BLACK TRUFFLE CULTIVATION AND COMPETING FUNGI - Inra
BLACK TRUFFLE CULTIVATION AND COMPETING FUNGI - Inra
BLACK TRUFFLE CULTIVATION AND COMPETING FUNGI - Inra
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Proceedings of the 7 th International Conference on Mushroom Biology and Mushroom Products (ICMBMP7) 2011<br />
<strong>BLACK</strong> <strong>TRUFFLE</strong> <strong>CULTIVATION</strong> <strong>AND</strong> <strong>COMPETING</strong> <strong>FUNGI</strong><br />
Section:<br />
Mycorrhizal mushrooms<br />
SOURZAT Pierre<br />
Station d’expérimentation sur la truffe,<br />
46090 LE MONTAT,<br />
France<br />
station.truffe@wanadoo.fr<br />
ABSTRACT<br />
Some of conditions required for Tuber melanosporum truffle production are known. The truffle<br />
fungus is introduced with controlled mycorrhized plants, in an appropriate soil (calcareous,<br />
aerated, free draining, with a good biodiversity), under a suitable climate which allows for a<br />
complete life cycle of the truffle. Culture techniques are usually concerned with the care of the<br />
soil, plantation irrigation, protection and pruning of the trees. Nevertheless, we observe the<br />
failure of some plantations because of the appearance of contaminating fungi.<br />
Contaminating fungal species appear in truffle plantation according to the age of the trees<br />
and culture conditions. Many mycorrhizal or saprophytic species have been identified according<br />
to the age of different plantations in the South West of France, under mycorrhizal or sporocarp<br />
forms. A typology of this species was done to determine the level of danger it can cause in a<br />
success of truffle plantations.<br />
These results show that certain species (Hebeloma sp.) can contaminate plants in the<br />
nursery. When Tuber melanosporum is cultivated in oak forest environment, Tuber brumale is<br />
the first contaminating fungus which takes advantage of the fall of biodiversity or some<br />
cultivation methods disturbing young truffle plantations. Tuber aestivum is a late contaminating<br />
fungus or it appears when the climate becomes drier. Many basidiomycetae are observed as<br />
plantations become old. When truffle cultivation is done in open landscape with cereals and<br />
vineyards, contaminations are rare. Tuber melanosporum can dominate the fungal train or<br />
succession for many years.<br />
These observations require preserving the initial mycorhization of the planted trees with<br />
cultivation methods suitable to the environment with or without oaks forest. Bringing additional<br />
truffles spores can strengthen the initial inoculation with Tuber melanosporum. Thinning and<br />
pruning help Tuber melanosporum to be present and stronger in the truffle plantation as it is an<br />
early stage fungus.<br />
Keywords: Tuber melanosporum, truffle, “brûlé” or burnt area, cultivation methods, mycorrhizal<br />
fungi.<br />
INTRODUCTION<br />
Truffle Tuber melanosporum cultivation has evolved since its beginning in the early 19 th century<br />
when acorns were seed in a suitable environment already naturally producing black truffles. The<br />
process was codified on the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20 th by Chatin [1], de<br />
Bosredon [2], de Ferry de la Bellone [3] and Pradel [4]. At this period of abundance, cultivation<br />
consisted mainly in growing oaks in limestone soils, that was to say to scuff the soil and prune<br />
oaks in order to keep the lasting of the production. After a period of declining production,<br />
following the two world wars, Rebiere [5] was the first to reformulate the truffle cultivation<br />
methods with the achievements of the modern agriculture intended to feed Europe. A new era<br />
began with the invention of controlled inoculated plants popularized since 1974 thanks to Gérard<br />
Chevalier. Grente and Delmas [6] specified the inoculation conditions of the environment with<br />
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trees mycorrhized with T. melanosporum and Delmas [7] analysed mostly the characteristic of<br />
suitable soils. First truffles, which were harvested under hazel trees only 4 years after planting,<br />
gave hope for a new rise of truffle production. French public institutions supported new truffle<br />
plantations with grants given until 1986. When it became obvious that truffle production would<br />
not really pick up again, all grants for planting mycorrhized trees, installing truffle irrigation and<br />
renewing old plantations were abolished. In 1994, the 11 th National State Plan proposed that a<br />
