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1121 

TURKEY 

AND TRIBUTARY STATES. 

(OTTOMAN EMPIRE.) 

Reigning Sultan. 

Abdul-Hamid II., born September 22, 1842 (15 Shaban 

1245), the second son of Sultan Abdul Medjid; succeeded to the 

throne on the deposition of his elder brother, Sultan Murad V., 

August 31, 1876. 

Children of the Sultan. 

I. Mehemmed-Selim Effendi, born January 11, 1870. II. 

Zekie Sultana, born January 12, 1871 ; married April 20, 

1889, to Nur-ed-din Pasha. III. Na'ime Sultana, born August 

5,1876; married March 17, 1898, to Mehemmed-Kemal-ed-din 

Pasha. IV. Abdul-Kadir Effendi, born February 23, 1878. 

V. Ahmed Effendi, born March 14, 1878. VI. Ndil'e Sultana, 

born January 8, 1884. VII. Mehemmed Burhan Ed-din Effendi, 

born December 19, 1885. VIII. Shadieh Sultana, born 1886. 

IX. AyisJieh Sultana, born 1887. X. Abdur-Rahim Effendi, 

born 1892. 

Brothers and Sisters of the Sultan. 

I. Mohammed Murad Effendi, born September 21, 1840 ; proclaimed 

. Sultan of Turkey on the deposition of his uncle, Sultan Abdul-Aziz, May 

30, 1876 ; declared by the Council of Ministers to be suffering from idiocy, 

and deposed from the throne, August 31, 1876. 

II. Djimili Sultana, born August 18, 1843 ; married, June 3, 1858, to 

Mahmoud-Djelal-Eddin Pasha, son of Ahmet Feti Pasha ; widow. 

III. Mehemmed-Reshad Effendi, born November 3, 1844; heir-apparent 

to the throne. 

IV. Kemal-Eddin Effendi, born December 3, 1847. 

V. Senilii Sultana, born November 21, 1851 ; married to the late 

Mahmud Pasha, son of Halil Pasha. 

VI. MediM Sultana, born 1857 ; married (1) 1879, to Nedjib Pasha ; 

widow 1885 ; (2) April 30, 1886, to Ferid Pasha. 

VII. Suleiman Effendi, born 1860. 

VIII. Wahid-Uddin Effendi, born January 12, 1861. 

The present sovereign of Turkey is the thirty-fourth, in male 

descent, of the house of Othman, the founder of the empire, and 

the twenty-eighth Sultan since the conquest of Constantinople. 

By the law of succession obeyed in the reigning family, the 

crown is inherited according to seniority by the male descendants 

of Othman, sprung from the Imperial Harem. The Harem is 

considered a permanent State institution. All childi'en born in 

the Harem, -whether offspring of free women or of slaves, are 

legitimate and of equal lineage. The Sultan is succeeded by his 

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1122 TURKEY AM) TRIBUTARY STATES 

eldest son, but only in case there are no uncles or cousins of 

greater age. 

It has not been the custom of the Sultans of Turkey for some centuries 

to contract regular marriages. The inmates of the Hareni come, by purchase 

or free will, mostly from districts beyond the limits of the empire, the 

majority from Circassia. From among these inmates the Sultan designates a 

certain number, generally seven, to bo ' Kadyn,' or Ladies of the Palace, the 

rest, called 'Odalik,' remaining under them as servants. The superintendent 

of the Harem, always an aged Lady of the Palace, and bearing the title of 

' Haznadar-Kadyn,' has to keep up intercourse with the outer world through 

the Guard of Eunuchs, whose chief, called ' Kyzlar-Agassi,' has the same rank 

as the Grand Vizier, but has the precedence if present on state occasions. 

We first hear of the Turks in the year 844 A.D., when they migrated from 

Tartary into Armenia, but they only came into prominence about 1030 A.r». 

Under Othman, the founder of the present dynasty, they, under the name 

of Othman, or Ottoman Turks, made themselves masters of several places 

in Asia, captured Nicea, and made Broussa their capital (1326). Their 

first appearance in Europe was in 1080, when a body of 2,000 crossed 

the Bosphorus to assist the Emperor Botoniates against his rival. By 

the end of the fourteenth century they had reduced Thessaly, Macedonia, and 

Bulgaria, and were the acknowledged rulers of nearly all Western Asia. 

Constantinople was first besieged by the Turks in 1392, but was not taken till 

1453. It has since been the capital of the Turkish Empire. Mohammed II., 

its conqueror, subdued Trebizond, Wallachia, Bosnia, Illyria, and the Morea. 

Under Bajazet II. and Selim I. Egypt was totally subdued, and Syria, 

Circassia, and Moldavia passed under Turkish rule. In 1522 Solyman I. 

subdued Rhodes, and in 1525 invaded Hungary and invested Vienna. This 

siege had to be raised, and was followed by a series of reverses. The territory 

under Turkish rule in Europe alone then extended over 230,000 square miles. 

Ever since, the glory of the empire has waned. In 1595 the Turks were 

driven out of Upper Hungary and Transylvania, and for a time out of 

Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1769 war broke out against Russia, ending in 

the expulsion of the Turks from the Crimea, the extension of the Russian 

frontier to the Bug and Dnieper, the partial independence of the Danubian 

principalities, and the acquisition by Russia of the right of a free passage for 

their fleet through the Dardanelles. In 1806 war with Russia was again resumed, 

and resulted in the extension of the Russian frontier to the Pruth 

(1812). The Greek war for independence (1822-28) ended, owing to the interference 

of the foreign Powers, in the loss of that kingdom. In 1833 Russia 

was successful in arresting the progress of Mehemet Ali Pasha of Egypt, but 

the hold of Turkey over Egypt was from that time nominal. By the Treaty 

of 1841, Turkey was virtually placed under the protection of the Great 

Powers, who guaranteed its integrity and independence. The Russo- 

Turkish war of 1854-56, in which Turkey was assisted by Great Britain and 

France, resulted in the abolition of the Russian protectorate over the Danubian 

principalities and the exclusion (up to 1870) of Rxissian vessels of war 

from the Black Sea. In 1858 Moldavia and Wallachia united to declare what 

was practically their independence. The war against Russia in 1876 resulted 

in the loss of Bulgaria, Eastern Roumelia, Thessaly, and a strip of Eastern 

Armenia, also in the entire independence of Roumania, Servia, and Montenegro, 

and in the administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria and 

of Cyprus by England. 

The following is a list of the names, with date of accession, of the thirtyfour 

sovereigns who ruled Turkey since the foundation of the empire and of 

the reigning house :— 



CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 1123 

House of 

Othman . . . . 1299 

Orchan . . . . 1326 

Murad 1 1359 

Bajazet I., 'The Thunderbolt' 

. . . . 1389 

Interregnum . . . 1402 

Mohammed I. - . . 1413 

Murad II 1421 

Mohammed II., Conqueror 

of Constantinople . . 1451 

Bajazet II. . . . 1481 

Selim 1 1512 

Solyman I., 'The Magnificent' 

. . . . 1520 

Selim II 1566 

Murad III. . . . 1574 

Mohammed III. . . 1595 

Ahmet 1 1603 

Mustapha I. 1617 

Othman. 

Othman II. . 

Murad IV., 'The Intrepid' 

Ibrahim 

Mohammed IV. 

Solyman II. . 

Ahmet II. . 

Mustapha II. 

Ahmet III. . 

Mahmoud I. . 

Othman III.. 

Mustapha III. 

Abdul Hamid I. . 

Selim III. . 

Mustapha IV. 

Mahmoud II. 

Abdul-Medjid 

Abdul-Aziz . 

Murad V. . . . 

Abdul-Hamid II. . 

1618 

1623 

1640 

1648 

1687 

1691 

1695 

1703 

1730 

1754 

1757 

1773 

1789 

1807 

1808 

1839 

1861 

1876 

1876 

The civil list of the Sultan is variously reported at from one to two millions 

sterling. To the Imperial family belong a great number of crown domains, 

the income from which contributes to the revenue. The amount charged to 

the Budget of 1897-98 was £T882,550. 

Constitution and Government. 

The fundamental laws of the empire are based on the 

precepts of the Koran. The will of the Sultan is absolute, in so 

far as it is not in opposition to the accepted truths of the 

Mahometan religion as laid down in the sacred book of the 

Prophet. Next to the Koran, the laws of the ' Multeka,' a code 

formed of the supposed sayings and opinions of Mahomet, and 

the sentences and decisions of his immediate successors, are 

binding upon the Sovereign as well as his subjects. Another 

code of laws, the ' Cahon nameh,' formed by Sultan Solyman the 

Magnificent, from a collection of ' hatti-sheriffs,' or decrees, 

issued by him and his predecessors, is held in general obedience, 

but merely as an emanation of human authority. 

The legislative and executive authority is exercised, under 

the supreme direction of the Sultan, by two high dignitaries, the 

Sadr-azam,' or Grand Vizier, the head of the temporal Government, 

and the ' She'ik-ul-Islam,' the head of the Church. Both 

are appointed by the Sovereign, the latter with the nominal 

concurrence of the ' TJlema,' a body comprising the clergy and 

chief functionaries of the law, over which the ' Shei'k-ul-Islam' 

presides, although he himself does not exercise priestly functions. 

Connected with the ' Ulema' are the ' Mufti,' the interpreters of 



1124 TUltKKY AND TIUUl'TAKY STATES 

the Koran. The Ulema comprise all the groat judges, theologians, 

and jurists, and the great teachers of literature and 

science who may be summoned by the Mufti. The principal 

civic functionaries bear the titles of Effendi, Bey, or Pasha. 

Forms of constitution, after the model of the West European 

States, were drawn up at various periods by successive Ottoman 

Governments, the first of them embodied in the ' Hatti-Humayoun' 

of Sultan Abdul-Medjid, proclaimed February 18, 1856, 

and the most recent in a decree of Sultan Abdul-Hamid II., of 

November, 1876. But the carrying out of these projects of 

reform appears entirely impossible in the present condition of 

the Ottoman Empire. 

The Grand Vizier, as head of the Government and representative 

of the Sovereign, is assisted by the Medjliss-i-Hass, or Privy 

Council, which corresponds to the British Cabinet. The 

Medjliss-i-Hass consists of the following members:—1. The 

Grand Vizier; 2. The Sheik-ul-Islam; 3. The Minister of the 

Interior ; 4. The Minister of War; 5. The Minister of Evkaf 

(Worship); 6. The Minister of Public Instruction; 7. The 

Minister of Public Works; 8. President of Council of State; 

9. Minister of Foreign Affairs; 10. Minister of Finance; 

11. Minister of Marine; 12. Minister of Justice; 13. Minister 

of Civil List. 

The whole of the empire is divided into thirty Vilayets, 

or governments, and subdivided into Sanjaks, or provinces, 

Kazas, or districts, Nahies, or subdistricts, and Karies, or 

communities. A Vali, or governor-general, who is held to 

represent the Sultan, and is assisted by a provincial council, is 

placed at the head of each Vilayet. The provinces, districts, &c, 

are subjected to inferior authorities (Mutesarifs, Cai'makams, 

Mudirs and Muktars) under the superintendence of the principal 

governor. The division of the country into Vilayets has been 

frequently modified of late for political reasons. For similar 

reasons six of the Sanjaks of the empire are governed by 

Mutesarifs appointed directly by the Sultan, and are known as 

Mutessarifats. All subjects, however humble their origin, are 

eligible to, and may fill, the highest offices in the Starte. 

Under the capitulations foreigners residing in Turkey are 

under the laws of their respective countries, and are amenable 

for trial (in cases in which Turkish subjects are not concerned) 

to a tribunal presided over by their consul. Foreigners who own 

real property are amenable to the Ottoman civil courts in questions 

relative to their landed property. Cases between foreign 

and Turkish subjects are tried in the Ottoman courts, a drago- 



AREA AND POPULATION 

1125 

man of the foreign consulate being present to see that the trial 

be according to the law ; the carrying out of the sentence, if 

against the foreigner, to be through his consulate. Cases between 

two foreign subjects of different nationalities are tried in the 

court of the defendant. 

Grand Vizier.—Khalil Rifaat Pasha, appointed November 7, 

1895. 

She'ik-ul-Islam.—Jemalledin Effendi, appointed September, 

1891. 

Minister of Interior.—Memduh Pasha. 

Minister for Foreign Affairs.—Tewfik Pasha, appointed 

November 7, 1895. 

Minister for War.—Riza Pasha. 

Minister of Marine.—Hassan Pasha. 

Minister of Finance.—Reshad Bey. 

Minister of Justice.—Abdurrahman Pasha, appointed November 

7, 1895. 

Public Works and Commerce.—Zihni Pasha. 

Public Instruction.—Zultdi Pasha. 

Pious Foundations (Fvkafs).—Galib Pasha. 

President of the Council of State.—Said Pasha, appointed 


Area and Population, 

The total area of the Ottoman Empire (including States 

nominally subject) may be estimated at 1,580,000 square miles, 

and its total population at about 40,000,000, viz. :— 

Immediate possessions :— 

Europe 

Asia . . . . 

Africa 

Bulgaria (including Eastern Roumelia) autonomous 

. . . . . . 

Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Novibazar— 

under Austria-Hungary . . . . 

Crete 

Samos—tributary principality 

Egypt (1897) 

Total 

Square Miles 

65,752 

650,394 

398,900 

1,115,046 

37,860 

23,570 

3,326 

180 

400,000 

464,936 

1,579,982 

Population 

6,086,300 

17,545,300 

1,300,000 

24,931,600 

3,310,713 

1,568,092 

301,273 

54,830 

9,734,405 

14,969,313 

39,900,913 



1126 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES 

The area and population by Vilayets, according to recent 

estimates, are as follows :— 

Vilayets 

Europe :— 

Constantinople . 

Adrianoplo . . . . 

| Salonica . . . . . 

Monastir . . . . . 

Kossova . . . . . 

Scutari (Albania) 

Janina . . . . . 

1 

Total (Europe) 

Asia:— 

ASIA MINOR :— 

Ismid (Mutessarifat) . 

Broussa 

Bigha (Mutessarifat) . 

Archipelago . . . . 

Smyrna . . . . . 

Castamouni . . . . 

Angora 

Konia . . . . . 

Adana . . . . . 

Sivas 

Trebizond (1898) 

Total (Asia Minor) 

ARMENIA AND KHURDISTAN :— 

Erzeroum 

Mamouret-iil-Aziz 

Diarbekir . . . . . 

Bitlis 

Van 

Total (Armenia) . 

MESOPOTAMIA :— 

Mossul 

Bagdad 

Bassora . . . . . 

Total (Mesopotamia) . 

A,e„ 

Sq. Milts 

2,702 

15,015 

13,681 

10,690 

12,100 

4,516 

7,045 

65,752 

4,323 

28,486 

2,625 

2,741 

20,844 

19,184 

26,055 

39,681 

14,359 

24,240 

11,850 [ 

194,389 

19,686 

13,240 

13,703 

10,345 

15,517 

72,491 

29,220 

54,503 

16,482 

100,205 

i 

Population 

1,136,000 

1,006,500 

1,165,400 

847,400 

961,000 

322,000 

648,000 

6,086,300 

222,800 

1,626,900 

129,400 

325,900 

1,396,500 

1,018,900 

892,900 

1,088,000 

403,400 

1,086,500 

1,163,800 

9,355,000 

597,000 

575,300 

471,500 

398,600 

430,000 

2,472,400 

300,300 

850,000 

200,000 

1,350,300 


Pop. 

per Sq. 

Mile 

120 

67 

85 

79 

79 

71 

92 

92 

52 

57 

49 

119 

67 

52 

31 

26 

28 

44 

99 

48 

31 

44 

36 

39 

28 

34 

10 

16 

13 

13 


Vilayets 

SYMA :— 

Aleppo . . . . 

Zor 

Syria . . . . 

Beyrouth . . . . 

Jerusalem (Mutessarifat) . 

Lebanon (privileged Province) 

Total (Syria) 

ARABIA :— 

Hedjaz (approximate) 

Yemen „ 

Total (Arabia) 

Total (Asia) . 

Africa:— 

Tripoli (approximate) 

Benghazi „ 

Total (Africa) 

Total . 

ABEA AND POPULATION 1127 

Area 

Sq. Miles 

30,340 

32,849 

23,816 

11,773 

8,222 

2,509 

109,509 

96,500 

i 77,200 

! 

173,700 

650,394 

j 398,900 

i 

398,900 

1,115,046 

1 Population 

995,800 

100,000 

955,700 

533.600 

333,000 

399,500 

3,317,600 

\ 300,000 

750,000 

1,050,000 

17,545,300 

800,000 

500,000 

1,300,000 

1 24,931,600 

Pop. 

per Sq. 

