ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS: - University of Maryland
ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS: - University of Maryland
ARTIFICIAL SWEETENERS: - University of Maryland
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<strong>ARTIFICIAL</strong> <strong>SWEETENERS</strong>:<br />
THEIR ORIGINS AND MECHANISMS.<br />
Our pursuit to tackle one <strong>of</strong> our senses…a battle between desire and need.<br />
HTTP://WWW.DIETRIFFIC.COM/<br />
ERINA ELISE VAN HORN<br />
SPECIAL TOPICS – SCHOLARLY PAPER SUBMISSION<br />
DR. BRUCE JARVIS<br />
LFSC 608<br />
UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND<br />
MAY 2009
Animals love the taste <strong>of</strong> sweet. From humans with their “sweet tooth” down to the<br />
smallest vole hunting for the garden bulbs, it has been said that this craving is due to our<br />
natural instinct to search and find food. (1) Sweetness implies there are calories: calories<br />
to sustain our body through various activities and environments. Most <strong>of</strong> those calories<br />
come from carbohydrates and lipids (fats and oils). Proteins as well as carbohydrates<br />
contain four calories per gram, whereas fats contain nine calories per gram. (2) The<br />
reason why then we take in more calories from carbohydrates than proteins is due to the<br />
fact that we consume much more in volume <strong>of</strong> those carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are<br />
molecules that come in a variety <strong>of</strong> sizes and resulting function. “The smallest<br />
carbohydrates are the simple sugars, also known as monosaccharides and disaccharides.”<br />
(3) The commonly referred to sugar is table sugar, or sucrose, which is a disaccharide.<br />
Sucrose consists <strong>of</strong> two monosaccharides: glucose and fructose.<br />
Figure 1. Sucrose molecule (3)<br />
Fructose can be found solo in fruits, and glucose will form polysaccharides (also referred<br />
to as complex carbohydrates) e.g. starch found in potatoes, beans and other fibrous<br />
vegetables. (4) Glucose is very important in our diet, as it is the starting block <strong>of</strong> nearly<br />
all energy derivation/mechanism in mammals.
SUCROSE TO GLUCOSE FOR ENERGY:<br />
Gylcolysis is the breakdown sequence <strong>of</strong> glucose. This sequence <strong>of</strong> reactions leads to the<br />
transformation <strong>of</strong> the simple sugars into smaller molecular building blocks, specifically<br />
pyruvate and ATP 1 (adenosine triphosphate). For higher organisms, pyruvate is further<br />
metabolized in the presence <strong>of</strong> oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water and a significant<br />
amount <strong>of</strong> additional ATP.<br />
Figure 2. Net reaction <strong>of</strong> glycolysis (Wiki)<br />
In order for glycolysis to operate effectively there must be the driving force to process the<br />
glucose, meaning there must be an imbalance in the glucose concentration <strong>of</strong> the<br />
bloodstream. Signals from the pancreas secrete glucagon, which draws glycogen out <strong>of</strong><br />
storage. Glycogen is a branched polymerized form <strong>of</strong> glucose that allows for stable<br />
storage <strong>of</strong> glucose in the liver (predominantly) or the muscles. Once the glucose is<br />
released from glycogen, it undergoes one further step prior to glycolysis. (2)<br />
One might think that since glucose is our direct source <strong>of</strong> energy then the more glucose<br />
we have the more energy we would have. For some this is true, however some<br />
individuals must live with the disease diabetes mellitus. In general, diabetes occurs with<br />
hyperglycemia, which is too much glucose in the blood. This is due to one <strong>of</strong> two factors<br />
– there is not enough insulin to process the glucose or the insulin in the system is no<br />
1 ATP is a powerful donor <strong>of</strong> phosphate groups to suitable acceptors because <strong>of</strong> the pyrophosphate nature <strong>of</strong> the bonds<br />
between its three phosphate radicals during in the phosphorylation <strong>of</strong> glucose. ATP serves as the immediate source <strong>of</strong><br />
energy for the mechanical work performed by muscle. ATP serves as a link between sources <strong>of</strong> energy available to a<br />
living system and the chemical and mechanical work that is associated with growth, reproduction, and maintenance <strong>of</strong><br />
