Non-Fiction Analysis - speeches

Artful Diction
Non-Fiction Analysis
- speeches
Artful Syntax - but HOW?
Artful Rhetoric

Speeches -written to be spoken and heard
• Speeches are writen to be spoken in real time.
•Words are not to be read but to be heard => sounds are important too!
• The audience cannot “rewind”=>
•Therefore key points of the speech must be very clearly expressed
•Strategies to ensure the audience can remember the message are important!

What makes a speech memorable/powerful?
Typical genre conventions for speeches
• Attention grabbing opening
(To establish the speaker’s ethos + connect with the audience)
• Clarity of structure – so the audience can follow the speaker’s points.
• Clear and memorable message(s) since the audience cannot re-read it
• Powerful and engaging, but audience-friendly vocabulary + imagery
• Repetition of words, phrases, sentences (often the rule of three is popular to
create redundancy
• Appropriate tone and formality level (adapted to both subject and audience)
• Memorable ending.

TOOLBOX for speech analysis
Tool 1: Argumentation analysis
(argumentationsanalyse)
Tool 2: Message functions
(tekstfunktioner)
Tool 3: Rhetorical Appeals
retorisk analyse
Tool 4: Stylistic analysis (stilistisk analyse)
Tool 5 Discourse markers (diskursmarkører)
The tools will be introduced in the following slides

TOOL 1: Analysis of Argumentation:
(argumentationsanalyse)
Argumentative text types/genres:
Essays
Political party programmes
Feature articles (kronikker)
Letters to the editor (læserbreve)
Political speeches
Etc.

TOOL 1. Argumentation analysis:
(argumentationsanalyse)
The argument:
claim (påstanden): the X that the
sender wants to convince someone about
data (belæg for påstanden)
the reasons/grounds used to support the claim
Warrant (hjemmel)
the further developed reasons/grounds
given to support the data

TOOL 1. Argumentation analysis
(argumentationsanalyse)
EXAMPLE: “Children are overweight. They drink a lot of soft drinks.
Soft drinks contain lots of sugar. If you consume great amounts of food
with a high sugar content, there is an increased risk of becoming
overweight”
CLAIM (påstand): children are overweight
DATA (belæg for påstanden): they drink a lot of soft drinks
WARRANT (hjemmel)
a. soft drinks contain a lot of sugar
b. regular intake of drinks with high sugar content
increases the risk of obesity.
NB: Warrant is what establishes a plausible connection between
claim and data.

TOOL 1. Argumentation analysis
(argumentationsanalyse)
Is the argument valid? (gyldigt, sagligt og underbygget)
Is the claim (påstand) backed up by data + warrant?
Is the data (belæg) true or plausible?
Is there a logical connection between claim + data,
(typically established by the warrant)

TOOL 2. Message functions:
(tekstfunktioner)
3 main message functions:
1. The informative language function(informative tekstfunktion)
Focus: on contents /factual information, the outside world.
Markers (markører): factual, logos appeals, neutral words
2. The expressive language function(ekspressive tekstfunktion)
Focus: on the sender (attitude, feelings, character)
Markers: e.g. personal pronun (I), adjectives, pathos, ethos)
3. The directive language function(direktive tekstfunktion)
Focus: on the receiver (what to think or do, etc.)
Markers: imperative, pathos, inclusive„we‟, direct address)
(inklusivt „vi‟) (direkte tiltale)

TOOL 3. Rhetorical analysis
Retorisk analyse/de 3 appelformer
Logos (logos): appeal to reason+ intellect
matter-of-factly
objective, neutral
Ethos (etos): charisma (udstråling)
trustworthiness
integrity
Pathos (patos): feelings
word choice/figures of speech

TOOL 4. Stylistic Analysis/stilanalyse
- Structure (struktur/komposition)
Overall structure gives insight into the
basic idea, aim, how the sender engages the receiver, unfolds
the argument and concludes his point in a memorable way.
Therefore always account for overall structure
(e.g. give each main section a relevant heading)
Example of main structure of a speech
The opening (how does the speaker „connect‟ with audience?
The points (try to divide the main speech body into sections
Conclusion (how does the speaker make ending memorable?)

TOOL 4. Stylistic Analysis/stilanalyse
Formality level: (formalitetsniveau)
◦ High formality level (høj stil) =>
Archiac diction (arkaisk diktion)
Many specific words (mange fagord)
Complex syntax (kompleks syntaks)
◦ Neutral formality level (mellem stil) =>
Standard diction (normal diktion)
Few specific words (relativt få fagbegreber)
◦ Low formality level (lav stil) =>
Colloquial language (hverdagsagtigt sprog)
Spoken language (talesprog)
Slang (slang)

TOOL 4. Stylistic Analysis/stilanalyse
word classes / ordklasser
◦ Many nouns (substantiver) => static, little action
◦ Many verbs (verber) => dynamic, much action
◦ Many adjectives (adjektiver)=> expressive text
◦ Which word classes dominate in the speech –
and with which effect(s)?