Mile 

31 

3 

40 

44 

41 

158 

30 

0 

9 

6 

27 

} » 

Accurate ethnological statistics of the population do not exist. In the 

European provinces under immediate Turkish rule, Turks (of Finno-Tataric 

race), Greeks, and Albanians are almost equally numerous, and constitute 70 

per cent, of the population. Other races represented are Serbs, Bulgarians, 

Roumanians, Armenians, Magyars, Gipsies, Jews, Circassians. In Asiatic 

Turkey there is a large Turkish element, with some four million Arabs, besides 

Greeks, Syrians, Kurds, Circassians, Armenians, Jews, and numerous other races. 

The population of the chief towns is approximately as follows :— 

Constantinople 

Salonica 

Adrianople 

Smyrna 

Bagdad 

Damascus 

Aleppo . 

Beirut . 

Brussa . 

Kaisarieh 

Kerbela. 

1,125,000 

105,000 

81,000 

201,000 

145,000 

140,500 

127,150 

118,800 

76,303 

72,000 

65,000 

Mosul . 

Mecca . 

Medineh 

Adana . 

Koniah . 

Sivas 

Jerusalem 

Erzerum 

Bitlis . 

Trebizond 

Diarbekr 

3 

22 

61,000 

60,000 

48,000 

45,000 

44,000 

43,100 

42,000 

38,900 

38,800 

35,000 

34,000 

The Lebanon is governed by a Mutessarif (Christian), and has a special 

government. Its population is reckoned at 245,000 or about 111 per square 

mile. 



1128 TURKEY ANT) TRIBUTARY STATES 

Keligion and Education. 

Mahometans form the vast majority of the population in 

Asiatic Turkey, but only one-half of the population in European 

Turkey. Recognised by the Turkish Government are the 

adherents of seven non-Mahometan creeds—namely : 1. Latins, 

Franks, or Catholics, who use the Roman Liturgy, consisting of 

the descendants of the Genoese and Venetian settlers in the 

empire, and proselytes among Armenians; Bulgarians, and others ; 

2. Greeks; 3. Armenians; 4. Syrians and United Chaldeans; 

5. Maronites, under a Patriarch at Kanobin in Mount Lebanon; 

6. Protestants, consisting of converts chiefly among the Armenians 

; 7. Jews. These seven religious denominations are invested 

with the privilege of possessing their own ecclesiastical rule. 

The Bishops and Patriarchs of the Greeks and Armenians, and 

the ' Chaeham-Baschi,' or high-rabbi of the Jews, possess, in 

consequence of those functions, considerable influence. 

The following shows the population of Constantinople (1885), 

arranged in order of religious beliefs, viz.: Mussulmans, 384,910 ; 

Greeks, 152,741; Armenians, 149,590; Bulgarians, 4,377; 

Roman Catholics (native), 6,442; Greek Latins, 1,082; Protestants 

(native), 819; Jews, 44,361; Foreigners, 129,243. 

Total, 873,565. In the Turkish Islands of the iEgean Sea 

the population is mostly Christian: 296,800 Christians to 

27,200 Mussulmans. In various parts of Asiatic Turkey 

the estimates are: Asia Minor, Mussulmans, 7,179,900 

Armenians, 576,200; other Christians, 972,300; Jews,

FINANCE 1129 

1900 with 14 professors, who teach theology (Mussulman), 

mathematics, philosophy, law, and medicine. There are also 

an Imperial art school, a Great National School (Greek) of old 

foundation with 400 students, and a Greek theological seminary 

with 80 students. 

The number of mosques in the Turkish Empire is 2,120, of which 379 are 

in Constantinople. The number of the clergy is 11,600. Connected with the 

mosques are 1,780 elementary schools, where education is supplied gratis. The 

private revenue of the Evkaf (church), previous to the war of 1878, was 

30,200,000 piastres (251,0002.) per annum, but they have now been reduced to 

20,000,000 piastres (166,000?.). The expenses are reckoned at 15,000,000 

piastres (125,0002.). The stipend of the shei'k-ul-Islam 7,031,520 piastres 

(59,0002.), and those of the Naibs and Muftis 7,876,646 piastres (66,0002.), are 

paid by the State. The principal revenues of the Evkaf are derived from the 

sale of landed property which has been bequeathed it, and which is known 

under the name of Vacouf. Three-fourths of the urban property of the 

Empire is supposed to belong to the Vacouf. Purchasers of property of this 

description pay a nominal annual rent to the Evkaf; but should they die 

without direct heirs the property reverts to the Church. 

Finance. 

A general view of the various sources of the public revenue of Turkey and 

of the branches of expenditure is given in the following tables, in which the 

average revenue and expenditure (including supplementary credits) for the 

years 1308-1310 (1892-93 to 1894-95) are shown, together with the official 

estimates for the year 1313 (ending February 28, 1898):— 

Sources of Revenue. 

Direct: 

Tithes 

Verghis (land and property tax) 

Temettu (income tax) . 

Exemption from military service . 

Aghnams (tax on sheep, &c.) 

Various 

Indirect: 

Customs 

Various 1 . . . . . 

Administrative : 

Military departments . 

Civil „ . . . 

Share in Tobacco Regie profits 

Tribute revenues various 2 

Total 

Average. 

£T 

4,332,338 

2,511,924 

742,135 

886,210 

1,737,849 

321,273 

2,165,784 

2,571,146 

532,793 

1,938,202 

51,775 

1,136,316 

18,927,745 

1S97-98 

£T 

4,100,000 

2,511,924 

500,000 

886,210 

1,937,849 

321,273 

2,000,000 

2,571,146 

532,793 

1,962,036 

51,775 

1,136,316 

18,511,322 

1 Salt, tobacco, spirits, stamps, fisheries, silk ami other sources mostly assigned to 

the Ottoman Delit Administration. 

a Including those assigned to the Debt Administration. 

I I) 




Branches of Expenditure. 

Civil List 

Public debt : 

Tributary debt . . . . 

Loans under Debt Administration. 

Other loans . . . . . 

Floating debt . . . . 

Railway guarantees 

War indemnity to Russia 

Pious foundations, &

FINANCE 1131 

Year of Original Converted Year of j Original 

Issue Amount into Issue 1 Amount 

1854 

£ 

5,000,000 1894. 3Jp.c. 18S5 i 

1850 5,000,000 

1886 

1858 5,000,000 1881. A. 1888 

1660 2,037,220 — B. 1890 

1862 8,000,000 — A. 1890 

1863-4 6,000,000 — B. 1891 

1865 

1865 

1869 

6,000,000 

87,200,0001 

2,480,000 

— 

— 

(J. 

D. 

1894 

1894 

1894 

1869 22,177,220 1881. C. 

1896 

1871 5,700,000 1894. 3J p.o. 

1870-72 32,000,0001 1881. D. 

1872 11,126,200 — B. 

1873 27,777,780 — C 

1877 5,000,000 1891. 4 PC 

1K78 7.427.260 ' 1890. 4 PC 

£ 

Interest 

Purpose 

930,000 

Pr. cent 

7 Railway 

5,909,080 5 Bank Paym. 

1,500,000 5 

7,827,240 4 Conversion 

4,545,000 4 Consolid. 

6,316,920 4 Conversion 

900,000 

8,212,340 

1,600,000 

4 

3J 

4 

Tumbeki Co. 

Conversion 

Railway 

2,975,200 5 Financial 

1 

Approximate. 

The loans of 1854, 1871, and 1877 were secured on the Egyptian tribute ; 

that of 1878 (issued to consolidate advances by Galata bankers) at first on the 

Customs but afterwards by a first charge on the indirect contributions conceded 

to the bondholders. The loan of 1855 was guaranteed by France and 

England, and that of 1869 of 2,480,0002. was redeemed by October, 1873. 

The Ottoman Government being unable to meet its liabilities, made an 

arrangement with its creditors, confirmed by the Irade of December 8/20, 1881. 

All the loans then outstanding (with the exceptions mentioned) were with the 

arrears of interest reduced and converted into the four series denoted by the 

letters A, B, C, D. A Council of Administration at Constantinople was 

appointed, and to it were handed over for distribution among the bondholders 

the funds derived from the excise duties, from the Bulgarian, Eastern 

Roumelian, and Cyprus tribute, and from the tax on Persian tobacco. The 

sum of 536,3632. was to be deducted for the service of the debt of 1878, and 

the balance was to be applied to the service of the four series, four-fifths to 

interest and one-fifth to amortisation. The interest was never to exceed 4 per 

cent., and any surplus was to be handed over to the government The interest 

paid has only been 1 per cent, but the reserve fund has accumulated to 

308,2602. The Council of Administration now undertakes the service of all 

the Turkish loans except those secured on the Egyptian tribute, the guaranteed 

loan of 1855, the loan of 1886 secured on the Customs, and the Tumbeki 

loan of 1894 (900,0002.). 

The amounts collected by the Council of Administration in two years 

have been:— 

- 

Salt . . . . 

Spirits 

Stamps 

Fisheries . 

Silk . 

Tobacco duties . 

n tenth . 

„ Eegie . 

1898-99 

£T 

870,789 

265,068 

233,407 

52,310 

65,505 

779 

91,815 

721,378 

1899-1900 

£T 

823,827 

270,508 

235,168 

47,543 

90,720 

117 

90,000 

702,887 

Bills on Customs, 

Cyprus . 

Tumbeki . 

Eastern Ruuielia 

Various . 

Total . 

Expenses . 

1898-99 

Net revenue 

2,131,082 2,154,702 | 

These figures include the revenues of Thessaly. 

4 D 2 

£T 

102,596 

50,000 

i 101,351 

1,964 

2,556,962 

425,880 

1899-1900 

£T 

102,596 

50,000 

202,702 

666 | 

2,616,735 

462,033 



1132 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY' STATES 

The condition of the Turkish deht was as follows in the. middle of 

1900 :— 

£T 

Series B. C. D. outstanding . . . . 82,823,127 

Various loans 1888-94 30,338,087 

Lottery bonds 13,953,897 

Five per cent, customs loan, 1886 . . . 5,169,968 

Four per cent. Tombac bonds, 1894 . . 920,260 

Five per cent, loan, 1896 3,202,320 

Total loans 136,407,650 

Of debts which are not loans, the most important is the balance of the 

Russian war indemnity, amounting to £T24,513,000 in 1898. Others are 

£T50,000 of indemnity to Russian subjects, and £T273,494 to the Damascus 

Serghis Railway. 

Defence. 

I. FRONTIERS. 

Turkey occupies the South-Eastern cornel of Europe and the 

Western portion of Asia. 

The boundaries of Turkey have been considerably modified 

of late years. European Turkey has for frontier States in the 

north, Montenegro, Bosnia, Servia, Bulgaria, and Eastern 

Roumelia. The frontiers are mountainous towards the east, but 

at many points passage is easy. 

The western frontier of European Turkey is formed by the 

Adriatic and the Ionian Seas. Its southern limits are formed by 

Thessaly, the iEgean Sea, the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora, 

and the Bosphorus, the shores of which are strongly fortified. 

Asiatic Turkey has for its northern boundary the Black Sea, 

the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmora, and the Dardanelles. 

The boundaries to the west are the Archipelago, the Mediterranean, 

Arabia Petrea, and the Red Sea. Its limits to the 

south are Central Arabia and the Persian Gulf, those to the east 

Persia and Trans-Caucasia (Russia), the chief stronghold near the 

Russian frontier being Erzeroum. 

II. ARMY. 

In Turkey all Mussulmans over 20 years of age are liable to military service, 

and this liability continues for 20 years. Non-Mahometans are not 

liable, but pay an exemption tax of about six shillings per head, levied on 

males of all ages. Nomad Arabs, though liable, furnish no recruits, and 

many nomad Kurds evade service. The army consists of (1) the Nizam, or 

Regular Army, and its reserves; (2) the Eedif or Landwehr; and (3) the 

Muslahfuz or Landsturm. Conscripts are divided into the first and second 

levies. The former serve C years in the Nizam—4 with the colours and 2 in 

the reserve ; 8 years in the Redif—4 in the first ban and 4 in the second ; and 



DEFENCE 1133 

li years in the Mustahfuz ; 20 years in all. The latter consist of those not 

drawn for the contingent. They form what is called the Tertib Sani and the 

Mamsiz; they constitute part of the reserve, undergoing from 6 to 9 mouths' drill 

in the first year of service, and 30 days' drill at their homes in subsequent years. 

The whole empire is divided into 7 army districts, with which are associated 

7 corps d'armee called Ordus, with their headquarters respectively at:—1, 

Constantinople ; 2, Adrianople ; 3, Monastir; 4, Erzinjan ; 5, Damascus ; 6, 

Baghdad ; 7, Sanaa (the Yemen). The troops of the 7th district are recruited 

chiefly from the 4 th and 5th districts, while the garrisons of Tripoli are recruited 

from the 1st, 2nd, and 5th districts. 

The Nizam infantry is organised in companies, battalions, regiments, 

brigades, and divisions. It contains 66 regiments of the line, each with. 4 

battalions, except three which have 3 battalions; 2 regiments of Zouaves 

of 2 battalions each ; 1 regiment of firemen of 4 battalions ; and 15 battalions 

of rifles. There are also 12 battalions of Tripolitan militia for local service. 

Each battalion of the line, Zouaves and rifles, consists of 4 companies. Two 

line regiments form a brigade, 2 brigades and a rifle battalion form an infantry 

division, and 2 divisions form an ordu. Each line and rifle battalion, on a 

war footing, has 24 officers, 62 non-commissioned officers, and 836 men, the 

total being 922 men of all ranks, with 51 horses. The peace strength varies 

from 250 to 550, according to the locality. The total war establishment of a 

regiment of 4 battalions is 3,764 men of all ranks, with 207 horses. The 

infantry are being armed with Mauser rifles ; the first three district corps have 

received the small bore weapon (7'65 mm.); the fourth, the large bore (9'5 

mm.). About 450,000 rifles have been distributed, 250,000 remain in the 

depots in Constantinople, and it is proposed to purchase 222,000 more. 

The Redif is organised in two bans. (An enactment for their fusion into 

one has as yet been only partially applied.) The first ban consists of 48 

regiments; 8 of 4 battalions from each of the first 6 ordu districts. The 

second ban consists of 40 regiments, 8 of 4 battalions from each of the first 

5 ordu districts. On a war footing the establishments of the Redif are intended 

to be the same as those of the Nizam, but battalions are often 1,200 strong. 

They are armed with the same rifles. 

The Nizam cavalry consists of 38 regiments of the line, 2 regiments of the 

guard, and 2 squadrons of mounted infantry (at Yemen). There is no Redif 

cavalry organised. The line and guard regiments each consist of 5 squadrons, 

the fifth being a depot. The guard regiments are quartered at Constantinople, 

and belong to the first ordu. Of the line regiments, 36 arc formed into 6 

cavalry divisions, one to each ordu, and 2 other regiments belong to the 

garrison at Tripoli. There are thus 202 squadrons of cavalry, of which 40 

are depot squadrons. The war establishment of a regiment consists of 39 

officers and 647 men, 686 in all, or, adding the depot squadrons, 854 of all 

ranks. Each regiment has 880 horses, inclusive of train. It is proposed to 

form in the fourth, fifth, and sixth ordu districts 48 regiments of militia or 

Hamadieh cavalry, commanded by tribal leaders, and associated with the 

regular army. The tribes will find the men, horses, and equipment, and the 

Government the armament. Each regiment will have from 512 to 1,152 men 

in from 4 to 6 squadrons. 

The field artillery is being reorganised in accordance with a scheme 

sanctioned in 1891, whereby the force will be considerably strengthened. It 

is intended that each of the first 5 [ordus shall have one battalion with 3 

batteries of horse artillery, and six regiments of field and mountain artillery, 

comprising 30 batteries of field and 6 batteries of mountain artillery, each 

battery having, on war footing, 6 guns. Each of these groups of 6 regiments 

will form 3 brigades of which one will be attached to the Nizam, another to 




the first ban, and the third to the second ban of their respective onlus. The 

sixth ordu will have two regiments of artillery with, altogether, 12 field and 

2 mountain batteries. The seventh ordu will have 3 field and 4 niountaiu 

batteries. Tripoli will have 4 field and 2 mountain batteries. Turkey will 

thus have, in all, 15 batteries of horse artillery, 169 field and 38 mountain 

batteries with a total of 1,332 guns. To the first ordu there are two ammunition 

trains, to the other five only one. The transport consists generally 

of pack animals. On a war footing, the establishment of a field battery consists 

of about 137 officers and men with 100 horses. Of fortress artillery there 

are 38 battalions, of which 18 belong to the ordus, located chiefly at Constantinople 

and Erzeroum, and 20 to the Ordnance Department. Of these, 12 

companies are in the Bosphorus batteries, 8 in the Bulair lines, and the 

remainder in Mediterranean fortresses. 