step of experimentation in truffle cultivation should take place before giving out new grants for<br />
truffle plantations. In 2003, at the national truffle cultivation day organized by CTIFL in<br />
Cuzance (Lot, France), certain regions decided to encourage again truffle plantation with new<br />
financial aid.<br />
Callot [8] underlined the importance of biological activity in truffle soil to explain the lack of<br />
good results. Sourzat [9] stressed the fact that soils had not changed in one century and biologic<br />
surrounding conditions had shifted as the farming methods had negative impacts. Fungal<br />
successions (fungi train) of wild truffle trees with those of plantation truffle trees where the soil<br />
was tilled were compared. In plantation, on shallow soil, no fungal succession but a disorder was<br />
observed. This disorder means generally that competing fungi species are favoured, particularly<br />
Tuber brumale. The principle of precaution in truffle cultivation, which was defined in “Truffe et<br />
Trufficulture” [9], recommends a technical itinerary with 3 stages:<br />
- Stage One: in the first two years of planting, one must be sure to achieve the best possible<br />
success rate for the T. melanosporum infected seedling in the first two years of planting.<br />
- Stage Two: it is important to focus on “a not too much” on the rapid growth of the mycorrhizal<br />
trees to avoid contamination by other types of mushrooms; the modification of the environment<br />
induced by the truffle itself (i.e. soil structure and biological activity) during the period of brûlé<br />
formation has to be considered.<br />
- Stage Three: once fruiting has started, the aim is to improve the quality and quantity of the<br />
black truffle whilst ensuring a good perennial annual yield.<br />
In 2008, the syntheses of truffle cultivation experimentations in France were published [10].<br />
They enlighten the results provided since 1994 during the 11 th and 12 th National State Plans<br />
State-County with the subsidies from FranceAgriMer (Oniflhor, Viniflhor) and the Regions.<br />
These syntheses handle particularly of the truffle soils, host trees and seedling quality, technical<br />
methods (soil managing, truffle irrigation, pruning), T. brumale contaminations. Considering<br />
truffle soils have not really been altered for one century (in truffle traditional areas), cultural<br />
methods today are quite well known and seedlings are correctly mycorrhized, why is it so<br />
difficult to increase the level of the actual truffle production? The common answer is generally<br />
that climate has become warmer and dryer. Truffle growers who are irrigating their plantations<br />
credit regular production to this effort. Nevertheless, results are still heterogeneous. One<br />
observes that certain non-irrigated plantations can give quite regular results whereas irrigated or<br />
non irrigated other ones have bad results. Why?<br />
The research programme SYSTRUF, funded by National Agency of Research (ANR),<br />
attempts to answer this question by studying particularly the biology of the truffle. The way of<br />
fungal competition by different species and observation of what happens in the fields are<br />
explored by the Station of experimentation on the truffle at Cahors-Le Montat. Why is the<br />
presence of such fungi more negative today than in the past? In other ways, why is the black<br />
truffle less dominant than in the past, why does it defend less against its potential aggressors?<br />
MATERIAL <strong>AND</strong> METHODS<br />
The three types of investigations involved surveys of the fungi species in the truffle environment,<br />
formation on the natural “truffières” on the edge of the plantation, contamination of truffle trees<br />
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Mycorrhizal mushrooms<br />
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in wooded environment or not wooded environment. The coherence of these three studies is<br />
motivated by the last question above and will be discussed in the conclusion.<br />
Fungi surveys in truffle environment in Lot district. These surveys were done on four types<br />
of environments:<br />
Limestone grassland surrounded by Quercus pubescens woodland.<br />
Young truffle plantations (from introducing plants to the first harvested truffles).<br />
Actually producing truffle plantations.<br />
Old truffle plantations.<br />
Study of the natural “truffières” on the edge of woodlands on natural pastures or<br />