TOOL 4. Stylistic Analysis/stilanalyse
tone/ tone
◦ Tone is closely connected with formality level
(formalitetsniveau)
◦ And word choice/word classes,
(ordvalg/ordklasser)
◦ Is the tone : Lofty, grand, solemn, elevated,
serious, deploring, despondent, alarming,
engaging, motivated, eloquent, idealistic, youthful,
ironic, sarcastic or?

TOOL 4. Stylistic Analysis/stilanalyse
(Imagery /figures of speech- billedsprog)
◦ Figures of Speech (billedsprog) => traditional
yet powerful + often a strong source of
emotional persuasion (pathos appeals/patos
appeller)
◦ In speeches: Very popular to make sure
people get the point and to create redundancy
(redundans = sige det samme på flere
forskellige måder uden direkte at gentage)

TOOL 4. Stylistic Analysis/stilanalyse
(Imagery /figures of speech- billedsprog)
Personification (personificering)
=> vivid + personalises otherwise
impersonal concepts, abstractions to make
it easier for the audience to identify with
them.
Allusion (allusion)
=> creates analogies with another person,
text , concept or context through
association

TOOL 4. Stylistic Analysis/stilanalyse
(Imagery /figures of speech- billedsprog)
Simile (simili/sammenligning) =>
explicit comparison („as‟, „like‟)
Less powerful than metaphor
Examples: my love is like a rose
Markers / markører: „like‟ „as‟

TOOL 4. Stylistic Analysis/stilanalyse
(Imagery /figures of speech- billedsprog)
Metaphor/metafor=> implicit comparison
powerful visualisations
Types:
Dead metaphors (døde metaforer) – a common part of
language, no longer noticed as metaphors.
Standard- or kliché metaphors (standard/klichemetaforer)
recognised as metaphors, but common + wellknown
E.g. idiomatic expressions/idiomatiske udtryk
Creative metaphors (kreative metaforer): innovative
comparisons that startle the audience
Technical metaphors (tekniske metaforer) – high degree of
specificity (e.g. audience-oriented semantic field)

TOOL 4. Stylistic Analysis/stilanalyse
(Imagery /figures of speech- billedsprog)
Metaphor themes/extended metaphors
(udvidede metafortemaer) => enhanced
effect according to chosen theme….
Example: Martin Luther King‟s speech
America has given the negro a bad check (….)
A check that has come back marked insufficient funds (…)
We refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt
Which theme/semantic field?
Which effect?

TOOL 4. Stylistic Analysis/stilanalyse
(Imagery /figures of speech- billedsprog)
Metonymy (metonymi)
Substitutes a part for the whole
Example: “the tumor in room 3 just died”
EFFECT HERE: the patient is de-humanized!

TOOL 4 Stylistic Analysis (stilanalyse)
: Figures of repetition/ Gentagelsesfigurer
EFFECT= redundancy (redundans)
+ emphasis and helps audience to focus on the main message
Example: “I have a dream” (Martin Luther King)
Types:
Word repetition (ordgentagelse)
Parallelism (parallelisme) – on clause syntax level
a phrase being repeated within a sentence
Anaphora (anafor) – on sentence/paragraph level
whole sentence structures being repeated.
Rule of three (3‟er-reglen) : Han kom, han så, han sejrede
appears on both word, phrase and sentence level!

TOOL 4 Stylistic Analysis/stilanalyse
Figures of contrast (modsætningsfigurer)
Antithesis/antitese:
EFFECT: Creates a strong contrast
E.g. „right vs. wrong
Example: “not-but” –like structures
Oxymeron/oxymeron:
EFFECT: creates startling word
contrasts. Example: “sordid boon” that make the
words extra significant and memorable

TOOL 4: Stylistic Analysis/stilanalyse
Figures of sound (klangfigurer)
Alliteration/bogstavrim.
EFFECT: puts emphasis on certain words through
sound pictures, slowing down the
reading/listening/speaking pace.
Types:
Assonance/assonans (vokallyd)
Consonance/konsonans (konsonantlyd)

TOOL 5. Discourse markers
(diskursmarkører)
Definition: sproglige elementer –fx konjunktioner el.
adverbier - der markerer emnemæssige
afgrænsninger i en tekst og signalerer
indholdsmæssige skift, drejninger i teksten
Examples: grammar:
Firstly, secondly, thirdly (repetition) - konjunktioner
However, on the other hand….(contrast) - konjunktioner
Therefore, thus, to sum up….(conclusion) - konjunktioner
Unfortunately, sadly, (opinion) - sætningsadverbier

Analysis – use your observations!
You should not only list structures of
interest, but you should also explain how
these structures serve the speaker‟s (or
writer‟s) purpose, enrich the text, and
affect the audience!
This includes considering the CONTEXT
TASK: hvilken stilistisk modsætningsfigur
har læreren her anvendt og hvorfor?