It is stated (February, 1900) that 96 quick-firing Krupp guns of 7'5 cm. 

calibre are about to be ordered for the Adrianople and Monastir district corps. 

There are 19 engineer companies (pioneers), and 4 telegraph companies 

distributed among the 7 ordus, the second ordu having, besides, a pontoon 

train. There are also 12 engineer companies and 4 torpedo companies belonging 

to the Ordnance Department. The train service, so far as it exists, consists 

of 13 companies. The supply service is almost entirely staff; extraneous 

transport would be required for commissariat supplies. The medical service 

consists only of medical officers and apothecaries ; there are no bearers nor 

cadres for field hospitals. There are 117 battalions of gendarmerie, a military 

organisation under civil control in time of peace. 

The following is a summary of the effective combatant services of the 

Turkish Army :— 

Infantry 

Cavalry 

Artillery 

Engineers 

Total ... 

648 battalions 

202 squadrons 

1,356 guns ... 

39 companies 

III. NAVY. 

583,200 

55,300 

54,720 

7,400 

700,620 

men 

The war strength of the army, permanent, territorial, and reserve, in 1900 

was about 1,500,000 men. 

There has lately been a rumour that an effort was to be made to increase 

the Ottoman fleet, and overtures have been made to shipbuilding firms in this 

country and in Germany. There is not, however, any evidence of real 

progress. A survey of the navy reveals it as mainly an obsolescent, and 

in great part already an obsolete fighting force. The ships are of such 

small displacement or were built so long ago (1864-65) as to belong now to the 

class local defence vessels. 

Information concerning the state of the Turkish navy is not readily 

accessible, but the following table is based upon such information as is available. 

It excludes transports, training ships, and non-effective vessels. On 

the whole it errs by giving a picture too favourable. Many of the smaller 

vessels are probably useless. 


,, 

j) 

,, 


Coast Defence Ships 

Cruisers, 2nd class 

Cruisers, 3rd class 

Gunboats, &e. , . 

Launched iBuild- 

Dec. 189S ing 

12 

2 

4 

C 

DEFENCE 1185 

Torpedo craft, 1st class. 

., 2nd „ 

,, 3rd ,, 

Launched Build 

iDec. 1897i iug 

The table which follows is of the Turkish armourclad fleet. Abbreviations 

:—a.g.b. armoured gunboat; bar., barbette; C.6., central battery; t., 

turret; Q.F., quick-firing. In the column of armaments, light and machine 

guns are not given. 

Description | 

a. g. b. Feth-eUIslam 

a. g. b. Memdouiyeh 

bar. Aziziyeh 

bar. 

bar. 

bar. 

c. b. 

c. b. 

bar. 

e. b. 

c. b. 

c. b. 

t. 

c. b. 

c. b. 

c. b. 

c. b. 

c.b. 

Name 

Mahmoudiyeh 

Osmaniyeh . 

Orkaniyeh . 

Mesoudiyeh 

Hamidiyeh . 

Abdul Kader .1 

(Unfinished) ] 

Aasar-i-SheJket . 

Nedjim-i-Shej ket.i 

As$ar-i-Tevfik 

Hufzi-i-Bahjnan . 

Avni-lllah . 

Idjlaliyeh . 

Feth-i-Boulend . 

Mouin-i-Zafter . 

Moukadem-i-Huir 

Launched ! 

1864 

1864 

181)4 

1864 

1864 

1865 

1874 

1SS5 

1S68 

1868 

1868 

1868 

186!) 

1S70 

1870 

I860 

1872 

Displacement 

330 

330 

6,400 

6,400 

6,400 

6,400 

8,990 

6,700 

8,000 

2,050 

2,050 

4,600 

2,500 

2,310 

2,240 

2,720 

2,330 

2,080 

Extreme 

Armouring, 

* 

12 

0 

14 

6 

IS 

8 

• r 4 

6 

6 

0 

6 

!) 

Armament. 

2 7in. (Armstrong) . 

Ditto . . . . 

211in.; 8 5'9in. ; 6 SOiii 

(Krupp) . . . . 

Ditto 

Ditto 

12 lOin. (18-ton, Arm., 

mnz ) ; 3 5'9in (Krupp). 

10 10'2in.; 2 6-Oin. (Krupp) 

4 llin.; 6 5'Oin. (Krupp), 

10Q.F 

1 Oin.; 4 7in. (Armstrong) 

Ditto 

8 9-4in.; 2 8-2in. (Krupp) . 

2 9m.; 2 7in.(Arm.); l,5in 

(Krupp). 

4 Oin. (Armstrong) 

2 9in. ; 2 Tin. (Arm.); 1 

5'Jin. (K.) 

4 Oin. (Armstrong) 

4 Oin. (Ann.); 1 4'7in. 

(Krupp) . . . . 

Ditto 

Torpedo 

Ejectors 

The old sister battleships, now coast-defence vessels, Aziziyeh, 

Mahmoudiyeh, Orkaniyeh, and Osmaniyeh (6,400 tons), are being, or have 

been, transformed by having barbette turrets placed at each end of their 

batteries for the heavy Krupp guns (the hope being to fit them for something 

more than local defence). An armourclad of 6,700 tons, the Hamidiyeh, was 

launched at Constantinople in 1885, and is said, after long delays, to have 

made her trials, but it is believed that not all her guns are even now mounted. 

This vessel, the Mesoudiyeh, and the unfinished armoured barbette cruiser 

Abdul Kader, are the largest ships in the Turkish navy. The Mesoudiyeh 

is 332 feet long, with extreme beam of 59 feet. She is constructed on the 

central battery principle, sister to our Superb. She was sent to Genoa for 

... 

... 

2 

2 

2 

2 

10 

::: 

... 

i 

i 

19 

7 

Indicated 

horse-power 

200 

290 

3,740 

3,740 

3,740 

3,740 

7,800 

0,800 

11,500 

1,750 

1,900 

3,560 

200 

nominal 

2,200 

1,800 

4,200 

2,200 

3,000 


Description 

' 8-0 

8-0 

12-0 

12-0 

120 

:12-0 

:13-0 

13-0 

li'-'s 

ill-3 

,13'8 

12-0 

112-2 

110 

140 

12-5 

125 

i 



recoils!ruelion, ;it. the Sultan's private expense, but flic work is itoi yet 

complete. The Assar-i-Tcwjik is to be reconstructed in Germany. The 

contract for building a cruiser in America is said to be signed, but delays arc 

probable. 

For the navy of Turkey the crews are raised in the same manner as tinland 

forces, partly by conscription, and partly by voluntary enlistment. The 

time of service in the navy is twelve years, five in active service, three in the 

reserve, and four in the Redif. The nominal strength of the navy is 6 viceadmirals, 

11 rear-admirals, 208 captains, 289 commanders, 228 lieutenants, 

187 ensigns, and 30,000 sailors, besides about 9,000 marines. 

Production and Industry. 

Land in Turkey is held under four different forms of tenure—namely, 

1st, as 'Mlri,' or Crown lands; 2nd, as 'Vaeouf,' or pious foundations; 

3rd, as 'Mulikaneh,' or Crown grants; and 4th, as 'Miilk,' or freehold 

property. The first description, the ' miri,' or Crown lands, which form the 

largest portion of the territory of tho Sultan, are held direct from the Crown. 

The Government grants the right to cultivate an unoccupied tract on the 

payment of certain fees, but continues to exercise the rights of seigniory over 

the land in question, as is implied in the condition that if the owner 

neglects to cultivate it for a period of three years it is forfeited to the Crown. 

The second form of tenure, the 'vaeouf,' was instituted originally to provide 

for the religion of the State and the education of the people, by the erection 

of mosques and schools ; but this object has been set aside, or neglected, for 

several generations, and the 'vaeouf lands have mostly been seized by 

Government officials. The third class of landed property, the ' mulikaneh,' 

was granted to the spahis, the old feudal troops, in recompense for the 

military service required of them, and is hereditary, and exempt from tithes. 

The fourth form of tenure, the 'miilk,' or freehold property, does not exist 

to a great extent. Some house property in the towns, and of the land in the 

neighbourhood of villages, is 'miilk,' which the peasants purchase from tima 

to time from the Government. 

Only a small proportion of arable land is under cultivation, owing principally 

to the want of roads and means of conveyance, which preclude the 

possibility of remunerative exportation. 

The system of levying a tithe on all produce leaves no inducement to the 

farmer to grow more than is required for his own use, or in his immediate 

proximity. The agricultural development of the country is further crippled 

by custom dues for the exportation of produce from one province to another. 

The system of agriculture is most primitive. The soil for the most part is 

very fertile ; the principal products are tobacco, cereals of all kinds, cotton, figs, 

nuts, almonds, grapes, olives, all varieties of fruits. Coffee, madder, opium, 

gums are largely exported. The opium production in 1900 amounted to 

about 7,500 chests, or 105,800 lbs. It is estimated that 44 million acres of 

the Empire in Europe and Asia are under cultivation. The forest laws of 

the empire are based on those of France, but restrictive regulations are 

not enforced, and the country is being rapidly deprived ol its timber. 

About 21 million acres are under forest, of which 3J million acres are 

in European Turkey. Turkey is a wine-growing country, the total production 

being estimated at about a million hectolitres annually. Of this amount 

about 160,000 hectolitres are exported—chiefly for mixing. The culture of 



COMMERCE 1137 

silkworms, which had fallen off considerably, owing to disease anions' l' lc 

worms, is again becoming important. In the provinces of Broussa and lsuiidt 

the production of cocoons in 1898-99 was 4,950,315 kilos j in 1899-1900, 

6,146,620 kilos. The production of silkworms' eggs in 1899-1900 amounted 

to 556,000 ounces, of which 402,000 were for export. Most of the silk produced 

is exported, but some is used in the manufacturing of native dress 

material. The production of oil of roses in 1895 was about 500,000 metikal 

(208 metikal = 1 kilogramme); in 1896, about 780,000 metikal; in 1897, 

about 500,000 metikal; in 1898, about 400,000 metikal, or 2,000 kilogrammes. 

For the encouragement of this industry the Turkish Minister of 

Agriculture in 1899 distributed gratuitously 100,000 rose-trees in the provinces 

of Turkey. 

The Turkish provinces, especially those in Asia, are rich in minerals 

which are little worked. Chrome (about 15,000 metric tons annually) is 

found in Kutaia ; silver-lead ore (20,000 tons) in the Cilician Taurus and in 

Sivas ; zinc (5,000 tons) at Karasu on the Black Sea ; manganese ore (45,000 

tons) at Saloniki; antimony ore (200 tons) at Brussa ; copper ore (1,500 tons) 

in the Armenian Taurus; borax (18,000 tons) at Pandemia; meerschaum 

(150 tons) at Eskishehr ; argentiferous pyrites, at Saloniki; emery at Smyrna 

asphalt, in Albania, in Syria, and on the Euphrates : coal and lignite (400,000 

tons annually) at Brussa. A royalty of 5 to 15 per cent, is paid on all 

minerals exported. There is a good deal of brass-turning and beating of 

copper into utensils for household purposes. Concessions have also been 

granted for glass manufactories, paper mills, and textile looms. Carpets, 

which constitute a considerable article of export, are made on hand-looms, 

and so also are a number of light materials for dress. The fisheries of Turkey 

are important; the fisheries of the Bosphorus alone represent a value of 

upwards of 250,00OZ. The coast of the Mediterranean produces excellent 

sponges, the Red Sea mother-of-pearl, and the Persian Gulf pearls. 

Commerce. 

All articles of import into Turkey are taxed 8 per cent, ad valorem, except 

tobacco and salt, which are monopolies ; there is also an export duty of 

1 per cent, on native produce, except cereals, sent abroad, but of 8 per cent, if 

sent from one part of the empire to another. In the year 1896-97 the import 

duties amounted to £T1,560,795 ; and the export duties to £T141,790. The 

total trade of Turkey for six years (estimates for 1898) has been as follows : 

Years 

1893 

1894 

1895 

Imports 

24,466,985 

24,108,660 

24,075,490 

Exports 

15,725,542 

13,262,416 

13,753,805 

Years 

1896 

1897 

1898 

Imports 

£T 

20,575,670 

21,359,706 

24,070,000 

Exports 

£T 

15,535,625 

15,428,458 

13,750,000 

The following has been the value of the trade for two years (March 13 

to March 12) according to countries:— 



1138 TUKKEY AND TIUIU'TARY STATES 

Country 

Tobacco imported and exported is not included in these tables ; in the 

year 1895-96 the imports comprised 7,676,242 cigars, 7,048 kilogr. of tobacco, 

and 12,501 kilogr. of snuff (total value, 759,309 piastres) ; the exports comprised 

3,739,864 kilogr. sent to countries within the empire, and 8,027,489 

kilogr. sent to foreign countries. 

The principal imports and exports in 1896-97 were :— 

Imports 

Linens . 

Sugar 

Quilting. 

Cotton yavn . 

Coffee 

Petroleum 

Flour . 

Rice 

Hides, skins, leather 

Madapolams . 

Woollen goods 

Timber . 

Kerseymeres . 

Hardware 

Iron 

1B9.V.W 

lin^nls 

Great Britain 

Piastres 

741,560,354 

Austria. 437,097,527 

France . 237,265,361 

Russia . . 160,238,958 

Italy . 67,119,278 

Bulgaria 87,728,264 

Persia . 55,837,239 

Greece . 39,412,972 

Belgium 

59,462,652 

Rumania 61,255,250 

United State i ! 3,370,444 

Tunis . 

2,655,014 

Servia . 

4,233,611 

Holland 

16,216,138 

Germany 23,493,875 

Egypt . 53,221,925 

Sweden. 

4,327,833 

Montenegro 771,000 

Denmark i 15,805 

Spain . 

847 

J apan . j 2,263,625 

Total (including 

others 

1 2,057,566,944 

Value. 

Piastres 

1 OS, 844,745 

160,592,278 

135,521,491 

90,029,645 

87,836,806 

87,201,778 

84,633,008 

73,443,353 

65,836,486 

65,551,194 

56,314,597 

33,063,695 

32,916,736 

27,633,494 

27,058,642 

isrifi-nv 

1'iustR'S 

856,773,884 

420,299,082 

210,093,959 

175,299,958 

69,882,917 

67,267,667 

58,171,793 

39,301,987 

49,357,167 

67,553,917 

2,436,472 

2,249,708 

5,429,723 

17,504,111 

20,914,263 

64,917,331 

5,013,500 

850,749 

7,069 

— 

2,686,486 

2,135,970,631 

1 Exports 

l!i ' : ' ; ' ! " ; 

I'iaslP's 

639,511, -111 

190,903,881) 

395,707,333 

37,773,333 

55,813,666 

34,709,889 

1,485,816 

28,413,111 

9,642,333 

20,017,555 

35,529,333 

12,778 

6,160,222 

51,753,444 

41,597,444 

— 

1,121,167 

521,333 

2,885,555 

2,889 

1,553,562,534 

Grapes . 

Silk 

Wheat . 

Opium . 

Barley . 

Cocoons . 

Wool . 

Valonia ;. 

Mohair . 

Hides and skins 

Ores 

Coffee . 

Figs 

Cotton . 

Carpets . 

Kx|...,-ls 

!s:n.-:r' 

Piastres 

631,315,888 

14 9,677.776 

460.664,256 

38,277,222 

46,916,331 

36,928,001 

2,503,026 

32,930,222 

22,903,444 

22,093,444 

28,922,110 

3,347 

2,799,000 

37,461,777 

26,964.443 : 

— 

242,763 

146,555 

2,095,889 

— 

1,542,845,794 

Value. 

Piastres 

■ 193,024,494 

. 145,810,744 

86.247,921 

78.504,625 

74,666,122 

69,483,111 

58,013,035 

55,128,103 

51,280,467 

48,832,838 

48,660,667 

46,320,667 

. : 46,072,939 

43,238,667 

. ! 31,393,697 



SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION 1139 

The exports of various merchandise, from which assigned revenues are 

derived, wore as follows, in 1898-99 and 1899-1900 (in kilos):— 

Salt 

Wines . 

Spirits . 

Cocoons. 

1898-99. 

39,478,668 

7,397,360 

151,730 

99,770 

1S99-00. 

35,223,513 

12,761,130 

211,787 

133,975 

Raw silk 

Frisons . 

Waste silk 

1898-99. 

. 378,107 

. 139,600 

. 99,560 

1899-00. 