Limestone grasslands. The conditions of formation of natural “truffières” are analyzed in<br />
traditional truffle areas. This type of truffières appears mostly in natural pastures, grassland or<br />
cleaned fallow land (moorland), linked to Q. pubescens woodland on the edge of the field in<br />
limestone areas. These situations are common in Lot district or other parts of Midi-Pyrénées<br />
region (Tarn, Tarn et Garonne, etc.). One example is selected on the commune of Le Montat to<br />
illustrate the phenomenom. This site is called grassland of Haute-Serre (pelouse de Haute-Serre)<br />
(Fig. 1).<br />
This state is briefly discribed :<br />
Oaks on the edge, aged about fifty years, constitute a woodland relatively homogeneous, in<br />
average 6 to 8 meters high , with 2 to 8 meters between every trees.<br />
Tuber melanosporum « brûlés » appear on a strip located at 8 to 12 meters from the oak<br />
basis. This strip is 3 meters wide and is called the « melano strip » (plage à melano ».<br />
Some brûlés where Russula delica fruitbodies are observed at few meters from the basis of<br />
the oaks (2 to 4 meters).<br />
Figure 1 : grassland of de Haute-Serre on east side with the 2 dotted lines delimiting the strip where<br />
Tuber melanosporum brûlés appear caused by the oaks on the edge. The 2 white and red stakes (1 m) at<br />
the right frame a producing brûlé. At the left, the tall red and white stake gives an idea of the size of the<br />
trees (one colour division = 0,5 m)<br />
Beyond this report, we have investigated the fungal species repartition in the grassland of<br />
Haute-Serre by the way of the mycorrhizae indentification (microscope) plus classical surveys of<br />
fungi.<br />
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Mycorrhizal mushrooms<br />
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Conservation characteristics of initial mycorrhizal status by Tuber melanosporum or<br />
contamination by other fungi species in truffle plantations surrounded by woodlands or<br />
not. Examples chosen were explored in spring 2011.<br />
Truffle plantations in wooded environments. These two explored plantations are located in<br />
Aujols (Lot district) and Daglan (Dordogne district). They are established on shallow and stony<br />
soils (rendosol), with mycorrhizal trees (Q. pubescens, Quercus ilex, Corylus avellana). They are<br />
well maintained with care and producing despite relatively dry summer. Investigations on these<br />
plantations concern the mycorrhizal status of the analyzed trees by the way of binocular loup and<br />
microscope. At Aujols, roots samples were taken mostly on producing trees whereas in Daglan,<br />
no producing trees were targeted.<br />
Truffle plantation in cereals and vineyard plains landscapes. Explored plantations are located<br />
near Angoulême (Charente district) in vast plain of cereals cultivation and wineyard region for<br />
the Cognac production. There is neither woodland nor hedge of woods at least 300 meters from<br />
explored plantations. They had been done on “terres de Groie” (rendosols deeper than those at<br />
Aujols and Daglan) with mycorrhizal trees (Q. pubescens, Q. ilex, C.avellana), cultivated with<br />
care. Irrigation was by bringing water with big tanks (3000 liters) and watering only producing<br />
“brûlés”. Growers brought spores from crushed truffles the 3rd year of plantation on the “brûlés”<br />
of young mycorrhizal trees which were not yet producing.<br />
These plantations are producing better than those of the Lot and Dordogne districts. Harvest<br />
started earlier (4 years old) and percentage of producing trees was also higher (90 to 95 %<br />
instead of 30 to 60 %). Same type of investigations than above was done on these plantations.<br />
RESULTS <strong>AND</strong> DISCUSSION<br />
Results and their acquirement conditions are summarized without going into details in order to<br />
keep this article a reasonable size.<br />
Mycological survey in truffle environment in Lot district. It was impossible to present the<br />
exhaustive mycological survey in the limits of this article. A synthesis was elaborated to<br />
understand the essential.<br />
Limestone grassland, suitable for T. melanosporum, presented common mycological<br />
surveys. We observed that, both in grassland with Bromus erectus and Festuca ovina on edge of<br />
woodlands and in moorland with sparse Qu. pubescens and Festuca ovina, T. melanosporum<br />
could live with certain species (Inocybe jurana, Hebeloma edurum) but it excluded regularly the<br />
other fungi out of its production area (located in the “brûlé”). Scleroderma verrucosum (Fig. 2)<br />
