The green colonial heritage: Woody plants in parks of Bandung ...

Landscape and Urban Planning 106 (2012) 12– 22
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Landscape and Urban Planning
j ourna l ho me pag e: www.elsevier.com/locate/landurbplan
The green colonial heritage: Woody plants in parks of Bandung, Indonesia
Sascha Abendroth a,b,∗ , Ingo Kowarik b , Norbert Müller a , Moritz von der Lippe b
a University of Applied Sciences Erfurt, Department Landscape Management & Restoration Ecology and Head Office URBIO, Leipziger Straße 77, D-99085 Erfurt, Germany
b Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Ecology, Rothenburgstraße 12, D-12165 Berlin, Germany
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Available online 9 January 2012
Keywords:
Exotic species
Horticulture
Ornamentals
Plant design
Java
1. Introduction
a b s t r a c t
European design styles strongly influenced the development of
parks in many tropical cities (Faggi & Ignatieva, 2009; Lawrence,
1993; Santos dos, Rocha, & Bergallo, 2010). Early Europeans sought
a controlled landscape to create nostalgic memories of the home
and resist disorderly jungle (Warren, 1991). One characteristic of
European gardens is the use of non-native species, which can prevail
over the planted species assemblages (Säumel, Kowarik, &
Butenschön, 2010). The use of an interregional species pool could
homogenize the species composition of green spaces in cases in
which widespread non-native species (instead of native species)
are abundantly planted. Furthermore, the use of exotic species is
linked with the risk of biological invasions. Horticulture is a major
pathway of plant invasions, and plantations often function as the
foci of invasions (Dehnen-Schmutz & Touza, 2008; Kowarik, 2005;
Mack, 2000).
∗ Corresponding author. Present address: Weitlingstraße 103, D-10317 Berlin,
Germany. Tel.: +49 30 48814016.
E-mail addresses: abendroth.sascha@gmx.de (S. Abendroth),
kowarik@tu-berlin.de (I. Kowarik), n.mueller@fh-erfurt.de (N. Müller),
moritz.vdlippe@tu-berlin.de (M. von der Lippe).
0169-2046/$ – see front matter ©
2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.12.006
Colonial garden architecture with associated use of non-native plant species influences the identity of
many tropical cities. In Indonesia, colonial planners argued for planting both native and non-native
species. It remains unclear how far this suggestion was implemented in urban parks and if species proposed
in colonial period still occur in the parks or got replaced by common non-native species, which
are prevailing in other tropical cities. We first analyzed recommendations on the plant use in conceptual
publications on the design of green structures in colonial Bandung. We then investigated species
pools of planted woody species in differently aged parks in Bandung to test the hypothesis that remnants
of historically recommended species are still present in the colonial parks. We anticipate that native
species still exist in older parks while more recent parks show an increased percentage of non-native
species that do not belong to the historical assemblages of woody species. The results show that species
recommended in historical concepts occur more often in such parks created in colonial times, than in
younger parks. Contrasting to other colonial cities, historical planting concepts for Bandung equally recommended
native and non-native trees and a considerable number of species from local Javanese flora
were proposed for city greening. However, in the recent species assemblages, non-native species clearly
prevail (65%). It is thus challenging for the future development of the parks to raise awareness of the
green colonial heritage and to strengthen the use of native species.
© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Colonial garden architecture and plant use can alter the local
identities of cities in different ways. Design elements that combine
landscape features with scattered trees, vistas, water bodies,
flowerbeds, and flowing lawns mostly reflect the influences of the
English landscape garden (Ignatieva & Stewart, 2009). Characteristics
of tropical gardens, especially in royal palaces, are plants
with high symbolic meaning and plants with medicinal and foodstock
uses. These features reveal old Asian philosophies in which
even royal landscapes appear both practical and aesthetic (Warren,
1991).
A loss of local identity is induced when traditional garden elements
in existing cities are transformed or replaced by western
garden culture. Yet, within newly founded colonial towns, green
elements and architecture from colonial times belong to the specific
urban history and consequently contribute to the identity of these
towns (Cobban, 1992; Wiltcher & Affandy, 1993). Analogous to the
risk of the homogenization of urban floras (La Sorte, McKinney, &
Pyˇsek, 2007), the pool of plant species that are cultivated in tropical
gardens and parks can also be subjected to homogenization.
A trend toward increasingly standardized plant use and design of
green elements can also endanger the distinctiveness of local flora
(Ignatieva, 2010). Thus, it is challenging to identify the set of plant
species that is typical of the colonial park design.
This study focuses on Bandung in Westjava, Indonesia, a colonial
city established by Dutch settlers at the end of the 19th century.

In the 1920s, Bandung was slated to become the new colonial
capital and as a result experienced a rise in the number of inhabitants
demanding more controlled expansion of settlement areas; in
response, colonial planners such as Thomas Karsten and Maclaine
Pont adopted western design styles to some extent for city planning
and architecture. Yet, Karsten was also well aware of the traditional
character of places when evaluating their potential for city
planning and urban greening (Cobban, 1992); this was particularly
true for vernacular architecture, which provides harmony between
a building and its surrounding landscape (Jessup, 1985). As a city
beautification movement in the 1930s, Bandoeng Vooruit proposed
publicly accessible green areas and created aesthetically pleasant
recreation sites, which could be used as research and education
places, exposing tropical flora and natural cycles (Kunto, 1986).
Bandung offers an excellent opportunity to shed light on the principles
of colonial plant use for urban parks because (a) conceptual
ideas on the use of plants are well documented (e.g., Hendriks,
1940), (b) an array of parks that had been established during the
colonial era in Indonesia (1812–1942) still exist in Bandung, and (c)
several parks have been subsequently added with likely contrasting
post-colonial plant use. Hence, the varying use of species can be
analyzed over a period of almost 100 years. The results are anticipated
to be useful for better understanding the important features
of the green colonial heritage; furthermore, the results can serve
as a stimulus for both the contemporary management and future
development of green spaces from the colonial epoch.
