meena*, Dr Surendra Khosya*
Department of Medicine
Govt Medical College & Attached, MBS. Hospital, Kota, Rajasthan, India
*JR 3 IN DEPARTMENT OF INTERNAL MEDICINE
Email: drkhosya3@gmail.com
I. INTRODUCTION
ELAS (mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, lactic acidosis,
and recurrent stroke-like episodes) syndrome is a rare
neurodegenerative and fatal disease cause by mutation in
mitochondrial DNA. Patients with mitochondrial myopathies
typically have exercise- induced symptoms. Thus, patients are
often advised to avoid exercise, which leads to deconditioning.
Currently, the concept of aerobic exercise training as therapy for
mitochondrial disease is not well established.
MELAS is a condition that affects many of the body's systems,
particularly the brain and nervous system (encephalo-) and
muscles (myopathy). In most cases, the signs and symptoms of
this disorder appear in childhood following a period of normal
development[3].Early symptoms may include muscle weakness
and pain, recurrent headaches, loss of appetite, vomiting, and
seizures. Most affected individuals experience stroke-like
episodes beginning before age 40. These episodes often involve
temporary muscle weakness on one side of the body
(hemiparesis), altered consciousness, vision abnormalities,
seizures, and severe headaches resembling migraines. Repeated
stroke-like episodes can progressively damage the brain, leading
to vision loss, problems with movement, and a loss of intellectual
function (dementia).
Most people with MELAS have a buildup of lactic acid in
their bodies, a condition called lactic acidosis. Increased acidity
in the blood can lead to vomiting, abdominal pain, extreme
tiredness (fatigue), muscle weakness, loss of bowel control, and
difficulty breathing. Less commonly, people with MELAS may
experience involuntary muscle spasms (myoclonus), impaired
muscle coordination (ataxia), hearing loss, heart and kidney
problems, diabetes, Epilepsy, and hormonal imbalances.
MELAS (mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, lactic acidosis, and
recurrent stroke-like episodes) syndrome is a mitochondrial
disorder. Patients with MELAS generally have a poor prognosis
and outcome, as effective therapiesfor MELAS syndrome have
not been established. The clinical management of individuals is
largely supportive and includes exercise training.[1] In recent
studies, exercise has been shown to be of possible benefit to
patients with mitochondrial disease as it prevents deconditioning,
which can exacerbate pre-existing exercise intolerance and
fatigability[2,3].Aerobic training enhances aerobic capacity,
muscle oxidative metabolism, and ATP production, decreases
lactate levels, and improves quality of life in patients with
mitochondrial disease.[4] A regular low intensity regimen can
improve muscle endurance and cardiopulmonary function.
II. CASE REPORT
The patient, Ahsaan Mohd. 40-year-old man, was admitted to
our hospital due to an episode involving visual hallucinations,
migraine-like headaches, seizure, vomiting, recurrent sudden loss
of consciousness, and relative lower limbs weakness.None of his
family members or relatives had MELAS. His speech was fluent
with normal comprehension and repetition. He had grade 4
muscle power of his both upper and lower limb, bilateral plantar
are extensor. He had intact, brisk symmetrical deep tendon
reflexes and absent Babinski sign bilaterally. On day 2 of his
hospitalization, he become conscious and his altered sensorium
improved and headache, vomiting completely resolved. On day
3 he walk a maximal distance of 5 meters. He had a wide-based,
slightly ataxic gait as well.
Laboratory data included a serum lactate of 62.9 mmol/L
(normal < 2.1 mmol/L). widal test and MP by card are normal.
CSF done which is within normal limit. Serum phorphobilinogen
level was normal. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain
studies showed area of hyperintencity in periventricular ,parietooccipital
white matter s/o leukoencephalopathy .(Figure 1).
Nerve conduction velocities (NCV) of bothlower limbs were
normal, but, on electromyography (EMG), myopathic changes
were seen in both lowerlimbs.. A muscle biopsy was taken from
the rectus femoris muscle and ragged red fibers were noted on
examination.
In the10 th day the patient‘s showed neurological
improvement in muscle power, balance, endurance, and his gait
speed. Her both extremity muscle power improved from grade 4
to grade 5. After discharge, the rehabilitation program prescribed
for the patient emphasized instrumentaldaily activity and home
aerobic exercise walked in his community 15-20 min daily. he
coulddo household tasks, including housecleaning,bathing
washing dishes, and changing bed linens with minimal difficulty.
After one month he was readmitted in hospital with similar kind
of illness.and improved within two days.
III. DISCUSSION
Figure 1. Magnetic resonance imaging study of the brain
shows hyperintense T2 lesions predominantly in the subcortical
white matter in the right temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes.
Muscle strength, gait speed, physical function, and quality of life.
The recovery was possible due to the muscle adaptation that
occurs with exercise training, which may improve aerobic
capacity, muscle oxidative metabolism, the mitochondrial
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respiratory chain, and decrease secondary physical
deconditioning.[5,6] The patient‘s ataxic gait pattern resolved,
and he was able to walk with a normal gait due to improved
muscle strength and decreased muscle fatigability. The patient
progressed greatly in his daily functional skills. After discharge,
the patient was prescribed a low level exercise program as part of
her outpatient phase. The goal of our daily activity training is to
minimize dependence and give the patient the ability to perform
daily skill tasks. We evaluated the needs of the treatment phase
based on the patient‘s physical status and provided an effective
rehabilitation program.
Home aerobic exercise with minimal resistance can prevent
fatigue and cardiopulmonary dysfunction. All of these results
have been reported to be related to improvement of skeletal
muscle oxidative capacity by extraction of available oxygen and
enhancement of oxygen utilization by muscle[7].The treatment of
mitochondrial disease has traditionally involved diets or drugs,
such as coenzyme Q,cytochrome C, nicotinamide,
dichloroacetate, and succinate; however, their effects are
IV. CONCLUSION
Multidisciplinary management of pt. with MELAS required
and would involve a geneticist, neurologist,cardiologist,
nephrologist, ophthalmologist,Endocrinologist and dentist.
There is no known treatment of underlying disease which is
progressive and fatal. Patients are managed according to what is
affected at particular time. Metabolic therapies have been used to
increase production of ATP. CoenzymeQ10 (CoQ10)
,ascorbate,riboflavin, vit k1 and vit k3, L-carnitin,succinate have
proven quite successful.
Figure 1
controversial. Rehabilitation in the form of aerobic training is
another approach to the treatment of mitochondrial disease. It is
thought that the capacity for oxygen extraction is directly
correlated with the degree of impaired muscle O2 extraction, and
that capillary density and mitochondrial oxidative capacity
increase in skeletal muscle if adequate training is given.[6] The
reported benefits of endurance training in patients with
mitochondrial myopathy include notable improvement in work
and oxidative capacity. Thus, muscle mitochondrial adaptations
can improve the systemic a-vO2 difference, increase the
extraction of oxygen during exercise, and may also allow patients
to tolerate submaximal exercise.[6] Muscle strength, gait speed,
physical function, and quality of life. The recovery was possible
due to the muscle adaptation that occurs with exercise training,
which may improve aerobic capacity, muscle oxidative
metabolism, the mitochondrial respiratory chain, and decrease
secondary physical deconditioning.[5,6] th and decreased muscle
fatigability. Long term follow up of MELAS patients is required.
Both pt. and family members should receive genetics
counseling and the family should be educated about further
deterioration and possible complication.
Clinical course is usually unpredictable with fluctuation and
gradual determination leading to coma or death(usually from
respiratory failure).
REFERENCES
[1] Tarnopolsky MA, Raha S. Mitochondrial myopathies:diagnosis, exercise
intolerance, and treatment options.Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005;37:2086-93.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 473
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[2] Chinnery P, Majamaa K, Turnbull D, et al. Treatment for mitochondrial
disorders. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006;1:CD004426.
[3] Taivassalo T, De Stefano N, Argov Z, et al. Effects of aerobic training in
patients with mitochondrial myopathies. Neurology 1998;50:1055-60.
[4] Clay AS, Behnia M, Brown KK. Mitochondrial disease: a pulmonary and
critical-care medicine perspective.Chest 2001;120:634-48.Rehabilitation in
MELAS Syndrome 187
[5] Mahoney DJ, Parise G, Tarnopolsky MA. Nutritional and exercise-based
therapies in the treatment of mitochondrial disease. Curr Opin Clin Nutr
Metab Care 2002;5:619-29.
[6] Taivassalo T, Shoubridge EA, Chen J, et al. Aerobic physiological,
biochemical and genetic effects. Ann Neurol 2001;50:133-41.
[7] Taivassalo T, Haller RG. Exercise and training in mitochondrial
myopathies. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005; 37:2094-101.
[8] Coyle EF, Martin WH 3rd, Sinacore DR, et al. Time course of loss of
adaptations after stopping prolonged intense endurance training. J Appl
Physiol 1984;57: 1857-64.
[9] Finsterer J, Milvay E. Stress lactate in mitochondrial myopathy under
constant, unadjusted workload. Eur J Neurol 2004;11:811-6. Gold DR,
Cohen BH. Treatment of mitochondrial cytopathies. Semin Neurol
2000;21:309-25.
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Research Directions in Quantum Cryptography and
Quantum Key Distribution
Abstract- Quantum cryptography is an approach to securing
communications by applying the phenomena of quantum physics.
Quantum cryptography provides secure communication whose
security depends only on the validity of quantum theory.
Interesting characteristics of quantum mechanics includes the
existence of indivisible quanta and of entangled systems, both of
which lie at the root of the quantum cryptography (QC). QC is
one of the few commercial applications of quantum physics at
the single quantum level. Computers and Telecommunications
system would become safe havens for criminal activity. Even
may himself unknowns that crypto anarchy provides a means for
tax evasion money laundering, espionage (with digital dead
drops), contract killings, and implementation of data havens for
Monitoring and marketing illegal or controversial material.
Encryption also threatens national Security by interfering with
foreign intelligence operations.
T
Index Terms- Quantum Cryptography, Quantum level
I. CLASSICAL CRYPTOGRAPHY
o achieve cryptography an algorithm also called
(cryptosystem or cipher) is used to combine a message with
some additional information (known as the key) and produce a
cryptogram. The primary application of cryptography is to send
secret messages. Many cryptographic systems are based on
computational assumptions. Decrypting is equivalent to solving
some computationally difficult problem. Based on mathematics
is the classical cryptography and one based on physics quantum
cryptography. Classical cryptography relies on the computational
difficulty of factoring large integers; quantum cryptography
relies on what we believe to be the universal laws of at quantum
mechanics.
These classical cryptosystems come in two flavors: Symmetric
systems and asymmetric systems. The security of public key
cryptosystem is based on competition complexity.
II. SYMMETRICAL (SECRET KEY) CRYPTOSYSTEMS
Symmetrical ciphers require the use of a single key, both for
encryption and decryption. The symmetrical cryptosystems in
use for routine applications such as e-commerce employ rather
short keys.
Asymmetrical allegorizing is used not so much for encryption,
because of their slowness, but rather for distribution of session
Ms. Deepa Harihar Kulkarni
Assistant Professor, SKN College of Engineering
University of Pune, Maharshtra, India
deepakulkarniskn@gmail.com
keys for symmetric cryptosystems such as DES. Barriers of
classical cryptography
2.1 Secret key cryptography
• Require secure channel for key distribution.
• In practice principle every classical channel can be
monitored passively.
• Security is mostly based on complicated, non proven
algorithms.
2.2 Public key cryptography
• Security is based on non proven mathematical
assumptions (ex. in RSA cipher, difficulty of factoring large
numbers.
III. QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY
The main advantage of quantum cryptography is that it gives
us perfectly secure data transfer the first successful quantum
cryptographic device could translate a secret key over 30
centimeters using polarized light, calcite crystals(s), and other
elect optical devices.
Figure 3.1: A Quantum Cryptographic Communication
System for Securely Transferring Random Key
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IV. QUANTUM ENTANGLEMENT
Entanglement is a kind of quantum correlation that is
stronger, in certain sense, than any classical one. If some
quantum system, consisting of several subsystems, then it is in
entangled state (even in a pure entangled state) its individual
subsystems cannot be described by pure quantum stages.
Entangled states can be used to serve for quantum key
distribution and quantum teleportation.
Quantum entanglement is a quantum mechanical phenomenon
in which the quantum of two or more objects has to be described
with reference to each other, even though the individual objects
may be spatially separated. This leads to correlations between
observable physical properties of the systems. As the results,
measurements performed on one system seen to be
instantaneously influencing. Other systems entangled cipher.
V. QUANTUM KEY DISTRIBUTION
Quantum mechanics has multiple cryptographic applications
as well. The best known is quantum key distribution (QKD)
which enables Alice and Bob to create a secure classical secret
key despite the potential presence of an eavesdropper. QKD
requires only an insecure quantum channel and authenticated
classical channels, but unfortunately requires multiple rounds of
back and forth communication between Alice and Bob.
QKD is a means of distributing keys from one party to
another, and detecting eavesdropping. It always two parties to
establish a common random secret key by taking advantage of
the fact that quantum mechanics does not allow for
distinguishing non-orthogonal states with certainty.
The primary proposed application of QKD is to create a secret
key, which is then used with the one-time pad to send
unconditionally secure messages.
One of the best-known protocols for quantum key distribution
is usually called BB84. (In 1984, by Bennett and Brassard) In
BB84, Alice sends Bob a random sequence of quantum bits (on
cubits). These quantum bits are equally likely to be in one of four
possible states, as follows
State Basis value
0 │0> Z
1 │1> Z
0 │0>+ │1> X
1 │0>- │1> X
VI. INTEGRATION OF QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY IN 802.11
NETWORKS
Quantum cryptography is considered as a promising solution
towards absolute security in long term cryptosystems. The
application of quantum cryptography in fiber networks has
significant advances.
The appealing characteristics of quantum cryptography is the
possibility of distributing secret key between two users in a
manner that it is impossible for a third party to eavesdrop without
disturbing the quantum transmission and hence the
eavesdropping is detected by legitimate users. With this
characteristic, quantum cryptography is considered as a
promising key distribution solution towards long-term
unconditionally secure cryptosystems.
In fiber networks, some products have been commercialized to
provide a turnkey service for widely used encryption algorithms.
While the application of quantum cryptography in fiber networks
has significant advances, the application of quantum
cryptography in fiber networks has significant advances; the
application of quantum cryptography in mobile networks is still
premature. Some advanced topics in this field concern satellite
communications. In satellite networks, the ground stations and
the satellites are main communication entities of the quantum
key distribution process.
There are a large verity of kinds of mobile wireless network
such as GSM (Global System for Mobile communications),
GPRS (General Packet Radio Service, WLAN (Wireless Local
Area Network) has its own characteristics concerning the
mobility level of the users, the environment where it could be
deployed, the size of the coverage area etc. our first tentative is
towards WLAN 802.11 networks because of the four following
reasons. First, WLAN 802.11 is mainly used in office and
campus environments (e.g. offices, class rooms, meeting rooms,
halls in airports). This building oriented environment facilitates
the deployment of a quantum key distribution network with a
high density of quantum apparatus if necessary.
Second, the mobility speed of mobile users in WLAN 802.11
is relatively slower in comparison with cellular networks. Third
WLAN 802.11 terminals (e.g. laptop) usually have more
computational capacity and more energy for the autonomy than
cellular network‘s terminals (e.g. cell phones). This characteristic
may allow a sufficient amount of control and protocol related
tasks in the quantum key distribution process.
Fourth, from on application point of view, WLAN 802.11 is
usually used to provide access to the internet through an access
point installed by an organization or by a wireless ISP (Internet
Service Provider). In comparison with another kind of network
such as Bluetooth which is mainly used only to replace the wired
links between personal devices (e.g. mouse, PDA, desktop), the
WLAN 802.11 in an apt environment for an enhancement of
security provided by quantum cryptography.
We are interested in the aspect of network protocol design for
the integration of quantum key distribution in currently specified
802.11 security mechanisms.
In 802.11 we distinguish three aspects: Authentication,
encryption key establishment and encryption algorithm.802.11
Security Mechanisms.