living substance. McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia <strong>of</strong> Science and Technology. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2005.<br />
Answers.com 23 Apr. 2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/adenosine-triphosphate
longer effective to handle to the amount <strong>of</strong> glucose present. Diabetics use the glycemic<br />
index to relate a numerical value to a carbohydrate-rich food, based on the average<br />
increase in blood glucose levels occurring after the food is eaten. (5, 6) Glucose<br />
intolerance is not the only sugar-related disease, as there are individuals that cannot<br />
process fructose, but this is less common and treatment is usually similar to prescribed<br />
treatment for diabetics. (7,8)<br />
So, when a portion <strong>of</strong> the population suffers from a disease in which sucrose is the<br />
initiating culprit, the treatment choices are to either eliminate the source <strong>of</strong> glucose or<br />
add/regulate the amount <strong>of</strong> insulin available to the bloodstream. Most options are a<br />
combination <strong>of</strong> both. As <strong>of</strong> 2007 almost 18 million people in the United States have been<br />
diagnosed with the disease – over 5 million are estimated to be undiagnosed. (5)<br />
Restricting the amount <strong>of</strong> glucose for some can be a daunting task. Americans consume<br />
roughly 140 pounds <strong>of</strong> refined sugar per year; safe to say we consider ourselves as having<br />
a sweet tooth. (10)<br />
Figure 3. Chart on Sugar Consumption Trend (wiki)
This translates not only in an increase <strong>of</strong> diabetes but an increase in obesity. Omitting<br />
those sweet treats can be down right miserable to many. So, in lieu <strong>of</strong> ridding the diet <strong>of</strong><br />
sweet, science went looking for a sweet replacement.<br />
SUGAR SUBSTITUTES – <strong>SWEETENERS</strong><br />
Sugar substitute is the broad term used to describe any substance that replaces sugar<br />
(sucrose) as a sweetener in a product. A sugar substitute could either be from a natural<br />
source or artificially derived. Reasons to replace sucrose vary from availability, product<br />
formulation, cost/financial justifications, or a health/dietary choice. Two types <strong>of</strong><br />
alternative sweeteners are available: bulk and intense. Many bulk sweeteners have the<br />
same caloric values as sucrose, but are chosen for financial reasons/motives. (9) Polyols,<br />
or sugar alcohols, lead the list <strong>of</strong> most common sugar replacements, although many have<br />
a fraction <strong>of</strong> the sweetness <strong>of</strong> sucrose, along with some other less desirable<br />
characteristics; the leader being their laxative effects. (11)<br />
Intense sweeteners are primarily made up <strong>of</strong> artificial sweeteners, synthesized from a<br />
variety <strong>of</strong> starting materials. These sweeteners are intense due to their sweetness being<br />
hundreds, sometimes thousands times sweeter than that <strong>of</strong> sucrose, and their mode <strong>of</strong><br />
action on the sweet taste bud are all similar. However, there are some clear distinctions<br />
as to their mode <strong>of</strong> action within the body.<br />
SWEET TASTE: IS THERE A DISTINCTION BETWEEN <strong>ARTIFICIAL</strong> OR NATURAL?<br />
Sweetness is a perception. One <strong>of</strong> the five primary taste sensations, sweet is probably the<br />
most beloved, and cursed, for its intensity. “The primary tastes gave early humans clues
about what food was good to eat and what was harmful. Sweet foods usually had calories.<br />
Salty foods had important vitamins and minerals. Sour foods could be healthy, like<br />
oranges, or spoiled, like rotten milk. Bitter tastes were <strong>of</strong>ten poisonous.”(12) Regardless<br />
<strong>of</strong> the taste, the tongue functions in the same way. The tongue is covered with papillae -<br />
within the papillae are the taste buds. The taste buds are actually small groups <strong>of</strong><br />
epithelial cells forming a complex interactive unit comprised <strong>of</strong> 50-150 neural receptors.<br />
Figure 4. Tongue anatomy (12)<br />
These receptors are sensitive to the electrophysiological characteristics <strong>of</strong> sweet<br />