443,244 

151,482 

176,905 

The value of the commercial intercourse between the whole of the Turkish 

Empire, in Europe and Asia, and Great Britain during the last five year*, 

according to the Board of Trade Returns, is shown in the following table :— 

1895 1690 

1897 1 1898 

£ j £ 

'■ £ \ £ 

£ 

Imports into U. K. from 

Turkey . . . 5,751,537:5,316,686 6,253,209.5,018,726 5,027,997 

Exports of British pro- '< 

duce to Turkey . . 5,347,785:5,033,853 6,538,406 6,190,958 5,333,774 

i 

Among the articles of import into the United Kingdom from Turkey are 

wheat, 98,8932. in 1898 ; 8,1102. in 1899 ; barley, 1,293,3292. in 1898 ; 

977,8302. in 1899; wool and goats'hair, 1,148,6792. in 1898; 1,156,216/. 

in 1899 ; valonia (dye stuff), 253,3542. in 1898 ; 255,6242. in 1899 ; opium 

198,2222. in 1892 ; 165,4842. in 1897 ; 150,2192. in 1898 ; 201,7702. in 1899 ' 

fruit, chiefly raisins and figs, 783,5152. in 1898 ; 1,058,3092. in 1899. ; 

The most important exports from Great Britain to Turkey are cotton 

goods, 3,817,7782. in 1898 ; 3,262,5132. in 1899 ; cotton yarn, 778,3942. in 

1898 ; 643,9872. in 1899 ; woollens, 399,83 52. in 1898 ; 341,0382. in 1899 ; 

iron, wrought and unwrought, 156,039,;. in 1898; 130,5612. in 1899; 

copper, wrought and. unwrought, 118,772 in 1898; 46,5842. in 1899; coal, 

276,0302. in 1898; 284,6152. in 1899 ; machinery, 101,7182. in 1898; 

105,4492. in 1899. 

The value of the trade at various Turkish towns in Asia and Africa in 

1899 was:— 

Towns 

Trebizoml: 

Anatolian trade 

Transit (Persian) trade 

Samsun 

Jaffa . . . . 

Aleppo (Alexandretta) 

Basrah . 

Bagdad : 

Europe and America 

India and the East . 

Smyrna . 

Imports 

£ 

823,220 

501,510 

471,910 

390,260 

2,163,743 

1,190,168 

Exports 

1,253,476 617,740 

193,705 43,615 

2,562,885 . 3,782,781 

£ 

417,800 

151,040 

541,970 

316,158 

931,002 

1,135,583 

Towns 

Beirut 

Lattakia (Syria) 

Erzerum . 

Van . 

Haifa' and Acre. 

Tripoli (African) 

Benghazi . 

Derna 

Imports 

£ 

1,580,165 

73,700 

237,400 

183,200 

384,900 — 

150,249 

12,341 

1699 

Exports 

£ 

1,051,950 

102,904 

147,900 

87,000 

12S.933 

410,600 

164,583 

12,558 

Shipping and Navigation. 

The mercantile navy of the Turkish Empire in 1900 consisted of 177 

steamers of 55,983 tons, and 2,205 sailing vessels of 141,055 tons. In 1897-98 

(March to February) there entered and cleared at all the ports of Turkey 



1140 

TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES 

173,739 vessels of 31,653,457 toil-*. The total shipping entered and reared 

at Constantinople in 1899 consisted "I 14,931 vessels of 10,348,269 tons. Of 

this number, 10,994 of 10,118,02J tons were engaged in foreign and the 

remainder in coasting trade. Of those engaged in fureigu trade, 3,385 of 

445,855 tons were sailing vessels, and 7,609 of 9,092,167 tons were steamers, 

including 1,892 of 2,227,350 tons belonging to nine shipping companies. 

The number of British vessels was 3,067 of 4,564,726 tons. 

Internal Communications. 

Since the summer of 1888 Turkey hasbeen in direct railway communication 

with the rest of Europe. The main lines start from Constantinople and from 

Salonica. From this latter port is now the shortest route to Egypt. 

The length of railway line in European and Asiatic Turkey in 1899 was as 

follows :— 

European Turkey— Miles 

Oriental Railways , 786 

Salonica-Monastir 137 

Salonica-Constantinople 317 

Total European Turkey . . . 1,240 

Asiatic Turkey— Miles 

Anatolian Railway 634 

Frondania-Brussa 25 

Aidin Railway . . . . . . . . 320 

Smyrna-Cassaba 321 

Mersina-Adana 42 

Jaffa-Jerusalem . . . . . . . . 54 

Beirut-Damascus 96 

Damascus-Nazrib 64 

Acre-Damascus 1 157 

Total Asiatic Turkey . . . . 1,713 

Total Ottoman Empire . . . 2,953 

1 Under construction. 

The gross receipts of the railways in 1899 were stated to amount to 

1,303,094?. The Damascus-Mecca railway is under construction, and a 

line from Konieh to Bagdad and Basra is in project. 

There are 1,018 Turkish post-offices in the Empire. In the year 1894-95 

the inland service transmitted 10,459,000 letters and post-cards, and 1,941,000 

samples and printed papers ; the international service transmitted 4,452,000 

letters and post-cards, and 2,413,000 samples and printed papers. 

The length of telegraph lines in Turkey is about 22,400 miles, and the 

length of wire about 39,600 miles. There are 666 telegraph offices. Messages 

in the year 1894-95, 3,124,168. Annual receipts, 594,3602.; expenditure, 

414.065Z. 

Money, Weights, and Measures of Turkey. 

The Imperial Ottoman Bank, with a capital of £T11,000,000, had, on 

October 31, 1900, a note circulation amounting to £T952,000, and cash on 

hand amounting to £T1,646,562. 



BULGARIA 1141 

The nominal value of the coinage (including recoinage) of Turkey since 

1891 is: Gold, 186,265,000 piastres ; silver, 43,335,500 piastres. The 

national money within the Empire is estimated at: Gold, 3,416,606,600 

piastres ; silver, 963,713,500 piastres. 

£ s. d. 

The Turkish Lira, or gold Medjidie . . .0 18 0'064 

Piastre, 100 to the Lira 0 0 216 

Large accounts are frequently, as in the official budget estimates, set down in 

' purses' of 500 Medjidie piastres, or 5 Turkish liras. The ' purse ' is calculated 

as worth il. 10s. sterling. The gold Lira weighs 7 '216 grammes'916 fine, 

and thus contains 6'6147 grammes of fine gold. The silver 20-piastre 

piece weighs 24'055 grammes '830 line, and therefore contains 19965 

grammes of fine silver. 

The Oke, of 400 drams. . . = 2 8326 lbs. avoirdupois. 

„ Almud . . . . = 1'151 imperial gallon. 

,, Kileh . . . . . = 0'9120 imperial bushel. 

44 Okes = 1 Cantar or Kintal . = 125 lbs. avoirdupois. 

39'44 Okes =1 cwt. 

180 Okes = 1 Tcheke . ■ ■ = 511'380 pounds. 

1 Kileh = 20 Okes . . . = 0'36 imperial quarter. 

816 Kilehs = 100 imperial quarters. 

The Andaze (cloth measure). . = 27 inches. 

„ Arshin (land measure) . . = 30 inches. 

,, Donum (land measure) . . = 40 square paces. 

The kileh is the chief measure for grain, the lower measures being definite 

weights rather than measures. 100 kilehs are equal to 12'128 British imperial 

quarters, or 35'266 hectolitres. 

In March 1882 Turkish weights and measures were assimilated to the metric 

system, but under the old names, leading to much confusion ; they have not 

been generally adopted in practice. Oke=kilogramme, batman = 10 kilogrammes, 

cantar=100 kilogrammes, tcheki = l,000 kilogrammes, shinik = 

decalitre, kileh=hectolitre (2'75 bushels), evlek=are, djeril=hectare (2'47 

acres), arshin=metre, nul=kilometre, farsang = 10 kilometres. 

In 1889 the metric system of weights was made obligatory for cereals; 

metric weights were decreed obligatory in January 1892, but the decree is not 

yet enforced. 

TRIBUTARY STATES. 

BULGARIA. 

Reigning Prince. 

Ferdinand, youngest son of the late Prince Augustus of Saxe-Coburg 

and Gotha, and Princess Clementine of Bourbon-Orleans (daughter of King 

Louis Philippe), born February 26, 1861, was elected Prince of Bulgaria by 

unanimous vote of the National Assembly, July 7, 1887 ; assumed the government 

August 14, 1887, in succession to Prince Alexander, who had abdicated 

September 7, 1886. His election was confirmed by the Porte and the Great 

Powers in March, 1896. On April 20, 1893, he was married to Marie Louise 

(born January 17, 1870 ; died January 31, 1899), eldest daughter of Duke 



1142 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES .-—-BULGARIA 

Robert of Parma ; issue, Boris, burn January 30, 189-1 ; Cyril, born November 

17, 1895 ; Eudoxie, born January 17, 1898 ;' Nadejda, born January 30, 1899. 

The Prince must reside permanently in the Principality. The princely 

title is hereditary. In May, 1893, the Grand Sobranje coniirmed the title of 

" Royal Highness " to the Prince and his heir, and this style was recognised 

by the Porte and by Russia in April, 1896. The Prince retains the Roman 

Catholic faith, but his heir was on February 14, 1896, received into the 

Orthodox Greek Church. 

Constitution and Government. 

The Principality of Bulgaria was created by the Treaty of Berlin, signed 

July 13, 1878. It was ordered by the Treaty that Bulgaria should be constituted 

an autonomous and tributary Principality under the suzerainty of His 

Imperial Majesty the Sultan with a Christian Government and a national 

militia. The Prince of Bulgaria should be freely elected by the population 

and confirmed by the Sublime Porte, with the consent of the Powers, but 

no member of any of the reigning Houses of the Great European Powers 

should be elected. 

Eastern Rumelia (since its union with Bulgaria also known as Southern 

Bulgaria) was created by the Treaty of Berlin, signed July 13, 1878. It was 

to remain under the direct political and military authority of the Sultan, under 

conditions of administrative autonomy, with a Governor-General nominated 

by the Porte. On September 18, 1885, the Government was overthrown by 

a revolution, and the union of the province with Bulgaria proclaimed. As 

the result of the Conference held at Constantinople by the representatives 

of the signatoiy Powers of the Berlin Treaty during the latter months of 1885, 

the Sultan, by imperial firman, April 6, 1886, agreed that the government of 

Eastern Rumelia should be confided to the Prince of Bulgaria as Governor- 

General, the Mussulman districts of Kirjali and the Rupchus (Rhodope) being 

re-ceded to the Porte. The rectification of the Organic Statute—chiefly as 

concerned the questions of the tribute and the customs—was undertaken by 

a Turco-Bulgarian commission sitting at Sofia, but its labours were abruptly 

brought to a close by the events which overthrew Prince Alexander on the 

night of August 20, 1886. The province for all purposes forms part of Bulgaria. 

It is under the administration at Sofia, which is now the only recognised 

capital, Philippopolis being merely the centre of a prefecture. 

By the Constitution of 1879, amended May, 1893, the legislative authority 

was vested in a single Chamber, called the Sobranje or National Assembly. The 

members of it are elected by universal manhood suffrage at the rate of one 

member to every 20,000 of the population. Those residing in the eity 

where the National Assembly sits receive 15 leva (12s.) a day during 

session; others, 20 leva (16s.) a day with travelling expenses. All over 

30 years of age who can read and write (except the clergy, soldiers on active 

service, persons deprived of civil rights, &c.) are eligible as representatives. The 

duration of the Assembly is five years, but it may be dissolved at any time by 

the Prince, when new elections must take place within four months. Laws 

passed by the Sobranje require the assent of the Prince. Questions 

concerning the acquisition or cession of territory, changes in the constitution, 

a vacancy on the throne, or the appointment of a regent have to be decided 

by a Grand Sobranje, elected for the special purpose in a manner similar to 

that in which the ordinary Sobranje is elected, but with double the number 

of members. 

The executive power is vested in a Council of eight ministers nominated 

by the Prince—namely, 1. Minister for Foreign Affairs and Public Worship ; 



ARKA AND POPULATION 1143 

2. Minister of the Interior ; 3. Minister of Public Instruction ; 4. Minister 

of Finance ; 5. Minister of Justice; 6. Minister of War; 7. Minister for 

Commerce and Agriculture ; 8. Minister of Public Works, Ways and Communications. 

There is an Imperial Ottoman Commissioner of Vakufs resident in 

Bulgaria. 

Area and Population. 

The estimated area of the Principality of Bulgaria proper is 24,380 English 

square miles, and of South Bulgaria (or Eastern Rumelia) 13,700 square miles. 

By a census taken on January 1, 1893, the population of the whole Principality 

was ascertained to be 3,310,713; the population of Eastern Rumelia being 

998,431. Bulgaria has been redivicled into 22 districts (including the six 

districts of Eastern Rumelia). The population, divided according to language 

and race, was as follows in 1893 : 2,505,326 Bulgarians, 569,728 Turks, 

62,628 Rumanians, 58,518 Greeks, 52,132 Gipsies, 27,531 Spanish speaking 

Jews, 16,290 Tartars, 6,445 Armenians, 3,620 Germans and Austrians, 1,221 

Albanians, 928 Russians, 905 Czechs, 818 Servians, 803 Italians, and 3,820 

not specified. The present capital of the Principality is the city of Sofia, 

with a population of 46,593. The other principal towns are Philippopolis 

(capital of Eastern Rumelia), 41,068; Rustchuk, 37,174; Varna, 28,171; 

Tirnovo (the ancient capital of Bulgaria), 25,295 ; Gornia Orehovitsa, 25,013 ; 

Shumla, 23,517 ; Slivno, 23,210; Plevna, 23,178; Tatar Pazarjik, 22,056 ; 

Razgrad, 21,551 ; Vidin, 20,944 ; Orehovo, 20,054. The movement of population 

in the principality in five years has been :— 

Years 

1894 

1895 

1896 

1897 

1898 

Marriages 

26,640 

31,230 

29,199 

29,227 

28,232 

Living 

births 

127,516 

138,338 

143,255 

149,631 

141,046 

Stillbirths 

690 

767 

755 

890 

Eeligion and Instruction. 

Deaths 

92,037 

90,210 

84,076 

90,134 

82,725 

Surplus of 

births 

35,479 

48,128 

59,179 

59,497 

58,321 

The national faith is that of the Orthodox Greek Church, though, in 1870, 

in consequence of its demand for and acceptance of religious autonomy, the 

Bulgarian Church was declared by the Patiiarch of Constantinople to be 

outside the Orthodox communion. The church is governed by the Synod 

of Bishops. An Exarch, resident at Constantinople, chosen by the Synod 

with the approval of the Sultan, dispenses ecclesiastical patronage as 

directed by the Synod and the parishes of the various dioceses, the approval 

of the Government being required for each nomination. There are 12 

Erarchies or Bishoprics. The clergy, both Orthodox and of other religious 

Wlies are raid by the State and also receive fees for services Ut burials, 

rarriaaes &c Of the population in 1893, 2,606,786 belonged to the Orthodox 

Greek Church 643,258 were Mahomedans, 28,307 were Jews, 22,617 were 

Catholics, 6,643 Armenian Gregorians, 2,384 Protestants 

There is a university (ecole sup«5rieure) at bona, with three faculties— 

History and Philology, Physics and Mathematics, and Law. In 1899-1900 it 

was attended by 409 students, and there were 42 professors and lecturers. 

The schools in 1898-99 were as shown in the following tabular statement:— 



1144 TURKEY AXD TRIBUTARY STATES:—BULGARIA 

Teachers , Pupils 

Description of Schools Schools — - -- , 

Male Female Male ' Female 

Gvimiasia . . 17 439 120 

Lower Middle Class . 170 1,149 328 

Special and Technical 45 236 19 

■ Elementary . . ; 4,589 6,332 1,670 

8,620 4.892 

22,540 11,211 

4,024 580 

233,023 I 112,864 

Of the lower middle-class schools 81 were for boys, 52 for girls, and 37 

for both sexes ; of the special and technical schools 36 were for boys, 8 for 

girls, and 1 for both sexes : of the elementary schools, 450 were for boys, 76 

for girls, and 4,063 for pupils of both sexes. 

For education the State grants a yearly subvention which provides for half 

the cost (two-thirds in the case of the elementary schools), the remainder 

being provided in towns by the municipalities and in villages by the com - 

nmnal authorities. Education is free and nominally obligatory for a period 

of four years (8-12). The richer parents are, however, required to pay 20 

leva (16s.) a year for each of their children attending the higher schools. 

There are free public libraries at Sofia, Philippopolis, Varna, and Rustchuk. 

Finance. 