6.1 Authentication:
Authentication is the first thing to do when a mobile terminal
wants to join a network. In order to rectify the flaw at the WEP
(Wired Equivalent Privacy) based authentication mechanism
specified in the 802.11 standard, 802.11 defines the 802.1x
authentication based on EAP( Extensible authentication protocol)
The architecture of 802.ix authentication with three elements:
The supplicant, the authenticator, and the authentication server.
The supplicant corresponds to the mobile terminal which wants
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to join a network. The authenticator corresponds to the access
point which relies the 802.1x access control and only admits data
traffic from supplicants who are authenticated by the
authentication server.
6.2 Key management: - 802.11i uses many keys at different
levels, constituting a key hierarchy.
Figure 6.2: Pair Wise Key Hierarchy
Figure depicts this key hierarchy. At the top level, we have the
master key called pair wise master key (PMK) which is used to
derive the other keys. Upon having the PMK, the access point
start the 4 way handshake with the mobile terminal to derive the
PTK. This PTK is then split into three final temperate keys:
EAPOL- Key key confirmation key (KCK), EAPAL – Key key
Encryption key (KEK), and Temporal key (TK). The KCK is
used to calculate the MIC (Message Integrity Code) at the
EAPOL – Key message during the 4- way handshake. The TK is
used to encrypt unicast user data traffic.
6.3 Encryption Algorithms: The 802.11i standard
specifies into encryption algorithms: TKIP (Temporal Kay
Integrity Protocol) and CCMP (Counter Mode with CBC – MAC
Protocol). CCMP is mandatory and TKIP is optional. TKIP is
considered as transient solution towards CCMP – based system
because TKIP is based on the RC4 algorithm and only requires a
software upgrade on WEP – based systems. CCMP is based on
AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) and requires hardware
modification for the translation from WEP – based systems.
VII. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
Other applications of quantum mechanics to cryptography and
future scope which tend to come in three flavors:
Quantum mechanics can be used to break classical
cryptographic protocols.
Quantum states can make possible new or improved
cryptographic protocols protecting classical
information.
Cryptographic methods can be applied to protect
quantum information instead of classical information.
Examples would include quantum secret sharing
schemes and quantum authentication protocols.
REFERENCES
[1] William Stalling, ―Cryptography and Network Security (Principles and
Practices)‖, Fourth Edition, Pearson Publishers, pp. 259-281,
[2] Othman O. Khalifa, ―Communication Cryptography‖, IEEE transaction on
Cryptography, 2004, pp. 1-15.
[3] National Bureau of Standard, Security Requirement for Cryptographic
modules, Federal Information processing standards publication FIPs
Publication, 1994, p.188 – 199.
[4] J. Watson, ―Data Security Hits Home‖, IEEE micro, Oct. 1995, P 88
[5] IEEE Standard 802.1x, part based network access control, December 2004,
pp. 47-53
[6] http://www.IEEEXPLORE.com
[7] SC51 User‘s Manual Edition 2.1
AUTHORS
Ms. Deepa Harihar Kulkarni is presently working as an
Assistant Professor in Computer Department, SKN college of
Engineering, Pune , Maharashtra, India. She has completed her
graduate and post graduate from Maharashtra, India. Research
areas are Data Mining, Pattern Recognition and Computer
Networking.
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Controller Performance Evaluation for Concentration
Control of Isothermal Continuous Stirred Tank
Reactor
Vishal Vishnoi, Subhransu Padhee, Gagandeep Kaur
Department of Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering
Thapar University, Patiala, 147004, Punjab
vishalvishnoi07@gmail.com, subhransu_padhee@yahoo.com, gagan_deep_kaur@yahoo.com
Abstract: This paper presents a comparative analysis of
performance of PID controller and hybrid fuzzy controller for
concentration control of isothermal continuous stirred tank
reactor, which is used to carry out chemical reactions in an
industry. Isothermal continuous stirred tank reactor is one of
the types of reactor which operates at a constant temperature.
The authors developed a mathematical model of the isothermal
CSTR and implemented PID controller and PD-fuzzy
controller to control the product concentration of the reactor
irrespective of the disturbances and delays. Time domain
analysis of the controller is performed to study the
performance of different controllers and it is observed that PDfuzzy
controller performs better than the conventional PID
controller to control the product concentration of isothermal
CSTR.
Keywords: CSTR, PID, PD-Fuzzy
PID
I. INTRODUCTION
controllers are most widely used controllers in past
two decades. There are many tuning methods
available and most of the PID controller tuning uses frequency
response methods for example Zeigler-Nichols rule, symmetric
optimum rule, Cohen-Coon tuning, internal model control,
ITAE tuning rules etc. These tuning rules provide a simple way
to calculate the parameters of PID controllers. But in most of
the cases, it doesn‘t provide satisfactory closed loop
performance.
The widespread use of chemical reactors has led to design
of different control mechanism to control different parameters
of the reactor. The control mechanism can be a conventional
control or an intelligent control. This paper considers an
isothermal CSTR and models the system to obtain the state
space and transfer function model of the system. The primary
objective of the control mechanism developed for the
isothermal CSTR is that the product concentration should be
controlled irrespective of the different disturbances and delays.
To obtain this control mechanism, conventional and intelligent
controller is developed and a comparative study of controller is
performed.
II. NOMENCLATURE
CSTR Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
A Cyclopentadine
B Cyclopentenol
C Cylcopentanediol
D Dicyclopentadiene
k Rate constant for A B
1
min
1
k 2 Rate constant for B C
k 3 Rate constant for 2A D
r A
r
r
r
B
C
D
C
C
A
B
Molar rate of formation of A
Molar rate of formation of B
Molar rate of formation of A
Molar rate of formation of A
Concentration of A
Concentration of B
1 min
C Steady state concentration of A
As
C Steady state concentration of B
Bs
III. CHEMICAL REACTOR
mol / l min
Chemical reactors are the most important unit of a
chemical plant used for unit operations. Basically a chemical
reactor is a device in which chemical reaction takes place.
Chemical reactors can be classified according to different
properties
1. Reaction phase
2. Operating modes
According to the reaction phase chemical reactor can be
classified as
1. Homogeneous reactor
2. Heterogeneous reactor
According to the operating modes chemical reactors can be
classified as
1. Continuous stirred tank reactor
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2. Batch stirred tank reactor
3. Semi batch
4. Tubular reactor
While designing a chemical reactor following factor has to be
considered, (i) Overall size of reactor, (ii) Products emerging
from reactor, (iii) Temperature inside the reactor (iv) Pressure
inside the reactor (v) Rate of reaction (vi) Activity and mode of
catalyst (vii) Stability and controllability of reactor
IV. ISOTHERMAL REACTOR & MODELLING
Isothermal CSTR is a type of CSTR which is
operating at a constant temperature. The volume is also
assumed to be constant. The reaction scheme consists of the
following irreversible reactions. The feed stream contains only
component A. The isothermal CSTR has following reaction
scheme which is called Van de Vusse reaction.
k1 k2
A B C
k3
2A
D
For the above reaction the values of rate constant are
1 1
k150h 0.83min
1 1
k2100h 1.66min
k 10mollh 0.166moll min
3
1 1 1 1
Steady state feed concentration is
Overall material balance is given as
C 10gmoll
Afs
d V
dt
i
1
F F
So, F Fi
(1)
(2)
Component material balance can be shown as
d VC
dt
A
2
Af A 1 A 3 A
F C C Vk C Vk C (3)
Simplifying eq(3) we obtain eq(4)
dCA F
C C k C k C
2
Af A 1 A 3 A
dt
V
(4)
dCB F
CB k1CA k2CB dt V
(5)
dCC F
CC k2CB dt V
(6)
dCD F 1 2
CD k3CA dt V 2
(7)
The molar rate of formation for each component (per unit
volume) is
r k C k C
(8)
A 1 A 3
2
A
r kC k C
(9)
B 1 A 2 B
r k C
(10)
C 2 B
1
r k C
2
(11)
D 3
2
A
Solving eq(4) and eq(5)
F F
k C kCC V V
2
s s
3 As 1 As Afs 0
(12)
Steady state concentration of A and B is defined as
C
C
As
Bs
2
Fs
Fs Fs
k1
1 43
V
2k3 k
V
2k3
k CAfs
V
(13)
kC 1 As
Fs
k2
V
(14)
The linear state space model is represented as
x Ax Bu
y Cx Du
The state variable is represented as
The output variable is represented as
The input variable is represented as
CA x
CB CAs
C
Bs
CA y
CB CAs
C
Bs
F u
V Fs
V
Two dynamic functional equation is represented as
dCA F F
f C, C ,
dt V V
C C k C k C
dCB F F
f2 CA, CB, CBk1CAk2CB
dt V V
2
1 A B Af A 1 A 3 A
The elements of state space A matrix is found by
A
ij
fi
x
j
xs, us
The elements of state space B matrix is found by
B
ij
fi
u
j
xs, us
The state space model is represented as
Fs k12k3CAs V
A
k1
0
Fs
k
2
V
CAfs CAs
B
CBs
Fs
V
0
C 0 1
D 0 0
Based on steady state operating point
C gmoll
1
Bs 1.117 ,
Fs
V
0.5714min
C gmoll
1
As 3 ,
1
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2.4 A
0.83 0
2.23
7
B
1.117 0.57
0
C 0 1
D
0 0
Converting the state space model to transfer function
1
G() s CsI A B
1.117s3.1472 gp() s 2
s 4.6429s5.3821 0.5s
1.117s3.1472e gp() s 2
s 4.6429s5.3821 0.4762
gd() s 2
s 4.6429s5.3821 (15)
(16)
(17)
Eq(15) represents the process transfer function, eq(16)
represents the process transfer function with delay and eq(17)
represents the disturbance transfer function.
V. CONVENTIONAL CONTROL OF REACTOR
Control of isothermal CSTR has generated a lot
of research interest and a large number of literatures
can be found in this area. Some of the research
findings are discussed in this section.
Jose Alvarez-Ramirez et.al presents proportional-integral
(PI) control of continuously stirred tank reactors (CSTR). The
main ingredient in the formulation is the use of a novel PI
control configuration derived from modeling error
compensation ideas. The main theoretical contribution is a
novel stability analysis of a wide class of CSTR. It is shown
that the performance of an inverse dynamics feedback control
can be recovered by classical PI control. This performance
recovery includes the region of attraction and transient
response [6].
Nina F. Thornhill et.al presents the simulation of
CSTR. In this article, volumetric and heat balance equations
are presented along with algebraic equations derived from
experimental data for calibration of sensors and actuators and
unknown quantities such heat transfer through the heating
coils. Many of these relationships have nonlinearities, and hard
constraints such as the tank being full are also captured. A
valuable feature is that the model uses measured, not
simulated, noise and disturbances and therefore provides a
realistic platform for data-driven identification and fault
detection [14].
S M Giriraj Kumar et.al has proposed Genetic
Algorithm to improve the performance of bioreactor [16].
J Prakash et.al has presented a design criterion for
nonlinear PID controller and non linear model predictive
controller for a CSTR system which exhibits dynamic
nonlinearity [19].
R Suja Mani Malar et.al has propsed the use of
Artificial Neural Network to model and control the CSTR [20,
21].
In this research paper, the primary control objective is
to control the product concentration of isothermal CSTR by
varying the rate of dilution of the feed flow. The schematic
diagram of the feedback control loop of isothermal CSTR is
shown in figure 1.
Rate of dilution
F
V
CC
CM
Product Concentration
Figure 1: Feedback control mechanism for concentration control of
isothermal CSTR
Here CM represents the measurement of
concentration and CC represents the concentration controller.
Figure 2 shows the block diagram approach of feedback
control scheme.
Set point
(Ks)
+
mA
-
Controller
(Ka)
(Q m)
mA psig kg/min
Actuator
(Ke)
mA
Input Flow
Sensor
(Ks)
Valve
(Kv)
Input flow
disturbance
Process
Gp(s)
Figure 2: Block diagram based feedback control approach for
concentration control of isothermal CSTR
+
PID
0.4762
4.64295.3821 2
s s
1.117s3.1472 4.64295.3821 2
s s
Figure 3: Transfer function based feedback control approach for
concentration control of isothermal CSTR
Figure 3 shows the transfer function model of the
feedback control scheme for concentration control of
isothermal CSTR. The transfer function for process and the
disturbance is derived in section IV. Ideal PID controller in
continuous time is given as
t 1 de( t)
u( t) Kce( t) e( t) dt d
i
dt
0
+
+
+
+
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The PID controller is tuned using Zeigler-Nichols criteria of
tuning and the unit step response of feedback control is shown
in figure 4. The values of proportional gain, integral gain and
derivative gain of PID controller are 0.2, 0.95 and 0.23
respectively.
Figure 4: Unit step response of PID controller for concentration
control
Figure 4 represents the unit step response of PID controller
Figure 5 shows the unit step response of feedback control
scheme with a disturbance. Due to this disturbance, the peak
overshoot increases.
Figure 5: Unit step response of PID controller with disturbances
Figure 6: Unit step response of PID controller with delay and
disturbances
VI. FUZZY CONTROL OF ISOTHERMAL REACTOR
Fuzzy logic is a form of logic that is the extension
of boolean logic, which incorporates partial values
of truth. Instead of sentences being "completely
true" or "completely false," they are assigned a value
that represents their degree of truth. In fuzzy
systems, values are indicated by a number (called a
truth value) in the range from 0 to 1, where 0.0
represents absolute false and 1.0 represents absolute
truth.
The fuzzy logic controller provides an algorithm, which
converts the expert knowledge into an automatic control
strategy. Fuzzy logic is capable of handling approximate
information in a systematic way and therefore it is suited for
controlling non linear systems and is used for modeling
complex systems, where an inexact model exists or systems
where ambiguity or vagueness is common. The fuzzy control
systems are rule-based systems in which a set of fuzzy rules
represent a control decision mechanism for adjusting the
effects of certain system stimuli. With an effective rule base,
the fuzzy control systems can replace a skilled human operator.
The rule base reflects the human expert knowledge, expressed
as linguistic variables, while the membership functions
represent expert interpretation of those variables.
Rule Base
Pre Processing Fuzzification
Fuzzy Inference
System
De-fuzzification Post Processing
Crisp
Crisp
Input
Processed
Crisp Input
Fuzzified
Input
Fuzzified
Output
De-fuzzified
Output
Output
Figure 7: Block diagram of fuzzy inference system
Hybrid PD-Fuzzy Controller
Although it is possible to design a fuzzy logic
type of PID controller by a simple modification of
the conventional ones, via inserting some
meaningful fuzzy logic IF- THEN rules into the
control system, these approaches in general
complicate the overall design and do not come up
with new fuzzy PID controllers that capture the
essential characteristics and nature of the
conventional PID controllers. Besides, they
generally do not have analytic formulas to use for
control specification and stability analysis. The
fuzzy PD, PI, and PI+D controllers to be introduced
below are natural extensions of their conventional
versions, which preserve the linear structures of the
PID controllers, with simple and conventional
analytical formulas as the final results of the design.
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Thus, they can directly replace the conventional PID
controllers in any operating control systems (plants,
processes).
et ()
P
I
D
Figure 8: Parallel form of PID controller
+
ut ()
The conventional design of PID controller was some what
modified and a new hybrid fuzzy PID controller was designed.
Instead of summation effect a mamdani based fuzzy inference
system is implemented. The inputs to the mamdani based fuzzy
inference system are error and change in error.
et ()
et
()
Gd
Gi
G p
d
dt
Fuzzy Inference
System
Figure 9: Fuzzy inference system
Fuzzy Inference
System
(MAMDANI)
SUM
ut ()
Figure 10: Architecture of proposed hybrid fuzzy
controller
Figure 9 shows the fuzzy inference system developed
for hybrid fuzzy controller. Figure 10 shows the structure of
hybrid fuzzy logic controller, which keeps the general
architecture of PID controller as shown in figure 8 with some
slight modifications. A mamdani based fuzzy inference system
is implemented in between proportional and derivative term.
