PERSIA. - Palgrave Connect

1156 

PERSIA. 

(IRAN.) 

Reigning Shah. 

Sultan Ahmad Shah, born January 20, 1898 (27th Shaban 1315) 

succeeded his father, Muhammad Ali Shan (who abdicated) July 16, 1909, 

under regency of Ali Eeza Khan, Azud el Mulk, chief of the Kajar tribe. 

Azud el Mulk, the Regent, died September 22, 1910, and on the 25th of the 

same month the National Council elected Abu'l Kassim Khan, Nasser el 

Mulk, who was then in Europe, as his successor. The Regent arrived in 

Teheran on February 8, 1911, and definitely assumed the functions of Regent 

by taking the oath before the National Council on March 4. The coronation 

of the Shah took place on July 21, 1914, and the Regent left for Europe soon 

after. 

Brothers of the Shah.—I. Itezad es Saltaneh. II. Muhammad Hassan 

Tabriz Mirza, Valiahd (heir apparent), born February 19, 1899 (9th Shaban 

1316). III. Muhammad Mehdi Mirza. IV. Mahmud Mirza. 

Uncles of the Shah.—I. Malik Mansur Mirza, Shua es Saltaneh, 

born 1880. II. Abu'l Fath Mirza, Salar ed Dowleh, horn 1881. III. 

Abu'l Fazl Mirza, Azud es-Sultau, born 1883. IV. Husein Kuli Mirza, 

born 1894. V. Nasr-ed-din Mirza, born 1896. 

The Royal Family is very numerous : there are some thousands of 

princes and princesses, but the last official year-book only mentioned about a 

hundred. 

The Shah of Persia—by his official title, ' Shahinsh&h' (a corruption of 

Shahan Shah), or King of Kings—was until 1906 absolute ruler within his 

dominions, and master of the lives and goods of all his subjects. The whole 

revenue of the country being at their disposal, recent sovereigns of Persia 

were able to amass a large private fortune, but that of the present occupant 

of the throne is reported to amount to barely two millions sterling, most of it 

represented by diamonds, the largest, the Derya i Nur, of 186 carats, and the 

Taj i Mali, of 146 carats, and other precious stones, forming the crown jewels. 

The present sovereign of Persia is the seventh of the dynasty of the 

Kajars, which took possession of the crown after a civil war extending 

over fifteen years, from 1779 to 1794. The date of accession of each of 

the sovereigns of the dynasty was as follows :— 

1. Agha Muhammed . . 1794 5. Muzaffar-ed-din, son of Nasr- 

2. Fath Ali, nephew of Agha ed-din . . . . 1896 

Muhammed . . . 1797 6. Muhammed Ali, son of 

3. Muhammed, grandson of Fath Muzaffar-ed-din . .1907 

Ali 1835 7. Sultan Ahmed, son of Mu- 

4. Nasr-ed-din, son of Muham- hammed Ali . . . 1909 

med . . . . 1848 ] 

According to the Constitution the Shah must belong to the Shl'ah 

faith and his successor must be his eldest son, or next male heir in 

succession, whose mother was a Kajar princess. 

Constitution and Government. 

The form of government in Persia up to the year 1906 was, in its most 

important features, similar to that of Turkey. The Shah, within the limitations 

imposed by the Mohammedan religion, was an absolute ruler, generally 

regarded by the people as the vice-regent of the Prophet. In 1905, however, 

the Persian people demanded representative institutions, and in January, 

10.1057/9780230270473 - The Statesman's Year-Book, Edited by John Scott-Keltie and Mortimer Epstein 

Copyright material from www.palgraveconnect.com - Trial Access - PalgraveConnect - 2013-04-24

CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 1157 

1906, the Government announced that the Shah had given his consent to 

the establishment of a National Council (Mejlia i Shora i Milli). But the 

Mejlis was never properly constituted, though attempts were male to set it 

working. Since November, 1915, it has ceased to exist as a legislative or 

administrative body. (For a history of the struggle see THE STATESMAN'S 

YKAR-BOOK for 1916, p. 1220.) The government of the country is in the 

hands of the Cabinet, which was formed on February 27, 1918, as follows :— 

Prime Minister and Minister of the. Interior —Mostowfiol-Mamalek. 

Minister for Foreign Affairs.—Moshaverol-Mamalek. 

Minister of War.—Moshirod-Dowleh. 

Minister of Education.—Motamenol-Molk. 

Minister of Finance.—Mokhberol-Molk. 

Minister of Public Works.—Moi'uol-Vezareh 

Minister of Justice.—Mokhberos-Saltaneh. 

Minister of Posts and Telegraphs.—Sardar-Assad. 

The country is divided into thirty-three provinces, which are governed 

by governors-general, who are directly responsible to the central Government, 

and can nominate the lieutenant-governors of the districts comprised 

in their own governments-general. Some of the governments-general 

are very small, and do not bear subdivision into districts, &c. ; others are very 

large, and comprise several provinces. Governors-general and lieutenantgovernors 

are generally called Hakim, the former also often have the title 

of Wali, Ferman Ferma, &c. A lieutenant-governor is sometimes called 

Naib el-Hukumah ; one of a small district is a Zabit. Every town has a 

mayor or chief magistrate called Kalautar, or Darogha, or Beglerbegi. 