was frequent at the limit of the T. melanosporum “brûlé” just starting or already producing. Its<br />
presence did not seem to penalize the truffle production. Its frequent observation in this<br />
condition means that S. verrucosum is preparing the field and helping to adapt and spread of the<br />
truffière, transforming organic matter and structuring the soil in front of the brûlé.<br />
Tuber brumale presence in young plantations is generally a consequence of a disturbing<br />
technical itinerary which does not respect the fungi species dynamic and their repartition in<br />
space and time. The ecosystem is disturbed by some cultural practices such as frequent tilling<br />
with tractor-drawn tools. In these conditions, T. brumale, a well flexible species, occupies the<br />
ecological niche initially planned for T. melanosporum. A bad choice of establishment<br />
(insufficient drainage, soil with bad structure) or cultural methods unsuitable (soils compacted<br />
with mechanic tools, fresh organic matter ploughing in soil, and excessive irrigation before<br />
production) favours T. brumale at the expense of T. melanosporum.<br />
Section:<br />
Mycorrhizal mushrooms<br />
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Section:<br />
Mycorrhizal mushrooms<br />
Figure 2: Scleroderma verrucosum Pers. on a truffle « brûlé ».<br />
Figure 3: Tuber melanosporum mycorrhizae Figure 4: Hebeloma mesophaeum seen<br />
(red ellipse) among infestation with Hebeloma sp. in a truffle plantation<br />
on root system of inoculated plant.<br />
Figure 5: Scleroderma verrucosum (first ellipse with metallic tool)<br />
closer to the trunk than truffles (2 nd ellipse)<br />
In producing plantation, “brûlés” which are producing T. melanosporum presented a very<br />
few species except some Incoybes like I. jurana and I. splendens; sometime, there are<br />
Hymenogaster (H. luteus) or Hebeloma sp. on the edge of the brûlé. On the other hand, trees<br />
without truffle production were associated with many other epigeous fungi (Inocybe sp. and<br />
Tricholoma sp. are frequent) and hypogeous (Genea sp., Hymenogaster sp., Tuber sp.), then<br />
Russula sp. and Boletus sp. when trees were becoming older. These fungi were not located<br />
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anywhere in the truffle plantation, particularly according to the “brûlé”. These species are those<br />
of “old roots”, located generally closer to the trunk of the tree, under the organic litter.<br />
In old truffle plantations, according to the density of closure of the canopy, we observed<br />
thermophilic and limestone fungi usually found in Q. pubescens forest on calcareous soil. They<br />
are species which are very difficult to eliminate from renovated old plantations in order to<br />
produce again Tuber melanosporum. To succeed in renovating old plantations, it’s necessary to<br />
open or clear and thin them, creating a variety of ecological niches. A good example exists with<br />
an old plantation which is producing again T. melanosporum at Laburgade (Lot district) [11].<br />
These mycological surveys confirmed that each species or group of species have their<br />
specific ecological requirements corresponding with necessary conditions for the black truffle in<br />
the dynamic of its environment [12]. These groups or species have to be located at a particular<br />
place in the fungal succession (fungal train) observed with the environment change. Tuber<br />
melanosporum has its good place or stage as well as many other species.<br />
Table 1 of main fungi which are not Tuber and living in the truffle environment.<br />
Fungi quite negative<br />
Boletus luridus Mycorrhizal fungus in open environment with grass. There is no truffle under trees<br />
producing this mushroom.<br />
Russula lepida Mycorrhizal fungus in closed environment, mainly in old truffle plantation. Russula<br />
lepida never lives with Tuber melanosporum under the same tree.<br />
Russula delica Mycorrhizal fungus in open environment. It creates « brûlés » similar with those of<br />
Tuber melanosporum<br />
.<br />
Russula maculata Mycorrhizal fungus in old truffle plantation and on the edge of woodland<br />
Amanita strobililiformis<br />
Amanitopsis<br />
lividopallescens<br />
Hebeloma sinapizans<br />
Hebeloma edurum<br />
Section:<br />
Mycorrhizal mushrooms<br />
.<br />
Mycorrhizal fungi living in open limestone environment. When they are colonizing<br />
« brûlés » producing T. melanosporum, truffle production disappears.<br />