The integral term is then added to the output of fuzzy inference
system.
G , d G and G i are scaling factors for the input where
p
as G u is the scaling factor for the output. In this design the
input and output scaling factors are determined by trial and
error methods and are taken very small. The linguistic
variables used in the membership functions are described in
table 1.
Table 1: Linguistic variable for fuzzy logic
Gu
Error e(t) Change in error Controller output
∆e(t)
u(t)
NB Negative NB Negative NB Negative
Big
Big
Big
NM Negative NM Negative NM Negative
Medium
Medium
Medium
NS Negative NS Negative NS Negative
Small
Small
Small
ZO Zero ZO Zero ZO Zero
PS Positive PS Positive PS Positive
Small
Small
Small
PM Positive PM Positive PM Positive
Medium
Medium
Medium
PB Positive PB Positive Big PB Positive
Big
Big
Figure 11 (a), (b) and (c) shows the inputs and output
membership functions for mamdani based fuzzy inference
system.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 11 (a), (b) and (c): Membership function for error, change in
error and output
u(t)
Table 2: Fuzzy rule base
e(t)
NB NM NS ZO PS PM PB
NB NB NB NB NB NM NS ZO
NM NB NB NB NM NS ZO PS
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∆e(t)
NS NB NB NM NS NS PS PS
ZO NB NM NS ZO ZO PM PM
PS NM NS ZO PS PS PB PB
PM NS ZO PS PM PM PB PB
PB ZO PS PM PB PB PB PB
Table 2 shows the fuzzy rule base for mamdani fuzzy inference
system.
Figure 12: Unit step response of hybrid fuzzy controller for
concentration control of isothermal CSTR
Figure 12 shows the unit step response of hybrid fuzzy
controller for concentration control of isothermal CSTR. It is
evident from the response that the overshoot is less as
compared to the PID controller, which shows the efficiency of
fuzzy based controllers.
Figure 13: Comparative response of unit step response of different
controller
Figure 13 shows comparative response of controller.
VII. RESULTS & DISCUSSION
This section evaluates the controller perfromance on the basis
of tranisent response and error criteria. Table 3 shows the
comparative tranisent response of conventional PID controller
and fuzzy controller.
Table 3: Transient response
Parameters/
type
Peak
overshoot
(%)
Rise
time
(Sec)
Delay
time
(Sec)
Sett
time
(Sec)
Peak
time
(Sec)
PID 9.1251 4.679 3.0459 7.4062 6.1049
PID with
disturbances
PID with
disturbances
and delay
Fuzzy
Controller
20.3425 4.365 2.956 7.0852 5.6760
16.0946 4.379 2.982 7.5983 6.0825
5.5092 4.580 3.115 6.5306 6.0402
Table 4: Performance criteria of controllers
IAE ISE ITAE
PID 2.279 1.579 6.226
PID with disturbance 2.49 1.552 8.2
PID with
disturbance with delay
2.528 1.661 7.974
Fuzzy controller 2.342 1.872 5.702
Table 4 shows the error criteria for different controllers. From
transient response analysis in table 3 and error analysis in table
4 it is evident that the hybrid fuzzy controller is best for
concentration control.
VIII. CONCLUSION
This paper presents a comparative study of performance of
different conventional and fuzzy based controllers. The aim of
the proposed controller is to regulate the product concentration
of isothermal CSTR. After time response analysis it is
observed that hybrid fuzzy controller provides a satisfactory
control performance.
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[8] K J Astrom and T Hagglund, ―The future of PID control,‖ Control
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[9] G K I Mann, B G Hu and R.G Gosine, ―Time domain based design and
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M Sheriffa Begum, ―Genetic algorithm based PID controller tuning for a
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AUTHORS
First Author– Vishal Vishnoi, M.E. (Instrumentation &
Control), Thapar University, Patiala, Punjab, India-147004
E-mail ID- vishalvishnoi07@gmail.com
Second Author– Subhransu Padhee, M.E. (Instrumentation &
Control), Thapar University, Patiala, Punjab, India-147004
E-mail ID- subhransu_padhee@yahoo.com
Third Author– Gagandeep Kaur, M.E. (Instrumentation &
Control), Thapar University, Patiala, Punjab, India-147004
E-mail ID- gagan_deep_kaur@yahoo.com
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 484
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Design of Fractional Order PID Controller for Speed
Control of DC Motor
Abstract- Conventional PID controller is one of the most
widely used controllers in industry, but the recent advancement
in fractional calculus has introduced applications of fractional
order calculus in control theory. One of the prime applications of
fractional calculus is fractional order PID controller and it has
received a considerable attention in academic studies and in
industrial applications. Fractional order PID controller is an
advancement of classical integer order PID controller. In many a
cases fractional order PID controller has outperformed classical
integer order PID controller. This research paper, studies the
control aspect of fractional order controller in speed control of
DC motor. A comparative study of classical PID controller and
fractional order PID controller has been performed.
Index Terms- PID controller, Fractional order PID controller,
DC motor
F
I. INTRODUCTION
ractional order calculus has gained acceptance in last couple
of decades. J Liouville made the first major study of
fractional calculus in 1832. In 1867, A. K. Grunwald worked on
the fractional operations. G. F. B. Riemann developed the theory
of fractional integration in 1892. Fractional order mathematical
phenomena allow us to describe and model a real object more
accurately than the classical ―integer‖ methods. Earlier due to
lack of available methods, a fractional order system was used to
be approximated as an integer order model. But at the present
time, there are many available numerical techniques which are
used to approximate the fractional order derivatives and
integrals. A typical example of a non-integer (fractional) order
system is the voltage-current relation of a semiinfinite lossy
transmission line [30].
The past decade has seen an increase in research efforts
related to fractional calculus and use of fractional calculus in
control system. For a control loop perspective there are four
situations like (i) integer order plant with integer order controller,
(ii) integer order plant with fractional order controller, (iii)
fractional order plant with integer order controller, (iv) fractional
order plant with fractional order controller. Fractional order
control enhances the dynamic system control performance.
This paper studies the control effect of fractional order PID
controller in speed control of DC motor and performs a
comparative study of classical PID controller and fractional order
PID controller for speed control of DC motor.
Rinku Singhal, Subhransu Padhee, Gagandeep Kaur
Department of Electrical and Instrumentation Engineering
Thapar University, Patiala, Punjab
srinku1987@gmail.com
II. FRACTIONAL ORDER CALCULUS: MATHEMATICAL
OVERVIEW
Fractional order calculus is an area where the mathematicians
deal with derivatives and integrals from non-integer orders.
Gamma function is simply the generalization of the factorial for
all real numbers. The definition of the gamma function is given
x1z by ( x) z e dz (1)
0
( x) x
1 !
Differintegral operator is denoted by aDt . It is the
combination of differentiation and integration operation
commonly used in fractional calculus. Reimann- Liouville
D is
definition for a t
D
a t
d
0
dt
1 0
t
d 0
a
(2)
Here is the fractional order. a and t are the limits.
There are two commonly used definitions for
D .
1. Grunwald - Letnikov
2. Riemann- Liouville
general Differintegral a t
Grunwald – Letnikov definition
ta
1 D f ( t) lim 1 f t jh
h0
h j0
j
a t
h
j
(3)
. is a flooring-operator
1 Here j j1j1
(4)
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 485
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Riemann- Liouville definition
f
n t
1 d
a t () n
n1 ndtat
D f t d
(5)
The condition for above equation is n1 n.
. is called the gamma function.
Laplace Transform of Differintegral operator
Differintegral operator is denoted by aDt and the
Laplace transform of Differintegral operator is
represented as
t st t
a a
0
L
D f t e D f t dt
(6)
t
n1
m
a
m0
0 t
j
1
1
L
D f t s F s s D f t
Here n lies in between n1 n
III. FRACTIONAL ORDER CALCULUS IN CONTROL
One of the primary controllers is PID controller, which is
widely used. Fractional controller is denoted by PI D
was
proposed by Igor Podlubny in 1997 [1], here and have
non-integer values. Figure 1 shows the block diagram of
fractional order PID controller.
Figure 1: Fractional PID Controller
The transfer function for conventional PID controller
is
us ( ) 1
GPID ( s) Kc 1
ds
e() s is
(7)
Transfer function for fractional order PID controller is
us ( ) 1
GFOPID ( s) Kc 1ds (8)
e() s is
Where λ and µ are an arbitrary real numbers, Kp is amplification
(gain), Ti is integration constant and Td is differentiation constant.
Taking λ=1 and µ=1, a classical PID controller is obtained. For
further practical digital realization, the derivative part has to be
complemented by first order filter. The filter is used to remove
high frequency noise.
1 ds
GFOPID ( s) Kc
1
is
d s 1
N
(9)
The PI λ D µ controller is more flexible and gives an opportunity to
better adjust the dynamics of control system. Its compact and
simple but the analog realization of fractional order system is
very difficult.
Intuitively, the FOPID has more degree of freedom than
the conventional PID. It can be expected that the FOPID can
provide better performance with proper choice of controller
parameters. However, with more parameters to be tuned, the
associated optimization problem will be more difficult to deal
with. It is motivated to develop a systematic procedure for the
FOPID optimization to achieve a certain performance.
Different fractional controllers are summarized below.
CRONE Controller (Commande Robuste d’Ordre
Non Entier)
CRONE has a French acronym which means
fractional order robust control.
TID Controller (Tilted Proportional Integral
Controller)
TID controller has the same structure as
classical PID controller, but the proportional gain is
replaced with a function s
Fractional Lead-Lag Controller
Fractional lead-lag controller is an extension
of classical lead-lag controller.
Related Works
Fractional order PID controllers are used in
many control applications. This section summarizes
some of the contribution in this field.
Schlegel Milos et.al [5], performed a comparison
between classical controller and fractional controller
and summarized that the fractional order controller
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outperforms the classical controller. D Xue et.al [6],
implemented fractional order PID control in DC
motor. Chuang Zhao et.al [9], Ramiro S Barbosa et.al
[12] and Ying Luo et.al [17], implemented fractional
order controller in position servo mechanism. Varsha
Bhambhani et.al [11] implemented fractional order
controller in water level control. Hyo-Sung Ahn et.al
[15] implemented fractional order integral derivative
controller for temperature profile control. Concepcion
A. Monje et.al [16], and Fabrizio Padula et.al [26],
devised methods for tuning and auto tuning of
fractional order controller for industry level control.
Venu Kishore Kadiyala et.al [21] implemented
fractional order controller for aerofin control.
Jun-Yi Cao et.al [2, 4] implemented genetic
algorithm and particle swarm optimization methods
for optimization of fractional order controller. Majid
Zamani et.al [7] implemented particle swarm
optimization for robust performance of fractional
order controller. Deepyaman Maiti et.al [8],
implemented particle swarm optimization for design
of fractional order controller. Li Meng et.al [18]
implemented multi objective genetic algorithm
optimization for fractional order PID controller. Arijit
Biswas et.al [20] implemented improved differential
evolution techniques for design of fractional PID
controller. Ammar A Aldair et.al [23] implemented
evolutionary algorithm based fractional order
controller for a full vehicle nonlinear activation
suspension system.
IV. SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTOR USING FRACTIONAL
ORDER PID CONTROLLER
In this section the authors investigate the control
performance of fractional order PID controller by
designing a fractional order PID controller to control
the speed of an armature controlled DC motor. Figure
2 shows the schematic diagram of armature controlled
DC motor.
Figure 2: Schematic diagram of armature controlled DC motor
Notations
R = Armature Resistance (Ω).
L = Inductance of armature winding (H).
ia = Armature current (A).
if = Field current (A).
ea = applied armature voltage (V)
eb = back emf (V)
Tm = torque developed by motor (Nm)
θ = angular displacement of motor shaft (rad).
ω = angular speed of motor shaft (rad/sec.)
J = equivalent moment of inertia of motor and load referred to
motor shaft (kg-m 2 )
B = equivalent friction coefficient of motor and load referred to
motor shaft (Nm*s/rad)
Mathematical Modeling
In servo applications, the DC motors are generally used
in the linear range of magnetization curve. Therefore, the air gap
Ki
flux ϕ is proportional of field current, i.e. f f
Where K f is constant.
The torque Tm developed by the motor is proportional to the
product of armature current and air gap flux, i.e.
T K K i i
(10)
m 1 f f a
Here 1
K is constant.
In armature controlled dc motor, the field current is kept
T K i
(11)
constant, so m T a
Here K T is known as the motor torque constant.
The motor back EMF being proportional to speed is given as
d
eb Kb dt
(12)
Here K b is the back EMF constant.
The differential equation of the armature circuit is
dia
L Ria eb ea
dt
0
(13)
2
d d
J B T 2 m KTia (14)
dt dt
The torque equation is
Applying Laplace transform
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ebsKbss Ls R I s e s e s (15)
(16)
a a b
2 Js Bs s Tm s KTia s (17)
So the final transfer function will be
s KT
Eas s R Ls Js B KTKb
G s
s KT
Eas R Ls Js B KTKb (a)
(b)
Figure 3(a) (b): Block diagram of armature controlled DC Motor
(18)
(19)
After applying the values of DC motor parameters
as mentioned in appendix A, final transfer function
can be represent as:
0.0924
Gs ()
(20)
7
2
8.4910 s 0.00585s0.01729 Eq(20) represents the transfer function of DC
motor. The primary objective is to control the speed of
DC motor using fractional order PID controller.
Section V shows the results of speed control using
conventional and fractional PID controller.
V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
This section shows the results of speed control of
DC motor using conventional PID controller and
fractional order PID controller. Ziegler-Nicholas
tuning method is used to tune the conventional PID
controller. Proportional Gain Kp, Derivative Gain Kd
and Integral Gain Ki of conventional PID controller
are 0.05, 0.0525 and 0.98 respectively. Unit step
response of DC motor for different values of Kp, Kd,
Ki are shown in figure 4.
Figure 4: Unit step response for different values of Kp, Kd, Ki
To evaluate the performance of the unit step response
different steady state and transient state parameters
are taken in to consideration. The parameters are peak
overshoot, peak time and settling time. For different
values of proportional gain, derivative gain and
integral gain the values of the parameter are shown in
table 1.
Table 1: Performance parameters for different values of Kp, Kd, Ki
Kp Ki Kd %Overshoot Peak Time
Settling
Time
0.05 0.98 0.0525 29.5939 1.9937 5.5025
0.09 1.456 0.0929 37.9562 2.0736 6.5158
0.785 1.39 0.099 39.3546 2.0241 6.7980
0.06 1.2 0.059 33.3067 1.9835 5.7706
The unit step response gives an overshoot of 29.5%
which is undesirable. To minimize the overshoot,
fractional order PID controller can be used in place of
conventional PID controller. In fractional order PID
controller the order of the integral and derivative are
in fractions. This paper evaluates the performance of
the controller with different combinations of µ and λ,
and tries to find the best combination of µ and λ in a
heuristic method. Different combinations of µ and λ
are shown below.
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i. λ=1 and µ1
vii. λ1
viii. λ>1 and µ

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Figure 7: Unit Step Response of DC motor Control using FOPID for Different
Values of λ1
The transient and steady state parameters of unit step
response with different combinations of λ and µ are shown in
table 5.
Table 5: Comparison of Parameters for Different Combinations of λ and µ
Mp Tp Ts ISE IAE ITAE
1 1.05 27.8089 2.0473 5.5645 .2777 .5891 .9141
1 1.1 23.7612 2.0413 4.6560 .232 .5226 .8725
1 1.15 17.1389 2.1465 4.7784 .1523 .4428 1.052
It can be seen that from the above table 5 that with the increase in
the value of µ, control parameters are reduce upto the value of λ
=1 and µ=1.15.after these response will be more slow and more
oscillatory.