However, the extent to which the initial species selection for
colonial parks really reflects the conceptual ideas of colonial planners
regarding plant use remains an open question. It also remains
unclear whether the species that were proposed by planners in the
colonial period still occur in the parks or were replaced by other
species. Hence, recommendations on the plant use in conceptual
publications on the design of green structures in colonial Bandung
were first analyzed. Next, the species pool of planted trees, shrubs
and palms in differently aged colonial and post-colonial parks in
Bandung were analyzed to test the hypothesis that remnants of
historically recommended species are still present in the colonial
parks and thus contribute to their local identity. The roles of introduced
and native species in the conceptual papers and the actual
species composition of Bandung’s parks are then analyzed. As conceptual
papers from colonial times also claim the use of local species
(Bandoeng Vooruit, 1934; Hendriks, 1940), it is anticipated that
older parks still include species from the local Javanese flora, while
younger parks show an increased percentage of exotic species,
which do not necessarily correspond to the formerly recommended
woody species assemblages. The following research questions are
used to clarify the local identity of the city: (a) which tree, shrub
and palm species were recommended in early conceptual papers
and for what purposes; (b) how many of these are elements of the
local and native Javanese flora and how many were non-native;
Table 1
Attributes of the 10 parks investigated in Bandung (see Fig. 1 for their locations).
Park Year of
park
opening
S. Abendroth et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 106 (2012) 12– 22 13
Age class Estimated age
since
reconstruction
(c) which of these species still occur in Bandung’s parks; and (d) to
what extent do the ages of the parks affect the species composition?
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
The greater Bandung area, which is 180 km southeast of Jakarta,
is located in a large intramontane basin and surrounded by volcanic
highlands (van der Kaars & Dam, 1995). Situated within
the equatorial climate zone with dry and rainy seasons, Bandung
has an average annual rainfall of 1700 mm and a mean annual
temperature of approximately 24 ◦ C (IWACO-WASECO, 1991). The
surrounding remnant montane forests still possess high numbers
of plant species (van Steenis, 2006; Yamada, 1976) and underline
Indonesia’s status as a hotspot for biodiversity (Sodhi & Brook,
2006). The altitude varies from 700 m in the southern parts of Bandung
to 1300 m in the northern city area. The montane climate
in the Priangan Mountains corresponded well with the demands
of European colonists for good living conditions. With increasing
administrative duties and plans to relocate the national capital to
Bandung, a city expansion was planned for the northern part of Bandung
from the 1920s onward, and the idea to apply the garden city
concept emerged (Karsten, 1920, cf. Siregar, 1990). Attaining city
status in 1906, Bandung had plenty of green areas that covered 87%
and 54% of the total municipal area in 1906 and 1931, respectively
(Akbar & Pribadi, 1993). In 2004, the area of the Bandung Municipality
was 16,700 ha, harboring more than 2.7 million people. Until
this date, the proportion of green spaces conspicuously decreased
to 1.45% of the city area (Pemerintah Kota Bandung, 2004). While
all of the investigated parks remain at their original location and
size, the proportion of green spaces decreased due to an increase
in city area.
Most of Bandung’s parks were created in the period between
1920 and 1930 following the scheme of European city parks. In
some parks, typical elements of English landscape gardens still
exist, such as scattered groups or solitaires of trees, gently rolling
lawn areas, curving pathways and naturally contoured lakes. The
oldest park is Merdeka Park, which was established in 1885 by R.
Teuscher, a botanist from Bogor Botanical garden. Since the 1950s,
Tegallega Park and Westerpark are new parks that were designed as
green open spaces. Between the 1950s and 1970s, a number of old
parks underwent a reconstruction process, which usually involved
new plantings and a renaming (see Table 1).
2.2. Data collection
First, the conceptual publications of Dutch city planners from
the period of time between 1900 and 1950 were analyzed, including
information regarding the design of green structures, the intended
Area (ha) Woody
species
% extant
historical
species
% native
species
%
non-native
species
Merdeka 1885 Old 125 1.3 55 25.5 40.6 59.4 21.9
Ganesha 1919 Old 50 0.3 25 48.0 22.2 77.8 11.1
Maluku 1919 Old 60 2.4 71 23.9 30.2 65.1 16.3
Cilaki 1920 Old 90 3.3 79 20.3 31.0 66.7 9.5
Pramuka 1920 Old 40 0.2 40 32.5 26.9 61.5 11.5
Insulinde 1925 Intermediate 60 3.2 54 42.6 34.1 61.4 11.4
Jubileum 1923–33 Intermediate 77 8.2 142 23.9 29.3 69.5 11.0
St. Ursula 1932 Intermediate 78 1.2 60 29.8 26.5 61.8 12.7
Tegallega 1950–70 New 6 15.5 94 38.1 36.4 70.6 5.9
Westerpark 1970s New 40 0.1 21 16.7 17.6 61.7 5.9
Total 35.6 244 37.8 34.0 62.7 9.0
% local
species

14 S. Abendroth et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 106 (2012) 12– 22
Fig. 1. Historical and recent areas of Bandung with the locations of the investigated parks.
use of woody plants in Bandung’s urban parks and the underlying
motivations. The major sources of historical data on plant material
were the guidelines and the species lists for city greening from
Hendriks (1940). Species that were recommended by this author,
are hereafter referred to as “historical species”. For these species
and all of the other species that were recorded in Bandung’s parks,
a database with information on the time period of the species’
introductions to Java was established based on species lists from
the Bogor Botanical Garden (Blume, 1825; Heyne, 1922; Teysmann
& Binnendjik, 1866), city floras (Backer, 1907) and garden literature
from the post-colonial period (Bruggeman, 1948; van der Pijl,
1950).
As in other studies in Bangalore (Nagendra & Gopal, 2010) or Beijing
(Weifeng, Zhiyum, Xuesong, & Xiaoke, 2006), it was anticipated
that the different ages of the parks reflect possibly varying trends
in the use of woody species. All large parks in Bandung that are situated
within the 1938 historical city boundaries and cover a total
area of 36 ha (Fig. 1; see Kunto, 1986 for a description of the parks)
were sampled. Each of these 10 parks was attributed to one of three
establishment time periods: ‘old parks’ (prior to 1925), ‘intermediate
parks’ (1925–1940) and post-colonial ‘new parks’ (since 1950),
as listed in Table 1.