Every quarter of a town or parish, and every village, has a chief who is 

called Kedkhoda. These officers, whose chief duty is the collection of the 

revenue, are generally appointed by the lieutenant-governors, but sometimes 

elected by the citizens. Most of the governors have a vizir or a plshkar, a 

man of experience, to whom are entrusted the accounts and the details of the 

government. The chiefs of nomad tribes are called Ilkhani, Ilbegi, Wali, 

Serdar, Sheikh, Tushmal; they are responsible for the collection of the 

revenues to the governors of the province in which their tribe resides. 

A law of May, 1907, provides for the election of rural and town councils. 

In these elections practically all subjects have a right to vote, and the 

councils will be in direct communication with the National Council. 

On August 31, 1907, Great Britain and Russia agreed between themselves to limit the 

spheres of their respective interests in Persia to the Persian provinces adjoining the 

Russian frontier on tlte one hand, and the British frontier on the other. The two Powers 

were to respect the integrity and independence of Persia, but, at the same time, contemplated 

the possible necessity of ilnancia] control in conformity with the principles of 

the agreement. The approxiviate area, population, and customs revenue of each of the 

three spheres are given as follows :— 

British sphere . . . 

Russian sphere 

- 

Area 

sq. miles 

137,000 

305,000 

188,000 

Population 

690,000 

6,900,000 

1,910.000 

Revenue 

Customs 

(1915-16) 

£ 

46,740 

204.800 

160.000 

The Anglo-Knssian Agreement of 1907 wns formally denounced hy the Bolshevik 

Russian Government on January 30, 1918, while the British Government have informed 

t'.o Persian Government that for the present the agreement is to he regarded as in 

abeyance On May 2, 191S, the Persian Government announced that it regarded the 

agreement as null and void. 



1158 PERSIA 

Area and Population. 

According to the latest and most trustworthy estimates, the country— 

extending for about 700 miles from north to south, and for 900 miles 

from east to west—contains an area of 628,000 square miles. A vast 

portion of this area is an absolute desert, and the population is everywhere 

so scanty as not to exceed, on the average, fifteen inhabitants to the 

square mile. 

The population now is estimated at about 9J millions. 

The number of Europeans residing in Persia does not exceed 1,200. 

There are about 600 British subjects resident in Persia (exclusive of British 

Indians). 

The principal cities of Persia are:—Teheran, with 280,000; Tabriz, 

with 200,000; Ispahan, with 80,000; Meshed and Kerman, with 60,000; 

Yezd, with 45,000 ; Barfurush and Shiraz, with 50 000 ; Hamadan, Kazvin, 

Kom, Kashan, Resht, each with 30,000 to 40.000 inhabitants. Of the 

nomads 260,000 are Arabs, 720,000 Turks, 675,000 Kurds and Leks, 20,700 

Baluchis and Gipsies, 234,000 Lurs. 

Religion. 

Of the population about 8| millions are Mahometans of the Shi'ah sect, 

and 850,000 of the Sunni s^ct ; 10,000 are Parsis (Guebres), 40,000 Jews, 

50,000 Armenians, and 30,000 Nestorians. 

The Mahometans of the sect called Shi'ah differ to some extent in 

religious doctrine, and more in historical belief, from the Moslems of the 

Turkish Empire, who are called Sunni. The Persian priesthood (ulema) is 

very powerful, and works steadily against all progress coming from Europe. 

Any person capable of reading the Koran and interpreting its laws may act 

as a priest (mulla). As soon as such a priest becomes known for his just 

interpretation of the divine law, and for his knowledge of the traditions 

and articles of faith, he is called a mujtahid, or chief priest. There are 

many mujtahids in Persia, sometimes several in one town; there are, 

however, only four or five whose decisions are accepted as final. The highest 

authority, the chief priest of all, is the mujtahid, who resides at Kerbela, 

near Baghdad, and some consider him the vicegerent of the Prophet, the 

representative of the Imam. The Shah and the Government have no voice 

in the matter of appointing the mujtahids, but the Sheikh-ul-Islam, chief 

judge, and the Imam-i-Jum'ah, chief of the great mosque (Masjed-i-Jam'ah) 

of a city, are appointed by Government. Under the Imam-i-Jum'ah are the 

pish namaz or khatib (leader of public prayers and reader of the Khutbeh, 

the Friday oration), the mu'azzin (crier for prayers), and sometimes the 

mutavali (guardian of the mosque); this latter, as well as the mu'azzin, 

need not necessarily be a priest. All mosques and shrines have some endowments 

(wakf), and out of the proceeds of these are provided the funds for the 

salaries of the priests attached to them. The shrines of some favourite saints 

are so richly endowed as to be able to keep an immense staff of priests, 

servants, and hangers-on. 