molecules; particularly the highly polar regions <strong>of</strong> the sugar molecule making for the<br />
strong association between sugars and sweetness. Glucose specifically binds to the<br />
heterodimeric receptors, T1R2 and T1R3, which recognize both natural and synthetic<br />
sweeteners. (13,14) “After this binding there is a series <strong>of</strong> neural firings in the brain that<br />
evokes memory retention about the sweetness. “A specific taste quality perception is<br />
generated, which allows sugars to be differentiated from other compounds.” (1) It is these
same receptors that molecules <strong>of</strong> artificial sweeteners are triggering as well. They are<br />
most effective at lower concentrations, which correspond well to packaging due to their<br />
intense perception <strong>of</strong> sweetness. However, at higher concentrations some molecules can<br />
also bind to another taste receptor, the TRPV1 receptor, which triggers the bitter and<br />
sometimes metallic aftertaste associated with some <strong>of</strong> the artificial sweeteners. (15,16)<br />
Figure 5. Human T1R2-T1R3 sweet receptor – Binding for most sweet ligands occurs on the<br />
T1R2 unit. Sugars may interact with the large N termini <strong>of</strong> both T1R2 and T1R3. (17)<br />
As further research developments are taken with these artificial, intense sweeteners the<br />
conformation <strong>of</strong> these molecules are studied to determine which specific characteristics<br />
are utilized in the distinction <strong>of</strong> sweetness. The first prominent theory dealing with<br />
chemical reception for sweetness proposed that in order to be sweet, a compound must<br />
contain a hydrogen bond donor (AH) and a Lewis base (B) separated by about 0.3<br />
nanometers. “According to this theory, the AH-B unit <strong>of</strong> a sweetener binds with a<br />
corresponding AH-B unit on the biological sweetness receptor to produce the sensation <strong>of</strong><br />
sweetness.”(13) This theory was further refined to include a third site that addressed the<br />
variances in sweetness relative to concentration and how simply containing the functional<br />
groups previously believed linked to sweetness was not enough. The interaction within
the molecule itself and the binding sites were also needed to be involved for activation at<br />
the receptor site. (14,15,17) It is evident that the molecule purported to be sweet must<br />
contain a minimum <strong>of</strong> two binding sites for the receptor to recognize them as sweet.<br />
RESEARCH, REGULATION AND THE FDA – CURRENT APPROVED <strong>ARTIFICIAL</strong> <strong>SWEETENERS</strong>:<br />
How is an artificial sweetener regulated compared to crop-harvested sugar? The United<br />
States Department <strong>of</strong> Agriculture, USDA, regulates all crops grown on US soil through<br />
permits issued by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, APHIS. APHIS<br />
requires information on the plant, the origin <strong>of</strong> new genes, or gene product, and the<br />
purpose for developing the crop. (10) The USDA also monitors imports/exports <strong>of</strong> crops<br />
to international sites. In North America, sugar is predominately harvested from sugar<br />
beets but also from sugar cane. (10) The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates<br />
artificial sweeteners as food additives and/or “foodstuffs”. The FDA came out <strong>of</strong> The<br />
Pure Food and Drug Act <strong>of</strong> 1906, created to regulate foods and drugs meant for human<br />
consumption. The main purpose <strong>of</strong> the act was to protect the consumer against<br />
mislabeled or adulterated food. (18) In 1958 and 1960 the Food Additives and the Color<br />
Additive Amendments required pre-market approval <strong>of</strong> new food ingredients and colors<br />
used in foods respectively. The process for market approval is a four-step communication<br />
between the FDA and the research company. These steps, laid out by The Federal, Food,<br />
Drug and Cosmetic Act <strong>of</strong> 1938, which replaced the 1906 act, include: 1 st - a proposal,<br />
2 nd - comments that are statements by any consumer or organization question/concern, 3 rd<br />
- responses from the agency filing the proposal and 4 th - final rule from the FDA.<br />
“Additives included are those specified in the regulations promulgated under the FD&C
Act, under Sections 401 (Food Standards), and 409 (Food Additives).” (18,19) This would<br />