In each park, the species composition of the cultivated trees,
shrubs and palms between August and October 2009 was analyzed
at two scales. First, at the park scale, the overall species number
of each park was recorded by investigating the entire park area
with its species composition. Further analyses were performed at
a plot scale. Using aerial pictures, the patches covered with woody
vegetation were identified in each park and a 20 m × 20 m grid was
overlaid on the pictures. Cells that were chosen randomly out of
the grid were selected as sample plots, with 71 total sample plots
for the 10 parks.
Depending on the size of the parks and the woody areas within
the parks, the number of plots per park ranged from 2 to 17.
Within these plots, all planted trees, shrubs and palms with a height
>0.90 m and a diameter breast height (DBH) >0.01 m were sampled.
Historical species that occurred in the recent species composition
were regarded as extant historical species, while all other
species were regarded as recent species. The nomenclature followed
that of Backer and van den Brink (1965–68). Information
on the native range of the species was extracted from the same
sources and grouped into the same categories as those in Weber
(2003). After human disturbances and modifications, Java’s natural
forests only cover 8% of the island (Smiet, 1990); thus, the
remaining elements of the surrounding forests of Bandung played
important roles in this study regarding historical plant use and the
recommended species pool from local surroundings. In the 19th
century, the curators from the Bogor and Cibodas Botanical Gardens
had already realized the potential of forests on Java to explore
their species assemblage as a natural baseline. Species that naturally
occur on Java were grouped as ‘native species’. As a subset of
this group, species from the Javanese colline and sub-montane altitudinal
zones (van Steenis, 2006) were addressed as ‘local species’.
These are species that occur within a range of 500–1500 m asl and
were thus supposed to represent the vegetation of Bandung’s local
surrounding forests (Haberlandt, 1893).
Each woody species was assigned to one or more of the three
functional groups based on its potential use for (a) ornamentation,
(b) food or medicine, and (c) timber or construction, based on historical
references (Bandoeng Vooruit, 1934; Hendriks, 1940; van
der Pijl, 1950) or more recent work (Chin, 2003; Hanum & van der
Maesen, 1997; PT. Eisai Indonesia, 1995).
The species importance (SI) measure, which is the sum of relative
abundance (RA) and relative dominance (RD) of a single species
(McPherson & Rowntree, 1987; Welch 1994), was calculated for the
species within all of the plots. In this study, relative abundance (RA)
is represented by the proportion of an individual species to the total
of individual numbers in all of the plots belonging to a respective
park age category. Relative dominance (RD) was calculated from
the percentage of the basal area of a single species to the total basal
area of the individuals in all of the plots belonging to a respective
park age category.
In conclusion, this study divided and compared the following
specific species categories. (1) Species were subdivided into life
forms based on their status: (a) native, (b) local, or (c) non-native;
(2) Species were subdivided into life forms based on their historical
usage: (a) historical species (including extant historical) or
(b) recent species; (3) Depending on their purpose, species were
subdivided into (a) ornamentation, (b) food or medicine, or (c)
timber or construction categories; and finally, the three park age
classes were categorized as (a) new, (b) intermediate, or (c) old
parks.

S. Abendroth et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 106 (2012) 12– 22 15
Table 2
Overview of the number of woody species, their life forms and statuses in historical and recent species compositions of the parks in Bandung. Local species are considered
as a subset of native species. Column A indicates species recommended by Hendriks (1940) and columns B and C refer to species detected on the park scale (10 parks).
Species groups with respect to their historical usage Historical species Recent species
A B C
Life form Status Total historical species Extant historical species
Trees Native, non-local 22 15 40
Native, local 16 12 3
Non-native 37 31 69
Unknown 3 1 4
Shrubs and palms Native non-local 4 2 5
Native, local 2 2 4
Non-native 25 17 36
Unknown 2 2 1
Total species 111 82 162
Total non-native (%) 55.9 58.5 64.8
Total native (%) (local and non-local) 39.6 37.8 32.1
Total local (%) 16.2 17.1 4.3
2.3. Statistical analyses
To assess whether specific species categories differ in their proportions
of non-native species, a chi-squared test was used on the
distribution of native/non-native statuses within the categories of
historical usage and species’ purpose. The historical usage analysis
was performed separately for each life form.
To explore whether elements of the local forest zone contribute
to the extant historical species, Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient
between the number of extant historical species and the
number of local species within the 71 sample plots was calculated.
The correlation between park size and proportion of native and
local species within the 10 parks was also calculated. To explore
effects of park age on recent species composition, Spearman’s rank
correlation coefficient between the respective park ages and the
proportion of specific species categories was calculated. Proportions
were calculated based on both the species importance (SI)
measure and the species richness.
Next, differences between age class and species categories were
investigated using two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). To test
the null hypothesis of no significant differences in the species compositions
of the three age classes, the proportion of specific species
categories was used as the explanatory variable and the age class of
the parks was used as the predictor. Significant differences in the
dependent variables among the three age classes were revealed
by a Post-Hoc Tukey’s test. Prior to the analysis, the proportions
were transformed by arcsin-transformation to stabilize the variances.
To trace the differences in the woody species compositions
of the investigated parks, a cluster analysis with Euclidean distance
measure was applied, and Ward’s method was applied to
the species data at the park level. Parks were grouped into clusters
of similar species composition by a visual inspection of the
resulting cluster dendrogram. To test whether particular species
were related to a particular park cluster, an indicator species analysis
was used (Dufrene & Legendre, 1997); this analysis took the
frequencies of the entire species composition within the 10 parks
into account. The interpreted computer language ‘R’ version 2.10.0
(R Development Core Team, 2009) was used for all of the statistical
analyses, and PC-ORD version 4.0 (McCune & Mefford, 1999) was
used for the indicator species analysis.
3. Results
3.1. Historical plant use in the colonial parks of Bandung
3.1.1. Species cultivated in the colonial period
City planners and gardeners in Indonesia can look back on
a flourishing period of plant introduction and cultivation. The
introduction of historical species in Indonesia can be traced back
from the 9th century, during which ornamental flowers were displayed
on the engravings of the Borobudur Temples (Sarwono,
1988). With the arrival of Portuguese explorers and seamen in
1511, various plants, especially South American species, were cultivated
(Shelton and Brewbaker, 1994). Since the opening of the
Bogor Botanical Garden in 1817 and the Cibodas Botanical Garden
in the 1830s, centers of horticulture were established. This underlines
the importance of botanical gardens in the colonial era, during
which gardening became a leisure pursuit, especially in the tropics
(Heywood, 2010; Warren, 1991).