The Gregorian National Armenians form two dioceses, each under a 

bishop. One bishop resides at Tabriz, the other at Ispahan. There are also 

a few thousand Roman Catholic Armenians in Persia who have a bishop of 

their own rite at Ispahan, the bishop of the Latin rite residing at Urumiah. 

There is a wide tolerance exercised towards Armenians and Nestorians, Jews, 

and Parsis in cities where Europeans reside ; in other places, however, they 

occasionally suffer oppression from Mussulmans belonging to the lower 

classes. 



INSTRUCTION—J USTICE—FINANCE 1159 

Instruction. 

In recent years the educational question has played a prominent part in 

Persia. Many schools of various degrees, entirely on European lines, hare 

been established ; the Ministry of Education has undergone radical reforms ; 

the Educational Council recently created is doing very useful work ; female 

education has been greatly advanced. It is said that there are now some 180 

schools in Persia with an aggregate of 10.000 pupils of both sexes. 

There are many colleges (medresseh), supported by public funds, in which 

students are instructed in religion and Persian and Arabic literature, as well 

as in a certain amount of scientific knowledge, and many schools for children, 

while private tutors are very common, being employed by all families who 

have the means. A polytechnic school with a number of European professors, 

opened in Teheran in 1849, has done much towards introducing the knowledge 

of Western languages and science into Persia. There are also military colleges 

at Teheran and Tabriz. At Teheran there is a French school supported by 

the Alliance Francaise. But the bulk of the population are taught only to 

read the Koran. A 'political college,' Medresseh i Siasi, now having 30 

pupils, was opened in 1900, and prepares candidates for service in the Foreign 

Office, which pays 75,000 kran per annum for its maintenance. 

Justice. 

Justice is administered by the governors and their representatives, and by 

the Sheikhs-ul-Islam and the priesthood. The former administer justice 

according to the Urf, the unwritten or common law ; the latter according to 

the Shar', the written or divine law. 

The dispensation of justice is always summary. In May, 1888, the Shah 

published a proclamation stating that henceforth no subject would be punished 

except by operation of law, and that all subjects had full liberty as to life 

and property. But another proclamation published in June annulled the first 

as far as regards liberty of property. 

Finance. 

A Commission, composed of the Administrator of the Customs (a Belgian), 

one Russian and one Englishman inspects and approves the past due claims 

on the Government. 

The revenue for 1911-12 amounted to 2,042,8502 , and the expenditure 

to 1,608,6002. In 1912-13 the revenue amounted to 1,055,7922., and in 

1913-14 to 1,480,7782. These are the latest available figures. 

More than half of the revenue consists of payments in cash or kind 

raised by assessments upon towns, villages, and districts, each of which has 

to contribute a fixed sum, the amount of which is changed from time to time by 

tax-assessors (mumayii;) appointed by the Government. Almost the entire 

burthen of taxation lies upon the labouring classes. 

Approximate gross Customs receipts for three years (£1 =60 Kran):— 

- 

Northern Zone:— 

Azerbaijan (Tabriz) . . . . 

Ghilan (Enzeli) . . . . 

Kermanshah and Hamadan . 

1913-14 

£ 

171,725 

40.S22 

184,410 

47,0S3 

27,786 

91,769 

04,663. 

1914-15 

£ 

S5,912 

36,809 

128,333 

26,018 

17,700 

64,000 

^ W «• 

1915-16 

£ 

22,109 

46,917 

106,970 

15,550 

7,134 

50,867 

14,380 




Southern Zone :— 

Total 

- 

1913-14 

£ 

82,021 

38,fc97 

53,110 

19,580 

861,8721 

1914-15 

£ 

90,975 

26,378 

32,310 

28,425 

589,197 

1915-16 

£ 

115,142 

40,547 

61,123 

10,896 

491,635 

1 The Kran value of the gross receipts is actually 4,276,S3S hetler than the previous 

year, hut the 10% rise in the rate of exchange reduces it to nil in the sterling value. 

"With all overdue instalments paid up, the total debt of Persia as at 

December 31, 1917, was as follows :— 

Loans 

1. Russian 5 per cent, loan of 1900, 1902 (Roubles) 

2. Russian Consolidated 7 per cent, loan, 1911 (Krans) 

4 Imperial Bank of Persia 5 p< r cent, loan . (£) 

5. Britisli Advances of 1912-14, 7 per cent , (£) 

G. Russian Advances (Roubles) 

7. British Advances, 1915-17 , . . . ( £ ) 

8. Ditto . . . (Krans) 

Original 

Amount 

32,500,000 

60.000,030 

314J281 13 4 

1,250,000 0 0 

490,000 0 0 

1,891,500 

817,000 9 0 

1,000,000 

Outstanding 

31,429,500 

30,454,394 

238,310 13 5 

1,237,187 10 0 

490,000 0 0 

1,576,250 

817,000 0 0 

1,000,000 

In view of the abnormal rates of exchange (£1 = 27J krans, and 

1 rouble = J kran) it is best to give the indebtedness in the actnal currencies 

of operation. 