include artificial sweeteners as both food additives - alone or in combination - and<br />
tabletop sweeteners.<br />
Saccharin is the oldest artificial sweetener still in use today. (18) It has had a long<br />
market life full <strong>of</strong> problems associated with its health safety. Discovered in 1879 by a<br />
couple <strong>of</strong> scientists at John Hopkins <strong>University</strong>, it is manufactured from toluene in a<br />
reaction initialized by sulfuric acid and phosphorus pentachloride to make the<br />
sulfonamide, then esterfication closes the second ring to produce the final product.<br />
Figure 6. Synthesis <strong>of</strong> Saccharin, Remsen and Fahlberg method (wiki)<br />
Saccharin is 200-700X sweeter than sucrose and is seen in a multitude <strong>of</strong> applications. It<br />
does tend to have a slightly bitter taste and metallic aftertaste, and for this reason is<br />
sometimes combined with other sweeteners (both bulk and intense). Because its<br />
discovery was well before the formation <strong>of</strong> the FDA, it was grandfathered in under<br />
Federal Food & Drug Act <strong>of</strong> 1938 as GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe). (19,20) It
continued to be tested, and although it was repeatedly shown to pass out <strong>of</strong> the body<br />
unchanged, there were animal studies that a significant percentage <strong>of</strong> the rats used<br />
developed bladder cancer when fed a diet with higher than normal limits <strong>of</strong> saccharin.<br />
(21,22) Due to concern over cancer the FDA removed saccharin from GRAS status and<br />
initiated a nationwide ban on the substance. At this time there was no other approved<br />
artificial sweetener, so to protect its use in diabetic applications Congress passed the<br />
“Saccharin Study & Labeling Act” in 1977 preventing it from being banned by the FDA.<br />
As part <strong>of</strong> the act, any product that contained saccharin had to carry the warning label<br />
that the product was known to cause cancer in lab animals. In 2001, saccharin was finally<br />
recognized not to cause cancer in humans taking in normal limits, and the warning label<br />
was removed. (18,22,23)<br />
Aspartame was discovered in 1965 by a group <strong>of</strong> scientist working for G.D. Searle, that<br />
later become a Monsanto company, to develop a new anti-ulcer drug based on a<br />
tetrapeptide. (18,24)<br />
+<br />
Figure 7. Phenylalanine and Aspartic Acid to yield Aspartame (wiki)<br />
The intermediate was a dipeptide made from the amino acids, aspartic acid and<br />
phenylalanine that was found accidentally to be intensely sweet. On their own, the<br />
individual amino acids have no sweetness, but when combined made a product 200 times<br />
<br />
+H3N<br />
H<br />
N
sweeter that sucrose. In 1980 it was approved as a food additive alone or in combination<br />
with other sweeteners, followed by in 1991 approval as a tabletop sweetener. Commercial<br />
production <strong>of</strong> aspartame requires an initial fermentation process to produce the amino<br />
acids using specific strains <strong>of</strong> bacteria. Aspartic acid is made from the bacteria<br />
Brevibacterium flavum, while the phenylalanine is generated from Corynebacterium<br />
glutamicum. (24) These two materials are combined through amidation to establish the<br />
peptide bond. One <strong>of</strong> aspartames major health risk comes from the reverse <strong>of</strong> this process<br />
in the body. Once ingested in the body it is metabolized to methanol and the two amino<br />
acids. (18,25)<br />
Figure 8. Metabolic processing <strong>of</strong> phenylalanine (wiki)<br />
The extra addition <strong>of</strong> phenylalanine only bothers those with a specific disorder (a rare<br />
genetic disorder phenylketonuria), which means they cannot handle certain<br />
concentrations <strong>of</strong> phenylalanine (Phe). Individuals with PKU lack the oxidizing system,<br />
specifically Phe-hydroxylase, that converts excess Phe into tyrosine (Tyr) through
“transamination with α-ketoglutarate to p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate” and then ultimately<br />
into homogentisic acid. (26) Excess Phe accumulated in the blood can lead to “metabolic<br />
acidosis” 2 , distortions <strong>of</strong> plasma concentrations <strong>of</strong> other amino acids which can affect<br />
brain function due to lack <strong>of</strong> neurotransmitters, in particular serotonin. (26)<br />