For 1900 the budget estimates were : revenue, 83,827,863 francs ; expenditure, 

83,270,370 francs. For 1900 the chief sources of revenue are: 

directtaxes, 35,294,900 leva ; indirect taxes, 29,901,000. The chief branches 

of expenditure were: Public Debt, 24,646,849; War, 20,773,432 ; Interior, 

7,238,880 ; Instruction, 8,114,526 ; Public Works, 5,863,176. The public 

debt (October, 1900) consists of a loan of 46,777,500 leva, raised in 1888, at 

6 per cent, for the purchase of the Varna and Rustchuk railway (39,188,000 

outstanding) ; a loan of 30,000,000 leva at 6 per cent, raised in 1889 

(25,420,000 outstanding) ; a loan of 142,780,000 leva at 6 per cent, raised in 

1892, of which 126,480,000 have been issued to date (116,967,000 outstanding), 

an advance of 7,000,000 having also been received on account of a 

further issue of this loan ; on January 1, 1900, a loan of 25,000,000 leva 

was effected at 6 per cent, against Treasury bonds repayable in 5 years 

(December 31,1904) secured on the tobacco tax ; the Russian occupation debt, 

of which the outstanding balance is 9,700,000 ; the East Rumelian tribute 

of 2,951,000 leva per annum, for which no capital value has yet been 

fixed ; and arrears to December 31, 1887, amounting to 5,243,600 leva, and 

payable in yearly instalments of 500,000 leva each. The Bulgarian tribute 

and the share of the Turkish debt, have never been determined. In June, 

1899, the government was authorised to convert the whole national debt 

into a 5 per cent, debt by means of a new loan of the nominal amount of 

260,000,000 leva. 

Defence. 

The northern frontier of Bulgaria is formed by the Danube, which, except 

on the east (bordering on the Dobruja), separates it from Rumania ; 

here are the fortresses of Vidin and Silistria. Varna is a fortress on the Black 

Sea, and Shumla westward in the interior. Sofia, Shumla, and Vidin are 

each defended by a circle of modern forts. On the west Bulgaria is bordered 

by Servia, and on the south-west and south by Turkey Proper. 

Military service is obligatory from the age of 20, but Mussulmans may buy 

themselves oil'. Persons exempted on account of bodily infirmity pay a 



PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 1145 

special tax for ten years. About 40,000 are annually liable to be drafted, 

but of these, only about 18,000, as decided by lot, are called under arms. 

They serve either 2 years in the infantry, or 3 years in other arms. The 

army, including the East Rumelian forces, is organised as follows:— 

Infantry : on peace footing, 24 regiments of 2 battalions and train, and 

12 reserve battalions; on war footing, 24 regiments of 4 battalions 

and 1 depOt battalion, besides 12 reserve regiments of 4 battalions. On 

a war footing the battalion numbers 1,050 officers and men. Cavalry : 

the Prince's bodyguard squadron, peace and war strength, 353 ; 3 regiments 

of 4 squadrons, and 2 regiments of 5 squadrons, peace and war 

strength. Artillery : 6 regiments of 9 batteries of, on peace strength, 4 guns, 

on war strength, 6 guns ; 3 battalions of fortress artillery, and 9 mountain 

batteries. Engineers : 3 battalions of 4 companies, besides 3 companies for 

telegraph, railway, &c., service. The total war strength is about 209,000. 

The infantry is armed with the Mannlieher repeating rifle. The Bulgarian 

cannot be sent out of the country except in time of war. There is a military 

academy at Sofia. The floating strength of Bulgaria consists of the Prince's 

yacht Krum (650 tons), the steamships Alexander I. (800 tons), Simeon 

Veliky (600 tons), and Asen (400 tons), besides seven very small steamboats, 

and others are building. One torpedo gunboat, Nadejda (715 tons), was 

launched at Bordeaux, September 1898. There are two armoured gunboats 

for the defence of the Danube building abroad. 


In Bulgaria the State is theoretically the owner of the land ; the landholder 

has a perpetual lease descending to heirs, and pays one-tenth of the 

produce by way of rent (paid still, to a great extent, in kind). The communes 

hold pasture-land and wood-land in perpetuity and pay no rent, and 

over such lands the members of the communes have grazing and wood-cutting 

rights. According to recent statistics the surface of Bulgaria is subdivided 

as follows:— 

Description of surface 

Pasture 

Arable land and mai'ket garden . 

Forest and heath . . . . 

Prairie 

Vineyards . . . . . . 

Water, dwellings, roads, ke. 

Total 

Hectares 

4,587,838 

2,435,900 

1,676,250 

312,000 

113,512 

445,000 

9,570,500 

Percentage 

47-89 

25-50 

17-50 

3-26 

1-20 

4-65 

100-00 

About five-sevenths of the population are engaged in agriculture, most of 

them being small proprietors holding from one to six acres. The principal 

agricultural product is wheat, which is largely exported. Wine, tobacco and 

silk are also produced ; attar of roses is largely manufactured, the production 

in 1900 was about 900,000 metikal (208 metikal = l kilogramme). In 1893 

there were in Bulgaria 6,868,291 sheep, 1,263,772 goats, 1,769,974 head of 

cattle, and 461,635 pigs, 343,946 horses, 81,610 asses, and 8,264 mules. 

All minerals belong by law to the State. The coal mines at Pernik, 

worked by the Government, yield about 125,000 tons per annum. Coal of 

good quality has also been found in Balkans near Trevna, and several 

working concessions have been granted. About 1,000,000 cubic metres of 

stone are quarried annually. Iron is found in large quantities ; gold, silver, 

4 E 



1146 TURKEY AND TUIIiUTAKY STATUS: 'I.GAltlA 

lead, manganese and copper also exist in the country. The salines near 

Burgas yielded 12,000 tons of salt in 1896. The chief manufactures are 

woollen goods, cottons, cord, and cigarettes ; there are also wool-carding 

works, saw mills, flax works, filigree works, lirick and tile works, a sugai 

manufactory and distillery at Sofia, tanneries, distilleries, breweries, 4c. 

Commerce. 

Trade is largely in the hands of Greeks, Austrians, Rumanians, and 

Jews ol various nationalities. The principal article of trade is wheat. Other 

exports are live stock, woollens, essence of roses, skins, cheese, eggs, cocoons, 

timber, tobacco. The principal imports are textile manufactures, metal 

goods, machinery, colonial wares, building materials, leather, petroleum and 

other oils, paper, coal, salt. The value of the trade of the whole Principality 

was, in 1897, imports, 83,994,236; exports, 59,790,511; in 1898, 

imports, 72,730,250; exports, 66,537,007; in 1899, imports, 60,178,079; 

exports 53,467,099. 

The following table shows the trade by countries for 1899 :— 

Country 

Imports 

from 

Exports 

to 

Country 

Imports 

from '. 

Exports 

to 

Leva Leva 

Leva 

U. Kingdom 12,343,392' 9,873,856 Servia. 1,020,450 

Austria Hun 

Holland 

46,805 

gary 18,440,606 4,160,206 United States 

Turkey 6,483,560 21,199,679 Switzerland. 

Germany 8,543,088 3,696,138 Sweden and 

Belgium 

France. 

Italy . 

Russia . 

Rumania 

Greece. 

1,548,657' 3,215,234 Norway . j 

3,224,739, 4,915,223 Other coun- ■, 

3,194,904 1,026,316 tries. t 

2,181,327 152,144 Sot specified 

1,658,084! 542,901 

541,692' 1,535,217 Total. 

: 

Leva 

252,014 

140,919 

204,051 546,245 

466,860 10,952 

73,627 — 

206,237 — 

— 2,200,055 

60,178,079 53,467,099 

The chief imports in 1899 were textiles, 20,675,761 leva ; colonial goods, 

4,701,692 ; metals and metal goods, 5,454,897 ; machinery, implements, 

&c, 5,329,370 ; timber, furniture, &c, 2,677,434 ; hides, skins, leather, &c, 

2,848,613. The chief articles of export were grain (principally to England, 

Belgium, Turkey, Germany, Austria and France), 32,801,247 leva; textiles 

and cocoons, 4,074,791 ; live stock, 4,764,365 ; animal food products, 

3,457,555 ; hides, skins, &c, 3,184,492 ; otto of roses, &c, 2,663,147. 

According to the Board of Trade Returns the imports from Bulgaria into 

Great Britain in 1899 were valued at 19,496/., and exports from Great 

Britain of British produce, at 226,012/. ; the imports into Great Britain were 

barley, 7,132Z. ; maize, 8,415/. ; and the principal exports from Great 

Britain to Bulgaria were cottons, valued at 108,763/., iron, copper, and tin, 

8.963Z.; cotton yarn, 67,516?.; machinery 12,853/. 

Shipping and Communications. 

The number of vessels entered abthe ports of Bulgaria in 1899 was 10,501 

of 2,539,748 tons (121 of 132,861 tons British), and 10,393 of 2,523,831 tons 

(120 of 133,302 tons British) cleared. The chief ports are Varna and Burgas. 

Bulgaria (including Eastern Rumelia) had 909 miles of railway open and 

130 miles under construction in 1900. Railways connect Sofia with Constantinople, 

with Belgrade and the general European system. There were, in 1899, 



MONEY AND CREDIT I 1A7 

3,270 miles of State telegraph lines with 6,740 miles of wive, the number of 

messages was 2,142,640. There were, in 1899, 1,228 miles of State telephone 

lines. There were 2,008 post and telegraph offices, and the number of 

letters, newspapers, &c, carried was 23,743,453. Receipts from posts and 

telegraphs (1899), 2,910,973 leva; expenditure, 3,106,492 leva. 

Money and Credit. 

There is a National Bank of Bulgaria, with headquarters at Sofia and 

branches at Philippopolis, Rustchuk, Varna, Burgas and Tirnovo ; its 

capital is 10,000,000 leva, provided by the State with a reserve fund of 

3,333,333, and it has authority to issue both gold notes and silver notes. The 

latter were issued for the first time in December, 1899. By an agreemene 

with the banks with which the Government concluded a loan in 1900, the 

Bauk is bound to restrict its note issue to 13,000,000 leva, of which not 

more than 4,000,000 are to be payable in gold, against a reserve of 

4,500,000 leva, of which 1,500,000 in gold. The Imperial Ottoman Bank 

has withdrawn its business from Bulgaria. There are 85 agricultural banks for 

making advances on personal security, with an aggregate capital of 30,657,360 

leva, and power to borrow from the National Bank. There are a few 

Bulgarian (December 31, 1898) gold coins, of the value of 100, 40, 20, and 10 

leva (francs), but the gold circulation is supplied by foreign 10 and 20 franc 

pieces. There are silver coins of J lev, and 1 lev, 2, and 5 leva (francs) ; 

nickel coins of 2^, 5, 10, and 20 stotinki (centimes) ; copper coins of 2, 5 and 

10 stotinki (centimes); the notes of the National Bank circulate at par. 

British Agent and Gonsul-General at Sofia.—F. E. H. Elliot. 

There are Vice-Consuls at Sofia, Philippopolis, Rustchuk and Varna, and 

an acting Consular Agent at Burgas. 

Books of Beference concerning Bulgaria. 

Foreign Office Reports. Annual Series. 8. London. 

Handbook of the Armies of Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Rumania, and Servia. By 

Oapt. W. E. Fairhohne and Capt. Count Gleichen. London, 1895. 

Commerce de la Prineipaute de Bulgarie avec les Pays etrangers. Annual. Soiia. 

Mouvement de la Population de la Prineipaute de Bulgarie. Annual. Sofia. 

Statistique des Ecoles dans la Prineipaute de Bulgarie. Annual. Sofia. 

Bulgarien und der bulgarische Flirstenhof. Von eiuein Diplomaten. Berlin, 1896. 

Bath (Marquis of), Observations on Bulgarian Affairs. 8. London, 18S0. 

Beaman(A. H.), M. Stambuloff. [In series of'Public Men of to-day.] London, 1895.— 

Twenty Years in the Near East. London, 1898. 

Cholet (Count A. P. de), Etude sur la Guerre bulgaro-serbe. Paris, 1891. 

£tceji(E.), The Peasant State: An Account of Bulgaria in 1894. S. London, 1894. 

Drandar (A. G.), Les Evenements politiques en Bulgarie depuis 1876 jusqu' a nos jours. 

Paris 1896 

Oolowiile (A. P.), Fiirst Alexander von Bulgarien, 1879-1886. Wien, 1896. 

Huhn (Major A. von), The Struggle of the Balkans for National Independence under 

Prince Alexander. London, 1886. 

Ivantehoff (T.), Article "Bulgarie" in Dictiounaire duCommerce, de l'Industrie,et de 

la Banque. Paris, 1898. 

Jirecek (C), Das Fiirstenthum Bulgarien. Wien, 1891. 

Kanitz (F.), Donau-Bulgarien und der Balkan, 1860-75. 3 vols. 4. Leipzig, 1875-79. 

Lamouche (L.), La Bulgarie dans le passe et le present. Paris, 1892. 

Ltger (L.), La Save, le Danube, et le Balkan. Paris, 1884. 

Miller (W.), The Balkans. In ''Story of the Nations " series. 8. London, 1896.—Travels 

and Politics in the Near East. London, 1898. 

Minchin (J. G. C), The Growth of Freedom in the Balkan Peninsula. 8. London, 1886. 

Regentpuriky (C), Die Kampfe bei Slivnitza, 1885. Wien, 1895. 

Samuelson (J.), Bulgaria Past and Present. S. London, 1888. 

St. Glair (3. G. B.) and Brophy (C. A.), Twelve Years' Study of the Eastern Question 

in Bulgaria. 8. London, 1877. 

4 E 2 



1148 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES :—CRETE 

CKETE. 

The Island of Crete was under Venetian rule from 1211 to 1669, when it 

fell beneath the Ottoman power. Thenceforth (with the exception of about 

10 years, 1830-40, when it was ruled by the Viceroy of Egypt) it was governed 

as a Turkish vilayet. After more than 70 years of almost continuous insurrection, 

the 4 Powers—Great Britain, Russia, France, and Italy—intervened, 

and constituted the Island as an autonomous State under a High Commissioner 

of the Powers, subject to the suzerainty of the forte. 

High Commissioner.—Prince George of Greece, second son of the King 

of the Hellenes, born June 24, 1869, N.S. ; appointed November 26, 1898 ; 

assumed offiee December 21 of the same year. The civil list is fixed at 

200,000 gold drachmai. 

The constitution of April 28, 1899, provides for an Assembly (Bulo), consisting 

of deputies elected in the proportion of 1 for every 5,000 inhabitants, 

under an arrangement which assures the representation of minorities, and of 

10 deputies nominated directly by the Prince. Deputies are elected or 

nominated for a period of 2 years, and the Assembly meets in ordinary Session 

once in 2 years. During Session each deputy receives 10 gold drachmai a 

day. The Prince is at the head of the executive authority ; he appoints his 

Councillors or Ministers, who sit in the Assembly and join in the deliberations, 

but do not vote. Questions concerning the foreign relations of Crete 

are determined by the representatives of the 4 Powers at Rome. 

The Island is about 160 miles in length and from 6 to 35 miles in breadth, 

the total area being 3,326 square miles. It is divided into 5 departments, 

23 sub-prefectures, and 86 parishes. According to the results of the census 

of June 17, 1900, the inhabitants, at that date, numbered 301,273, of whom 

267,266 were Greek, 33,281 Musulman, and 726 Jewish. Between 1881 and 

1900 the total population had increased by 22,890 ; the Greek element had 

increased by 62,256 ; the Musulman element had decreased by 39,955. Not 

included in these, numbers were, in 1900, 6,096 foreigners, of whom 3,593 

were Greek and 1,071 Turkish. All the inhabitants of the Island speak 

Greek. The chief towns are Canea, the Capital, with 21,025 inhabitants ; 

Rethymo, 9,311 ; Candia, 22,331. In the Island there are 3,000 Greek and 

3 Roman Catholic churches and 150 Turkish djamees. For the installation 

of bishops and the appointment of Turkish cadees and muftees the consent 

of the Prince is required. Education is nominally compulsory from 6 to 9 

years of age. There are 321 communal schools (307 Christian and 14 

Musulman) with 3^,540 pupils, 4 secondary schools (gymnasia and progymnasia), 

and an ecclesiastical seminary, these 5 institutions having 32 

teachers and about 795 pupils. The judicial system, organised by Greek 

lawyers, comprises a supreme court, a court of appeal, 5 courts of first instance, 

26 justice of peace courts, and 2 criminal courts. On December 31, 

1899, the prison population numbered 461. There is a police force of about 

1,000, and service in the Cretan Militia is to be obligatory on all Cretans. 