The above repiesents what the Persian Government should owe, but the 

instalments due have not all been paid up owing to the diminution of customs 

receipts which guarantee the repayments : thus, No. 1 was not fully paid 

for 1917 ; No. 2, nothing has been paid since July, 1914 ; Nos. 3 and 4, 

fully paid up ; No. 5, interests only fully paid up ; No. 7 is the so-called 

' moratorium.' 

Defence. 

There was at the capital the 'Cossack Brigade,' consisting ot 8 

squadrons, 1 small battalion of infantry and a horse battery of 6 (Krupp) 

guns. The total strength does not exceed 2.000 of all ranks. The men 

are Persians, organised and trained by Russian officers. In 1912, Russia 

obtained the formal consent of the Persian Government to the formation of 

a similar Cossack Brigade at Tabriz under Russian officers; the consent of 

the Persian Government was given as a condition for the withdrawal of 

Russian troops in Azerbaijan. The ' Cossack Brigade' was in the hands of 

Russia until the Bolsheviks came into power. 

There is now a force of ' Amnieh' (Road-Guards) numbering some 2,400 

men, distributed in Teheran and Yezd districts. They are under the 

command of 3 Swedes. Their budget amounts to 5,000Z. a month, plus 

forage. 

In 1913 the police service of Teheran was also handed over to Swedish 

organisers, of whom there are 4. There are also forces at Kazvin, and 

Ispahan, and.some in Tabriz and Resht. 



PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY—COMMERCE 1161 

The navy is quite unimportant, the two boats of which it consists are 

normally used for Customs purposes. 

Production and Industry. 

Besides great quantities of wheat, barley, rice, fruits, gums, drugs, wool, 

cotton, &c, Persia produces much silk. The opium industry, as well as 

the production of gums, chiefly tragacanth, are increasing. The wool of 

Khorassan is the best, and much of it reaches Bradford via Batum. Persian 

carpets, of which there are many kinds, are all made by hand. The export 

of carpets amounted to 977,429?. in 1911-12, 1,207,856?. in 1912-13, and 

431,140?. in 1914-15. The principal centres of the industry are Tabriz, 

Hamadan, Sultanabad, and Kerman. 

The mineral deposits of Persia are considerable. The zones producing 

minerals are (1) the Province of Azerbaijan, (2) the slopes of the Elburz 

range, (3) Khorassan, (4) Kerman, (5) the districts around Ispahan and Nain, 

and (6) the region of Persian Gulf. In Azerbaijan, iron, lead, and copper 

ores exist in almndance. Lead is found in Klialkal region. Coal is worked 

near Tabriz. The slopes of the Elburz are rich in deposits of coal and iron. 

Turquoise mines are found in Khorassan, and also coppor, coal and salt. 

Kerman produces copper, lead, manganese, marble, borax, turquoises, iron, 

mercury, nickel, and cobalt. In the southern region along the Persian Gulf 

the chief minerals found are naphtha, rock salt, and iron ochre. 

Commerce. 

The principal centres of oommerce are Tabriz, Teheran, Hamadan, and 

Ispahan ; the principal ports, Bender Abbas, Mohamnierah, and Bushire on 

the Persian Gulf, and Astara, Enzeli, Mechedissar, and Benderguez on the 

Caspian. On March 21, 1899, the Government abolished the farm system in 

Azuibaijan and Kermanshah, and one year later in all other provinces, establishing 

at the same time a uniform duty of 5 per cent, ad valorem on imports 

and exports. However, the districts of Mohammerah (with imports and exports 

valued at about 300,000?. per annum), of the Karun River and of Kurdistan 

on the western frontier, that of Seistan en the eastern frontier, and some of 

the smaller ports on the Persian Gulf, were then not interfered with, and the 

greater part of the Persian Gulf pearl trade also escaped the authorities until 

the following year. 

The commercial treaty with Great Britain made in 1857 provided for the 

1 most favoured nation ' treatment. Iu October, 1901, a treaty between 

Persia and Russia was concluded, fixing a new tariff, but this treaty expressly 

reserved the ' most favoured nation' treatment for the countries already 

enjoying it. The treaty was ratified in December, 1902, and the new 

tariff came into force February 14, 1903. A few days before, a new treaty 

(ratified in May) was made with Great Britain, under which the duties 

levied on British imports will be the same as on Russian imports. 

According to the statistics published by the Minister of Finance the values 

of the imports and exports for the six years 1909-15 were as follows :— 

Tears 

1910-11 

1911-12 

1912-13 

Imports Exports 

£ £ 

9,690,153 7,508,538 

11,404,169 8,415,694 

11,351,512 8,726,665 

Years 

1913-14 

1914-15 

! 1915-16 

Imports 

11,766,633 

8,322,030 

7,735,000 

Exports 

£ 

8,2S7,993 

6,600,960 

6,286,577 



1162 PEKSIA 

The following table shows (in thousands of kran : 60 kran = 11. in 

1914-15 and 1915-16) the values of the chief imports into, and exports 

from, Persia:— 

Imports 

Cottons . . . . 