Even with the health risks associated with aspartame, it is used in a multitude <strong>of</strong> food<br />
applications, including tabletop portions, with the exception <strong>of</strong> baked goods. Aspartame<br />
degrades at temperatures above 90˚F; although there have been recent advances to<br />
encapsulate it in order to protect it under heated conditions.<br />
Acesulfame-K was discovered by accident by Germans Clauss and Jensen in 1967, (27)<br />
while they were conducting research on then new cyclic group, dihydro-oxathiaxinone<br />
dioxide. Approved by the FDA as a tabletop sweetener and food additive since 1988,<br />
acesulfame is 200 times sweeter than sucrose. A major positive trait is its stability under<br />
heat applications. This translates into longer shelf life, which makes it highly suitable in<br />
packaged goods, as well as available for use in baking. (18)<br />
Figure 9. Acesulfame K synthesis from chlorophenol (wikicommons)<br />
Most applications have acesulfame salts in combination with another intense sweetener in<br />
order to mask a minor fault (i.e. temperature degradation or slight metallic taste). (28)<br />
2 Metabolic acidosis is an acid imbalance in the body that results in lack <strong>of</strong> bicarbonate in the blood to neutralize.
Acesulfame is not metabolized or stored in the body. The FDA continues to support the<br />
use <strong>of</strong> acesulfame in diabetic and low-calorie foods.<br />
Sucralose made it to the market with FDA approval in 1989. Like other artificial<br />
sweeteners, it was discovered by accident in the laboratory in 1976. (18, 31) It is 600X<br />
sweeter than sucrose and is considered non-caloric because it is not digested in the body.<br />
Because it is such an intense sweetener, in order to formulate a tabletop delivery it is<br />
packaged with bulking agents such as dextrose and malodextrin. This does affect its<br />
performance in baked products. Dextrose and malodextrin are cornstarch derivatives that<br />
do add some caloric value, but per serving it is less than 5 calories, which is the top limit<br />
the FDA places on products that are considered calorie-free foods. (20)<br />
<br />
Figure 10. From Sucrose to Sucralose (wiki)<br />
Made from sucrose in a selective multi-step displacement reaction that starts with cane<br />
sugar, three <strong>of</strong> the hydroxyl groups on the sugar molecule are replaced by three chlorine<br />
atoms. (30) Tate and Lyle <strong>of</strong> Britain, developed and patented the original sucralose<br />
manufacturing process to make Splenda. Splenda is the internationally recognized<br />
brand <strong>of</strong> sucralose and is recognized by its trademark yellow packet. Since the end <strong>of</strong> the<br />
patent term this year, several novel approaches to the production <strong>of</strong> sucralose have been<br />
suggested. Once such method involves the production <strong>of</strong> intermediate “glucose-6-acetate
y fermentation <strong>of</strong> glucose using a strain <strong>of</strong> Bacillus megaterium followed by conversion<br />
to sucrose-6-acetate as a kinetic product using a specially selected fructosyl transferase<br />
produced by a newly isolated strain <strong>of</strong> Bacillus subtilis.” (32)<br />
The product is then chlorinated and subsequently deacetylated to yield 4,1,6-trichlo-<br />
4,1,6-trideoxy galactosucrose (sucralose). This process involves fewer steps than are<br />
required for chemical synthesis using trityl chloride, acetic anhydride and methanol. That<br />
process includes the final step using sodium methoxide to deacetylized the intermediate<br />
ester. Sucralose is additionally attractive as a sweetener due to the fact that the body does<br />
not metabolize it. The majority <strong>of</strong> the ingested amount is excreted unchanged from the<br />
body. (30)<br />
Neotame, N- [N- (3,3-dimethylbutyl)-L-α-aspartyl]-L-phenylalanine 1-methyl ester, is a<br />
synthetic sweetener made by the NutraSweet Company. (34) It is similar to aspartame,<br />
but has an extra branch that prevents its metabolism to produce phenylalanine that as<br />
previously discussed can cause a tolerance problem in some people. This branch, a 3,3-<br />
dimethylbutyl group, blocks the peptide enzyme from catalyzing the reaction, therefore<br />
leaving the Neotame residue intact and generating a minor amount <strong>of</strong> methanol that the<br />
body absorbs.
