1 CHAPTER 1: AMERICAN INDIAN SELF-DETERMINATION AND ...

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document's content. 51 Nevertheless, the Declaration helped clarify the meaning of what would come to be known as self- determination. 52 Sociologist Joane Nagel agrees with Cowger regarding the importance of lobbying in eroding support for termination and helping to open the way for self-determination, but she has identified additional causes of the shift. Native American 51 Philleo Nash to Fred Dutton and attachment, 13 November 1961, "IN 11-21-61 - 11-20-62," box 379, WHCF, Subject File, JFKL; "Statement by the President," n.d., "IN 11-21-61 - 11- 30-62," box 379, WHCF, Subject File, JFKL. Clarkin, Federal Indian Policy, 79-80; Josephy, Now that the Buffalo's Gone, 224. 52 Some studies that deal with self-determination include George Pierre Castile, To Show Heart: Native American Self- Determination and Federal Indian Policy, 1960-1975 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1998); Thomas Clarkin, Federal Indian Policy in the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations, 1961-1969 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2001); Daniel M. Cobb, "Philosophy of an Indian War: Community Action in the Johnson Administration's War on Indian Poverty, 1964-1968," American Indian Culture and Research Journal 22:2 (1998): 71-102; Vine Deloria Jr., ed., American Indian Policy in the Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985); Deloria, Behind the Trail of Broken Treaties: An Indian Declaration of Independence (New York: Delacorte Press, 1974); Deloria and Lytle, Nations Within; William T. Hagan, "Tribalism Rejuvenated," Western Historical Quarterly 12 (January 1981): 5-16; Josephy, Now That the Buffalo's Gone; Josephy, Nagel, and Johnson, Red Power; Joane Nagel, American Indian Ethnic Renewal: Red Power and the Resurgence of Identity and Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997); Kenneth R. Philp, ed., Indian Self-Rule: First-Hand Accounts of Indian-White Relations from Roosevelt to Reagan (Logan, UT: Utah State University Press, 1995); Rebecca L. Robbins, "The Forgotten American: A Foundation for Contemporary American Indian Self-Determination," Wicazo Sa Review VI (Spring 1990): 27-33. 24
activist protests in the 1960s and 1970s--such as those carried out by the pan-Indian American Indian Movement (AIM)- -highlighted the failures of termination and the need for an alternative. The Civil Rights and Black Power Movements challenged existing assumptions about federal policies and racial/ethnic relations; changes in the assumptions in these areas opened up the possibility for change in other areas, including Indian policies. 53 As a result, by the late 1960s (if not earlier), another shift had occurred. This time, termination was replaced with self-determination. In 1968, Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson and and Republican presidential candidate Richard M. Nixon (who would be elected in November of that year) both issued statements rejecting termination and endorsing self- determination. 54 In a March 1968 Special Message to Congress on American Indians, Johnson said that "the special relationship between the Indian and his government must grow and flourish." In other words, the trust relationship would not be ended. In addition, the speech demanded more Native American input into the policymaking process, greater respect for Indian cultures, and increased aid to help Indians deal with such issues as poverty, poor health, and education. 55 53 Nagel, American Indian Ethnic Renewal, 219-226. 54 Castile, To Show Heart, 68-69, 73-74, 91. 55 Public Papers of the President of the United States, 1968, (Washington, D.C., 1969), 335-344. 25
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Page 3 and 4: Anthropologists Sol Tax and Nancy L
Page 5 and 6: Nevertheless, the Declaration ident
Page 7 and 8: Such sovereignty was often recogniz
Page 9 and 10: While tribes possessed an inherent
Page 11 and 12: in exchange for Indians ceding thei
Page 13 and 14: fashion. Instead of working with In
Page 15 and 16: cultures was necessary for tribal g
Page 17 and 18: produced intratribal conflict. Neve
Page 19 and 20: communities on trust lands were not
Page 21 and 22: new Commissioner favored the eventu
Page 23: By the late 1950s and during the 19
Page 27 and 28: Indian nations to administer progra
Page 29 and 30: constituted an important part of Pr
Page 31 and 32: esponsibility to open up opportunit
Page 33 and 34: chance to participate in the econom
Page 35 and 36: the economic and social conditions
Page 37 and 38: address by Hubert H. Humphrey, a De
Page 39 and 40: through states to access funds and
Page 41 and 42: fight against termination in the 19
Page 43 and 44: Access to and control over such fun
Page 45: y moving the government in the dire

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