Sugar . . . . 

Tea 

Gold and silver bars 

Do. coin 

Petroleum 

Yarn 

Flour . . . . 

Woollens . . . . 

Indigo and cochineal 

Haberdastoery 

Rice 

Spices . . . . 

Wool 

Animals . . . . 

Silk Goods 

Tin, zinc »nd lead . 

Tobacco . . . . 

Copper and nickel . 

Iron and steel 

Do. manufactured 

Timber 

Silkworm eggs 

1914-15 

1000 

Kran 

142,000 

127,210 

23,159 

22,704 

3,919 

13,036 

10,522 

8,905 

8,672 

1,110 

7,400 

7,021 

3,285 

1,340 

2,694 

3,746 

1,666 

2,814 

2,991 

4,996 

10.457 

3,802 

2,884 

1915-16 

1000 

Kran 

139,000 

124,755 

34,292 

9,084 

3,37i 

10,744 

11,144 

4,633 

1,731 

244 

4,183 

7.836 

2,953 

1,824 

1,410 

1,311 

482 

2,100 

345 

7,529 

24.339 

4,713 

.1,162 

Exports 

Fruits . . . . 

Carpets . . . . 

Cotton . . . . 

Fish 

Rice 

Gold and silver coins 

Gums . . . . 

Opium . . . . 

Wool . . . . 

Cocoons . . . . 

Skins . . . . 

Animals . . . . 

Silk stuff 

Cottons . . . . 

Hides . . . . 

Silk 

Wheat and barley . 

Pearls and other precious 

stones . . . . 

Drugs . . . . 

Timber . . . . 

Tobacco . . . . 

Petroleum 

1914-16 

1000 

Kran 

51,645 

25,762 

73.4S4 

7,550 

21,375 

13,530 

5,660 

41,446 

12,207 

6,525 

7,354 

9.698 

3,265 

2,456* 

12,897 

1,079 

7,409 

372 

2,237 

1,784 

990 

1915-16 

1000 

Kran 

71,635 

12,954 

71,389 

78,116 

61,778 

5,049 

7,497 

41,732 

15,867 

3,418 

10,35S 

4,749 

3,873 

2,216 

6,556 

556 

4,828 

— 

2,784 

822 

1,774 

21,768 

In the years ending March 20, 1915 and 1916, the distribution of the 

trade of Persia was as follows ■— 

From or to 

Afghanistan 

Germany . . . . 

Austria-Hungary 

Belgium . . . . 

China l . 

Egypt-' . 

United States 3 . 

British Empire . 

$ ranee and Colonies . 

Italv 

Netherlands and Colonies. 

Russia . . . . 

Switzerland 

Turkey . . . . 

Muscat . . . . 

Oman 

! Imports 

\~ " - " 

1914-15 

-- - 

£ 56,200 

296,600 

63,-534 

129,000 

5,770 

161 

7,200 

2,468,000 

185,000 

65,930 

8,015 

4.668,520 

9,720 

318,050 

5,150 

26,682 

1915-16 

!- 

£ 

49,830 

6,700 

3,500 

5,350 

112,509 

2,500 

4,810 

2,821,970 

5,130 

13,486 

10,500 

4,445,900 i 

530 

155,bl7 

56,700 

27,000 

_ - 

1914-15 

49,450 

23,506 

8,855 

3,S52 

400 

S9,S39 

73,550 

1,472.033 

18,700 

2,570 

2S.700 

4,374,400 

400 

357,000 

4,724 

92,800 

Exports 

1 2 

Imports nearly ail silver bars. Exports nearly all petroleum. 

3 

Exports nearly all carpets. 

1915-16 

£ 

28,410 

1,930 

400 

— 

1,360 

133,508 

140,670 

1,271,430 

8,500 

23,850 

5 

4,452,840 

— 

147,600 

35,200 

67,658 

Of the total trade Russia enjoys 63"5 per cent., and the British Empire 

29"2 percent 



MONEY AND CREDIT—COMMUNICATIONS 1163 

Tonnage entered at Bushire, Lingah, Bunder Abbas, Mobammerah, and 

several smaller ports was : in 1915-16, 1,170,743 tons, of which 1,056,907 

tons were English (steam) ; there was one Swedish steamer of 2,120 tons ; 

the rest were sailing vessels. 

At Caspian Sea ports in 1915-16, 620,680 tons all Russian. 

There are trade routes through Trebizond, through Resht and Meshed 

to Russia, through Khorassan and Seistan to Afghanistan and India, and 

through Kermanshah to Baghdad 

Total trade between Persia and United Kingdom (Hoard of Trade returns) 

for 5 years:— 

— 1913 1014 j 1915 1016 191V 

£ £ £ £ £ 

Imports from Persia to U.K. . 429,502 T94.S68 : 011,401 485,285 572,980 

Exports to Persia from U.K. . 724,808 709,042 i 880,051 553,402 030,488 

Money and Credit. 