In the guidelines from Hendriks (1940), 111 historical species
are mentioned, containing 78 tree species and 33 shrub and palm
species. Table 2 shows the life forms and statuses of these historical
species in comparison with the 2009 plant composition. As
indicated in column A, the total historical species are comprised
of 40% native species and 56% non-native species. If only trees are
considered, native and non-native species each contribute 50% of
the historical species, whereas non-native species are clearly dominant
in the shrubs and palms. Historical references describe 6 native
shrub and palm species and 25 non-native shrub and palm species.
Approximately 16% of the historical species are local elements
of the mountain vegetation in Java. Other native but non-local
species originate from lowland rainforest and Java’s coastal regions.
The highest numbers of local species are contributed by trees (16
species), followed by palms (2).
3.1.2. Origin and purposes of historical species
In particular, shading trees and colorful ornamental species
were requested in colonial Bandung (Hendriks, 1940; van der Pijl,
1950). From the historical species pool (see Table 3), most of the
introduced species come from tropical America (21 species), followed
by Southeast Asia (19) and tropical Africa (9). The assignment
of the historical species to different (potential) purposes shows that
the non-native species dominate the group of ornamentals. As primarily
intended in colonial concepts, only 18 native species with
high ornamental value were historically recommended. Besides
the 18 species from tropical America, 14 species from the wider
Southeast Asia region are included in the ornamental composition.
Nevertheless, the non-native ornamental species dominate with
nearly 72% when considering all historical species. The share of historical
species with medicinal and diet value is noteworthy, which
mainly include 20 native and local species, such as Elaeocarpus
grandiflorus, Syzygium polyanthum or Cananga odorata. Economic
benefits are provided by the species used for timber production,
such as Pinus merkusii and Swietenia macrophylla; the latter was also
recommended for parks as fast-growing shelter trees (Hendriks,
1940). Compared to the ornamental species, the native species

16 S. Abendroth et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 106 (2012) 12– 22
Table 3
Areas of species origin and the number of woody species occurring in the parks of Bandung. Data are shown for species that were recommended by colonial planners in 1940
(‘historical species’) and recent species that occur in Bandung’s parks in 2009. In addition, potential purposes that can be assigned to these species are shown. One species
can fulfill more than one purpose.
Origin Historical species
(n = 111)
Recent species
(n = 162)
Species groups in regard to their purposes,
historical species/recent species
Ornamental
(n = 71)/(n = 102)
Food and
medicine
(n = 50)/(n = 90)
Timber and
construction
(n = 33)/(n = 51)
Native (non-local) 26 45 12 24 7 31 8 23
Native (local) 18 7 6 5 13 3 11 1
Tropical SE Asia 19 29 14 15 13 19 7 13
Temperate Asia 7 13 6 10 3 4 0 0
Australia 3 11 3 9 2 1 1 3
Tropical Africa 10 15 8 11 4 7 2 3
S Europe 2 0 2 0 1 0 0 0
Tropical America 21 37 18 28 4 21 4 7
Unknown 5 5 2 0 3 4 0 1
Total non-native (%) 55.9 64.8 71.8 71.6 54.0 57.8 42.4 51.0
Total native (%) (local and non-local) 39.6 32.1 25.4 28.4 40.0 37.8 57.6 47.1
Total local (%) 16.2 4.3 8.5 4.9 26.0 3.3 33.3 2.0
make up a larger share of the species that were historically recommended
for food and medical purposes (54.0%) and timber and
construction (42.4%).
Although many current non-native species were also available
in colonial Indonesia (Blume 1825; Teysmann & Binnendjik, 1866),
colonial planners did not recommend these species. Thus, criteria
other than availability, such as missing site adaptation or usability
for ornamentation or shading, were likely decisive for their former
limited use.
Ornamental species like Hibiscus rosa-sinensis are already displayed
on the ancient reliefs of the Borobodur Temples. Another
species introduced to Southeast Asia prior to 1817 is Leucaena
leucocephala, which was recommended by Hendriks (1940) for
shelter and forage. Historical species introduced after 1900 include
Jacaranda filicifolia, Galphimia gracilis or Cassia multijuga, which
were both ornamentals from tropical America (Fig. 2).
3.2. Recent species composition and distribution
In the 10 parks that were surveyed, 244 woody species were
recorded in total, belonging to 181 genera and 62 families. The
most dominant families were Leguminosaceae (including Caesalpinaceae,
Mimosaceae, Fabaceae) with 38 species, Arecaceae
(23 species) and Euphorbiaceae (15 species). Of all of the woody
park species, 175 (72%) were trees, 45 (18%) were shrubs and 24
(10%) were palm species. In the sample plots, 70% of the total
park species were recorded, with a total of 1265 individuals. The
most abundant species is the introduced broad-leaved mahogany
7
4
9
before 1817
25
20
41
1817-1850
26
22
34
1850-1900
9
5
21
after 1900
historical species n= 67
extant historical species n =51
recent species n =105
Fig. 2. Time period of introduction and the numbers of non-native woody species
that were recommended by colonial planners (historical species), extant historical
species and recent species that occur in Bandung’s parks.
(Swietenia macrophylla), followed by the Indonesian bay leaf (Syzygium
polyanthum), which is the most abundant native species (see
Tables 4 and 5).
Approximately three quarters (74%) of the 111 historical species
still occur in Bandung’s parks. These represent 38% of all recent
woody park species. At the plot scale, 55% of the historical species
were documented. Ganesha Park and Insulinde Park showed the
highest share (more than 40%) of extant historical species (see
Table 1).