Mycorrhizal fungi living mainly in old truffle plantation or limestone oak plantations.<br />
They persist in the soil when the forest is cleared. It was observed outside the “brûlé”,<br />
doing a circle 0.50 to 0.80 m from the limit of the “brûlé”.<br />
Armillaria mellea Dangerous parasite of the trees. It destroys truffle trees, mainly hazel.<br />
It’s highly risky to plant truffle trees where this mushrooms is seen.<br />
Fungi quite neutral<br />
Incocybe jurana Mycorrhizal fungus quite frequent in truffle plantation. It is named « le truffier » in<br />
Provence where people eat it. Present on the edge of the producing « brûlé », it<br />
appears harmless for the truffle.<br />
Scleroderma verrucosum Myccorhizal fungus frequent on the outer fringe of the brûlé. It does not seem<br />
to interfere with Tuber melanosporum. It can coexist and fruit inside the brûlé.<br />
Tricholoma scalpturatum<br />
Tricholoma terreum<br />
Mycorrhizal fungi living in old truffle plantation. It follows the decline of the truffle<br />
production. It happens when there is an ecological disorder.<br />
Helvella crispa Non Mycorrhizal fungus frequent in truffle plantation when autumn is wet and hot.<br />
Clavaria aurea<br />
Morchella esculenta<br />
(and other morchella.)<br />
Non Mycorrhizal fungus living in limestone oak groves and rare in truffle plantation.<br />
Non Mycorrhizal fungus (?) rare in truffle plantation<br />
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Proceedings of the 7 th International Conference on Mushroom Biology and Mushroom Products (ICMBMP7) 2011<br />
Table 1 summarizes perception of species roles for the most frequent species living in<br />
truffle ecosystem in Lot district.<br />
About the genus Hebeloma, Hebeloma mesophaeum, ubiquitous species all over the<br />
planet, is a big concern in greenhouses where nurserymen make mycorrhizal plants. They fight it<br />
with drastic sanitary precautions (Fig. 3-4).<br />
Natural “truffières” on the edge of woodlands in natural pastures or Limestone grasslands.<br />
Fungi observed in the grassland of Haute-Serre belong to the species characteristic of the<br />
ecosystem of “natural pastures or Limestone grasslands on the edge of old Q. pubescens<br />
woodlands”. A brief view of the main species observed with T. melanosporum is presented in<br />
relation to the fungal succession (Fig. 6). We defined where Tuber melanosporum was located in<br />
the limestone ecosystem previously described (Fig 7).<br />
Section:<br />
Mycorrhizal mushrooms<br />
Figure 6: Fungal succession observed at Haute-Serre.<br />
Figure 7 illustrating where Tuber melanosporum is expanding in the conquest space.<br />
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Tuber aestivum is a pioneer fungi in Limestone grassland and moorland. Nevertheless, if<br />
Tuber melanosporum fruits in this fungi succession, Tuber aestivum has a tendency to be<br />
quiescent (“sleeping”), that is to say that Tuber aestivum waits for the closure of the environment<br />
or woodland before it begins to fruit. In the meantime, Tuber aestivum is observed only on the<br />
form of mycorrhizae. Its mycorrhizae do not tolerate other kind of mycorrhizae like those of<br />
Tuber melanosporum.<br />
The fungal succession observed at Haute-Serre is common in many areas in Lot district<br />
and French south-west.<br />
Pioneer species like T. melanosporum are established in the young root system whereas<br />
basidiomycetae are on old roots. Tuber aestivum is located in front of or around the “brûlé” of T.<br />
melanosporum.<br />
Evolution of the mycorrhizal status in relation to the type of environment. At Aujols, roots<br />
of producing trees were contaminated by basidiomycetae (Hebeloma sp.) on a radius of several<br />
tens centimetres from the trunk. Beyond, T. melanosporum was mostly present under the form of<br />
clusters of mycorrhizae (Fig. 8-11).<br />
Figure 8: plantation at Aujols. Figue 9: sampling method under the tree and<br />
every 60 cm at Aujols<br />
Figure 10: view (with a measurement scale) of Figure 11: backlighting of a mycorrhizae<br />
typical cluster of mycorrhizae of cluster of Tuber melanosporum which underlines<br />
T. melanosporum. young mycorrhizae<br />
At Daglan, roots from non producing trees were contaminated with many undetermined<br />
fungal species. Inoculated trees with T. melanosporum on the edge of the woodland grew slower<br />
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than the other ones inside the plantation (feeding competition?). They were strongly<br />
contaminated from the oaks of the close woodlands.<br />