The Shah in 1889 granted a concession to Baron Julius de Renter for 

the formation of a State Bank of Persia, with head office at Teheran and 

branches in the chief cities. The bank was formed in the autumn of 

the same year, with the title "The Imperial Bank of Persia," and 

incorporated by Royal Charter granted by H.M. the late Queen, and 

dated September 2, 1889. The authorised capital is 4 millions sterling, which 

may be increased. The bank started with a capital of one million sterling, of 

whi-h the greater part was remitted to Persia at the then reigning exchange 

of 32-34. In consequence of the great fall in silver and the rise in the 

exchange, to 50 or more, the capital was reduced in December, 1894, to 

650,000Z. The bank has the exclusive right of issuing bank-notes—not 

exceeding 800,000^. without the assent of the Persian Government. The 

issue of notes is on the basis of the silver kran. In virtue of one of the 

articles of the concession the cash reserve for the first two years was 50 per 

cent., and afterwards 33 per cent. The bank had the exclusive right of 

working throughout the Empire the iron, copper, lead, mercury, coal, 

petroleum, manganese, borax, and asbestos mines, not already conceded. 

There is also established at Tehran the- Russian ' Banque d'Escompte,' 

formerly ' Banque des Prets de Perse ' (which is connected with the Russian 

State Bank and floated the loans of 1900 and 1902 to Persia). A concession 

for a National Bank was signed, February 6, 1907. 

Communications. 

A small railway from Teheran to Shah Abdul-azim (six miles) was opened 

in July, 1888, and is in the hands of a Belgian company, ' Society des chemins 

de fer et tramways de Perse.' The river Karun at the head of the Persian Gulf 

has been opened to foreign navigation as far as Ahwaz. It is served by a fortnightly 

steamship service subsidised by the British Government. 

Until 1903 the only carriageable roads in Persia were Teheran-Kom and 

Teheran-Resht, the former 91 miles, the latter about 220 miles, and on both 

mails and travellers were conveyed by carts. Since then good roads have 

been made from Tabriz to Julfa (Russian frontier), Kazvin to Hamadan, 

Meshed to Askabad, Kom to SultaDabad, and others. Mails and passengers 

are now conveyed by carts on them and some other roads, but the latter, only 

slightly improved and being practically as nature made them, are somewhat 

difficult for wheeled traffic. A concession for the construction of a cart road 




with the option of changing it later for a ' chaussee,' or macadamised road, 

from Kazvin to Enzeli on the Caspian was granted to a Russian firm in 1893, 

and the Russian Government having aided with capital and guarantee, 

construction was hegun in 1897 and the road opened for traffic in August, 

1899. The concession includes the road from Kazvin to Teheran, which has 

been open for wheeled traffic since 1880, and a branch from Kazvin to 

Hamadan. All these are in good working order now. 

In 1898 Messrs. Lynch took over a concession granted to a Persian subject 

for a caravan road between Ahwaz and Ispahan, with rights of levying tolls, 

and opened the road for traffic in the autumn of 1900. In 1903 Messrs. Lynch 

acquired the concessionary rights of the Imperial Bank of Persia for the 

roads Teheran-Kom-Ispahan, Kom-Mohammerah, and formed the 'Persian 

Road and Transport Company,' which started construction on the Kom- 

Ispahan section in the summer of 1904. 

In virtue of another concession a Russian company has constructed a 

railway from Julfa (Perso-Russian frontier) to Tabriz (opened March 7, 1916). 

Persia has a system of telegraphs consisting of 6,312 miles of line, with 

10,754 miles of wire, and 131 stations.—(1) 1,706 miles of line with 5,318 

miles of wire are worked by an English staff, and form the ' Indo-European 

Telegraph Department in Persia,' a British Government department, established 

in virtue of a number of conventions from 1863 to 1901 between 

the British and Persian Governments. The last convention was for the 

construction and working by the British Government of a three-wire line 

from Kashan to British Beluehistan via Yezd Kerman, and Bam. Telegraphic 

communication with India was effected in May, 1904. (2) 457 miles 

of line with three wires, 1,371 miles of wire between Teheran and Julfa on 

the Russo-Persian frontier, are worked by the Indo-European Telegraph 

Company, Limited, according to its concession of 1868? (3) About 3,600 

miles of single wire lines belong to the Persian Government, and are worked 

by a Persian staff. 

The first regular postal service, established by an Austrian official in Persian 

employ, was opened January, 1877. Under it mails are regularly conveyed to 

and from the principal cities in Persia. There is a service twice a week to and 

from Europe via Resht or Tabriz and Tiflis' (letters to be marked ' via Russiae') 

and a weekly service to India via Bushire. There are 218 post offices. 