Historical sources stated that larger parks can be equipped with
large-growing and canopying tree species, which symbolize the
natural surrounding forest vegetation in colonial Java (Hendriks,
1940). For the 10 parks, Spearman’s rank correlation proved that
there is a significant correlation between the park area and the
percentage of native species (p-value = 0.03) while no significant
correlation was found for local species (p > 0.1). Furthermore, the
park investigation showed that 9% of the local species are present
among the entire 244 park species. At plot scale, 12% of local
species could be found. This proportion varied among the 10 parks
from 5.9% in the young parks to 21.9% in the oldest park (see
Table 1). Remarkable native ornamental species with attractive
flowers and fragrances are Schima wallichii, Altingia excelsa, Cananga
odorata, Cinnamonum spec., Elaeocarpus grandiflorus, and Lagerstroemia
speciosa as tree species, and Ixora javanica, Mussaenda
frondosa, Clerodendron paniculata or Tallauma candollii representing
the low number of shrub species (see Table 2).
3.3. Differences between the historical and the recent species
compositions
Fig. 3 indicates that a significant disparity exists in the shares
of native species between the historical and the recent tree species
(chi-squared test, p-value < 0.001). The historical plant design recommended
native and non-native tree species equally, whereas
non-native species prevail with over 80% of the recent tree composition.
This is primarily based on the fact that another 69 non-native
tree species and 40 native tree species were present in 2009 (see
Table 2). Local and native shrubs and palms, which played only a
small role in the historical recommendations, show an increase for
recent species; however, their species numbers are much lower
than those of non-native species. The native statuses of historical
and recent shrub and palm species showed no significant differences
using the chi-squared test (p-value 0.9), and the non-native
species dominate within both categories at approximately 80% (see
Fig. 3).

S. Abendroth et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 106 (2012) 12– 22 17
Table 4
Size class distribution of the most abundant tree species within 71 plots in the parks of Bandung (n = number of sampled individuals).
Species Species percentage of DBH classes (m) n
0.9
Swietenia macrophylla 1,3 39.6 15.4 8.8 27.5 8.8 0.0 91
Syzygium polyanthum 1,2,4 47.4 33.3 5.3 14.0 0.0 0.0 57
Pinus merkusii 1,3 2.3 25.6 23.3 48.8 0.0 0.0 43
Bauhinia purpurea & variegata 1,3 12.5 27.5 42.5 17.5 0.0 0.0 40
Elaeocarpus sphaericus 1,2,4 23.7 10.5 5.3 13.2 31.6 15.8 38
Filicium decicpiens 1,3 7.9 7.9 18.4 44.7 18.4 2.6 38
Delonix regia 1,3 2.8 19.4 5.6 44.4 22.2 5.6 36
Pterocarpus indicus 1,2 0.0 15.6 9.4 25.0 12.5 37.5 32
Spathodea campanulata 1,3 4.0 28.0 8.0 16.0 16.0 28.0 25
Lagerstroemia speciosa 1,2 0.0 16.7 41.7 25.0 12.5 4.2 24
Mimusops elengi 1,2 30.0 5.0 15.0 25.0 20.0 5.0 20
Ficus benjamina 1,2,4 0.0 12.5 0.0 6.3 31.3 50.0 16
1 Historical.
2 Native.
3 Non-native.
4 Local.
Furthermore, the analysis of the extant historical species
showed that species from local mountain ranges are an integral
part of the historical species assemblage. A significant correlation
between the number of historical species and the number of local
species within sample plots could be detected (Spearman’s correlation
coefficient 0.34, p-value 0.0025). Seven additional local species
are detected that are not historically recommended but contribute
to the recent species pool (see Table 2), which contrastingly obtains
4.3% local species.
When comparing historical and recent species based on their
potential purposes, the number of species with values for food
or medicine in particular was found to have increased in the
recent species composition. Here, auxiliary species like Artocarpus
spp. (Breadfruit), Nephelium lappaceum (Rambutan) or Syzygium
aqueum (Water Apple) represent a broad range of fruit trees (see
Table 5).
3.4. Influence of park age on species composition
Table 6 illustrates the relations between park age and species
composition. While the Species Importance and the richness of
recent species were not correlated with park age, these variables
Table 5
Most important woody species sampled in the 71 plots within the 10 parks in Bandung with their origins, life forms and potential purposes. The species list includes species
that collectively add up to at least 75% of all individuals (n = 942) and show a relative abundance >10%.
Species Family Origin Life-form Purpose Relative
abundance
(n = 71)
Swietenia macrophylla1 Meliaceae Tropical America Tree, deciduous Timber, medicine 43.7 9.3
Pterocarpus indicus1 Fabaceae Tropical Asia, Java Tree, deciduous Timber, medicine 23.9 3.4
Elaeocarpus sphaericus1,4 Elaeocarpaceae Tropical Asia, Java Tree, evergreen Medicine 25.4 4.0
Delonix regia1 Caesalpinaceae Tropical Africa Tree, deciduous Ornamental 28.2 3.8
Filicium decipiens1 Sapindaceae Tropical Asia Tree, evergreen Ornamental 28.2 4.0
Pinus merkusii1 Pinaceae Tropical Asia Tree, evergreen Timber 19.7 4.6
Spathodea campanulata1 Bignoniaceae Tropical Africa Tree, deciduous Ornamental 22.5 2.7
Syzygium polyanthum1,4 Myrtaceae Tropical Asia, Java Tree, deciduous Medicine, timber 29.6 5.7
Bauhinia purpurea & variegata1 Caesalpinaceae Tropical Asia Tree, deciduous Ornamental 10.0 4.2
Dypsis lutescens1 Palmae Tropical Africa Palm Ornamental 14.1 2.1
Lagerstroemia speciosa1 Lythraceae Tropical Asia, Java Tree, deciduous Ornamental,
medicine,
construction
15.5 2.5
Roystonea regia1 Palmae Tropical America Palm Ornamental 15.5 1.9
Ficus benjamina1,4 Moraceae Tropical Asia, Java Tree, evergreen Ornamental,
medicine
19.7 1.7
Mimusops elengi1 Sapotaceae Tropical Asia, Java Tree, evergreen Ornamental,
medicine, timber
11.3 2.1
Mangifera indica1 Anacardiaceae Unknown, trop. Asia Tree, evergreen Food, medicine 19.7 3.2
Erythrina crista-galli Fabaceae Tropical America Tree, deciduous Ornamental 16.9 2.3
Artocarpus heterophyllus Moraceae Tropical Asia Tree, evergreen Food, medicine,
timber
22.5 3.3
Citrus grandis Rutaceae Tropical Asia Tree, evergreen Food, medicine 10.0 1.3
Samanea saman1 Mimosaceae Tropical America Tree, deciduous Ornamental,
timber
12.7 1.3
Acalypha siamensis1 Euphorbiaceae Tropical Asia Shrub, evergreen Ornamental 12.7 1.9
Boungainvillea sp. 1 Nyctaginaceae Tropical America Shrub, evergreen Ornamental 19.7 2.0
Artocarpus altilis Moraceae Tropical Asia Tree, evergreen Food 16.9 1.9
Nephelium lappaceum Sapindaceae Tropical Asia, Java Tree, evergreen Food 14.1 2.9
Caesalpina pulcherrima1 Caesalpinaceae Tropical America Shrub, evergreen Ornamental 11.3 1.9