Figure 11. Metabolic (de-esterfication) <strong>of</strong> Neotame (wiki)<br />
The residue is eliminated from the body without any concern for accumulation. For<br />
marketing value, this means it does not require a safety-warning label and consumers can<br />
feel better about the consuming the product. FDA approval was granted in 2002. Another<br />
benefit over aspartame is that neotame does not degrade like aspartame at higher<br />
temperatures, which means that it has a better shelf life. Neotame is used mainly in<br />
manufactured goods and not solely as a tabletop sweetener; this is due to the fact that it is<br />
so much more potent as a sweetener, 8000 times sweeter than sucrose. (34) The average<br />
amount needed to sweeten a beverage is a fraction even <strong>of</strong> a normal marketed, e.g. only<br />
6mg <strong>of</strong> neotame are needed to sweeten a 12oz beverage. NutraSweet has caused quite a<br />
marketing uproar with its new “pink” sweetener: a combination <strong>of</strong> neotame and<br />
acesulfame-K in a pink packet. Traditionally the pink packet has been exclusively<br />
associated with saccharin. In a similar way, consumers associate blue packaging to<br />
aspartame, and yellow to sucralose.
ALTERNATIVE <strong>SWEETENERS</strong>:<br />
Regardless <strong>of</strong> the studies provided to and provided by the FDA, artificial sweeteners<br />
continue to receive negative press from a variety <strong>of</strong> public awareness groups. Many <strong>of</strong><br />
these groups recommend replacement sweeteners that have a more natural origin and are<br />
not synthesized in chemical laboratories. (31,35) Sugar alcohols, or polyols, are a popular<br />
substitute in baked goods as they are considered a bulk sugar – having similar volume<br />
and texture as sucrose. Polyols are chemical derivatives <strong>of</strong> sugars that have an alcohol<br />
group (-CH2OH) instead <strong>of</strong> the aldehyde group (-CHO). (36) Their caloric contribution<br />
is about half that <strong>of</strong> a traditional carbohydrate and does not promote dental decay. Major<br />
downsides <strong>of</strong> sugar alcohols stem from its major benefit – the body either slowly or<br />
incompletely metabolizes the molecules. This means that diabetics tolerate sugar<br />
alcohols because a glycemic response is not initiated, but also that the molecules pass out<br />
through the small intestines causing gastric distress. (13,36)<br />
Name Erythritol Glycerol Malitol Sorbitol Xylitol<br />
Sweetness to<br />
Sucrose<br />
81% 60% 90% 60% 100%<br />
Figure 12. Table <strong>of</strong> Common Sugar Alcohols Used as Food Additives (wiki)<br />
“The laxative effect <strong>of</strong> sugar alcohols is due to its slow absorption rate. When the<br />
number <strong>of</strong> small molecules sit in the small intestine for a very long time water is drawn
into the intestines. This increase in water directly increases the speed <strong>of</strong> evacuation <strong>of</strong><br />
that water.” (11)<br />
FUTURE <strong>SWEETENERS</strong>:<br />
As consumers continue to purchase prepared foods and food products, laboratory<br />
research into artificial sweeteners and food additives continues to be a strong field <strong>of</strong><br />
study. A growing trend is towards organic 3 or more natural additives. One such interest is<br />
in a sweetener collected and refined from the plant Stevia rebaudiana. Stevia usage has<br />
been documented in a variety <strong>of</strong> crude forms in early “tribal” times in Paraguay and more<br />
refined versions more recently in Japan, particularly after the Japanese ban on saccharin<br />
in the 1970s. (37)<br />
Figure 13. Stevioside (L) and Rebaudioside A (R) from Stevia rebaudiana (37)<br />
3 “Organic”. In 1990, Congress passed the Federal Organic Foods Production Act, which called for national organic<br />
food guidelines including certification <strong>of</strong> growers and standards for organic food production, monitoring crops for<br />
chemical contamination and livestock for living conditions and screening organic imports. Under standards adopted by<br />
the U.S. Agriculture Dept. (USDA) in 2000 and fully effective in 2002, synthetic fertilizers and pesticides and<br />
antibiotics may not be used in raising organic foods, and the use <strong>of</strong> irradiation, biotechnology, and sewer-sludge<br />
fertilizer is also banned.