In 1902 the post office was joined to the Customs Department worked by 

Belgian officials. In August, 1909, posts and telegraphs were placed in 

charge of a Minister of Posts and Telegraphs, who is a member of the Cabinet, 

but as to the number of letters, post cards, parcels, &c, conveyed, and 

telegrams transmitted, very few statistics are obtainable. During the year 

1912-13, about 284,000,000 letters, post cards and newspapers, of which 

4,000,000 were registered, were delivered in Persia, and there were 320,000 

parcels delivered from Europe via Russia. 

Money, Weights, and Measures. 

The monetary unit is the kran, a silver coin, formerly weighing 28 nak 

hods (88 grains), then reduced to 26 nakhods (77 grains), now weighing 

only 24 nakhods (71 grains) or somewhat less. The proportion of pure silver 

was before the new coinage (commenced 1877) 92 to 95 per cent.; it was then 

fixed at 90, but occasionally coins with only 89i have been turned out frotu 

the Mint. In 1874 a kran had the value of a franc, 25 being equal to 11. 

The value of a kran is at present (January, 1916) about id., a 11. bill on 

London being worth 60 kran. 



DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES 1165 

The coins in circulation, with their values calculated at exchange \l. — 

50 kran, are :— 

Copper. | Silver. 

PAl . . . . 0-12d. | Five Shdhis=10 PHl = i Kran l'20d. 

Shdht = 2PAl . . . 0-2id. ! Ten Shdhts = \ Kran . 2'40d. 

Two Shdhts = i PHI . . O'iSd. One Kran = 20 Shdhis . iSOd. 

Four SMhts = (l Abbdsst). 0-96(2. Two Kran . . . 9-60rt. 

Five Kran . . . 2s. O'OOd. 

Copper is out of official circulation ; it only exists in outlying provinces. 

In consequence of an excess of coinage by a former mint-master the 

copper money greatly depreciated in value since 1896 and was circulating 

at less than its price of copper, viz. 80 to 83 copper shahis (weighing 

about 4 lb.) to one silver kran (i±d.). The Government then decided to 

introduce a nickel coinage instead ; great quantities of five and ten centimes 

pieces, of same size and weight as those current in Belgium, and of the 

nominal value of -fa and j^ kran, were coined at Brussels and put into 

circulation in the autumn of 1900. 

Gold coins are : \ Toman, \ Toman, 1 Toman, 2, 5 and 10 Tomans, 

but they are not in circulation as current money, because of their ever-varying 

value in Kran (silver) and no coins of the higher values have been struck 

for some years. A Toman in silver is the equivalent of 10 kran (now 

worth 3s. "id.), but a gold Toman has a value of 22 Kran (7s. id.). 

Accounts are reckoned in dinars, an imaginary coin, the ten-thousandth 

part of a toman of ten kran. A kran therefore = 1,000 dinars ; one shahi = 

50 dinars. 

The unit of weight is the miskal (71 grains), subdivided into 24 nakhods 

(2'96 grains) of 4 gandum ('74 grain) each. Sixteen miskals make a sir, 

and 5 sir make an abhassi, also called wakkeh, kervankeh. Most articles 

are bought and sold by a weight called batman or man. The mans most 

frequently in use are : — 

Man-i-Tabrtz = 8 Abbdssis . . . = 640 Miskals - 6-49 lbs. 

Man-i-Noh Abbdsst = 9 Abbdssis . . = 720 ,, = 7'30 ,, 

Man-i-Kohneh (the old man) . . . =1,000 ,, = 1014 ,, 

Man-i-Shdh = 2 Tabriz Mans . . . =1,280 ,, = 12'98 „ 

Man-i-Rey = 4 „ . . . =2,560 ,, = 25'96 ,, 

Man-i-Bender Abbdssi . . . . = 840 ,, = 8'52 ,, 

Man-i-IIdshemi=H Mans of. . . 720 ,, =116'80 „ 

Corn, straw, coal, &c, are sold by Kharvdr = 100 Tabriz Mans =649142 „ 

The unit of measure is the zar or gez ; of this standard several are in use 

The most common is the one of 40'95 inches ; another, used in Azerbiajan 

equals 44 '09 inches. A farsakh theoretically = 6,000 zar of 40 '95 inches = 3 '87 

miles. Some calculate the farsakh at 6,000 zar of 44'09 inches = 417 miles. 

The measure of surface is jerib = l,000 to 1,066 square zar of 40'95 

iaohes = l,294 to 1,379 square yards. 

Diplomatic Representatives- 

1. OF PERSIA IN GREAT BRITAIN. 

Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary.—Mirza Mehdi Khan, 

Mushir-ul-Molk (appointed July 4, 1911). 

Counsellor.—Mirza Abdol Ghaffar Khan. 

First Secretary.—Mohamed Ali Khan, Ehtesham Homayoun. 

Third Secretary.—Fathollah Khan Noury, Monazemes-Saltaneh. 

Honorary Attache". —Abdol Ali Khan, Sadighes-Saltaneh. 

Oonsul-General.—H. S. Foster. 