For the year 1899-1900 (ending August 31) the revenue was estimated at 

5,274,118 drachmai, and the expenditure at the same. The revenue is 

derived largely from direct taxes, and taxes on articles of consumption ; the 

expenditure is almost entirely for internal administration. Extraordinary 

revenue, amounting to 726,797 drachmai, was derived from advances by the 

Towers. Of the 4,000,000 drachmai promised, Italy has paid 1,000,000 ; 

Russia, 352,500 ; France, 12,500; Great Britain, 12,500. The public debt 

amounts to 1,364,000 drachmai. 

The chief product of the Island is olive oil, used principally, in the 

manufacture of soap, but wine, oranges, carob-beans, chestnuts, silk are also 



SAMOS 1149 

produced. Rheep and goats are numerous. Tlie commerce of the Island is 

mainly with Greece and Turkey. In the year 1898-99 the imports amounted 

to 12,351,105 drachraai; and the exports to 6,600,198 drachmai. The 

United Kingdom imported from Crete, in 1899, olive oil to the value of 

39,0522., and exported to Crete merchandise amounting to 25,3122. (cottons, 

10,1452.). 

The postal system commenced work in March, 1900, and in September of 

that year the State was damitted to the Postal Union. There are 25 Cretan 

post-offices, besides Austrian, French, and Italian offices in the Island. A 

telephone system is being organised. Railways are under construction. 

The Bank of Crete, founded in 1899, with a capital of 10,000,000 gold 

drachmai, has obtained for 30 years the exclusive right of issuing notes. The 

Cretan money is similar to that of Greece. On December 22, 1900, the first 

copper and nickel coins of the new system were issued. 

British Consul-General at Canea.—E. W. Graves, C.M.G. 

British Vice-Consul at Canea.—Paul Wilkinson. 

British Vice-Consul at Candia.—Walter Lawsou. 

British Vice-Consul at Kethymo.—E. Trifilli. 

Books of Eeference concerning Crete. 

Ardaillon (E.), Repartition des Chretiens et des musulnians dans Tile Crt-te. In Annales 

Oeot/raphiques. 6 (1897), pp. 255-257. Paris. 

Bemrd (V.), Les Affaires de Crete. Paris, 1900. 

Bickford-Smith (R. A. H.), Cretan Sketches. London, 1897. 

Combes (P.), L'lle de Crete. Paris, 1897. 

Dillon (E. J.), Crete and the Cretans. In Fortnightly Review fin' May, 1897. 

Freeze (J. H.), A Short Popular History of Crete. London, 1897. 

Laroche (Ch.), La Crete ancienne et inoderne. Paris, 189S. 

Mitchell (O.), The Greek, the Cretan, and the Turk. London, 1807. 

Noiret, Documents inedits pour servir a l'histoire de la domination venitienne en 

Crete de 1380 & 1485. Paris, 1892. 

Pasldey (R.), Travels in Crete. 2 vols. Camb. and London, 1837. 

R'udin (V.), Description de Vile de Crete. Paris, 1869. 

Spratt (T.A.B.), Travels and researches in Crete. 2 vols. London, 1865. 

Stillmann, The Cretan Insurrection, 1866-8. New York, 1874. 

Strobl (11.), Kreta. 2 teile. Milnchen, 1875-6. 

Beport by J. Bowring on Egyx>t and Candia. London, 1S40.—Report by Consul Longworth 

on the Causes of the Insurrection in 1S58.—Reports, Correspondence, and further 

Correspondence respecting Crete, 1866-08, 1877-79, 1888-91, ]895-!». 

SAMOS. 

An island off the coast of Asia Minor, forming a principality under the 

sovereignty of Turkey, under the guarantee of France, Great Britain, and 

Kussia, December 11, 1832. 

Area 180 square miles ; population (1900) 54,830. There are besides, 

15,000 natives living on the coast of Asia Minor. There are 634 foreigners, 

of whom 540 are Greeks. In 1899 there were 463 marriages, 1,796 births, 

783 deaths. 

The religion is the Greek Orthodox, all, except 36, of the inhabitants 

professing it. 

The estimated revenue for 1900-01 was 3,538,698 piastres, and expenditure 

the same. There is no public debt. 

The exports for 1899 were valued at 20,240,208 piastres, and imports 

18,838,627 piastres. The chief exports were wines, grapes, hides, oil. The 

chief imports were spirits, cereals, tissues. 



1150 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES—SAMOS 

In 1899, 5,006 vessels of 354,206 tons entered the poit of B.uhy : the 

vessels were mostly Turkish, Greek, and Austrian. The vessels belonging' to 

the island were 368 of 3,691 tons. 

In 1899, 87,642 letters passed through the Post Olliee, and 3,270 

packets of printed matter. The number of telegraphic despatches was 

7,092. 

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives. 

1. OF TURKEY IN GREAT BRITAIN. 

Ambassador.—Costaki Anthopoulo Pasha. 

Councillor of Embassy.—Abdul Hak Hamid Bey. 

First Secretaries.—Edhem Bey ; Faid Ibrahim Bey. 

Second Secretary.—Abdul Hak Hussien Bey. 

Third Secretary.—-Baghib Raif Bey. 

Naval Attache.—Vassif Effendi. 

There are Consular representatives of Turkey at the following places :— 

Consul-General in London, Emm Feredjullah Effendi; at Liverpool, 

Kiamil Effendi. 

Consuls or Vice-Consuls.—Birmingham, Dublin, Jersey, N"ewcastle-on- 

Tyne, Cardiff, Glasgow, Hartlepool, Hull, Leith, Manchester, Southampton, 

Sunderland, Swansea, &c. 

2. OF GREAT BRITAIN IN TURKEY. 

Ambassador.— Eight Hon. Sir N. O'Conor, G.C.B., G.C.M.G. 

Secretary.—M, W. E. de Bunsen, C. B. 

Military Attache.—Colonel J. G. Fonsonby. 

Commercial AttacM.—E. Weakley. 

Consul.—H. C. A. Eyres. 

There are also British Consular Representatives at the following places :— 

Consuls-General.—Bagdad, Beyrout,. Bosna Serai, Saloniea, Tripoli. 

Consuls or Vice-Consuls.—Benghazi (Tripoli), Adrianople, Bassora, Damascus. 

Jeddah, Jerusalem, Erzeroum, Samos, Smyrna, Trebizond, Brassa, 

Dardanelles, Gallipoli, Scutari, Adana, Antioch, Van, Rhodes, Scala Nuova, 

Kharput, Sivas, Diarhekir. 

Statistical and other Books of Reference. 

1. OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS. 

Turkey in Europe. 

Salname 1311. Official Almanac for the Turkish Empire. 8. Constantinople, 1900. 

Report of the Health Office, published annually. 

Report of the Council of Administration of the Ottoman Public Debt. Annual. 

Callwell (Captain C. B.), Handbook of the Turkish Army. Prepared in the Intelligence 

Division of the War Office. London, 1892. 

Constitution Ottomane promulguee le 7 Zilhidje (11/23 decembre, 1876). 8. Constantinople, 

1891. 

Deutsches Handels-Archiv. for March, 1895. [Contains an account of .the trade of Constantinople.] 

Berlin, 1895. 

Special Report on the Ottoman Public Debt. By Sir Vincent Caillard. London, 1897. 

Treaty between Great Britain, Germany, Austria, France, Italy, Russia, and Turkey, for 

the settlement of affairs in the East. Signed at Berlin, July 13, 1878. Fol. London, 1878. 

Diplomatic and Consular Reports from Turkey and Possessions for 1894, London, 1895. 

Sertilet (Sir E.), Foreign Office List- Published annually. London, 1891. 

Ottoman Land Code. Tr. by F. Ongley, revised by H. E. Miller. 8. London, 1892. 

Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and 

British Possessions. Imp. 4. London. 



STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 1151 

Turkey -in Asia and Africa. 

Correspondence, and Further Correspondence respecting the Introduction of Reforms 

in the Armennia Provinces of Asiatic Turkey. London, 1806-97 

Correspondence respecting the condition of the population of Asiatic Turkey, 1888-89. 

C-5,723 fol. London, 1889. 

Reports on the Trade, &c, of Trebizond, Tripoli, Palestine, Aleppo, Smyrna, Damascus, 

Jeddah, Beyrout, Baghdad, and Bussoruh, in Foreign Office Reports, Annual Series. [Besides 

trade statistics these frequently contain information concerning population and 

political and social conditions.] London. 

2. NON-OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS. 

Turkey in Europe. 

Annual Report of the British Chamber of Commerce, Constantinople. 

Amicis (E. de), Constantinople. [Translated from the Italian.] 8. New York, 1896. 

Bartlett (Sir E. A.), The BattleBelds of Thessaly. London, 1897. 

Becker (G.), La Guerre Contemporaine dans les Balkans, et la Question d'Orient, 1885- 

1897. Paris, 189!). 

Berard (V.), La Macedoine.—La Politique du Sultan.—La Turquie et l'Helleiiisme Paris, 

1897. 

Bernard (M.), Turquie d'Europe et Turquie d'Asie. Paris, 1899. 

Bidez (G.) et Parmentier (L.), Un Sejour it Patmos. [On the Greek Monks of the 

Archipelago]. Bruxelles, 1899. 

Bigham (C), With the Turkish Army in Thessaly. London, 1897. 

Clark (Edson L.), The Races of European Turkey: their History, Condition, and Prospects. 

8. New York, 1879. 

Clement (C. E.), Constantinople : The City of the Sultans. London, 1895. 

Confopoulos (D.), Guide to Constantinople. 2nd ed. London, 1899. 

Greasy (Sir Edward Shepherd), History of the Ottoman Turks. [Founded on Von 

Hammer, but continued to 1876.] New ed. 8. London. 1882. 

Davey (R.), The Sultan and his Subjects. 2 vols. London, 1897. 

Elliot (Frances), Diary of an Idle Woman in Constantinople. 8. London, 1893. 

Fazy (E.), Les Tures d'Aujour d'hui. Paris, 189S. 

Freeman (Edward A.), The Ottoman Power in Europe : its Nature, its Growth, and its 

Decline. 8. London, 1877. 

Garnett (Lucy), The Women of Turkey and their Folk-lore. London, 1890. 

Georgiades (D.), La Turquie actuelle. 8. Paris, 1892. 

Groevenor (E. A.), Constantinople. 2 vols. Loudon, 1895. 

Guide Joanne, De Paris a Constantinople. Paris, 1896. 

3afiz Russeyn (Effendi), Hadikat-ul-dschevami. Description of the Mosques, High 

Schools, and Convents. 2 vols. 8. Constantinople, 1864-66. 

Hammer-PurgstaU (J von), Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches,

1152 TURKEY AND TfllBrTAKY STATES —SAMOS 

Pisco (J.), Skamlcrhcg, Wi. JI, 1897. 

Poole (Stanley Lane-), The People nr Turkey: 'l-wmly Year;-'Ji. .sidence among BUIJ.Hrians, 

Greeks, Albanians, Turks, and Armenians. By a Consul's Daughter. 2 vols. h. 

London, 1878. 

Poole (Stanley Lane-), Turkey. In Story of the Nation* Series. 8. London, 183S. 

Rectus (Llif.ee), Geographic Universeile. Vol. I. Paris, 1870. 

Rosen (G.), Geschichte dor Tiirkei neuester Zeit, 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1806-67. 

Salmone (H. A.), The Fall and Resurrection of Turkey. London, 1896. 

Seignobos, Histoire politique de 1'Europe Contemporaine. Paris, 1895. 

Spry (W, J. J.), Life on the Bosphorus. London, 1896. 

Steevem (G. W.), With the Conquering Turk. London, 1897. 

Tarring (Q. J.), British Consular Jurisdiction in the East. London, 18S8. 

Thomson (H. C.), The Outgoing Turk. London, 1897. 

2tor(H. F.), The Highlands of Turkey. London, 1869- 

Turkey in Europe. By Odysseus. London, 1900. 

Vambery (A.), Das Turkenvolk. Leipzig, 1885. 

Verney (N.) et Damhmann (&.), Les Puissances etrangeres dans le Levant, &c. Paris, 

1900. 

Walker (Mary A.), Old Tracks and New Landmarks : Sketches in Crete, Macedonia, &e. 

London, 1898. 

Wilson (Sir C. W.), Handbook (Murray's) fcr Constantinople, Brusa, and the Troad. 

New ed. London, 1900. 

Zinkeisen (J. W.), Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs in Europa. 7 vols. 8. Gotha, 

1840-63. 

Elf Jahre Balkan-Erin nerungen ernes Prcussischen Offlciers aus den Jahren 1870 bis 

1887. J. U. Kern's Verlag. Breslau, 1889. 

Turkey in Asia and Africa. 

Baedeker's Palestine and Syria. 2nd. edition. 12. London, 1894. 

Ball (E. A. Reynolds), Jerusalem. (A guide hook.) London, 1901. 

Bambus (W.), Palastina, Land und Leute. Leipzig, 1898. 

Barkley (H. C.)» A Ride through Asia-Minor and Armenia. 8. London, 1891. 

Bent (Theodore). Southern Arabia. London, 1900. 

Bigham (C), A Ride through Western Asia. London, 1897. 

Bishop (J. L.), Journeys in Kurdistan. 2 vols. 8. London, 1891. 

Bliss (B. M.), Turkey and the Armenian Atrocities. London, 1896. 

Brinton (J.), Tour in Palestine and Syria. London, 1898. 

Bryee (James), Trans-Caucasia and Ararat. 4th ed. 8. London, 1896. 

Burton (Sir R. K.) and Drake (C, F. T.), Unexplored Syria. 2 vols. 8. London, 1872. 

Chauvin (V.), Bibliographie des Ouvrages arabes ou relatifs aux Arabes (1810-85). 8 

Liege, 1892. 

Cook's Tourist's Handbook for Palestine and Syria. London, 1900. 

Gowper(H. S ), Through Turkish Arabia. 8. London, 1894.—The Hill of the Graces. 

[In Tripoli.] London, 1897. 

Guinet (Vital), La Turquio d'Asie. Geographic administrative, &c. 4 vols. Paris, 1891-8. 

The index to the work. Paris, 1900. 

Davis (E.), Life in Asiatic Turkey. London, 1879. 

Desckamps (G.), Sur les Routes d'Asie. Paris, 1894. 

Fellows (Sir C), Travels and Researches in Asia Minor and Syria. 8. London, 1839 

Geary (Grattan), Asiatic Turkey. 2 vols- 8. London, 1878. 

Geiger (A.), Judaism and Islam. [Eng. Trans.] London, 1899. 

Gregor (N. Ter), History of Armenia. London, 1897. 

Harris (J. R. and H. B,), Letters from the Scenes of the Recent Massacres in Armenia. 

London, 1897. 

Harris (W. B.), A Journey through Yemen. 8. London, 1898. 

Hepworth(G. H.), Through Armenia on Horseback. London, 1898. 

Hirsch (L.), Reisen in Sud-Arabien, Mahra*Land, und Hadramiit. Leiden, 1897. 

Historical Sketch of Armenia and the Armenians. By an Old Indian. London, 1896. 

Hodgetts (E. A. B.), Round about Armenia. 8. London, 1896. 

Hogarth (D. G.), A Wandering Scholar in the Levant. 2nd ed. London, 1897. 

Humann (C), Reisen in Kleinen Asien und Nordsyrien. 8. Berlin, 1890. 

Isaverdentz (H.), Histoire de 1'Annenie. Fol. Venice, 1888. 

Kaunenberg (K.), Kleinasiens Naturschatze. Berlin, 1897. 

Leake (W. M.), Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor. 8. London, 1824. 

Lepsius (J.), Armenia and Europe : An Indictment. London, 1897. 

MacCoan (J. C), Our New Protectorate. [Turkey in Asia.] 2 vols. 8. London, 1879. 

Macdonald (A.), The Land of Ararat. 8. London, 1893. 

Mazarbek ( ), Through the Storm. [Armenia in 1895-96.] London, 1899. 

Oberhummer (R.) und Zimmerer (H.), Durch Syrien und Kleinasien. Leipzig, 1898. 



EGYPT 1153 

Oppenheim (M. von), Voin MiUoluiecr zum persisclu.'.n Golf'o ilurch dm llauivin, A'*-. :.. 

vols. Berlin, 1899-1900. 

Palgrave (W. G.), Ulysses or Scenes and Studies in Many Lauds. 8. London, 1887. 

Paterson (J. G.), From Bombay through Babylonia [Missionary Travels.] Glasgow, 1896. 

Percy (Earl), The Highlands of Asiatic Turkey. London, 1901. 

Pertius (Oomte de), Le Desert de Syrie. Paris, 1890. 

Peters (J. P.), Nippur: Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates. Vol. I. London, 

1897. 