The Stevia plant produces several steviol glycosides 4 , with stevioside (“stevia”) and<br />
rebaudioside A (“rebiana”) in the highest percentage. Up until recently, the European<br />
Union and the US FDA have not granted companies wishing to use stevia compounds as<br />
a food additive permission, due to concerns that the chemical compounds may cause<br />
mutagenic or reproductive difficulties. For this reason, stevia and rebiana containing<br />
products started appearing in health food stores as “herbal supplements” – as the FDA<br />
has no regulatory rule over these products as they do over food additives. (20) Concerns<br />
over which glycosides were present in the food product and the manufacturing principles<br />
<strong>of</strong> the supplier kept the FDA suspect <strong>of</strong> any product containing stevia as a primary<br />
sweetener.<br />
Figure 14. Steviol(37 )<br />
Even though they each contain several glucose molecules, neither stevia nor rebiana are<br />
absorbed into the blood stream and therefore do not affect blood glucose. (37) Both<br />
4 "glycoside." A glycoside is a group <strong>of</strong> natural occurring molecules in which one or more glucose molecules are<br />
attached The American Heritage® Dictionary <strong>of</strong> the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company,<br />
2004. Answers.com 19 May. 2009. http://www.answers.com/topic/glycoside
hydrolyze to yield the aglycone steviol that is subsequently eliminated through the<br />
kidneys.<br />
Figure 15. Metabolism <strong>of</strong> Stevia and/or Rebiana to steviol. (37)<br />
Up until recently, reports have been conflicting as to what exactly the affects <strong>of</strong><br />
consuming stevia leaves have been on reproductive and genetic health due to<br />
inconsistency with data collection and administration <strong>of</strong> the tests. A 2008 study lead the<br />
Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) <strong>of</strong> the FAO/WHO to support the<br />
FDA on approving manufacturing guidelines <strong>of</strong> stevia and rebiana as a food additive.
Figure 16. Elimination <strong>of</strong> Steviol. (37)<br />
On December 17, 2008 the FDA granted GRAS status to manufacturers Cargill and<br />
Merisant to produce rebauside A according to specified purity guidelines. (38,39) This<br />
allows these companies to use rebiana as a food additive in accordance to FDA ruling.<br />
There has always been an interest in a sugar alternative for persons living with diabetes,<br />
and secondary benefit to an alternative would be for those looking to reduce their caloric<br />
intake. Although, glucose is still necessary for energy production in the body, there is<br />
sufficient quantity achieved through other carbohydrate means. Those that are considered<br />
diabetic sugars are listed as such because they do not activate insulin production from the<br />
pancreas. Not all are a benefit over the simple sugar molecule, and must be evaluated for<br />
their benefits over their detriments. Whether the choice <strong>of</strong> an artificial sweetener over a<br />
natural/harvest crop sugar is due to medicinal reasons or dietary restriction, there are<br />
good options to support any decision. Artificial sweeteners are proven to be a safe<br />
alternative to sucrose, and a person is given a variety to choose from depending upon the
level <strong>of</strong> desired sweetness. Products that use artificial sweeteners usually contain more<br />
than one because “certain sweeteners amplify one another”. (13)<br />
The looming question that about most artificial sweeteners is: should we modify our<br />
foods or should our behavior be modified? Can we not just moderate our consumption <strong>of</strong><br />
crop sugar? This has becoming increasingly more difficult with more and more pre-<br />
made, pre-packaged food products that have made their way into our homes. Food<br />
manufacturers look for inexpensive ways to bring products to market that consumers will<br />
enjoy. Both bulk and intense sweeteners have filled this job effectively. Our job as<br />
consumers is, and will forever remain, to read the labels and understand what we are<br />
putting into our bodies.
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