(iv) With varying values of λ>1 and µ=1
Figure 9 shows the unit step response of speed control of DC
motor with λ> 1 and µ=1
Figure 9: Unit Step Response of DC motor using FOPID for Different Values of
λ >1
Table 6: Comparison of Parameters for Different Combinations of λ and µ
Mp Tp Ts ISE IAE ITAE
1.1 1 28.1038 2.213 5.8632 .3186 .6525 1.199
1.2 1 26.9088 2.1637 5.906 .3354 .668 1.22
1.3 1 25.9522 2.2026 5.8922 .3521 .684 1.243
1.4 1 25.1895 2.2377 5.2537 .3686 .7003 1.267
1.5 1 24.5857 2.2695 5.2965 .3847 .7167 1.293
1.6 1 24.1127 2.2978 5.3295 .4005 .733 1.319
1.7 1 23.7982 2.3228 5.3536 .4158 .7491 1.345
1.8 1 23.476 2.3457 5.3705 .4307 .965 1.373
1.9 1 23.2754 2.3669 5.3817 .445 .7805 1.4
It can be seen that from the above table 6 with the increase in the
value of λ, peak overshoot reduces but system will be slow.
(v) With varying values of λ>1 and µ>1
Figure 10 shows the unit step response of speed control of DC
motor with λ> 1 and µ>1
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Figure 10: Unit Step Response of DC motor using FPID for Different Values of λ
>1 and µ>1
Table 7: Comparison of Parameters for Different Combinations of λ and µ
Mp Tp Ts ISE IAE ITAE
1.5 1.05 22.6561 2.2488 5.1095 .3588 .669 1.166
1.5 1.1 19.3614 2.2628 5.0276 .3143 .6149 1.054
1.5 1.15 15.2327 2.4100 5.1690 .2349 .5083 1.091
1.7 1.05 21.7979 2.3060 5.1665 .3895 .7018 1.222
1.7 1.1 18.7298 2.3235 5.0846 .3453 .652 1.116
1.7 1.15 15.2073 2.1774 5.0176 .266 .6141 1.033
1.9 1.05 21.3166 2.3520 5.1959 .4183 .7342 1.275
1.9 1.1 18.4303 2.3738 5.1230 .3744 .6873 1.178
1.9 1.15 15.3788 2.5293 5.3213 .2952 .657 1.262
It can be seen from the above table 7 that all the different
combinations of λ and µ, control parameters for the values of
λ=1.7 and µ=1.15 are less than other values of λ and µ.
(vii) With varying values of λ1
Figure 11 shows the unit step response of speed control of DC
motor with λ1
Figure 11: Unit Step Response of DC motor using FOPID for different Values of
λ1
Table 8: Comparison of Parameters for Different Combinations of λ and µ
Mp Tp Ts ISE IAE ITAE
.5 1.01 43.5083 1.7294 5.4501 .2147 .5439 1.012
.5 1.1 38.8578 1.6955 4.8685 .1687 .4679 .8576
.5 1.15 27.1098 1.6918 4.9308 .08584 .3453 .7442
.7 1.01 36.4376 1.8956 5.7249 .2532 .5946 1.12
.7 1.1 30.6041 1.8496 4.7835 .188 .4819 .866
.7 1.15 21.3701 1.8986 4.8358 .1074 .3751 .7721
.9 1.01 31.1797 2.0156 5.5637 .282 .6155 1.139
.9 1.1 25.5206 1.9830 5.1964 .2162 .5062 .8874
.9 1.15 18.1406 2.0724 4.6213 .1363 .4186 .836
It can be seen from the above table 8 that all the different
combinations of λ and µ,peak overshoot will be less for the
combination for λ=.9 and µ=1.15.
(viii) With varying values of λ>1 and µ 1 and µ

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Figure 12: Unit Step Response of DC motor using FOPID for different Values of
λ >1 and µ

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ISSN 2250-3153
[14] Mithun Chakraborty, Deepyaman Maiti and Amit Konar, ―The application
of stochastic optimization algorithms to the design of a fractional-order PID
controller,‖ 2008 IEEE region 10 colloquium, 3 rd ICIIS, 2008, pp. 1-6
[15] Hyo-Sung Ahn, Varsha Bhambhani and YangQuan Chen, ―Fractional-order
integral and derivative controller design for temperature profile control,‖ in
Proc. 2008 CCDC-2008, pp. 4767-4771
[16] Concepcion A. Monje, Blas M. Vinagre, Vicente Feliu, YangQuan Chen,
―Tuning and auto-tuning of fractional order controllers for industry
applications,‖ Control Engineering Practice, 16, 2008, pp. 792 – 812
[17] Ying Luo and YangQuan Chen, ―Fractional order [PD] controller for robust
motion control: Tuning procedure and validation,‖ 2009 American control
conf., 2009, pp. 1412-1417
[18] Li Meng, Dingyu Xue, ―Design of an optimal fractional-order PID
controller using multi-objective GA optimization,‖ Proc. Chinese Contr.
Desi. Conf., 2009, pp. 3849-3853
[19] Ivo Petras, ―Fractional-order feedback control of a DC motor,‖ J. Elect.
Engg., vol. 60, no. 3, 2009, pp. 117-128
[20] Arijit Biswas, Swagatam Das, Ajith Abraham, Sambarta Dasgupta, ―Design
of fractional order PI λ D μ controller with improved differential evolution,‖
Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, 22, 2009, pp. 343-350
[21] Venu Kishore Kadiyala, Ravi Kumar Jathoth, Sake Pothalaiah, ―Design and
implementation of fractional order PID controller for aerofin control
system,‖ Proc. 2009 World Congress NaBIC, 2009, pp. 696-701
[22] Mohamed Karim Bouafoura, Naceur Benhadj Braiek, ―PID controller
design for integer and fractional plants using piecewise orthogonal
functions,‖ Commun Nonlinear Sci Number Simulat 15, 2010, pp. 1267-
1278
[23] Ammar A Aldair, and Weiji J Wang, ―Design of fractional order controller
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[24] Juan J. Gude and Evaristo Kahoraho, ―Analysis and performance
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Dynamics and Control of Process Systems, 2010, pp. 503-508
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―Fractional order calculus: Basic concepts and engineering applications,‖
Mathematical Problems in Engineering, Hindwai Publishing Corporation,
vol. 2010. 2010. pp. 1- 19
[26] Fabrizio Padula, Antonio Visioli, ―Tuning rules for optimal PID and
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69-81
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FUZZY GRAPHS ON COMPOSITION, TENSOR AND
NORMAL PRODUCTS
Dr. G.NIRMALA* and M.VIJAYA**
*Associate Professor, P.G & Research Department of Mathematics,
K.N.G Arts College for Women (Autonomous), Thanjavur- 613007.Tamil Nadu, India
nirmalamanohar11@yahoo.com
**Head, Department of Mathematics, Marudupandiyar College, Thanjavur- 613403,
Tamil Nadu, India. mathvijaya79@yahoo.com
Abstract
Special fuzzy graph can be obtained from two given fuzzy graphs using the operations, Cartesian product, composition, tensor and
normal products. In this paper, we find the degree of a vertex in fuzzy graphs formed by these operations in terms of the degree of
vertices in the given fuzzy graphs in some particular cases.
Index Terms- Cartesian product, Composition, Degree of a vertex, Tensor product, Normal product.
1. Introduction
Fuzzy graphs introduced by Rosenfeld in 1975[1-2,9,10]. The operations of union, join, Cartesian product and composition
on two fuzzy graphs were defined by Moderson.J.N. and Peng.C.S [3-8]. In this paper, we study about the degree of a vertex in fuzzy
graphs which are obtained from two given fuzzy graphs using the operations Cartesian product and composition of two fuzzy graphs,
tensor and normal product of two fuzzy .In general, the degree of vertices in Cartesian product and composition of two fuzzy graphs,
tensor and normal product of two fuzzy graphs G1 andG2 cannot be expressed in terms of those in G1 andG2. In this paper, we find the
degree of vertices in Cartesian product, composition, tensor and normal product of G1 andG2 in some particular cases.
2. Research Elaborations
Definition 2.1: A fuzzy subset of a set V is a mapping σ from V to [0, 1]. A fuzzy graph G is a pair of
functions G: (σ, μ) where σ is a fuzzy subset of a non empty set V and μ is a symmetric fuzzy relation on σ,
(i.e.) μ (uv) ≤ σ (u) ∧ σ (v). The underlying crisp graph of G: (σ, µ) is denoted by G*: (V, E) where E⊆ V× V.
Definition 2.2: Let G: (σ, µ) be a fuzzy graph. The degree of a vertex u in G is defined by
dG(u) =
=
Definition 2.3: The order of a fuzzy graph G is defined by O (G) =
Note: Throughout this paper G₁: (σ₁, μ₁) and G₂ :( σ₂, μ₂) denote two fuzzy graphs with
underlying crisp graphs G₁*: (V₁, E₁) and G₂* :( V₂, E₂) with | Vi | =Pi, i = 1, 2. Also d (Gi*) (ui)
denotes the degree of ui in Gi*
Definition 2.4: The cartesian product of two fuzzy graphs G₁ and G₂ is defined as a fuzzy graph G = G₁ x
G₂ : ( σ₁x σ₂ , μ₁ x μ₂ ) on G*: (V, E) where V=V₁ x V₂ and E= {((u₁,u₂)(v₁,v₂)) /
u₁=v₁, u₂v₂ E₂ or u₂=v₂ ,u₁v₁ E₁} with
(σ1 x σ2)(u1, u2) = σ₁(u₁) ∧ σ2(u2), for all (u1,u2) V₁ × V₂
& (µ1 × µ2)(( u1,u2)( v1,v2)) =
Definition 2.5: The Composition of two fuzzy graphs G₁ and G₂ is defined as a fuzzy graph G= G1 [ G₂ ] :
( σ₁ ⃘ σ₂ , μ₁ ⃘ μ₂ ) on G*:(V,E) where V= V₁ × V₂ and E={((u1,u2)(v1,v2)) / u1=v1 , u2v2 E2 or
u2 ≠ v2 ,u₁v₁ E1} with
(σ1 x σ2)(u1, u2) = σ₁(u₁) ∧ σ2(u2), for all (u1,u2) V₁ × V₂
& (µ1 × µ2)(( u1,u2)( v1,v2)) =
3. Results
Definition 3.1: The normal product of two fuzzy graphs (σi, µi) on Gi = (Vi , Xi), i=1,2 is defined as a fuzzy graph (σ1 ⃘ σ2 ,
µ1 ⃘ µ2) on G = (V,X) where V= V1 X V2 and X ={((u,u2)(u,v2) \
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u V1, (u2v2) X2} {((u1,w)(v1,w))\ (u1,v1) X1,w V2} ∪{(u1, u2)(v1,v2)\(u₁v₁)∈X₁,(u₂v₂)∈X₂} Fuzzy sets σ1 ⃘ σ2 and µ1 ⃘ µ2 are
defined as (σ1 ⃘σ2) (u1, u2) = (σ1(u1) ∧
σ2(u2) ) (u1, u2) V1xV2 ( 1 ⃘ 2) ((u, u2)(v1, v2)) = { 1(u)∧ 2 (u2v2) }
u V1 and (u2v2) X2 1 ⃘ 2) ((u1, w)(v1, w)) = { 1 (u1v1)∧ 2(w)}
w V2 and (u1v1) X1 (µ1 ⃘ 2) ((u1,u₂)(v₁,v2)) = {µ1(u₁v₁)∧µ2(u₂v2)}
(u1u2) X1 and (v1v2) X2
Definition 3.2: The tensor Product of two fuzzy graphs (σi, µi) on Gi = (Vi , Xi), i=1,2 is defined as a fuzzy graph (σ₁⊗ σ2
, µ1 ⊗ µ2) on G = (V,X) where V= V1 X V2 and X ={(u1, u2), (v1, v2)\(u₁,v₁)∈X₁,(u₂,v₂)∈X₂}. Fuzzy sets σ1⊗ σ2 and µ₁⊗
µ2 are defined as 1 ⊗ 2) (u1, u2) = {( 1 (u1) ∧ 2
(u2)} for all (u1, u2) V ( 1 ⊗ 2) {(u1, u2), (v1, v2)} = 1
(u1, v1) ∧ 2 (u2, v2)} (u1, u2) X1 and (v1, v2) X2
3.1 Degree of a vertex in Cartesian product By the
definition, for any vertex (u1, u2) ∈ V1 x V2, dG xG₂ (u₁,u₂) =
= +
In the following theorems, we find the degree of (u1, u2) in G1 X G2 in terms of those in G1 and G2 in some particular cases.
Theorem 3.1: Let G1:(σ₁,µ₁) and G2:(σ₂,µ₂) be two fuzzy graphs. If σ1≥ µ2 and σ2 ≥ µ1 then d G₁ x G₂ (u₁,u₂) =
dG₁(u₁) +dG₂(u₂).
Proof: From the definition of a degree of a vertex in cartesian product
d G₁ x G₂ (u₁,u₂) = +
= + (since σ1≥ µ2 and σ2 ≥ µ1) = dG₁ (u1) +dG₂
(u2). Example 3.1
u₁ (.6)
.5
u₁ (.7)
G1
u₂ (.5) v₂ (.7)
.4
.5
.5
G2
σ₁≥µ₂
σ₂≥µ₁
(u₁, u₂).5 (u₁, v₂) .6
.4
.5
(v₁, u₂).5 .4 (v₁, u₂) .7
Figure. 1. Cartesian product of G₁ & G₂ (G₁ x G₂)
Here G₁, G₂ are two fuzzy graphs d G₁ x G₂
(u₁,u₂) = dG₁(u₁) + dG₂ (u2). ( since σ₁≥µ₂, σ₂≥µ₁ & by theorem 3.1 )
= .5 + .4
= .9
d G₁ x G₂ (u₁,v₂) = .5 + .4
= .9 Similarly
we can find the degrees of all the vertices in G₁ x G₂. This can be verified in the figure 1.
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3.2 Degree of a vertex in composition By the
definition, for any vertex (u1,u2) ∈ V1 x V2, d G₁ x G₂
(u1,u2) = µ₂)((
= + + µ₁ (u₁ v₁)
Theorem 3.2 Let G1: (σ₁, µ₁) and G2 :(σ2,µ2) be two fuzzy graphs. If σ1≥ µ2 and σ2 ≥ µ1 then
dG₁[G2](u₁,u₂) =P₂ dG₁(u₁) +dG₂(u₂).
Proof: d G₁ [G₂]
(u1,u2) = + + µ₁ (u₁v₁) =
+ + (since σ₁ ≥ µ₂ and σ₂ ≥ µ₁) = d G₂ (u2) +| V2 |
= d G₂ (u2) + p₂ d G₁(u₁).
Example 3.2
u₁ (.6)
.5
u₁ (.7)
G1
Consider the fuzzy graphs G₁, G₂ and G₁ [G₂] in figure 2 .
u₂ (.5) v₂ (.7)
.4
G2
(u₁, u₂).5 (u₁, v₂) .7
.4
.5
.5 .5
.5
.4
(v₁, u₂).5 (v₁, u₂) .7
Figure .2. Composition of G₁ & G₂ (G₁ [G₂])
Here σ₁ ≥ µ₂ and σ₂ ≥ µ₁ and by theorem 3.2 d G₁ [G₂] (u₁,u₂) =
dG₂(u₂) +P₂dG₁(u₁).
= .4 + 2 (.5)
=1.4 d G₁ [G₂] (u₁,v₂) = dG₂(v₂)
+P₂dG₁(u₁).
= .4 + 2(.5)
= 1.4
Similarly we can find the degrees of all the vertices in G₁[ G₂]. This
can be verified in the figure 2.
3.3 Degree of a vertex in tensor product
By definition, for any (u₁, u₂) ∈ V₁ × V₂
d G₁ ⊗ G₂ (u₁, u₂) = ∑ (µ₁ ⊗ µ₂)(( u₁, u₂)( v₁, v₂)) =
Theorem 3.3: Let G₁ : (σ₁, µ₁) and G₂ : (σ₂, µ₂) be two fuzzy graphs. If µ₂ ≥ µ₁ then
d G₁ ⊗ G₂ (u₁, u₂) = dG₁(u₁).And if µ₁≥µ₂ then d G₁ ⊗ G₂ (u₁, u₂)
= dG₂(u₂). Proof: d G₁ ⊗
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G₂ (u₁, u₂) = = ∑ µ₁ (u₁,
v₁) = dG₁(u₁)
Example 3.3
Consider the fuzzy graphs G₁ and G₂ in fig 3. Here µ₂ ≥ µ₁ and by theorem 3.3 d G₁ ⊗ G₂
(u₁, u₂) = dG₁(u₁) = .6
d G₁ ⊗ G₂(v₁,v₂) = dG₁(v₁)
= .6 This can be
verified in the fig 3.