2. OF GREAT BRITAIN IN PERSIA. 

Teheran: Envoy', Minister, and Consul-General.—Sir G. M. Marling, 

C.B.. K.C.M.G. Appointed March, 1915. 

Counsellor.—Kern. E. Scott, C.M.G., M.V.O. 

Secretaries.—R. J. V. Astell and G. P. Churchill. 

Military Attacks.—Lt.-Co\. G. S. F. Napier. 

Honorary Attache.—Henry Maclean. 

There are Consular representatives at Teheran, Tabriz (C), Resht, 

Bushire (C. G.), Bunder Abbas, Meshed (C.-G.), Ispahan (C.-G.), Seistan, 

Kennan, Mohammerah, Shiraz, Kermanshah, Hamadan, Yezd, Ahwaz, 

Turbat-i-Haidari, Sultanabad. 

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Persia 

1. OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS. 

Blue Books.—Affairs of Persia, December 1906, to November, 1908, 1909, 1910,1911, 

1912,1018, and 1914. 

Eastern Persia; an Account of the Journeys of the Persian Boundary Commission, 

1870-72. 2 vols. 1876. 

Treaty Series, No. 10, 1903. This gives the Commercial Convention of May 27, 1903, 

The customs tariff is also given in the Board of Trade Journal (No. 325) for February 19, 

1903, and in United. States Consular Reports (No. 273) for June, 1903. Treaty series No. 

34. Convention with Russia relating to Persia, Afghanistan, and Thibet, 1907. 

Foreign Office Reports. [On the trade of Bushire, Litigah, Bunder Abbas, Mohammerah 

and other ports in the Persian Gulf. On Kermanshah. On the trade of Resht, and of 

Meshed. Annual Series. London. 

2. NON-OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS. 

Adams (Isaac), Persia by a Persian. London, 1906. 

Bassett (James), Persia, the Land of the Imams. London, 1S86. 

Benjamin (S. G. W.), Persia and the Persians. London, 1887.—Persia. [In Story of the 

Nations Series.] 3d. ed. London, 18S8. 

Bert (P. B.), Through Persia from the Gulf to the Caspian. London, 1909. 

Browne (E. G.), A Year amongst the Persians. London, 1893.—The Revolution in Persia. 

London, 1910. 

Chlrol (V.), The Middle Eastern Question. London, 1904. 

Crmo/i(W. P.), Persia. London, 1900. 

Gurzon (Lord), Persia and the Persian Question. [Cha]>. I. contains an account of 

European literature relating to Persia (900-1891). and there are bibliographical footnotes 

throughout the volumes.] 2 vols. London, 1892. 

Feuvrier (Dr.), Trois Ans a la Conr de Perse. Paris, 1899. 

Fraser (David), Persia and Turkey in Revolt. London, 1910. 

Gordon (Sir T. E.). Persia Revisited, 1895. London, 1896. 

Qrothe (H.), Wanderungen in Persien. Berlin, 1910.—Zur Natur und Wirtschaft von 

Vorderasien. I. Persien. Frankfurt, 1911. 

Hedin (Dr. Sven), Overland to India. 2 Vols. London, 1910. 

lyaasa (A. I.), Journey to the North Persian Kurdistan. (In Russian.) Petrograd, 1915. 

Jackson (A. WW.), Persia, Past and Present: a Book of Travel and Research, London, 1906. 

Jung (K.), Die WL-tschaftlichen Verhaltnisse Persiens. Berlin, 1910. 

Landor (H. S.), Across Coveted Lands. 2 vols. London, 1902. 

Layard (Sir H. A.), Early Adventures in Persia, &e. New ed. 2 vols. London, 1894. 

Malcolm (N.), Five Years in a Persian Town (Yezd). London, 1905. 

Markham (Clements R.), General Sketch of the History of Persia. London, 1874. 

Moore (A.), The Orient Express. London, 1914. 

Pumpelly (R.), Explorations in Turkestan, [with Eastern Persia and Sistan]. Washington, 

1905. 

Bawlinson ((*,), History of Ancient Persia. Vol. IV. of the History of the Ancient 

Monarchies of the East. London, 1868.—The Seventh GreatOrientalMonarchy. London,1876. 

Shuster (W. M.), The Strangling of Persia. London, 1912. 

Stillman (C. H.), The Subjects of the Shah. London, 1902. 

Strange {G. Le), The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate. Cambridge, 1905. 

Stuart (D.), The Struggle for Persia. London, 1902. 

Sykes(E\l& C.), Persia audits People. London, 1910. 

Sykes (P. M.), Ten Thousand Miles in Persia. London, 1902.—A History of Persia. 

2 vols. London, 1915. 

Warzee (Dorothy de, Baroness d'Hermallef, Peeps into Persia. London, 1913. 

Williams (E.G.), Across Persia. London, 1907. 

Wills (Dr. C. J.), The Land of the Lion and Sun. London, 1883.—Persia as it is. 

London, 1S86. 

Yate (C. E.), Khurasan and Sistan. London, 1900.

PERSIA. - Palgrave Connect

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?