Syzygium aqueum Myrtaceae Tropical Asia, Java Tree, evergreen Food, ornamental,
medicine
15.5 1.5
1 Historical species.
4 Local species.
Frequency
(n = 942)

18 S. Abendroth et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 106 (2012) 12– 22
49.4
21.3
29.3
trees
80.6 81.0 80.0
6.5 9.5 8.9
12.9 9.5 11.1
shrubs &
palms
historical species
trees
recent species
shrubs &
palms
non-native
local
native
Fig. 3. Status of species in regards to their historical usage. Shown are the percentages
of historical species and recent species within different life forms.
significantly increased with park age for extant historical trees.
Interestingly, non-native tree species show no correlation with
park age. In the sample plots, a significant relationship between
park age and the ratio of non-native shrubs is evident. Older parks
show higher levels of richness and species importance of nonnative
shrubs compared to younger ones. The richness of local
native species from the surrounding mountain flora increased in
older parks.
The relations between park age and the share of different species
groups were even more pronounced when parks were grouped into
three age classes (see Table 7). There were 14, 31, and 26 sample
plots for the categories of new, intermediate, and old parks,
respectively. Supporting the correlative results, new parks differ
significantly from old parks when considering the number of recent
species. Fig. 4a shows that old parks accommodate more historical
trees than new parks, while the difference between intermediate
and old parks is not significant. Old and intermediate parks had
significantly more local species than new parks (see Fig. 4).
As shown in Fig. 5, old and intermediate parks have higher
species importance measures (SI) than new parks for most
abundant woody species. There are three exceptions: Swietenia
macrophylla, Bauhinia div. spec. and Syzygium polyanthum prevail
in newer parks. Swietenia macrophylla is the most abundant tree
and clearly dominates in young and intermediate parks. The native
species Pterocarpus indicus and the local species Ficus benjamina
and Elaeocarpus sphaericus dominate in parks created between
1925 and the 1930s. Native species such as Mimusops elengii or
Table 6
Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients between park age as a predictor and specific
species categories as explanatory variables within the 71 sample plots based on the
dependent variables Species Importance and richness.
Explanatory variables Dependent variables
Species Importance (SI) Richness
Proportion of species categories in regards to their historical usage
Recent species −0.19 −0.06
Extant historical
trees
0.29 * 0.34 **
Proportion of species categories in regards to their status
Non-native trees −0.05 −0.02
Non-native shrubs
and palms
0.30 * 0.31 **
Local species 0.07 0.33 *
* Two-tailed significance: 0.01 < p ≤ 0.05.
** Two-tailed significance: p ≤ 0.01.
Fig. 4. Boxplots showing the three park age classes with the proportions of (a) extant
historical tree species, based on the dependent variable species importance (SI), and
(b) local species, based on the dependent variable species richness. In both figures,
new parks differ significantly from intermediate and old parks.
Lagerstroemia speciosa, which are rarely planted in new parks,
largely dominate in old parks.
The cluster dendrogram revealed two distinct groups of parks
according to their woody species composition. The first group
includes Jubileumpark (Zoo), Ganesha, Cilaki and St. Ursula Park,
while the second cluster included all of the other parks. While
small branches in the second cluster indicate a low variation in
the group’s species composition, the first cluster is obviously more
heterogeneous in terms of species composition. The first park cluster
was clearly indicated by 8 historical species and 1 recent species
in the indicator species analysis (see Table 8). The second cluster
showed no significant indicator species and is therefore only negatively
characterized by the lack of indicator species from the first
cluster (Fig. 6).
4. Discussion
Analyzing a city’s history with its green structures provides
insights into specific historical plant design, which, combined with

S. Abendroth et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 106 (2012) 12– 22 19
Table 7
Results of a Tukey Test, assessing differences between old, intermediate and new parks as predictor and specific species compositions as explanatory variables within 71
sample plots based on the dependent variables Species Importance and richness.
Explanatory variables Dependent variables
Species Importance (SI) Richness
Proportion of species categories referring to their
historical usage
Recent trees Old < new * Old < new ***
Extant historical trees Intermediate > new *** old > new *** Intermediate > new *** old > new ***
Proportion of species categories referring to their status
Non-native trees Old > new *** Intermediate > new ** old > new **
Non-native shrubs and palms Intermediate > new *** old > new *** Intermediate > new *** old > new ***
Local species Intermediate > new Intermediate > new *** old > new ***
* Two-tailed significance: 0.01 < p ≤ 0.05.
** Two-tailed significance: p ≤ 0.01.
*** Two-tailed significance: p ≤ 0.001.
Species Importance measure (SI)
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
new parks SI=38.3
intermediate parks
SI=56.9
old parks SI=50.5
Fig. 5. Most abundant tree species in the three different age categories in the parks of Bandung, ranked according to decreasing Species Importance (SI) measures. For each
species, the SI is calculated for respective plots belonging to the different age categories. 1 historical, 2 native, 3 non-native, 4 local species.
architecture, created a unique colonial heritage. Studies on the
principles of colonial plant use for urban parks are still limited,
especially for tropical regions. If available, these studies contribute
to a more detailed understanding about historical planting characteristics
(Santos et al., 2010; Sreetheran et al., 2006). Recent
research in Bandung benefits from well-documented planning concepts
and the remaining historical study sites from the Dutch
colonial era. Before discussing Bandung’s history of green spaces
in more detail, the role played by colony-wide botanic gardens in
promoting the use of certain species will be clarified. Initially,
the Bogor Botanical Garden served as an introduction agent and
study area for plants with domestic and medicinal purposes in
Javanese tradition and, from the 1850s onward, for useful plants
Table 8
Indicator species for the first park cluster based on the indicator species analysis (7).