Ramsay (W. M.), The Cities and Bishopricks of Phrygia. 2 vols. Oxford, 1897.—Historical 

Geography of Asia Minor. London, 1890.—Impressions of Turkey during Twelve Years' 

Wanderings. London, 1S97,— Also, Every-day Life in Turkey, by Mrs. Ramsay. London, 

1897. 

iSecIu3(EIisee),NouvelleGeographie Universale. Vols. IX and XL 8. Paris,1884 and 1886. 

Bohlfs (Gerhard), Von Tripolis nach Alexandriat, 1308-09. 2 vols. S. Bremen, 1871. 

Reise vom Tripolis nach der Oase Kufra. 8. Leipzig, 1881. 

Rossi (G. B.), Nei Paesi d'Islam in Barberia, in Egitto, &c. Runic, IM'7. 

8achau(E.), Am Euplirat und Tigris, 1897-98. Berlin, J!>00. 

Schwarz (Dr. B.), Quer durch Bithynien. 8. Berlin, 1889. 

Smith (G. A.), Historical Geography of the Holy Land. New ed. Loudon, 1897. 

Sivemer (S. M.), Arabia, the Cradle of Islam. Edinburgh, 1900. 

Sykes (M.), Through Five Turkish Provinces. London, 1900. 

Thomas (Margaret), Two Years in Palestine and Syria. London, 1899. 

Tkompson(G. E-), Life in Tripoli, with a peep at Ancient Carthage. 8. Liverpool, 1894. 

Tozer (H. F.), Turkish Armenia and Eastern Asia Minor. 8. London, 1881. 

Warkworth (Lord), Notes from a Diarv in Asiatic Turkey. London, 189S. 

Warner (C. D.), In the Levant. 2 vols. 8. London, 1892. 

Wilson (SirC. \V.), Handbook (Murray's) for Travellers in Asia Minor, Transcaucasia 

Persia, &c. London, 1895. 

EGYPT. 

(KEMI—MISR.) 

Reigning Khedive. 

Abbas Hilmi, born July 14, 1874 ; son of Mohamed Tewfik ; 

succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, January 7, 

1892; married Princess Ikbal Hanem; offspring: Princess 

Emina Hanem, born February 12, 1895 ; Princess Ati'atou-llah, 

born June 9, 1896 ; Princess Fathieh Hanem, born November 

27, 1897; Prince Mohammed Abdul Mouneim, heir-apparent, 

born February 20, 1899; Princess Loutfiah Hanem, born 

September 29, 1900. He has one brother, Mohamed Aly, 

born October 28, 1875, and two sisters, Khadija Hanem, born 

May 2, 1879, and Nimet-Hanem, born Nov. 6, 1881. 

The present sovereign of Egypt is the seventh ruler of the dynasty of Mehemet 

Ali, appointed Governor of Egypt in 1806, who made himself, in 1811, 

absolute master of the country by force of arms. The position of the Khedive's 

grandfather, Ismail I.—forced to abdicate, under pressure of the British 



11 ")4 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES :— EGYPT 

and French Governments, in 1879--vvas recognised by the Imperial llatti- 

Sherilf of February 13, 1841, issued under the guarantee of the live great 

European Powers, which established the hereditary succession to the throne of 

Egypt under the same rides and regulations as those to the throne of Turkey. 

The title given to Mehemet Ali and his immediate successors was the Turkish 

one of ' Vali,' or Viceroy ; but this was changed by an Imperial firman, of 

May 21, 1866 into the Persian-Arabic of ' Klndewi-Misr,'or, as more commonly 

called, Khedive. By the same firman of May 27, 1866, obtained on the condition 

of the sovereign of Egypt raising his annual tribute to the Sultan's civil 

list from 376,000?. to 720,000?., the succession to the throne of Egypt was 

made direct from father to son, instead of descending, after the Turkish law, 

to the eldest heir. By a firman issued June 8, 1873, the Sultan granted to 

Ismail I. the hitherto withheld rights of concluding commercial treaties with 

foreign Powers, and of maintaining armies. 

The predecessors of the present ruler of Egypt were — 

Mehemet Ali, founder of the dynasty 

Ibrahim, step-son of Mehemet . 

Abbas, grandson of Mehemet. . . 

Said, son of Mehemet 

Ismail, son of Ibrahim. . . . 

Mohained Tewtik, son of Ismail . 

Born 

1769 

1789 

1813 

1822 

1830 

1852 

Died 

1849 

184.8 

1854 

1863 

1895 

1892 

Reigned 

1811-48 

Jim le—Nov. 1848 

1848-54 

1854-63 

1863-79 

1879-92 

The present Khedive of Egypt has an annual allowance of 100,000?. 

Government and Constitution. 

The administration of Egypt is carried on by native Ministers, 

subject to the ruling of the Khedive. From 1879 to 1883 two 

Controllers-General, appointed by France and England, had considerable 

powers in the direction of the affairs of the country 

Khedivial Decree, November 10,1879). In the summer of 1882, 

in consequence of a military rebellion, England intervened, subdued 

the rising, and restored the authority of the Khedive. In 

this intervention England was not joined by France, and as a 

result, on January 18, 1883, the Khedive signed a decree abolishing 

the joint control of England and France. In the place of 

the Control, the Khedive, on the recommendation of England, 

appointed an English financial adviser, without whose concurrence 

no financial decision can be taken. The financial adviser has a 

right to a seat in the Council of Ministers, but he is not an 

executive officer. 

The Egyptian Ministry is at present composed of six members, among 

whom the departmental work is distributed as follows :—1. President—Interior ; 

2. Finance; 3. Justice ; 4. War; 5. Public Works and Public Instruction; 

6. Foreign Affairs. 

On May 1, 1883, an organic law was promulgated by the Khedive creating 



AREA AND POPULATION 1155 

a number of representative institutions, including a Legislative Council, a 

General Assembly, and provincial boards. The Legislative Council is a consultative 

body, consisting of 30 members, of whom 14 are nominated by the 

Government. It meets once a month and examines the budget and all proposed 

administrative laws, but it cannot initiate legislation and the Government 

is not obliged to act on its advice. Of its members, 15 residing in 

Cairo receive an allowance of 907. a year for carriage expenses, and 15, being 

delegates from the provinces and provincial towns, receive 2501. a year for 

residential expenses in Cairo, besides travelling expenses to and from Cairo 

once a month. The General Assembly, which consists of the members of the 

Legislative Council with the addition of the 6 ministers and 46 members 

popularly elected, has no legislative functions, but no new direct personal or 

land tax can be imposed without its consent. It has to be summoned at least 

once every two years. The members, when convoked, receive an eight days' 

allowance at 11. a day, with railway expenses. The council of ministers with 

the Khedive is the ultimate legislative authority. Since 1887 an Ottoman 

High Commissioner has resided in Cairo. 

Egypt Proper is administratively divided into 6 governorships (moafzas) 

of principal towns, and 14 mudiriehs, or provinces, subdivided into districts 

or kisms. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

Governorships. 

Cairo. 

Alexandria. 

Damietta. 

Suez Canal, with the towns 

of Port Said and Ismailieh. 

Suez and Sinai peninsula. 

El Arish. 

Lower Egypt:— 

1. Kalioubieh. 

2. Menoufieh. 

3. Gharbieh. 

4. Charkieh. 

5. Dakahlieh. 

6. Behera. 

Area and Population. 

Madiriehs. 

Upper Egypt :— 

1. Guizeh. 

2. Minia. 

3. Beni Souef. 

4. Fayoum. 

5. Assiout. 

6. Guerga. 

7. Kena. 

8. Nubia 

The total area of Egypt proper, including the Oases in the 

Libyan Desert, the region between the Nile and the Red Sea, 

and El-Arish in Syria, but excluding the Sudan, is about 400,000 

square miles; but the cultivated and settled area, that is, the Nile 

Valley and Delta, covers only 12,976 square miles. Canals, 

roads, date plantations, &c, cover 1,900 square miles; 2,850 

square miles are comprised in the surface of the Nile, marshes, 

lakes, and desert. Egypt is divided into two great districts— 

' Masr-el-Bahri,' or Lower Egypt, and ' El-Said,' or Upper Egypt. 

The following table gives the area of the settled land surface, 

and the results of the census of June, 1897 :— 



llofi TURK FA' ANT) TRIBUTARY STATES:—EGYPT 

Upper Egypt Lower Egypt 

- 

Govemorats. 

Cairo . 

Alexandria . 

Port Said 

and Canal 

Suez . 

Damietta . 

El-Arish 

Provinces : 

Behera 

Charkieh . 

Dakahlieh . 

Gharbieh . 

Kaloubieh . 

Menoufieh . 

Provinces: 

Beni-Souef . 

Fayoum 

Guizeh 

Minieh 

Assiout 

Guerga 

Kena . 

Nubia. 

Total . ; 

Area in j 

sq. m. 1 

6 

70 

{ 104 

Hi 

1 

932 

905 

931 

Of the total population, 4,947,850 were males and 4,786,555 females. Not 

included in the table are the populations of Siwa (Wahat), consisting of 7,000 

sedentary Egyptians. 

The foreign population, 112,526 in all, comprised 38,175 Greeks, 24,467 

Italians, 19,557 British, 14,155 French, 7,117 Austro-Hungarians, 3,193 

Russians, 1,277 Germans, 1,301 Persians, and 3,284 of other nationalities. 

The growth of the general popidation of the country is exhibited by the 

following figures:— 

1800 (French estimate) . 2,460,000 i 1882 (Census) 

1821 (Mehemet Alv). . 2,536,400 | 1897 (Census) 

1846 (Census) . . . . 4,476,440 | 

j 

2,340 ;i 

352 

639 

501 

493 

370 

772 

840 j 

631 

544 

Sedentary 

533,336 

268,669 

— 9 ,047,905 

Egyptians 

36,729 

15,439 

43,512 

4,080 

535,021 

661,658 

719,676 

,246,752 

335,470 

846,512 1 

282,513 

312,757 j 

368,472 

511,746 

752,233 

677,151 

679,517 

216,662 

Nomad 

1,345 ! 35,381 

4,984 ' 46,113 

6,757 

12,910 

94,953 

85,015 

14,624 

47,463 

35,402 

16,666 

31,645 

57,947 

32,736 

36,217 

30,048 

10,649 

31,325 

23,288 

573,974 

il'oroigncrs 

13,450 

2.774 

239 

1 

1,251 

2,567 

2,408 

3,441 

593 

1,028 

296 

302 

426 

669 , 

439 

211 

615 

432 

112,574 

Total 

570,062 

319,766 

50,179 

24,970 

43,751 

16,991 

631,225 

749,130 

736,708 

1,297,656 

371,465 

864,206 

314,454 

371,006 

401,634 

548.632 

782,720 

688,011 

711,457 

240,382 

9,734,405 

]\,p. 

per *q. in. 

95,010 

4,568 

9,722 

84,955 

677 

828 

791 

554 

1,055 

1,352 

627 

752 

1,085 

711 

932 

1,090 

1,308 

6,813,919 

9,734,405 

The average annual increase from 1846 to 1882 was 1'25 per cent. ; from 

1882 to.1897, 2-76 percent. 


— 


RELIGION AND INSTRUCTION 1157 

The distribution of the population over 10 years of age, according to 

occupation on June 1, 1897, was as follows:— 

Nature of occupation 

Agriculture 

Industries and trades ... 

Labourers 

Clerks 

Liberal professions 

Religion and instruction J 

Public force 2 

Domestics 

Male 

2,049,25S 

532,322 

184,096 

61,577 

4,072 

150,623 

29,201 

111,665 

Egyptians 

Female 

21.496 

} 4,801 

2,553 

2,218 

— 

32,663 

Total 

2,049,25S 

553.S1S 

250,474 

6,625 

158,841 

29,201 

144,328 

Total with occupation ... 3,128,814 63,731 t 3,192,545 

With no declared occupa 

tion 

142,089 ; 3,088,673 3,230,762 

Foreigners 

Female I Total 

— 385 

2.371 i 27,865 

} US 7,351 

ISO : 2,148 

2,049 6,410 

— «,8.10 

2,683 4,395 

7,440 55,404 

30,229 35,538 

Total over 10 years of a;c 3,270,903 3,152,404 ! 6.423,807 53,273 ! 37,669 90,942 

Under 10 years 1,612,6118 : 1,585,826 ! 3,198,5:>4 i 10,076 j 10,656 21,632 

Total population 4,883,601 ; 4,738,230 ' 9,621,831 64,249 48,325 112,571 

1 Under religion are included 2,171 Christian ecclesiastics and Jewish Rabbis, and 

113,438 readers of the Koran. The Mussulmans having no clergy, no distinction has been 

attempted between religious and teaching bodies. Under instruction are included 40,441 

students and school children (over 10), and 4,934 teachers, including Mussulman theological 

teachers. 

2 Under Public Force are included the Egyptian army, the army of occupation, the 

police force, and the forces belonging to foreign men-of-war in the ports. 

Of the Egyptian population over 10 years of age, 62'65 pere cent, were 

employed in agriculture ; of the foreign population, less than 1 per cent. 

Of the Egyptian population, 16'27 per cent, were employed in various industries 

and trades ; of the foreign population, 47'85 per cent. Of the total 

number employed in the liberal professions, 48 per cent, were foreigners. 

The principal towns, with their populations in 1897, are :—Cairo, 570,062 ; 

Alexandria, 319,766 ; Tantah, 57,289 ; Port Said, 42,095 ; Assiout, 42,078 ; 

Zagazig, 35,715 ; Mansourah, 36,131 ; Damietta, 31,515 ; Fayoum, 33,069 ; 

Kena, 27,478. 

Beligion and Instruction. 

Male 

385 

25,494 

1.172 

6,031 

1,959 

4,361 

6,850 

1,712 

47,964 

5,309 

In 1897 the population consisted of 8,978,775 Moslems ; 730,162 Christians 

(608,446 Copts, 53,479 Orthodox, 56,343 Roman Catholics, and 11,894 

Protestants); 25,200 Jews; and 268 others. Thus Moslems formed 92'23 

per cent, of the population ; Christians, 7'50 per cent. ; Jews, 0'26 per cent.; 

others, 0'01 percent. The highest religious and judicial authorities among 



1158 TURKEY AM) TRIBUTARY STATES :—KCiYI'T 

the Moslems are the Sheikh ul Islam appointed by the Khedive and chosen 

from among the learned class of Oolemas, and the Grand Cadee nominated 

by the Sultan, and chosen from amongst the learned Oolemas of Stamhoul. 

The principal seat of Koranic learning is the ilosque and University of El 

Azhar at Cairo, founded about a thousand years ago, but the sciences taught 

and the modes of teaching them have not changed since its foundation. 

There are in Egypt large numbers of native Christians connected with the 

various Oriental churches ; of these, the largest and most influential are the 

Copts, the descendants of the ancient Egyptians; their creed is 

Orthodox (Jacobite), and was adopted in the first century of the 

Christian era. Its head is the Patriarch of Alexandria as the successor 

of St. Mark. There are three metropolitans and twelve bishops in 

Egypt, one metropolitan and two bishops in Abyssinia, and one bishop for 

Khartoum; there are also arch-priests, priests, deacons, and monks. Priests 

must be married before ordination, but celibacy is imposed on monks and 

high dignitaries. In A.M. 328 the Copts christianised Abyssinia, and pushed 

Christianity almost to the Equator. The Abyssinian Church is ruled by a 

metropolitan and bishops chosen from amongst the Egyptian Coptic 

ecclesiastics, nor can the coronation of the King of Abyssinia take place until 

he has been anointed by the metropolitan, and this only after authorisation 

by the Patriarch of Alexandria. The Copts use the Diocletian (or 

Martyrs') calendar, which differs by 284 years from the Gregorian calendar. 

In 1897, of the sedentary Egyptian population over 7 years of age, 

there could read and write : in Lower Egypt, 7 '02 per cent. ; in Upper 

Egypt, 4'07 per cent. ; in all Egypt, 5'8 per cent. ; the remainder were 

illiterate. Of the foreign population over 7 years of age in all Egypt, 74 per 

eent. could read and write. 