We observed very dense root hairs on contaminated root system. On the other hand, roots<br />
inoculated with T. melanosporum revealed a sparse root hair. Phenomenon of the “brûlé” from T.<br />
melanosporum affected plants which can grow in the soil near the trees and the root system. Both<br />
were attacked directly or indirectly by Tuber melanosporum.<br />
Figure 12: comparison of 2 root samples Figure 13: close-up of the sample 8<br />
respectively from a contaminated area and a<br />
producing part of a Tuber melanosporum “brûlé”.<br />
Taken with an equal soil volume, the two samples above (Fig. 12) illustrate what we could<br />
observe in truffle plantation at the good age to produce. Sample 6, from a non productive area,<br />
taken on a Q. pubescens shows a dense root hair. Sample 8, taken at 50 cm from the trunk of a<br />
good producing Quercus pubescens, in the part of the “brûlé” where truffles were found out,<br />
shows how the root hairs become sparse when the “brûlé” start to produce T. melanosporum.<br />
Close-up above of the sample 8 (Fig. 13) shows how, in the productive part of the<br />
« brûlé », mycorrhizae were mostly grouped together in a cluster which the maximum size is<br />
about 8 mm as against 28 mm at Aujols. Note the tortuous shape of the root at the right side<br />
which indicates many scares of abscission. These scares look like puffiness. Depletion of the<br />
root system or lost of the root hair was typical inside the producing “brûlé”. It seems T.<br />
melanosporum is attacking the root hair with a lost of some “branches” or ramifications.<br />
If this aggression on a part of its root system does not kill the host tree, it is not the same<br />
for many plants which disappear when the « brûlé » spread. Cistus albidus sometimes produces<br />
T. melanosporum. In Corbières (Pyrénées-Orientales district), when « brûlé » is formed around<br />
the shrub the year « n », truffle is harvested on year « n+1 », and Cistus dies the year “n+2”.<br />
Tuber melanosporum « brûlé » accompanying production becomes fatal for the host shrub.<br />
We have done analysis with molecular tools on the roots of plants usually living in truffle<br />
“brûlés” or on the edge (Fig. 14). These plants were mainly Sedum sediforme, Festuca ovina,<br />
Bromus erectus, Carex halleriana, Juniperus communis, Vitis vinifera. We had found out the<br />
presence of T. melanosporum in the root tissues. This discovery in 2009 [13] validates the<br />
hypothesis that the truffle is not only a mycorrhizal fungus. It could be a parasite of plants that<br />
do not accept ectomycorrhizal fungi. When these plants are attacked by T. melanosporum, they<br />
can die.<br />
When black truffle is observed in a very clear or net « brûlé » (said virulent), which is<br />
regularly gaining ground on the conquest space, we can observe that mycorrhization with T.<br />
melanosporum is very exclusive in the production area. It is not the case of many other species<br />
of fungi which accept cohabitation, particularly T. brumale.<br />
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« Brûlé » expansion is an indication of « virulence » or aggressiveness of the black truffle<br />
on its environment. The growth of the « brûlé » (10 to 30 cm per year in average) is the same on<br />
the good truffle trees, regardless of the region or the kind of environment. Truffle virulence or<br />
aggressiveness, pointed out in other words in books from the 19th century (de Bosredon, 1887),<br />
is a permanent characteristic. We could observe these effects both on the root system and the<br />
surrounding plants. We think that, in the past time, agricultural practices and pastoralism (or<br />
shepherding) were stimulating this property of T. melanosporum to be aggressive.<br />
Figure 14: plantation at Daglan with a good level of production. Contaminated trees on the right side<br />
have not grown.<br />
Figure 15: truffle plantation in Charente Figure 16: sampling of mycorrhizae near the trunk<br />
district in a landscape with cereal and of very good truffle tree in Charente district<br />
wine cultivation.<br />
In Charente (Fig. 15, 16), T. melanosporum mycorrhized trees were poorly affected by<br />
fungal contaminations. Contaminations (Hebeloma sp.) were located in a radius of 10 cm around<br />
the trunk of the host trees (Fig. 17). We observed that the clusters of mycorrhizae formed by T.<br />
melanosporum had a small size. They had few mycorrhizae in comparison with those from<br />
Aujols and also from Daglan. It was difficult to find mycorrhizae on the roots inside « brûlé » of<br />