3.4 Degree of a vertex in normal product By definition,
for any (u₁, u₂) ∈ V₁ × V₂ dG₁ ⃘ G₂ (u₁, u₂) =
=
Theorem 3.4 Let G1: (σ₁,µ₁) and G2:(σ2,µ2) be two fuzzy graphs. If σ1≥ µ2 , σ2 ≥ µ1 and µ₁≤µ₂ then dG₁ ⃘G₂(u1,u2) =P2 dG1(u1)
+dG2(u2).
Proof:
dG₁ ⃘ G₂ (u₁, u₂) =
=
G₁(u₁).
u₁ (.9)
.6
v₁ (.7)
u₂ (.9)
.7
v₂ (.8)
( u₁, u₂)(.9) ( u₁, v₂)(.8)
.6 .6
(v₁, u₂)(.7) (v₁, v₂)(.7)
G₁ G₂ G₁⊗ G₂
Figure. 3. Tensor product of G₁& G₂ (G₁⊗ G₂)
= +
+ (since σ₁ ≥ µ₂, σ₂ ≥ µ₁ and µ₁≤µ₂)
= d G₂ (u2) +| V2 | d G₁(u₁). = d G₂ (u2) + p₂ d
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Example 3.4 u₁ (.6)
Consider the fuzzy graphs G₁ and G₂ in figure 4. Here σ1≥ µ2 , σ2 ≥ µ1 and µ₁≤µ₂ and by theorem 3.4 d G₁ ⃘ G₂(u₁,u₂)
= dG₂(u₂) + P₂dG₁(u₁)
=.4 + 2( .3)
=1 d G₁ ⃘
G₂(v₁,v₂) = dG₂(v₂) + P₂dG₁(v₁)
= .4 + 2( .3 )
= 1 Similarly we can find the
degrees of all the vertices in G₁ x G₂. This can be verified in the figure 3.
Conclusion
In this paper ,we have found the degree of vertices in G₁ x G₂, G₁[G₂], G₁ ⊗ G₂, G₁ ⃘ G₂ in terms of the degree of
vertices in G₁ and G₂ under some conditions and illustrated them through examples. This will be helpful when the graphs are very
large. Also they will be very useful in studying various properties of cartesian product, composition, tensor product, normal product of
two fuzzy graphs.
REFERENCES
.3
5
v₁ (.7)
G1
u₂ (.5) v₂ (.7)
.4
G2
(u₁, u₂).5 (u₁, v₂) .7
.4
.3
5
.3
45
.3
45
.4 (v₁,
u₂).5 G₁ ⃘ G₂ (v₁, v₂) .7
Figure.4. Normal product of G₁ & G₂ (G₁ ⃘ G₂)
[1] R.Balakrishnan and K.Ranganathan, A text book of Graph Theory, Spinger, 2000.
[2] A.Roseneld, fuzzy graphs, in: L.A.Zadeh, K.S. Fu,, K .Tanaka, M.Shimura (Eds), Fuzzy sets and Their Applications to Cognitive and Decision Processes,
Academic Press, New York,1975,pp77-95.
[3] J.N.Mordeson, C.S.Peng, ―Operation on fuzzy graphs‖. Information Sciences 79 (1994) 159-170.
[4] J.N.Mordeson, & P.S.Nair, Information Sciences 90 (1996) 39-49.
[5] John N.Mordeson and Premchand S.Nair, Fuzzy Graphs and Fuzzy hypergraphs, Physica – Verlag, Heidelberg 2000.
[6] A.Nagoorgani and V.T.Chandrasekaran, ―Fuzzy graph Theory‖, Allied Publishers pvt. Ltd
[7] A.Nagoorgani & M.Basheer Ahamed, 2003, ―Order and Size of fuzzy graphs‖, Bullet ion of pure and applied sciences. 22E (1), pp. 145-148.
[8] A.Nagoorgani & K.Radha,2009,‖The degree of a vertex in some fuzzy graphs‖,International Journal of Algorithms,Computing and Mathematics‖,vol 2 (107-
116).
[9] Harary.‖F,.Graph Theory‖, Addition Wesly, Third printing, October 1972.
[10] Zimmermann, H.J., ―Fuzzy Set Theory and its applications‖,Kluwer-Nijhoff,Boston,1985.
.3
5
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AUTHORS
Dr. G. NIRMALA
Associate Professor, P.G & Research Department of Mathematics,
K.N.G Arts College for Women (Autonomous), Thanjavur- 613007.Tamil Nadu, India.
nirmalamanohar11@yahoo.com
Correspondence Author:
M.VIJAYA
Head, Department of Mathematics,
Marudupandiyar College, Thanjavur- 613403, Tamil nadu, India.
mathvijaya79@yahoo.com
M. No:+91 9443560178
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Text Fusion in Medical Images Using Fuzzy Logic Based
Matrix Scanning Algorithm
Pinki Jain, Anu Aggarwal (Guide)
Doon Valley Institute of Engineering and Technology, Kurukshetra University, Karnal, India
Faculty of Doon Valley Institute of Engineering and Technology, Kurukshetra University, Karnal, India
Abstract- Text fusion in medical images is an important
technology for image processing. We have lots of important
information related to the patient‘s reports and need lots of space
to store and the proper position and name which relates that
image with that data.
In our work we are going to find out the AOI (area of interest)
for the particular image and will fuse the related document in the
NAOI (non area of interest) of the image, till yet we have many
techniques to fuse text data in the medical images one of form
them is to fuse data at the boarders of the images and build the
particular and pre defined boarder space.
We are going to propose an algorithm called fuzzy logic based
matrix scanning algorithm in which we will first find out the area
of interest and after that we find noisy pixels of the image to
embed data in that noisy portions to save the boarder size. Our
proposed technique is LSB to store text data in pixels. We use
MATLAB for carrying out implementation on our proposed
work.
Index Terms- Electronic Patient Record, medical images, Text
data, text fusion
D
I. INTRODUCTION
ue to the development of latest technologies in
communication and computer networks, exchange of
medical images between hospitals has become a usual practice
now days. Healthcare institution that handles a number of
patients, opinions is often sought from different experts. It
demands the exchange of the medical history of the patient
among the experts which includes the clinical images,
prescriptions, initial diagnosis etc. With the increasing use of
Internet, these digital images can be easily accessed and
manipulated. Considering patient‘s privacy and diagnostic
accuracy, the prevention of medical images from tampering tends
to be an urgent task. It is required to imbibe the aspects of
confidentiality, authentication and integrity with the distribution
of these images in the Health Information System. Medical
images are exchanged for number of reasons, for example
teleconferences among clinicians, interdisciplinary exchange
between radiologists for consultative purposes, and distant
learning of medical personnel. Most hospitals and health care
systems involve a large amount of data storage and transmission
such as administrative documents, patient information, and
medical images, and graphs. Among these data, the patient
information and medical images need to be organized in an
appropriate manner in order to facilitate using and retrieving
such data and to avoid mishandling and loss of data. In order to
overcome the capacity problem and to reduce storage and
transmission cost, data hiding techniques are used for concealing
patient information with medical images. Those data hiding
techniques can be also used for authentication. These
applications demand large amount of patient information
available in one single image rather than over several entities.
In medical images, AOI is an area which contains important
information and must be stored without any distortion. In this
paper , we present an fuzzy logic based matrix scanning
algorithm which finds the noisy pixels in the medical images by
scanning the whole image in several directions using 3*3
scanning window .Then patient data is hidden inside these pixel.
A. Related Researches
1. In 2005, Hung kyo lee proposed digital watermarking
technique for medical image that prevents illegal forgery that can
be caused after transmitting medical image data remotely[1]. A
wrong diagnosis may be occurred if the watermark is embedded
into the whole area of image. Therefore, they embed the
watermark into some area of medical image, except the decision
area that makes a diagnosis so called region of interest (ROI)
area in our paper, to increase invisibility. The watermark is the
value of bit-plane in wavelet transform of the decision area for
certification method of integrity verification. The experimental
results show that the watermark embedded by the proposed
algorithm can survive successfully in image processing
operations such as JPEG lossy compression.
2. In 2007, Rodríguez-Colín Raúl, Feregrino-Uribe Claudia,
Trinidad-Blas Gershom de J. proposed watermarking scheme
that combines data compression, encryption and watermarking
techniques and image moment theory applied to radiological
medical images[2]. In this work we use DICOM data as a
watermark to embed in medical images. Image quality is
measured with metrics which are used in image processing such
as PSNR and MSE. Our results show good accuracy in the
watermark extraction process.
3. In 2009, Liu Xin a semi-fragile digital watermarking
algorithm[3] is proposed based on integer wavelet transform to
estimate integrity and authenticity of medical images. Using
matrix norm quantization, it embeds watermarks into mediumfrequency
an high-frequency detail sub-bands of medical images‘
integer wavelet domain and it is a blind-testing watermarking
algorithm. Attacking experiments show that the algorithm not
only has both robustness and sensitivity, but also exactly locates
distorted area, so it is an effective semi-fragile digital
watermarking algorithm for medical image field. Semi-fragile
watermarks require not only certain robustness but also
sensitivity, so this paper proposes a semi-fragile watermarking
algorithm based on integer wavelet transform and matrix norm
quantization, in which watermarks are separately embedded into
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medium-frequency and high frequency in medical images‘
integer wavelet domain.
II. PROPOSED METHOD
Our proposed work consists of two modules:
A. Module 1
It is the first module we read the host image file on which we are
going to implement our algorithm to MATLAB workspace and
do the needful changes on that like if the image is in RGB format
we convert it into grayscale and if the size of the image is too big
then convert it to the nominal size.Then the normalization of
light intensity for the image is to be done so that we can get more
specific intensities to work with that.After the normalization we
proceed with the finding the noisy pixels in the image by various
scanning methods. We are going to implement a new fuzzy logic
based (5x5) and (3x3) matrix scanning algorithm which will scan
the whole picture in several directions and according to the
direction of the majority carries the direction on the preceding
pixel will be decided. According to which we can able to decide
whether the point is a noise or not.
B. Module 2
After detecting the noisy coordinates of the image we add our
data to them as a watermarking content and save the positions
where we are going to fuse our patient data in image. After
fusing the data in noisy coordinates we again calculates the
reaming data to be hide or not and if there will be any data left to
fuse in the image then our algorithm proceed towards hiding the
data in the image boarder and generates only that much of
boarder which is needed to be store the remaining data and cuts
rest of the non area of interest to save image.
C. Fusion of patient data in medical image
Fuzzy logic based matrix scanning algorithm
As we propose an algorithm which finds the non area of interest
in the medical image. A 3*3 scanning window is used to find the
non area of interest in medical image. Our algorithm works as
follows:
1. Initialize Naoi (non area of interest) equal to zero.
2. Then, separate the color planes of the image .We will
embed the patient data in any one color plane of the
image. We separate green color plane and starts work on
this.
3. The size of the resulting image is determined.
4. Our algorithm completes when
The total length of the data > Naoi
5. For j = 1 to col -2
For i= 1 to row – 2
Where i,j are the elements of the scanning window.and
row and col are the total no of rows and columns of the
window.
6. Initialize votes = 0;
Where votes are the predictions of finding noisy pixels
by the neigbours.
7. For m= 0 to 2
For n= 0 to 2
Subtract the image (i+1,j+1) from the image (i+m,i+n)
if its subtraction is greater than the threshold value
then
otes = votes+1;
end
end
end
8. If(votes>4)
9. Naoi _add=[naoi_add;i+1 j+1];
Naoi=naoi+1;
end
end
end
th = th -2;
end
10. Noisy pixels computed.
Hence noisy pixels computed.we hide the patient data into these
pixels .our hiding technique is LSB (Least significant bit).
D. Methodology
Fig 1: Fusion process of patient data in medical image
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Fig 2: Defusion of patient data from the watermarked image
E. Defusion of patient data from the fused image
This is the reverse process of fusion of patient data in medical
image .
1) we finds the noisy pixels in watermarked image.
2) after finding the non area of interest, we can extract the patient
data from the image.
III. RESULTS
In this section, we present the results obtained with our work
.To evaluate our proposed algorithm, we simulated with the
medical images; Ctscan, Brain and liver with the size of 512*512
that converted patient files of DICOM to image data using
MATLAB 7.7.0(R2008b). In our scheme ,the extracted
watermark is a visually recognizable pattern. The viewer can
compare the results with referenced watermark subjectively.
However ,.the subjective measurement is dependent on factors
such as the expertise of the viewers and the experimental
conditions. Therefore. a quantitative measurement is needed to
provide objective judgment of the extracting fidelity. We define
the similarity measurement between the original image and the
defused image by the two quality metrices.
1. PSNR( power signal-to-noise ratio)
2. MSE is mean square error
The mathematical representation of PSNR and MSE is given
below:
where m and n are the rows and columns of the image .f(i,j) is
the original image and g(i, j) is the fused image.
Fig 3 shows original ctscan image and watermarked image
(a) (b)
Fig 3: (a) Original ctscan image and (b) Watermarked image
Table 1 below shows the variation of PSNR ,MSE and time taken
to hide the patient data based on data capacity in bytes for ctscan
image.then,fig 4 shows the graphical representation for variation
of PSNR ,MSE and time taken vs data capacity.High value of
PSNR shows the less image degradation .
Table 1: Variation of PSNR and MSE based data capacity (ctscan
image)
Data
PSNR(dB) MSE(dB) Time
fused(bytes)
taken(sec)
10 60.5629 0.0576 0.3213
100 51.8303 0.4300 0.3099
500 40.7794 5.4769 0.3696
1000 37.8313 10.7981 0.9373
1500 36.4688 14.7776 2.1020
2000 35.3967 18.9150 2.4407
2500 34.5596 22.9361 2.8748
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(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig 4: Graphs for ctscan images (a) PSNR vs data fused ,
(b)MSE vs data fused and (c) bytes fused vs time taken to hide
Fig 5 shows the original brain image and watermarked image
after hiding patient and table 2 shows the variation of PSNR,
MSE and time taken to hide the patient data based data capacity.
(a) (b)
Fig 5: Brain images (a) original brain image, (b) fused brain
image
Table 2: Variation of PSNR, MSE and time taken to hide data
based on data capacity (Brain image)
Data
PSNR(dB) MSE(dB) Time
fused(bytes)
taken(sec)
10 62.3068 0.0385 0.3316
100 54.7907 0.2175 0.3187
500 44.5106 2.3197 0.8918
1000 41.4401 4.7040 2.3093
1500 39.4699 7.4044 3.0069
2000 38.0103 10.3622 3.2750
2500 36.5773 14.4129 3.5736
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(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig 6: Graphs (a) PSNR vs data fused, (b) MSE vs data fused and
(c) bytes fused vs time taken
Fig 7 shows the original liver image and fused image with size
512*512 and table 3 shows the below shows the variation of
PSNR ,MSE and time taken to hide the patient data based on data
capacity in bytes for ctscan
(a) (b)
Fig 7 : liver images (a) original image , (b) fused liver image
Table 3: Variation of PSNR, MSE and time taken to hide data
based on data capacity (liver image)
Data
PSNR(dB) MSE(dB) Time
fused(bytes)
taken(sec)
10 55.2368 0.1962 0.2988
100 48.6952 0.8850 1.8745
500 44.1132 2.5419 3.3767
1000 42.2025 3.9467 3.8616
1500 40.2472 6.1910 4.1885
2000 39.0200 8.2125 4.2970
2500 37.9861 10.4200 4.3339
(a)
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(b)
(c)
Fig 8: Graphical representation (a) PSNR VS data fused , (b)
MSE VS data fused and (c) time taken VS data fused
IV. CONCLUSION
Digital medical imaging technologies have become
increasingly important in medical practice and health care for
providing assistant tools for diagnosis: treatment, and surgery.