Species name p-Value
Lagerstroemia speciosa 1 0.009
Pterocarpus indicus 1 0.014
Delonix regia 1 0.019
Swietenia macrophylla 1 0.019
Artocarpus altilis 0.023
Pinus merkusii 1 0.028
Bauhinia purpurea & variegata 1 0.032
Tectona grandis 1 0.036
Syzygium polyanthum 1 0.047
1 Historical species.
with nationwide economic and agricultural purposes, such as the
Cinchona, Coffea or Palaquium species. An enormous increase in
the number of species cultivated in the Bogor Botanical Garden
was documented, with 914 species in 1923 and 2800 species in
1844 (Haberlandt, 1893). With the opening of the Cibodas Botanic
Garden near Bandung, the investigation and observation of local
flora was supported as part of a theoretical botany within Java
Fig. 6. Cluster dendrogram indicating the 2 major park groups in Bandung.

20 S. Abendroth et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 106 (2012) 12– 22
(Haberlandt, 1893). In colonial Bandung, Dutch members of the
Bandung beautification movement with scientific botanical backgrounds,
namely Doctors van Leeuwen and van der Pijl, were
valuable patrons for the new public park models (Kunto, 1986) and
contributed knowledge about surrounding local flora in the 1920s
and 1930s. Therefore, the work of botanical gardens addressed
not only the introduction and cultivation of exotic plants but also
research on native tropical forests (van Steenis & van Steenis-
Krusemann, 1953) and the creation of public green areas in colonial
cities like Bandung. The establishment of Bandung at the beginning
of the 20th century coincided with the worldwide movement
of Howard’s garden city concept, which addressed the needs for
social improvement and quality of open space (Howard, 1902). In
the 1930s, Bandung’s beautification movement began ambitious
work and emphasized ecological approaches. Some years earlier,
Christchurch went through a similar process as a young colonial city
in New Zealand; from its beautification association in the 1890s,
the city had valuable protagonists for city greening and the protection
of native elements within the municipality (Faggi & Ignatieva,
2009).
The assumption that elements of the historically recommended
species pool still exist in recent parks and contribute to Bandung’s
green heritage was verified by detecting 75% of the historically recommended
species within the investigated parks. These species
assemblages generate a local identity which is also supported by
the species status, where 46% of the extant historical tree species
were native to Java (53% were non-native). This amount of native
woody park species could be interpreted as a higher local identity
than those in other former colonial cities, such as Christchurch (16%
native species), Bangalore (34%) or Hong Kong (27%), when referring
to the investigation of tree species in urban parks (Jim, 2000;
Nagendra & Gopal, 2010; Stewart, Ignatieva, Meurk, & Earl, 2004).
However, also various non-native ornamental species, played
important roles for urban park design and were historically recommended.
Bandung had the non-gratuitous reputation as the City of
Flowers (Kunto, 1986).
Interestingly, the conceptual approaches for park design in colonial
Bandung tended to use native species from close surroundings
in addition to extraordinary exotic species, which can also be beneficial
for creating a local identity (Tho et al., 1983). The considerable
number of local species and the various other native species recommended
during the colonial era show that these elements can
also be utilized for city greening, at least for the design of Bandung’s
larger parks, which contain a significantly higher proportion
of native species than smaller parks. Especially in tropical colonial
cities, this approach was not as a matter of course. During the
British colonial era in Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), for instance, little
was known about the properties and needs of native species,
and well-known non-native species (e.g., Swietenia spp., Spathodea
campanulata) were introduced in the 1920s and 1930s (Sreetheran
et al., 2006).
Following the historical concepts, there were several functions
that were fulfilled by the recommended species, such as good site
adaptation, shading, and primarily unique ornamental value. Similar
to the approaches in colonial Brazil, design features like color or
texture were valued, and the use of exotic plants is still widespread
(Santos dos, Bergallo, & Rocha, 2008). The lack of native and local
ornamental species in Bandung resulted in the introduction of
several non-native tree and shrub species, mainly ornamentals
from other New- and Old-World tropics. Similar findings can be
documented for Beijing’s parks, where 63% of shrubs are nonnative
ornamentals (Weifeng et al., 2006). However, the increase
of species with diet and medicinal purposes in public open spaces
show that practical issues, in addition to ornamental values, tend
to be important today. It could be assumed that the Municipality
encourages the use of those species for public use in parks (e.g., fruit
or flower picking during immense public tree planting campaigns
within the last 5 years).
The results of this study conform to those of studies of parks
in Beijing and Bangalore (Nagendra & Gopal, 2010; Weifeng et al.,
2006) when showing that park age is an important factor influencing
species composition; however, each study defined different
age categories. In this study, species recommended in historical
concepts occur more often in parks that were created in colonial
times than in younger, post-colonial parks. Additionally, it can be
shown that historical plant use significantly incorporated more
local species. The tree inventory in old parks indicates an advanced
utilization of local tree species, such as Ficus benjamina, Elaeocarpus
sphaericus or Syzygium polyanthum, and native tree species, such as
Pterocarpus indicus or Mimusops elengii. An important finding of this
study is that the proportion of historical native and non-native trees
was more balanced than in the recent tree composition. As in the
investigations in Bangalore, the ratio of non-native species is higher
in Bandung’s older parks, due to the higher amount of ornamental
shrub and palm species.
As indicated in the cluster analysis, a grouping of parks can also
give evidence about specific species compositions or design styles.
The first park cluster is comprised of either old parks or parks that
have not been redesigned since the 1920s or 1930s. In the second
cluster, most parks are either young or have been recently
redesigned. The study’s oldest park, which originated in 1885, is
part of this rather homogeneous park cluster. The study’s focus on
historical species indicates a long development continuity of the
parks.