the good truffle trees (Fig. 16). Fungi succession is limited or smaller than those we have seen in<br />
traditional truffle areas.<br />
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Figure 17: mycorrhizae of Hebeloma sp. With Figure 18: mycorrhizae said AD common<br />
a characteristic mycelium reminding « cotton » in « brûlés » on edge of woodland<br />
which catches soil in its net.<br />
.<br />
We are trying to understand these differences in the fungal succession and the size of<br />
mycorrhizae clusters. When there is no woodland in the environment, it is logical that<br />
contaminating mycorrhizal fungi like AD (Fig. 18) are rarer. Forming big cluster of mycorrhizae<br />
could be a strategy to protect T. melanosporum against threat from other fungi. Maybe truffle can<br />
be a threat against itself, after an intense vegetative phase, when « brulé » appears. “Brûlé”<br />
appearance is concomitant with a depletion of the root system as if a truffle parasitic phase is<br />
beginning. Big clusters of mycorrhizae could also be a mean to have a big quantity of mycelium<br />
required for fruiting and feeding the fruit body when it is growing. These questions resulting<br />
from the evolution of the mycorrhizal status, regarding the environment, make so many<br />
hypotheses to study<br />
CONCLUSION<br />
Many species of fungi were observed in truffle environment. This fact emphasizes the difficulty<br />
to stimulate only one species cultivation, such as T. melanosporum, in space widely open to the<br />
contaminations with other fungi. Tuber melanosporum naturally finds its place in the dynamic of<br />
the environment as far as this one is weakly artificialized (no frequent tillage which reduces the<br />
biodiversity). In agricultural landscapes, without oaks hedge and woodland, truffle production is<br />
easier and earlier.<br />
From these observations, we can recommend to the truffle growers certain<br />
precautions[14] summarized as following : 1) choose top-quality host trees (tree species suited to<br />
the environment, well mycorrhized) ; 2) limestone soil, aerated, well draining, good biological<br />
activity; 3) adapted cultivation techniques (tilling or plantation cleaning depending on the depth<br />
of the soil and physicochemical characteristics, truffle trees irrigation, pruning ) ; 4) manage a<br />
favourable fauna and flora without excess to limit feeding competition but sufficient to maintain<br />
the necessary biodiversity ; 5) improve mycorrhizal potential by bringing truffle spores ; 6) take<br />
precautions with oak woodlands on the edge of plantations (cut oak roots from the edge with<br />
chisel, put mycorrhized trees at a good distance from the edge of the woodland creating a health<br />
perimeter) ; 7) thin the plantation in order to maintain a sufficient conquest space for the truffle<br />
(T. melanosporum is a pioneer fungi who needs space in its limestone environment).<br />
A digression can be done about the truffle soil characteristics after the paragraph above.<br />
Discussion on this topic is still in progress and there are many advanced researches on it. In the<br />
traditional truffle areas, the physicochemical characteristics of truffle soils have not changed<br />
during one century. Of course, the consequence of a frequent tilling is a fast evolution of the<br />
organic matter. Soils with a high level of clay become more compact when they loose organic<br />
matter. Their cohesion and stability diminish. If the chemical fertilisation was vulgarized in the<br />
20 th century, it has not really affected the traditional truffle region with shallow soils. Moreover,<br />
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we observe very good results in truffle plantations established in large plains where there are<br />
cereals and vineyards cultivations without any oaks in hedge or woodlands near the plantations.<br />
Chemical fertilizers and soil fertility are not main factors to explain why some plantations cannot<br />
begin to trigger truffle production.<br />
After at least one century of agricultural abandonment, we observe many oak woodland<br />
surrounding truffle plantations. They have grown naturally and progressively. Nowadays, they<br />
are penalizing the truffle production. Their impact depends of the « contaminating reach » of the<br />
oaks (10 meters in average) and of the « power of contamination » of the oaks on the edge. If the<br />
oaks on the edge are grouped in woodlands, their power of contamination is stronger than if they<br />