Due to the volume of medical images is huge and has grown
rapidly. Especially on CT (computer tomography) and MRI
(magnetic resonance imaging), the compression technique must
be applied. Our proposed work is very effective for hiding the
large amount of patient data. As it finds the non area of interest
in the medical image. Then, patient data is embedded onto noisy
pixels. This algorithm is an effective algorithm providing good
results with accuracy because it selects the region of non area of
interest which is unusable part of the image. Hence there is not
any problem at the time diagonosis of the image .Image does not
lose its originality also. Results have shown the accuracy of non
area of interest detection using fuzzy logic based matrix scanning
algorithm over other algorithms. The fuzzy logic based algorithm
has been successful in obtaining the noisy pixels that are present
in an image after the its implementation and execution with
various sets of images. Sample outputs have been shown to make
the readers understand the accuracy of the algorithm. Thus
developed algorithm exhibits tremendous scope of application in
various areas of digital image processing.
V. FUTURE SCOPE
1. In future, we will extend our proposed algorithm in order to
obtain the less degradation and results with more accuracy .
2. We can use 5*5 and 7*7 Scanning mask window in future for
predicting the noisy pixels in the medical image.
3. In our proposed work, the image is first to be converted into
gray image. This limitation can be eliminated and algorithm can
be applied directly to color images, and the detection would then
become significantly more complex.
REFERENCES
[1] Hyung-Kyo Lee, Hee-Jung Kim, Ki-Ryong Kwon, Jong-Keuk Lee, ―Digital
Watermarking of Medical Image Using R01 Information‖ 2005 IEEE.
[2] Rodríguez-Colín Raúl, Feregrino-Uribe Claudia, Trinidad-Blas Gershom de
J., ― Data Hiding Scheme for Medical Images‖ 2007 IEEE .
[3] Liu Xin, Lv Xiaoqi, A Semi-fragile Digital Watermarking Algorithm Based
on Integer Wavelet Matrix Norm Quantization For Medical ImagesWang
Ying,‖2009 IEEE.
[4] Henning M¨uller, Jayashree Kalpathy–Cramer,‖ The ImageCLEFMedical
Retrieval Task at ICPR 2010 Information Fusion,IEEE 2010.
[5] Xinde Sun and Shukui Bo, ―A Blind Digital Watermarking for Color
Medical Images Based on PCA‖ 2010 IEEE.
[6] Osamah M. Al-Qershi, Bee Ee Khoo,‖ ROI–based Tamper Detection and
Recovery for Medical Images Using Reversible Watermarking
Technique‖,IEEE 2010.
[7] Hsiang-Cheh Huang A, Wai-Chi Fang B, Shin-Chang Chen ―Privacy
Protection and Authentication for Medical Images with Record-Based
Watermarking‖ 2009 IEEE .
[8] P.Viswanathan, Dr.P.Venkata Krishna,‖ Text fusion watermarking in
Medical image with Semi-reversible for Secure transfer and
Authentication‖, IEEE 2009.
[9] Nisar Ahmed Memon , Syed Asif Mehmood Gilani ,‖ Adaptive Data Hiding
Scheme for Medical Images using Integer Wavelet Transform ,IEEE 2009.
[10] Khurram Khurshid1, Claudie Faure2, Nicole Vincent,‖ Fusion of Word
Spotting and Spatial Information for Figure Caption Retrieval in Historical
Document Images‖, IEEE 2009.
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[11] P.Viswanathan, Dr.P.Venkata Krishna,‖ Text fusion watermarking in
Medical image with Semi-reversible for Secure transfer and
Authentication‖, IEEE 2009.
[12] M.C. D´ıaz-Galiano, M.T. Mart´ın-Valdivia,A. Montejo-R´aez, L.A.
Ure˜na-L´opez,"improving Performance of Medical Images Retrieval by
Combining Textual and Visual Information‖IEEE 2008.
[13] Amrinder Singh Brar, Mandeep Kaur, ―Reversible Watermarking
Techniques for Medical Images with ROI-Temper Detection and Recovery
- A Survey‖ IJETAE 2010.
[14] Caroline Lacoste, Joo-Hwee Lim, Jean-Pierre Chevallet, and Diem Thi
Hoang Le ―Medical-Image Retrieval Based on Knowledge- Assisted Text
and Image Indexing‖ 2007 IEEE .
[15] Joo-Hwee Lim, Caroline Lacoste, Jean-Pierre Chevallet, and Diem Thi,‖
Hoang Le,‖knowledge assisted medical image retrieval‖ IEEE 2007.
[16] Pedro R. Kalva, Fabricio Enembreck and Alessandro L. Koerich,‖web
Image Classification Based on the Fusion of Image and Text
Classifiers‖IEEE 2007.
[17] S.Poonkuntran, R.S.Rajesh, ―A Messy Watermarking for Medical Image
Authentication‖ 2011 IEEE.
AUTHORS
First Author – Pinki Jain, Doon Valley Institute of Engineering
and Technology, Kurukshetra University, Karnal
Email id - Pinki.jain 1988@gmail.com
Second Author – Anu Aggarwal, Faculty of Doon Valley
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Kurukshetra
University, Karnal.
Email id - anu.cse.diet@gmail.com.
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Impact of Peace and Disturbances on Tourism and
Horticulture in Jammu and Kashmir
RAJNI SHARMA, VINOD KUMAR SHARMA AND VAR INDER SINGH WARIS
Abstract- J&K is an important tourist destination of the
country and has been a place of attraction for tourists since
centuries. The lush green forests, sweet springs, perennial rivers,
pictures que, alpines scenery and pleasant climate of Kashmir
valley has remained an internationally acclaimed tourist
destination, whereas Jammu region- the land of temples is
attracting a large number of pilgrim, tourists and the important
destination has been Shri Mata Vaishno Devi (SMVD). J&K is
also well known for its horticulture produce both in India and
abroad. The state offer good scope for cultivation of all types of
horticulture crops covering a variety of temperate fruits like
apple, chestnut, apricot, pear, peach, plum etc. This paper
emphasized the growth of tourism and horticulture in different
periods, peace and disturbances. Under this paper impact of
peace and disturbances are shown by showing the growth of
tourism and horticulture.
Index Terms- Depuration, fish, habitat, metals, wastewater,
wetlands
J
I. INTRODUCTION
ammu and Kashmir occupies a strategic place on the country's
map with its borders touching Pakistan, Tibet and China. The
state has three distinct regions of Kashmir, Jammu and ladakh.
Each region has a specific resources base. it has a mountainous
terrain, except for some portion of Jammu region and Kashmir
valley. Jammu and Kashmir has a unique economic feature. It as
many innate economic disadvantages, like remoteness and poor
connectivity, hilly and often inhospitable terrain, susceptibility to
natural disasters, poor infrastructure, sparse population density
etc. in J&K all these factors resulted in a classic backwardness
trap arising from low economic activity leading to low
employment opportunity and subsequently resulting in low
income generation. In spite of all these disadvantages, the
economy has suffered badly due to extremely adverse law and
order situation prevailing in the state for more than two decades
now. These economic disadvantages together with disturbed
conditions have their significant implications on the size and
nature of development problem influencing the approach to be
adopted.
II. PEACE AND DEVELOPMENT: THE LINKAGE
Recent decades have seen the emergence and escalation of a
wide variety of violent conflicts around the globe. Regardless of
the motives, violent conflicts are usually disastrous socially as
well as culturally; economically as well as politically. Apart from
a few beneficiaries in the arms industry, economic disruption is
(P.HD Scholars Deptt of Economics University of Jammu)
Email id - remmi2pangotra@gmail.com
an integral part of conflicts, negatively affecting people‘s
livelihoods and the longer-term development process.
With violence becoming a part of the everyday life, the whole
system becomes ―conflict habituated‖, with an emphasis from
both sides on getting an edge and in this scenario, development
takes a back seat. This has led some to question whether
sustainable development can be advanced during times of
protracted armed conflict. Most often the cause or spur of
conflict in many cases is lack of development – economic,
political, or social – or a combination of all. The relationship
between conflict and development is strong, and is a two way
process: conflict retards development; and equally, failures in
development substantially increase proneness to conflict.
Tourism, one of the main industries in the Kashmir valley and
Jammu, has suffered tremendously due to violent activities. It has
declined substantially since the late 1980s when militancy gained
momentum. The number of tourists visiting the state per year had
gone down from around 7,000,000 in the pre-militancy days to a
few thousands in the following years. It is estimated that the state
lost 27 million tourists from 1989-2002 leading to tourism
revenue loss of $3.6 billion. According to the records, while as
many as 557974 tourists visited the state in 1989, in 1993 the
number reduced to 8026. In the year 2002, 27358 tourists visited
the state. Since then the number of tourists keeps on increasing or
decreasing depending on the level of violence at that particular
point of time. However, the number of tourists has never come
anywhere near the level of tourists that visited the state in the
pre-militancy period.
Another issue that remains almost elusive in the context of
tourism sector in the state is that, while in the pre-militancy era
the favourite destination was the beautiful Kashmir valley, the
present period has witnessed increase in number of the tourists to
Vaishno Devi shrine, in Jammu region and to Leh in Ladakh.
During their surveys in Leh the authors interacted with many
local and foreign tourists who regularly visit the area and are
quite keen to visit Srinagar but prefer not to go (Personal
Communications, May 21-June 1, 2007). Though the number of
tourists to Srinagar has increased with the launch of the peace
process, their specific targeting by the militants have led to
decline in their numbers. The local people bemoan this tragedy
befalling on them. Junaid Hussain, a shopkeeper in Srinagar
(personal communication, July 26, 2006) told the authors, ―The
local economy has been completely shattered due to ongoing
turmoil. While earlier thousands of outsiders thronged to the city,
now only hundreds visit the valley.‖
Violence has also directly affected other important sources of
livelihood such as agriculture, horticulture, and the handicraft
industry. These sectors have become the survival mechanisms for
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the local people but are not flourishing. The state is known for
wide variety of agricultural and horticulture products. However,
the conflict environment has prevented people from maximally
utilizing this gift of the nature. The horticulture industry has also
suffered directly as well as indirectly due to conflict situation.
These issues are discussed in detail in the section on challenges
and opportunities.
III. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The present study has certain specific research objectives.
They are as follows:
1. To evaluate the impact of peace and disturbance on the growth
of tourism and horticulture sector in J&K.
2. To find out the role of horticulture and Tourism in the GDP of
J&K economy
3. To evaluate the growth of employment in Tourism and
horticulture sector
4. To find out the major problems development by tourism in
Jammu and Kashmir
5. Lastly provide the feasible suggestion for sustainable
development of tourism in J&K
IV. METHODOLOGY
In the present study secondary data has been used. Secondary
data has been collected from the tourism department and
Economic survey of Jammu and Kashmir. The underlying idea of
the Inskeep methodology is to know the impact of peace and
disturbance on the tourism and horticulture development. To find
out the result of peace and disturbance on both the sector tourism
and horticulture is shown by using regression method.
V. IMPACT OF PEACE AND DISTURBANCE ON TOURISM IN
JAMMU AND KASHMIR
Tourism constitutes one of the main sources of income for vast
sections of the Kashmiri population. Tourist destinations like
Sonmarg and Gulmarg are known internationally for winter
games such as skiing. Gulmarg is also known as the highest
Table 1: Tourist‘s arrival from 1988 to 2010 in Jammu and Kashmir
green golf course in the world, and boasts the world‘s largest
cable car lift. The famous Dal Lake in the Kashmir valley needs
special mention in this context. Adventure sports in J&K include
trekking, mountaineering, winter sports, water sports, golf and
fishing. However, most of these tourist attractions remain
underdeveloped. Many other tourist attractions in the state
remained untapped partly due to the conflict. Like in the Kashmir
valley, the regions of Jammu and Ladakh also have lot of tourism
potential. Some of the tourist spots in Jammu, which need
development, are Patni Top, the Forts of Ramnagar, the temples
of Babor and Krimchi, Sudh Mahadev and Mantalai, Shiv Khori,
the saint-soldier Banda Bairagi‘s memorial, as well as the
Kishtwar and Bhaderwah hills, all of which can be developed
with modern facilities in order to attract wider cross-section of
people from different parts of the world. In Jammu and Kashmir
tourism sector accounts for 5.92% of india's GDP. Tourism
sector is a labour intensive and as per world Travel and tourism
Council (WTTC 2010) world wide estimates, is expected to
contribute 8.1% to total employment. WTTC(2010) projects that
india will generate 2nd largest travel and tourism employment by
2010 and 2020 at 49 & 58 millon jobs respectively, coming at
2nd place only after China.
It is a stark reality that till late 1980s, the state of J&K used to
attract huge numbers of national as well as foreign tourist, but the
tourist sector received a serious jolt with the out break of
militancy in the year 1989. The tourist‘s influx declined
considerably up to 2002 during which the state heavily suffered
in this sector due to militancy and insurgency. The tourist rush in
the year 1988 was recorded as the highest. The infrastructure
created over the years suffered huge damage, besides
destructions to the gardens and parks and with the improvement
in the security and scenario, the govt made all possible efforts
and took all possible steps for the revival of tourism sector by
raising the requisite infrastructure for restoration of the pristine
glory of the places of the tourist attraction and the average flow
of tourist between 1990 and 1996 was just around 10000 per
annum. But the flow of tourist registered a considerable increase
as shown by the figure in table1
Year Amarnath Kashmir Foreign Total Jammu Ladkh Foreign Total Grand
ji
Domestic
Domestic
Total
1988 259891 662097 59938 722035 19926965 8608 16256 24864 21680654
1989 262691 490212 67762 557977 2312001 6689 16079 22748 3736159
1990 395202 6095 4627 10722 2169202 396 8342 6738 2601324
1991 439722 1400 4887 6267 3151310 1041 8014 9055 3621696
1992 445580 1175 9149 10324 3527289 2438 13580 16018 4025553
1993 461443 450 8026 8026 3368735 2000 12401 14401 3875482
1994 471101 500 9314 9814 3705945 2080 15369 17449 4231572
1995 549778 322 8198 8520 4032127 5594 12391 17985 4634915
1996 582213 375 9592 9967 4335532 3537 13036 16573 4970825
1997 495165 7027 9111 16131 4434233 3991 12810 16801 4995269
1998 540453 99636 10247 109883 4622097 6792 15238 22030 5426376
1999 635042 200162 17130 217292 4667340 1905 96669 11574 5847114
2000 - 104337 7575 111912 5109575 6217 11825 18042 5369483
2001 - 66732 5859 72591 5056919 4260 15439 19699 5241499
2002 - 7993 1015 9008 1053771 87 361 448 1072683
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2004 400000 358000 19000 777000 6100000 13000 22000 35000 7724000
2005 388000 585702 19680 993382 6251998 13781 24665 38446 8315654
2006 265000 412879 20009 697888 6950573 17822 26078 43900 8434149
2007 213565 417264 24576 655405 7222318 22102 28477 50579 8634286
2008 498075 550100 22000 1070175 6576000 39000 33000 72000 8860350
2009 373419 520454 20809 914682 7657000 48127 30446 78573 9643510
2010 458046 698564 24376 1180986 8239474 54684 21371 76055 10753556
In the above table it is shown that after 2000 the flow of tourist in
J&K has increasing but tourist inflow to J&K has continuously
been increasing steadily from 69.12 lakhs in 2004 to 94.97 lakhs
in 2010, which indicates increases of 37.39%. There is an
increase in pilgrim visitors to Mata Vaishno Devi by 35.7% and
domestic tourist by more than double i.e. (103%) and in the same
period the percentage of the foreign tourist by 11.57.