A transition in terms of species choice within the colonial period
and more recent years is evident and was probably influenced by
the respective bodies involved in the design process. The oldest
park, Merdeka, which was created by an enthusiastic botanist from
the Bogor Botanical Garden, had the highest amount of native and
local species. The following generation of park managers and city
planners from the 1920s to 1930s maintained the idea of orientating
on surrounding natural vegetation but also employed more
aesthetical and formal aspects when designing the parks, using
additional ornamental species. As the study’s correlations verify,
this generation of park managers and city planners differentiated
the parks and the respective species inventory in regard to park size
and related function instead of pure collections of single species
(Hendriks, 1940).
In recent plantings (DBH < 0.1 m), Swietenia is most abundant,
but also some native (Mimusops) and even local species (Syzygium,
Elaeocarpus) are used. When referring to informal statements of the
Municipality, the most frequent tree, Mahogany (Swietenia sp.), is
the easiest species to propagate and grow under urban conditions
in terms of growing rate and pest resistance.
Large-growing and canopied trees like Ficus, Pterocarpus or
Lagerstroemia obviously disappear slowly. Especially for Pterocarpus
trees, a reason for neglected use can be seen in its susceptibility
to fusarium wilt, a fungal disease that can destroy entire stocks
of park or street assemblages (Chin, 2003). Ficus benjamina, with
its high symbolic role in Javanese and other Asian cultures, can
also rarely be found as younger specimens. Comparable results
from Bangalore, showing that mainly attractive flowering and small
growing species were planted recently (Nagendra & Gopal, 2010),
can only be verified in Bandung for Bauhinia div. spec.
However, the extent to which these differences are influenced
by the rejuvenation tendencies of planted species remains unclear.
Based on investigations in temperate cities, non-native species can
escape from cultivation and alter species compositions of invaded
habitats (Kowarik, 2005). Given the fact that Bandung is similar
to Rio de Janeiro in that it is located near remnant forested areas,
risks for native forest species are evident when species used in
urban neighborhoods are non-native and can escape by seed or

other propagating material (Santos et al., 2010). Referring to threats
toward regional biodiversity, limited data are available for tropical
cities (Leung, Hau, & Corlett, 2009; Wu, Hsieh, Chaw, & Rejmanek,
2004). Thus, this study’s findings regarding the recent trend of the
prevailing use of Swietenia sp. in Bandung will be discussed further
because this species is regarded as invasive in tropical Asia (Joshi,
2006; Weber, 2003).
The high number of native woody species recorded in Bandung’s
parks (83 out of 244 total species) underlines Indonesia’s status as
a worldwide hotspot of biodiversity. As mentioned by Jim and Liu
(2001), cities in regions of tropical forests would especially benefit
from the use of a diverse pool of adapted species. Yet, research
on the interactions between urban landscapes and vegetation communities
in tropical cites is still necessary (Alvey, 2006). However,
this study’s results also show the strong involvement of non-native
plants with ornamental purposes, as discussed by Daehler (2009),
Kˇrivánek, Pyˇsek, and Jaroˇsik (2006), and Dehnen-Schmutz, Touza,
Perrings, and Williamson (2007). Historical and recent species compositions
within the Bandung study include some species that
are commonly used elsewhere, such as Delonix regia, Spathodea
campanulata, Bauhinia spp. in Rio de Janeiro (Pedlowski, Silva,
& Heynen, 2002) and Roystonea regia in Bangalore. This demonstrates
that colonial plant use in many tropical cites was based on
the highly representative and ornamental significance of species,
which can be regarded as powerful Victorian landscape symbols
(Ignatieva, 2010). Nevertheless, many non-native ornamental
species that also occur in Bandung function in providing nectar
or fruits to birds and bats but do not attain the same degree of
ecological services provided by native species (Corlett, 2005).
This study supports the call for more research on urban green
inventory as cultural heritage for keeping a city’s character and
promoting the use of usable native species, as mentioned by Jim
(2000). These results are expected to structure an important basis
for practical questions, such as the future development of woody
composition in the parks of colonial cities that become aware of
their green heritage.
Considering the enormous decrease in green infrastructure in
Bandung (down to less than 2%) and the ongoing plans to transform
abandoned urban forest patches into built-up areas, the creation of
new green spaces will play a crucial role and can refer to historical
concepts in plant use. Approaches from Rio de Janeiro illustrate that
the planning of green infrastructure can benefit from the integration
of remnant vegetation patches and the investigation of people’s
attitudes and relationships to their living places to support an ecological
heritage and enhance a region’s abiotic, biotic and social
potentials (Herzog, in this issue). As suggested for Beijing’s new
parks, greater attention to the maintenance of urban biodiversity
based on the comprehensive understanding of the floristic variation
and important ecological processes (Weifeng et al., 2006) is
urgently required of Bandung’s planning authorities. The awareness
of Bandung’s green colonial heritage as the City of Flowers can
be improved by sustaining and promoting the historical concepts
through their request for native elements. Thus, the study’s findings
regarding historical plant design can be validated as an important
component for enhancing worldwide biodiversity because old tree
stock in urban parks from local species can act as a gene pool for
indigenous plant material. Local nurseries already exist in Bandung
and propagate their own trees and shrubs.
Additional native and local species have recently been utilized in
Bandung’s parks as they represent nearly a third of recent species.
Although three local species are among the most abundant recent
species, the majority of historically recommended local species
have only occured recently in very low numbers. Here, a great
potential evolves when planning authorities and relevant educational
institutes continue the tradition in environmental education
by promoting more native and local plant materials within urban
S. Abendroth et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 106 (2012) 12– 22 21
parks. Historically and recently, the ecological designs of parks and
the appropriate species selection have been crucial issues for urban
biodiversity.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge Arief Hamidi, Reza Abdul Kodir,
Odilia Devinna Evanny and Huda Nurjanti for identifying plants
and tireless assisting at field surveys as well as Giez Lantu for Dutch
translations. We also want to express our appreciation to the Bandung
Garden Department and the Bandung Heritage Society for
providing additional data about park and town history. The study
was funded by German Academic Exchange Service and based, furthermore,
on the cooperation between the University of Applied
Sciences Erfurt and the Institut Teknologi Bandung, which provided
administrative framework.
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