are in hedge [15]. This situation underlines the necessity to build « truffle bastion » in order to<br />
keep all T. melanosporum strength (power = strength x number of producing truffle trees). In the<br />
heart of big truffle plantations, there is a “truffle bastion” protected against fungi coming from<br />
outside.<br />
The strength of the truffle is stated trough the concepts of « truffle virulence » or « truffle<br />
aggressiveness » which can be observed with “brûlés” spreading or gaining ground in good<br />
truffle plantations. In South-West of France, default of T. melanosporum “virulence” or<br />
“aggressiveness” is generally concomitant of 4 facts: 1) T. brumale is harvested instead of T.<br />
melanosporum, 2) T. melanosporum does not resist well during the drought, 3) truffle production<br />
has not durability in time (tree years in average in wild “truffières”), 4) harvest starts later in<br />
plantation after many years (as if there was an inertia to fruiting).<br />
After the characterization of the lack of the truffle virulence, we can propose the opposite<br />
arguments to define positive truffle virulence. Many experiences or trials are done at the Station<br />
of experimentation on the truffle at Cahors-Le Montat and in some truffle areas in France and<br />
abroad. For these trials, we study another factor which could be the impact of the domestic<br />
animals like sheep and horses. We had observations which involve these animals in exceptional<br />
truffle production fields. We can suggest an analogy with other mushrooms production: Agaricus<br />
campestris L. and Pleurotus eryngii (De Cand.:Fr.) Quélet need respectively in their grassland<br />
habitat cows and sheeps.<br />
We humbly recognize some explanations are still lacking. Why in 2006 (a good climatic<br />
year), the Lot district did produce 3 tons of truffles whereas its production was more that 300<br />
tons in 1906? This 100 factor seems to summarize this lost of “virulence” or “strength” of the<br />
black truffle. This decline is usually explained by the deterioration of the T. melanosporum<br />
ecosystem, consequences of changes in human activities, mainly agriculture, animal farming and<br />
forestry. With less traditional activity, oaks woodlands are more and more present with their<br />
fungi of forest ecology.<br />
Why is the black truffle less dominant than in the past, why does it defend less against its<br />
potential aggressors? This is the double question asked in the introduction. Does sick black<br />
truffle like other mushrooms suffer pathogen attacks like virus? This hypothesis is supported by<br />
some scientists [16] to explain the difficulty of truffle production. In this article, we favour that,<br />
during the abundance period, there were practices of mixed farming with organic matter<br />
restitution, biodiversity management. The rural world was entirely exploited and cultivated.<br />
Population density in the country was higher than today. Woodlands were rare and firewood was<br />
precious and collected. In limestone areas, landscapes were very open for the pioneer fungi like<br />
T. melanosporum: its “strength” or “virulence” was at the optimum. Furthermore, the harvesting<br />
pressure was lesser than nowadays, leaving in the soil a lot of truffle spores useful as natural<br />
inoculum. There were no inoculated controlled mycorrhized plants to sell and buy; nevertheless,<br />
there was an abundance of truffles.<br />
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
These results were obtained with the financial support of the trials and research programmes by<br />
FranceAgriMer (ONIFLHOR, VINIFLHOR), Région Midi-Pyrénées, Conseil général du Lot,<br />
Ministère de l’Agriculture, de la ¨Pêche et de l’Alimentation, Europe (FEOGA). Europe<br />
participates to the results vulgarisation with the support of FEADER (mesure 111B).<br />
We thank: Truffles growers who have allowed investigations in their plantations, Laurent<br />
Génola, truffle technician, who did many mycological surveys and made comments on truffle<br />
soils, William Saenz, truffle technician, for his constructive remarks about cultural techniques,<br />
Jean-Marc Olivier, coordinator of the truffle experimentation in France, for his encouragements<br />
and all his advice and corrections on this work and many others, Rodrigo Donoso who counsels<br />
me for the English language.<br />
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[16] Michaels T., personal communication as hypothesis, march 2011.<br />
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