The perspective of overall, tourist inflow to all the three
regions of the state, the percentage has increased during the years
2004 to 2010 by 37.39%. The number of foreign tourist to
Kashmir Valley has drastically dwindled from the figure of 0.60
lakhs to 0.24 lakhs during the years 1988 to 2010. Contrary to
this, the number of foreign tourist to ladkh has increased during
the same period of time from 0.16 lakhs in 1988 to 0.21 lakhs in
2010.
Table 2: Jammu and Kashmir‘s share in foreign arrivals to india
The Jammu and Kashmir has been witnessing resilience in the
tourism sector as Foreign Tourist Arrivals (FTA) increases from
0.41 lakhs in 2004 to 0.46 lakhs in 2010. Despite global
economic slow down effecting the tourism sector worldwide and
the prevailing political conditions in the state, the Foreign Tourist
Arrival (FTA) to J&K in the year 2009 showed a marginal
decreases of 6.8% over the year 2008. The state is now
witnessing a turn around in FTA; by 2010 it is 0.46 lakhs.
Jammu and Kashmir‘s share in foreign arrivals to India is
shown in table 2 which indicates that in 2000 the share is 0.78
percent and it was increase 0.80 percent in 2001. In 2002 the
J&K ‗s share in foreign arrivals decline to 0.31, after 2002 the
percentage of share has increased to 1.02 % in 2003 and
increasing onwards up to 2008, but again in 2009 it decline 0.97
percent.
Year India J&K Percentage share
2000 2481928 19400 0.78
2001 2649378 21295 0.80
2002 2537282 7806 0.31
2003 2384364 24330 1.02
2004 3457477 41000 1.19
2005 3918160 44345 1.13
2006 4447167 46087 1.04
2007 5081504 53053 1.04
2008 5356966 55000 1.03
2009 5280361 51255 0.97
Sources: M/o Tourism, Gol/Dte. Tourism Kashmir
The tourism industry in Jammu and Kashmir is supposed to be
one of the most flourishing industries in the state. This industry is
very important for the development of the regions of Ladakh,
Jammu and Kashmir. As there are not much industrial
developments in the other sectors of this place so the industry
related to tourism is considered with much seriousness by the
state government. Apart from agriculture economic activities
related to Kashmir tourism is the most popular source of income
here.
VI. INCOME FROM REVENUE EARNING
The tourism sector also generates sufficient revenue for
government and public sector undertaking which has shown
significant increase over the years, the revenue generations is
expected to increase manifold provide the situation remains
normal and the tourist influx increases in a desired manner. The
state has sufficient potential to exploit more and more revenue
generation and the revenue made under the public sector during
last six years is about Rs. 167.39 Crore the details of which are
summarized as under in table 3.
Table 3: Income from revenue earning in J&K from Tourist Department
Name of the deptt/organisation Revenue
earned in
lakhs
2004-05
2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10
Director Tourism Kashmir 11.46 14.83 35.25 62.06 54.00 56.65
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/Jammu (DGT)
SKICC 46.00 49.34 52.00 64.00 71.20 65.00
Gulmarg Dev Authority 19.7 21.86 32.46 48.50 51.17 34.35
Phalgam Dev Authority 5.12 9.16 9.95 19.00 12.73 6.68
Sonamarg Dev Authority 0.00 13.78 36.35 32.50 45.00 39.00
Patnitop Dev Authority 11.00 10.15 15.62 79.00 20.00 19.54
Royal Spring Golf Course 57.26 35.09 34.73 50.06 45.66 44.25
Cable car Corporation 289.00 754.41 676.00 798.81 839.14 1116.00
J&K TDC 1642.41 1796.44 1763.00 1763.00 1963.00 1894.00
Total 2081.95 2705.06 657.75 2916.93 3101.9 3275.47
In the above table the total revenue from the last six years are
14739.06 lakhs to Jammu and Kashmir. But this revenue was
hampered because of the massive political disturbances here. The
tourist footfall in this region gradually decreased in and after the
nineties. The economic structure of the state suffered a sudden
downfall as a result, since the state economy was primarily
dependent on this sector.
Most of the people here were into professions related to tourist
activities. The financial conditions of the people in Jammu and
Kashmir suffered badly after the sudden setback.
The state of Jammu and Kashmir is yet to recover from this
sudden decline in the tourist industry. But the department of
tourism is trying hard to improve the condition of the tourism
industry in Kashmir and bring back the past glory of the state.
They are trying to beautify the existing tourist spots and increase
the facilities for the visitors in order to attract more people to the
state.
To reconstruct the tourism industry here the state government
has declared many incentives and facilities for those who are
interested in business related to this field of activity.
VII. IMPACT OF PEACE AND DISTURBANCE ON HORTICULTURE
SECTOR IN J&K
Horticulture industry in Kashmir is considered the bulwark of
rural economy in the state. Nearly 75 per cent of temperate fruits
in India are grown in the state. The cultivated orchards yield fine
quality of pears, apples, peaches, cherries, walnut, almond,
saffron, apricot, strawberry, plums, etc. The industry earns
revenue of over INR 500 million yearly and provides job
facilities for the thousands of people directly and indirectly
involved in the agricultural sector. This sector is adversely
affected due to lack of marketing strategy and violence-prone
image of the state. Considering the growth prospects of this
sector, the state government needs to plan for higher and more
quality production. The state should shift its agriculture
development strategy from food security mode to that of value
addition by growing certain products like high value fruits,
vegetables and cash crops like saffron that can give high returns.
The modernization of all these sectors can play a vital role in
economic reconstruction of the state. Besides providing the
professional guidance, there is a need to ensure availability of
basic inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, storage facilities
etc. to develop agriculture and allied sectors. There is also a need
to develop an aggressive sector specific marketing strategy and
explore new markets.
Horticulture is the cultivation of garden plants, fruits, berries,
nuts, vegetables, flowers, trees, shrubs and turf. Horticulturists
work for plant propagation, crop production, plant breeding,
genetic engineering, plant biochemistry, plant physiology,
storage, processing and transportation. They work to better crop
yield, quality, nutritional value and resistance to insects, diseases,
and environmental pollution. Horticulturalists use modern
nurseries for the production of seedlings and mother plants.
These plants are propagated through different methods such as
seeds, inarching, budding, veneer grafting, patch budding and
soft wood grafting.
The growth of horticulture sector can be attributed to the
various incentives towards market interventions like established
of fruit mandies, provision for support prices, technological
support awareness options research and extension. Area under
fruits in J&K State has increased from 3.06 lakhs hectares in
2008-09 to 3.15 lakhs hectares in 2009-10, showing an increase
of 2.94 percent and the production has increased from 16.19
lakhs MTs in 2008-09 to 17.13lakhs MTs in 2009-10, showing
an increase of 1.3 percent.
Table 4: Area, Production and Productivity of fruits(All fruits)J&K State
Year Kind of Fruits Area Lakhs in (Ha) Production
Lakhs MTs
in Productivity
2005-06 Fresh
1.75
12.89
7.36
Dry
0.93
1.24
1.33
Total
2.68
14.13
5.27
2006-07 Fresh
1.85
13.77
7.43
Dry
0.99
1.31
1.33
Total
2.84
15.08
5.31
2007-08 Fresh 1.96 14.78 7.54
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Dry
0.99
Total
2.95
2008-09 Fresh
2.06
Dry
1.00
Total
3.06
2009-10 Fresh
2.10
Dry
1.05
Total
3.15
2010-11 Fresh
2.17
Dry
1.08
Total
3.25
Sources: Agriculture Production Deptt, J&K
In the above table 4 the productivity of the total dry and fresh
fruits are 5.27 in 2005-06 and it was slightly increased in 2006-
2007 to 5.31 percent. In the year 2008-09 the productivity of
total fruits are 5.53 and reaches 6.84 in 2010-11. This shows that
with the peace in the State the productivity of the Horticulture
sector are increased.
VIII. PRODUCTION OF HORTICULTURE PRODUCTS
The overall production of fruits has been recoded to be 17.12
lakhs metric tones for the year 2009-10, recoding a net addition
1.58
16.36
15.26
1.65
16.91
15.35
1.78
17.13
20.46
1.76
22.22
Table 5: Production of fruits during 2004-05 to 2010-11
1.60
5.55
7.41
1.65
5.53
7.31
1.70
5.44
9.43
1.63
6.84
of 21.45 lakhs MTs over the production figures of n previous
year measuring 1.27 percent rate of growth. In the production
figures, share of fresh and dry fruits is 89.62 percent and 10.38
percent with 15.35 lakhs MTs and 1.78 lakhs MTs respectively.
Apple ranks first with a share of 80.18 percent followed by
walnut with 9.64 percent.
Year Fresh
Dry
Total
Fruits
fruits
Fruits
Apple Pear Other Total Walnuts Almonds Other Total
2004 -
05
1093.33 40.25 84.02 1217.60 100.60 13.47 0.19 114.26 1331.86
2005-
06
1151.34 42.36 86.73 1280.43 108.27 14.33 0.20 122.80 1403.23
2006-
07
1222.18 43.09 108.41 1373.68 114.93 15.18 0.22 130.33 1504.01
2007-
08
1311.85 45.86 120.31 1478.02 146.78 11.26 0.24 158.28 1636.27
2008-
09
1332.81 47.38 150.74 1530.93 147.64 12.17 0.25 160.06 1690.99
2009-
10
1373.00 47.98 113.73 1534.71 165.02 12.52 0.19 177.73 1712.44
2010-
11
1852.41 50.50 140.65 2045.56 163.74 12.51 0.22 176.47 2222.03
IX. EXPORT OF THE FRUIT OUTSIDE THE STATE
In J&K the export of fruits outside of the state has occupied a
prominent place in trade of the State. Export of fruit has shown
considerable progress. The total quantity exported during 2009-
10 was 9.57 lakhs MTs, which is 55.9 percent of the production
figure of the same year. The production under horticulture is
increasing year by year while as there is no significant growth in
Table 6: Export of Fruits outside the State (lakh Metric Tonnes)
the export of horticulture produced outside the state. The decline
in the export of fruits outside the state is due the introduction of
market intervention scheme (MIS) under which ―C‖ grade apples
are produced at a support price of rupee 6 per kg for processing
into juice concentrates in the locally established juice processing
units. Secondly India is importing fruit from foreign countries as
free trade policy is in force at the country level.
Production Export
Year Fresh Dry Total Fresh Dry Total
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2003-04 11.65 1.08 12.74 7.63(98.32) 0.13(1.68) 7.76(60.83)
2004-05 12.18 1.14 13.32 8.20(98.3) 0.14(1.68) 8.34(62.61)
2005-06 12.80 1.23 14.03 8.58(98.62) 0.12(1.38) 8.70(62.01)
2006-07 13.74 1.30 15.04 7.35(98.00) 0.15(2.0) 7.50(49.87)
2007-08 14.78 1.58 16.36 7.34(97.86) 0.16(2.13) 7.50(45.84)
2008-09 15.26 1.65 16.91 11.01(98.56) 0.16(1.43) 11.17(66.06)
2009-10 15.35 1.76 17.12 9.34(60.84) 0.23(12.99) 9.57(55.90)
2010-11 20.46 1.76 22.22 8.51(42.59) 0.51(8.52) 8.66(38.97)
X. FOREIGN EXCHANGE EARNING
In J&K the govt is promoting exports from Jammu and
Kashmir State. State‘s fruits especially dry fruits, go also to the
other countries and in turns earn substantial foreign exchange.
The export of the dry fruits viz, almond and walnut during the
year 2007-08 was 6889.11 MTs comprising of 197.11 MTs of
Table 7: Foreign Exchange Earned on Horticulture Produce
Almond, 6692 MTS of walnuts. The foreign exchange earning
were Rs. 115.95 Crore during 2005-06 and Rs 161.44 Cros
during 2007-08. the export of dry fruits viz almond sand walnuts
during the year 2009-10 was 9132.687 MTs, which has increased
by 55.72 percent over previous years figures of 5864.74 MTs
foreign exchange earning has increased from Rs. 142.24 Crs in
2008-09 to Rs. 198.86 Crs in 2009-10 i.e. by 39.81 percent.
Quantity exported in MTs Foreign Exchange earns in Crs
Kinds 2005- 2006- 2007- 2008- 2009-10 2005- 2006- 2007- 2008- 2009-
Dry
Fruit
06 07 08 09
06 07 08 09 10
a)
Almond
296.45 260.88 197.11 168.42 60.97 1.48 1.82 0.91 1.02 1.05
Total
Walnut
5256 5437 6692 5696.32 9071.71 114.47 118.02 160.53 141.22 197.80
i)
shell
in 179 376 161 294.73 364.52 N.A N.A N.A 2.61 2.87
ii) in 5077 5061 6531 5401.59 8707.18 N.A NA NA 138.61 194.93
kernal
Total
Dry
Fruit
5552.45 5697.88 6889.11 5864.74 9132.68 115.95 119.84 161.44 142.24 198.86
XI. ECONOMIC BENEFITS BY TOURISM AND HORTICULTURE
SECTOR IN J&K
In Jammu and Kashmir State the scope of large scale industrial
development is very limited and due to hilly terrains and small
size of land holdings agriculture is unable to meet the
expectations of the state economy, tourism is considered to be an
economic bonanza. Being a labour intensive industry the scope
of employment is varying vast. It requires very low level of
investment and employments provided under this industry are
comparatively higher than many other industries. Tourism is
regarded multi- segmental industry, therefore, provides different
types of jobs like hotel managers, receptionist, accountant‘s
clerks, guides, tour conductors, travel agents, transport operators,
chef etc and many other jobs which are required to strengthen the
tourism. The positive economic benefits of tourism are given
below.
1. Contribution to State‘s income generations.
2. Expansion of employment opportunities.
3. Raising Tax Revenue.
4. Generation of Foreign Exchange.
5. Transformation of regional economy
6. Social Effects
7. Culture effect
8. Impact on environment
XII. PROBLEMS FACED BY TOURISM AND HORTICULTURE
SECTOR IN J&K
1. Mismanagement
2. Problems of Infrastructure
3. Lack of Transport Facilities
4. Lack of Basic Facilities
5. Militancy in the State
6. Natural factors
7. Lack of coordination
XIII. SUGGESTIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
DEVELOPMENT
The main point to keep in mind is the inter-relationship of
sustainability, planning, development and tourism.
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Integrated planning in the tourism sector should include
consideration of the following issues:
1. Impact on the natural environment, the host communities,
the local (regional, national) economy, the indigenous
culture;
2. Demands made on human resources, including knowledge,
skills, aptitudes, and numbers;
3. Impact of and on transport and infrastructure systems,
regional development, resource use and distribution;
4. Responsibilities derived from international agreements,
accords and protocols;
5. Impact of and on other sectors of the economy, especially
the primary sectors of agriculture, forestry, mining and
fishing, but also some industrial sectors, transportation and
various aspects of commerce;
6. Implications of tourism development for land ownership
and land tenure, land and property values, alternative or
substitute uses;
7. Linkages through the different levels of planning; and
8. Linkages with governments and agencies, tourism industry,
interest groups, host communities, indigenous communities,
development industry (other than in tourism).
These issues can be dealt with when developing tourism
policies and plans at various levels as long as the following
strategic elements are also included:
1. Tourism-related infrastructure – transportation, water
supply, energy and power supply, waste disposal,
pollution control, telecommunications;
2. Tourism-specific development – accommodations of
various types, integrated resorts, restaurants, shopping,
support services, travel services, recreation and
entertainment, health and emergency services, safety
systems and visitor attractions;
3. Appraisals and impacts (including carrying capacity
assessments) of tourism development on, for example,
the economy, the environment, the host community,
culture and heritage;
4. Financing, marketing, promotion and information
systems;
5. Tourism awareness in the host community and human
resources development programmes.
Integrated tourism planning also means integration of goals,
objectives, programmes, projects, investment, and resource use.
Resource use is of central importance, particularly for sustainable
development, because it involves the relationship between
economic development and the conservation of natural resources.
In recent years, conservation of cultural and human resources has
been added.
XIV. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, integrated planning for sustainable tourism and
horticulture development needs to be considered as one
important component within a broad policy framework. In this
situation, tourism is one means for achieving sustainable
development. Achievement will be influenced by the degree to
which planning for tourism is integrated both horizontally and
vertically. Integrated tourism and horticulture planning should be
seen as an exercise in the creative and innovative management of
resources to achieve sustainable outcomes.
REFERENCES
[1] Agriculture Production Department Jammu and Kashmir, Govt of J&K
[2] Government of J&K, Digest of Statistics 2010, Directorate of Economic
and Statistical Planning, J&K.
[3] Government of J&K, Handbook of J&K State Jammu Directorate of
Economics, Statistics and Planning, Government of Jammu and Kashmir
[4] Government of Jammu and Kashmir, Economics Survey 2010-2011,
Directorate of Economic and Statistical Planning, J&K.
[5] Michel Peter‘s, International Tourism, Economies and Development of
International Tourist Trade.
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Fate of Metals in Fish under Variable Sewage Input in
Fish Ponds
Abstract- Use of raw sewage in aquaculture spelling prosperity
to farmers is actually a veritable threat to the environment. Metal
contaminated fish grown in the sewage-fed East Kolkata
Wetlands, is potentially hazardous for the consumers. Alarmed
by the increase of these persistent elements, an in-depth study
was carried out to find out a possible way to reduce metal body
burden in fish. The first part of the study deals with the
quantitative analyses of metals in several species of fish reared in
the sewage fed system. In the second part, sewage input in the
ponds was temporarily stopped for six months that helped us to
understand the depuration pattern of the accumulated metals
from fish tissues. It was observed that, copper accumulates
maximally with age in the fish liver especially in the benthic
species such as Cirrhinus mrigala and Oreochromis nilitica.
However, its depuration rate from the organ is low. After six
months, the metal is completely excreted from muscle, skin, gills
and kidney. Gills of Catla catla accumulate excess of zinc. Lead
and zinc show size dependent increase in muscle, liver, kidney,
skin and gills of fish but are steadily depurated in the relatively
uncontaminated system. The rate of cadmium uptake and release
is extremely low in fish.
Index Terms- Depuration, fish, habitat, metals, wastewater,
wetlands
T
I. INTRODUCTION
he East Kolkata Wetlands with an area of 25,000 hectares
are the largest basin for natural purification of wastewater
.Once occupied by the Bidyadhari River, these wetlands receive
city sewage, storm water run off and effluents from thousands of
industries. Underground sewers drain the untreated city sewage
to several pumping stations from where it is led into open surface
outfall channels networks that distributes this water into the
different fish ponds. Here the recycled organic waste of the
sewage provides nutrients for commercially grown fish.
Aquaculture thus maintains a balanced ecologically efficient
Paulami Maiti * and Samir Banerjee **
*Corresponding Author
*Lady Brabourne College,
P 1/ 2 , Suhrawardy Avenue
Park Circus, Kolkata – 700017.
Mobile number - 967437345
paulamim262@gmail.com
**Aquaculture Research Unit, Department of Zoology,
University of Calcutta,
35 Ballygange Circular Road , Kolkata-700017.
Mobile number - 9331021657
samirbancu@gmail.com
system where effluent quality comes down to an acceptable
range, reducing the BOD value of the sewage water. About 308
sewage-fed ponds show a turnover rate of 15,000 million tones
of fish annually where average rate of organic loading vary
between 20-70 kg per hectare. Efficient utilization of sewage is
therefore crucial for aquaculture production that effectively
meets the challenge of unemployment and protein crisis for the
ever-increasing population of this area. ( Kundu et al., 2008 ) .
However, these wetlands receive enormous pollutants
including metals along with the effluents. In the natural waters,
metals remain either in particulate or in soluble form but the
labile fraction are more harmful.The impact of metal pollution
depends upon the, source of wastewater, duration of their input
or the presence of organic and inorganic particles in the water
and sediment. Bioaccumulation of metals occurring in the food
chain of the aquatic system, ultimately affects the human
through, consumption of contaminated fish. In fish, metal levels
vary as a function of their dietary difference and body size,
which is closely related to their growth and metabolism.
(Moriarty et al.,1984). All these interrelated factors determine the
elemental concentration in the system and their relative
availability, transport and toxicity to aquatic organisms.
Bioaccumulation of metals in fish warrants our attention. The
present study, firstly attempts to quantify metal level in the
different tissues of four commercial important fish species with
various body weights, feeding habits and habitats. This is to
investigate the growth related changes in the level of metals in
fish tissues. Secondly, to find out the depuration pattern of metals
by the tissues, sewage input in the sewage fed ponds was
temporarily stopped for a period of six months. Samples of
water, soil and fish tissues were analyzed before and after the
experimental period. Difference in body metal level in fish
provided a picture of the amount of metal depurated by tissues, in
the relatively uncontaminated environment.
As fish, forms the major food for the people in this part of
the country, attempt has been taken to reduce metal body burden
by reducing the sewage input of the system. This would reduce
the background level of metals that allowed the fish to excrete
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the accumulated ones. Metal bioaccumulation depends on the
difference in uptake and depuration that varies with metals and
fish species (Tawari-Fufeyin and Ekaye, 2007). Fish differing in
food habit and its position in the tropic level show marked
variation in depuration of metals. So different species with
various body weights were chosen to determine the size related
depuration pattern as younger fish have higher metabolic rate
than the older ones.
II. SITE OF STUDY
The study was carried out in a sewage-fed farm ―The East
Kolkata Fisherman‘s Cooperative Society‖, situated by the
Eastern Metropolitan Bypass near the Kasba connector (22 o 30
N; 88 o 25 E), West Bengal, India. The farm, a part of the East
Kolkata Wetlands, covers an area of 44.55 hectares supporting
about 109 sewage-fed ponds. Here five sewage fed ponds were
chosen for experiment that nursed four commercially important
species , such as Labeo rohita Cuvier (a column feeder), Catla
catla Valenciennes (a surface planktivore ) , Cirrhinus mrigala (
benthic fish) and Oreochromis nilotica Oken which is an exotic
omnivore , ubiquitous in the derelict waters (Jayaram,1981) .
Two different body weights (50g and 800g) of all the species
were chosen for analyses.
III. MATERIALS AND METHODS
Fish were regularly collected from the sewage-fed ponds for
quantitative analysis of the metals. These were dissected and the
different tissues like muscles, liver, kidney, gills, skin and
intestine were wiped dry and weighed accurately to 1g each for
acid digestion. A modified wet digestion procedure was used to
prepare biological samples for the determination of copper, lead,
zinc and cadmium following the procedure of Chernoff (1975).
Samples of fish tissues were taken in hard glass test tubes, and 5
ml of conc. HNO3 acid was added to one gram of the sample, and
left for overnight digestion at room temperature. The mixture
was placed in a hot plate at 85 + 5 o C and 5 ml (3: 2, Conc.
Sulfuric acid: Perchloric acid) was then added to it. The digestion
was carried out until it turned into a pale transparent solution.
The mixture was cooled and filtered through an acid soaked filter
paper and was adjusted to the required volume, with distilled
water. Metal levels in water and soil were determined by
standard methods of APHA , (1998) and Nafde, et al., (1998)
respectively. The concentrations were detected in atomic
absorption spectrophotometer (Varian AA.575).
Based on total amount of the sample taken, the actual
concentration was calculated, and results were expressed in g/g.
A standard reference material checked the accuracy of
determination. Comparison between metal concentrations in the
tissues of the fish with various body weights were performed by
One Way Analysis of Variance, ANOVA (Gomez and Gomez,
1984). Statistically significant differences were observed in the
mean metal values of tissues and were evaluated at p

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012 515
ISSN 2250-3153
excretion (McCarter and Roch, 1983). Within the cells, metals
bound to this protein are incorporated into liposome, which are
excreted through an electrochemical gradient that further
facilitates metal uptake in a contaminated environment.
However, when the capacity of the cell exceeds,
histopathological changes may appear. Depuration process
however may not always recover the lesions caused by chronic
metal exposure.
When sewage input in the ponds was stopped, rapid clearance
of copper was observed from all the tissues excepting from the
liver and intestine (Fig. 1, 2) .This suggests multiple elimination
routes of the metal including urinary, branchial and faecal.
Depuration rate from liver and intestine was very low especially
in the benthic species due to the availability of the food borne
metal from the sediment. Besides, the liver being a storage organ
actively removes accumulated metals from the other tissues.
According to the spill over theory, part of the accumulated metal
in liver is depurated through bile, which is reabsorbed through
the intestinal mucosa. Thus, intestinal mucosa has been observed
to concentrate considerable amount of copper from where the
excretion rate is very slow. Intestine forms the ultimate
depository of metals that is taken through food hence C. mrigala
and O. nilotica accumulate higher amount of copper in this
organ. (Olowu et al., 2010)
Results reveal that, younger C. mrigala accumulates higher
levels of lead, the rate of which subsequently falls with chronic
exposure in a polluted system (Fig. 3, 4). In the other species,
lead rises only moderately with body weight. Gills and skin of
catla also store the metal where the elimination rate is very slow.
Generally, lead accumulation in tissues is proportional to the
ambient concentration, (Tao et al., 1999) but the rate of its
depuration is dependent on the overall body concentration
(Schulz-Balder, 1974). Muscles of L. rohita and O nilotica shows
higher depuration rate of the metal after six months. Liver and
kidney of C. catla , O . nilitica and C. mrigala tend to retain the
metal. However, from the hepatic tissue bile helps in elimination
of the sulfhydryl reactive metals especially lead and cadmium
through the formation of metal-glutathione complexes.
Dissolved and particulate metals are usually absorbed through
passive diffusion or carrier mediated transport over the gill
epithelium. These are also absorbed through skin and food. Zinc
accumulates maximally in the gills especially in the surface
residing C. catla. Normoxic condition of the surface water
probably pumps the available metal, which continues to
accumulate in its gills (Hughes and Floss, 1978). Kidney and
gills act as both storage and depuration sites. Although
considerable release of zinc was observed in the fish under study
(excepting younger benthic fish) yet kidney is hardly considered
as an excretory organ for metals in teleost.
Zinc content in the tissues is positively correlated with body
weight of C. catla and L. rohita possibly due to the breakdown of
their regulatory mechanism with continuous exposure in
contaminated system. Juvenile fishes maintain higher proportion
of this metal from their plantonic diet (Fig. 5, 6). However, in the
two benthic species, the metal rises only slightly with body
weight and after six months, these show very slow depuration
rate. Zinc is retained in C. catla even in the uncontaminated
environment. Mucus in gills and skin helps in considerable
removal of metals..
Cadmium concentration keeps low and constant in all the fish
species under study and body concentration reflects its level in
the environment (Ekeanyanwu et al., 2011). The uptake of the
metal is non-linear, and is not correlated with the body weight of
fish (Bohn and McElroy, 1976) .This complements our findings
(Fig. 7, 8). In spite of this low bioaccumulation potential, the
metal shows a high concentration factor and its average
concentration in fish tissue rise above the mean international
level.
After six months, lead and zinc levels were reduced
considerably than their initial value in the fish tissues while
excretion rate of cadmium was low. Metal is excreted gradually
in a metal free environment (Harrison and Klaverkamp, 1989).
However, fish shows retention of lead and cadmium in the
kidney and zinc in the gills.
In general, muscular depuration is normally higher as binding
proteins are present in only low levels in these tissues. However,
after six months only copper and lead levels decreased below the
set international standard, in the muscle. ( According to WHO
standards , Maximum Permissible Limit for metals in the fish
tissues are copper 20, lead 2 , zinc 45 and cadmium 0.3.) .
Retention of metals in fish tissues, even at lower ambient
environmental metal concentration is due to their binding in the
non-exchangeable or slowly exchangeable pools of the body.
Adjusting metal uptake and depuration are the primary means of
maintaining metal homeostasis that occurs naturally for essential
elements. This control is less evident for non-essential ones as
lead and cadmium show lower excretory rate even in the
uncontaminated environment. Tolerable dietary intake of metals
exceeded among population consuming large amount of fish
chronically exposed to sewage effluents. Trace metal
contaminated fish from sewage-fed wetlands can predispose
consumers to toxicity so there is a need for constant monitoring
of this stressed environment.
Measures to eliminate metals from commercial fish is a
priority so regulation or temporary stoppage of sewage effluents
in aquaculture ponds can reap positive results to reduce metal
related health hazards for population that depend on fish as the
major source of animal protein. In a contaminated environment
the rate of metal uptake exceeds its excretion but fish exposed to
polluted system, if allowed to stay in a relatively metal free
environment, show a gradual decline of these xenotoxic
substances.
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012
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Metals Tissues L.
rohita
50g
Table 1: Deputation percentage of metals from the tissues of Fish
L.
rohita
800g
C.
calta
50g
C.
catla
800g
C.
mrigala
50g
C.
mrigala
800g
O.
nilitia
50g
O.
nilitica
800g
Copper Muscle 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Liver 44.08 52.73 47.38 55.30 68 7.15 46.98 27.66
Kidney 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Gills 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Skin 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Intestine 59.88 62.63 54.18 60.53 40.38 39.29 69.00 20
Lead Muscle 58.88 61.35 31.07 48.15 55.58 28.95 73.96 58.63
Liver 56.70 49.25 29.73 42.81 37.92 21.32 35.90 24.83
Kidney 49.06 52.14 29.38 31.75 46.09 21.71 31.85 22.51
Gills 44.43 51.94 26.61 16.74 58.19 23.73 64.01 35.08
Skin 52.13 56.70 22.18 30.23 61.44 31.24 28.61 46.80-
Intestine 38.75 48.85 22.86 54.13 52.33 25.36 20.22 25.41
Zinc Muscle 44.42 58.14 30.78 18.89 51.36 54.04 63.32 44.08
Liver 31.77 51.04 11.89 20.16 35.93 47.53 53.65 25.86
Kidney 19.33 44.51 36.70 29.76 55.31 39.10 71.00 37.76
Gills 12.54 27.06 14.22 8.73 27.24 39.73 33.43 44.11
Skin 16.00 19.71 31.17 27.62 42.80 32.49 59.14 55.26
Intestine 05.80 16.89 31.69 26.30 40.91 47.34 59.61 36.93
Cadmium Muscle 40.17 35.97 22.28 40.22 35.99 38.59 35.58 36.67
Liver 40.72 58.26 35.89 46.94 34.47 32.92 42.86 48.33
Kidney 41.78 30.06 43.77 43.62 37.97 35.04 21.20 42.53
Gills 43.97 24.54 44.32 59.53 31.66 20.27 39.89 40.05
Skin 31.67 28.48 48.72 35.19 35.61 34.16 33.14 43.14
Intestine 10.82 28.12 43.75 50.37 35.70 34.78 44.88 52.63
Values are expressed in percentage
Table 2: Concentration of Metals in Water and Sediment
Copper Lead Zinc Cadmium
Fresh water * Trace Trace Trace Trace
Sewage Water * 10.97±
2.87
Sewage Water, after six months.
*
93.33 ±
9.39
2.11 ±0.07 17.79±
1.88
16.44±
5.59
3.99±
0.74
Pond sediment.* 41.00± 5.00 32.00± 2.18 60.80
±9.11
Pond Sediment , after six
months. *
*Mean ± SD of 5 different observations
37.00±
3.44
28.11±
2.99
56.00±
4.07
2.23±
0.74
0.79±.01
3.48± 1.11
3.14±0.99
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International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 2, Issue 6, June 2012
ISSN 2250-3153
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Appreciation is due to The CSIR, New Delhi for their financial
support and the Principal, Lady Brabourne College, Kolkata.
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AUTHORS
**Prof. Samir Banerjee (M.Sc. Ph.D.)
Aquaculture Research Unit, Department of Zoology,
University of Calcutta,
35, Ballygange Circular Road, Kolkata- 700017.
Mobile number - 9331021567
samirbancu@gmail.com
Correspondence Author: *Dr Paulami Maiti (M.Sc. Ph.D.)
Lady Brabourne College,
P 1/ 2 , Suhrawardy Avenue,
Park Circus, Kolkata – 700017.
Mobile number - 967437345
paulamim262@gmail.com
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