In 1898 there were in all about 10,000 schools with 17,000 teachers and 

228,000 pupils. Seven-eighths of these schools are elementary, the education 

being confined to reading, writing, and the rudiments of arithmetic. The 

Government has, under its immediate direction, 86 primary schools of the 

lowest grade ('kuttabs'), and 36 of the higher grade, 3 secondary, 2 girls' 

schools, and 9 schools for higher^ or professional education—the School of 

Law, School of Medicine (including the Pharmaceutical School and the 

training school for nurses and midwives), Polytechnic (Civil Engineering) 

School, 2 training colleges for schoolmasters, School of Agriculture, 2 technical 

schools, and the military school. In addition to the schools belonging to the 

Ministry of Public Instruction there are, under the inspection of that 

Department (1900), 21 primary schools of the higher grade, with an attendance 

of 3,035, and 483 primary schools of the lowest grade (' kuttabs'), with 

634 teachers and an attendance of 12,315 pupils. There are 187 schools 

attached to various Protestant and Catholic missions, and 43 European 

private schools. The Mosque of El Azhar has 240 teachers and 9,060 

students. 

The Coptic community support 1,000 schools for elementary education, 

22 primary—boys and girls, and one college. The teaching of the Coptic 

language in the schools is now compulsory; the subjects taught, and the 

methods of teaching them, are the same as those in vogue in other countries ; 

50 per eent. of the Coptic male community can read and write. 

The following statistics of schools in Egypt have been mainly compiled 

from returns corrected for Government, National, and Wakf schools, up to 

December 31, 1900 :— 



Higher or 

Professional 

Schools 

' Theological 

Engineering 

Medical . . . . 

) Law . 

| Agricultural 

. . . . 

Normal (for teachers) 

Military . . . . 

\ Technical . . . . 

Total . . . . 

Secondary{^ttera ^ — ^ • 

Primary 

Girls 

Total . . . . 

< Lowest grade ('kuttabs'). 

1 Higher grade 

Total 

( Training school for nurses 

. and midwives. 

[ Primary (higher grade) 

Total . 

Total . . . . 

Government, National, 

and Wakf Schools i 

Schs. 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

1 

2 

9 

3 

3 

86 

SO 

122 

1 

2 

3 

137 

Pupils 

50 

62 

102 

64 

70 

150 

363 

851 

569 

569 

3,966 

6,269 

10,235 

19 

224 

243 

11,898 

Staff 1 

1 

9 

25 

18 

15 

21 

10 

82 

180 

80 

80 

145 

390 

585 

3 

34 

37 

832 

Sclis. 

Mission Schools 

(1898) 

22 

2 

19 

24 

10S 

108 

Is 

53 

1S7 

Pupils 

1 (jovenimenr scnoois, national scnoois ana wakt Administration scnoois are an ^witn uie exception UI me muimry ocnooi, unuer uie 

management of the War Office) under the immediate direction of the -Egyptian Ministry of Public Instruction. 2 One of these has 25 students 

with 4 professors and belongs to the African Mission; the other belongs to the "American Mission." 3 The Mussulman schools of theology 

are attached to mosques. One Coptic school is attached to a Coptic church; this school lias 7 students of theology, which subject is taught by 

priests, all other branches being taught "by teachers of secondary subjects. i Attached to Coptic church. 5 43 of these schools having 

4,889 pupils and 285 teachers are under directions of Europeans of different nationalities. A small number of these give instruction in the 

Christian religion. 6 Italian ; known as Victor Emanuel school. 7 34 of these schools with 3,345 pupils and 170 teachers are under European 

heads. 

32 

32 

380 

3,361 

3,741 

7,133 

7,133 

9,183 

9,183 

20,089 

Staff 

- 

7 

13 

129 

142 

283 

283 

360 

360 

792 

Schs. 

13 3 

1 

14 

_1 

14 

9,647 B 

16 

9.64S 

40 7 

40 

9,703 

Other Schools 

(1898) 

Pupils 

11,766 

62 

11,828 

30 

30 

180,547 

26 

180,573 

4,030 

4,030 

196,461 

Staff 

337 

8 

345 

— _ 

14,583 

14,590 

197 

197 

15,189 


Schs. 

15 

25 

5 

23 

2S 

9,733 

145 

9,878 

95 

96 

10,027 

Total 

Pupils 

11,798 

50 

62 

164 

54 

70 

150 

363 

12,711 

380 

3,960 

4,340 

184,513 

13,428 

197,941 

19 

13,437 

13,456 

228,448 

Staff 

344 

9 

25 

26 

15 

21 

10 

82 

532 

13 

216 

| 

229 ; 

14,728 

680 

15,408 1 

! 

3 : 

591 

594 

16,703 | 

RELIGION AND INSTRUCTION 1159 


1160 TURKEY AN'D TRIBUTARY STATES:—EGYPT 

Justice and Grime. 

The indigenous tribunals of the country are the Mehkemmehs, presided 

over by the Cadis. At the present time, they retain jurisdiction in matters 

of personal law (marriage, succession, guardianship, &o.) only, together witli 

certain functions connected with the sequestration of title to land. In 

matters of personal law non-Mussulmans are, however, in general subject to 

their own Patriarchs or other religious chiefs. In other matters, natives are 

justiciable before the so-called Native Tribunals established in 1884-89. 

These now consist of 45 Summary Tribunals, each presided over by a single 

judge with (generally speaking) civil jurisdiction in matters up to £E100 iu 

value, and criminal jurisdiction in offences punishable by line or by imprisonment 

up to three years ; seven Central Tribunals each of the Chambers of 

which consist of three judges ; and a Court of Appeal at Cairo, about half 

of its members being European. In criminal matters there is always a 

right of appeal, sometimes to the Court of Appeal, sometimes to a Central 

Tribunal. In civil matters an appeal lies from a Summary Tribunal to a 

Central Tribunal in matters exceeding £E10 in value, and from the judgment 

of a Central Tribunal in first instance to the Court of Appeal, in all 

cases. The prosecution in criminal matters is entrusted to the Parquet, 

which is conducted by a Procureur General; the investigation of crime 

is ordinarily conducted by the Parquet, or by the police under the direction 

of the Parquet. Offences against irrigation laws, &c, arc tried by special 

administrative tribunals. 

Owing to the Capitulations, which apply to Egypt as being part of the 

Ottoman Empire, foreigners are exempted from the jurisdiction of the local 

tribunals. Mixed tribunals were instituted in 1876, consisting partly of 

native and partly of foreign judges, with jurisdiction in civil matters 

between natives and foreigners and between foreigners of different nationalities. 

These tribunals have, also, a limited penal jurisdiction in cases of 

police offences, and in 1900 penal jurisdiction was conferred upon them in 

connection with offences against the bankruptcy laws. There are three 

Mixed Tribunals of First Instance with a Court of Appeal sitting at 

Alexandria. Civil cases between foreigners of the same nationality are tried 

by their own Consular Courts, which also try criminal cases not within the 

jurisdiction of the Mixed Tribunals, in which the accused are foreigners. 

Serious crime has been steadily decreasing ; the number of convictions 

in respect of minor offences has increased owing to the facilities afforded by 

the increase in the number of Summary Tribunals and to the increased 

efficiency of the authorities charged with the investigation of offences. The 

number of natives convicted in first instance in the year 1899 was, for crime, 

1,238; for misdemeanour, 48,540 ; and for police offences, 84,643. 

Finance. 

The principal sources of the revenue of Egypt are the land tax, the 

tobacco monopoly, and the customs ; the chief branches of expenditure are 

the service of the debt and internal administration. In fivo years the 

revenue and expenditure have been :— 



Years 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 

1900 

FINANCE 11(11 

Revenue Expenditure 

£E 

10,693,000 

11,092,564 

11,347,980 

11,415,000 

11,447,000 

£E 

10,377,000 

10,659,257 

10,863,955 

10,254,000 

9,895,000 

The surplus in 1900 was thus £E1,552,000, of which [££559,000 belongs 

to the Egyptian Government; £E666,000 is the net amount paid to the 

General Reserve Fund; £E265,000 has been paid to the Economies Fund, 

and £E62,000 is devoted to the Sinking Fund. 

The Budget estimate of revenue and expenditure for two years were :— 

Revenue 

Direct taxes: 

Land tax 

Various . 

Indirect taxes: 

Customs. 

Tobacco . 

Miscellaneous 

Other Taxes . 

Miscellaneous . 

Receipts from 

Revenue 

Earning Administrations: 

Railways 

Telegraphs 

Post Office . 

Other Services 

Total Ordinary 

Revenue 

Contribution 

from General 

Reserve Fund 

Total . 

1900 1901 

£E 1 £E 

4,423,000 ! 4,698,000 

137,000 i 137,000 

900,000 900,000 

1,000,000 

593,000 

662,000 

214,000 

1,820,000 

57,000 

125,000 

233,400 

1,000,000 

522,000 

615,000 

207,000 

2,000,000 

50,000 

120,000 

229,400 

10,164,400 10,484,400 

215,600 : 215,600 

| 

10,380,000 10,700,000 

Expenditure 

Civil List . . . . 

Expenses of Administration 

Expenses of Revenue Earning 

Administrations : 

Railways . . . . 

Telegraphs . 

Post Office 

Other Services . 

Army: 

Egyptian Army 

Army of Occupation 

Pensions . . . . 

Tribute and Debt: 

Tribute . . . . 

Expenses of Caisse de la 

Dette . . . . 

Consolidated Debt 1 . 

Non-Conso'idated Debt . 

Suppression of Corvee 

Soudan Deficit . 

Reserve for Unforeseen Expenditure 

. 

Total Ordinary Expenditure 

Conversion Economies 

Sinking fund on Guaranteed 

Loan 

Share of Surplus paid into 

General Reserve Fund . 

Total . . . . 

1990 

£E 

253,861 

2,281,085 

915,412 

44,000 

108,159 

66,492 

439,570 

84,825 

437,000 

665,041 

36,500 

3,431,978 

264,858 

250,000 

417,179 

32,000 

9,727,960 

265,037 

61,109 

325,894 

1901 

£E 

255,361 

2,322,105 

957.200 

44,000 

114,973 

69,590 

439,870 

84,825 

437,000 

665,041 

37,300 

3,489,202 

207,082 

250,000 

417,179 

32,000 

9,822,728 

265,037 

63,385 

484,850 

10,380,000 10,630,000 

1 Exclusive of the Daira Sanieh and Domain Loans. 

The foreign debt of Egypt began in 1862, when loans amounting to 

4,292,8002. were issued for the purpose of extinguishing the floating debt. 

Other issues followed in rapid succession, and in 1870 the amount of the 

foreign loans, had increased to 38,307,0002. To this was added in 1873 a loan 

of 32,000,0002. to pay off the floating debt, which had risen to 28,000,0002. 

In 1875 the Khedive announced that he was in difficulties, and in 1876, 

acting on French advice, he issued decrees consolidating the debt into one 

4 F 



1162 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES:—EGYPT 

of 91,000,0007. In 1876 default took place on seveial of the loans, and in 

1877 arrangements were made by representatives of the English ami French 

bondholders for the consolidation of the debts into a i'refeieiiee. debt of 

17,000,0007. at 5 per cent., and a Unified debt of 59,000,0007. at 7 percent. 

The Daira loans were consolidated into the Daira Sanieh debt of 

8,815,4307. at 5 per cent. In 1S78 Domain Mortgage Bonds were issued to 

the amount of 8,500,0007. at 5 per cent., secured on Khedival property to be 

administered by Commissioners. The dual control by England and Prance 

began in 1879. In January, 1880, the two Controllers-General reported that 

Egypt could not possibly meet Iter engagements in full, and in July the 

Liquidation Law, in accordance with the recommendation of an international 

Commission of the Great Powers, was promulgated. By this law 

the Unified debt was reduced to 4 per cent, interest; further conversions 

were made, and the Unified debt thus increased to 60,958,2407 ; certain 

unconsolidated liabilities weie added to the Preference debt, which thus rose 

to 22,743,8007. ; and the Daira Sanieh debt was increased to9,512,8807., the 

interest being reduced to 4 per cent. In 1885 a loan of 9,424,0007. at 3 percent., 

guaranteed by the Great Powers, was issued. In 1888 a 4J per cent, 

loan of 2,330,0007. was contracted for the commutation of pensions. In 

1890 the Preieience debt and the loan of 1888 (just mentioned) were converted 

into a 3^ per cent. Preference loan of 29,400,0007., including 

£E1,300,000 for irrigation and commutation of pensions. Also Daiia Sanieh 

4 per cent, bonds for 7,299,3607. were issued for the conversion of the 

previously existing bonds ; and in 1893 State Domain Bonds for 8,500,0007. 

at i\ per cent, took the place of the 5 per cent, bonds of the same debt. 

The condition and the charge of the various debts in January, 1900, was as 

follows :— 

Guaranteed Loan, 3 per cent. 

Privileged Debt, 3J per cent. 

Unified Debt, 4 per cent. . . 

Daira Sanieh Loan, 4 ner cent . 

Domains Loan, 41 per cent. . . 

Total 

Debt 

£ ' 

. ! 8,410,800 

. i 29,393,580 

55,971,960 

. ! 6,162,800 

. 1 3,109,900 

! 103,049,000 

1 Including Sinking Fund. 

Charge 

£E 

307.125 1 

1,003,056 

2,182,906 

240,349 

128,866 

3,862,302 

The charges on account of debts of all kinds (including tribute), as 

shewn in the estimates for 1901, amount to £E4,727,047. 

In 1887, reserve funds were established, which at the beginning of 1900 

stood as follows :— 

£E 

Economies from Conversions 3,565,468 

General Reserve Fund 1,341,177 

Special ,, >, 299,509 

Total Reserves . . . 5,206,154 



PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 1103 

Defence. 

AKMY. 

On September 19, 1882, the whole of the Egyptian army was 

disbanded by Khedivial decree. In December of the same year 

the organisation of a new army was entrusted to a British general 

officer, who was given the title of Sirdar. The present Sirdar 

is Colonel Sir Reginald Wingate, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.S.O., 

A.D.C. There are about 100 English officers serving at present 

in the Egyptian army. The army has a total strength of 

15,500. The horses and mules number about 1,610, camels 

1,700, and there are 150 guns. 

AKMY OF OCCUPATION. 

General Commanding . Hon. K. A. J. Talbot, C.B. 

Chief Staff Officer . . Col. M. C. B. F. Eorestier-Walkor. 

Since the rebellion in 1882 an English army of occupation has 

remained in Egypt. Its present strength is 4,500. To meet 

the cost of this army, the Egyptian Government contributes 

87,000*. annually. 

Egypt has now no efficient warships. 


The total area, land and water, of Egypt is about 8,000,000 feddans 

(1 feddans 1-03 acre), and of this 5,022,000 was cultivated in 1891. Of the 

total area cultivated, nearly three-fourths, called Kharaji lands, are, theoretically, 

held in life tenancy, the State being the ultimate proprietor. The tax 

(in reality rent) on these lands is unequally imposed, but averages about 

22 sh. per feddan. Other lands, nearly one-fourth of the whole are called 

Ushuri, or tithe-paying. These lands, otherwise called "privileged," were 

originally granted in fee and are subject to an impost or quit-rent averaging 

about 7 sh. per feddan. The Wakf lands, originally assigned to mosques for 

religious or charitable purposes, arc let by the mosques at moderate rent; the 

lease may descend to heirs or be sold, but, on failure of successors, it passes 

again to the mosque to be again let. In addition to tax or rent, holders of 

land are subject to charges of about 4 sh. per feddan for the materials necessary 

for keeping up the irrigation system, and although the corvee, or forced labour, 

has for other purposes been abolished, the inhabitants are still called out to 

guard or repair the Nile banks in flood time, and are also liable in any sudden 

emergency. The agricultural population (Fellaheen) forms about 61 per cent, 

of the whole. A large proportion of them are small land-holders with about 

50 feddans, while others, almost or altogether landless, are labourers, the 

relation between the employers and the employed being mostly hereditary. 

A considerable proportion of the land is under mortgage. The following table 

shows, for 1894, the number of land-holders, the areas mortgaged, and the 

amount of the debt. Besides the debt here stated there is a certain amount 

unregistered, due notably by small proprietors :— 

4 F 2 



1104 TURKEY AND TKIHUTAItY STATES :—EGYPT 

Extent of holdings. 

5 feddans and undci 

5-10 feddans . 

10-20 ,, 

20-30 

30-50 

Over 50 ,, 

Total 

Number of 

landholders. 

. 513,080 

75,130 

39,620 

13,140 

8,980 

11,430 

. 661,380 

Totals of 

Arena. 

Feiiflans. 

933,700 

552,700 

560,300 

326,100 

347,800 

2,000,700 

4,721,300 

Areas under ' 

mortgage. 

Frikliuis. 

21,400 

16,000 

20,400 

19,600 

25,900 

292,300 

395,600 

Amount of ; 

debt. ! 

£K. 

573,300 

392,200 

407,700 

307,200 

409,900 

5,233,000 

7,323,300 

The Egyptian agricultural year includes three seasons or crops. The 

leading winter crops, sown in November and harvested in May and June, are 

cereal produce of all kinds ; the principal summer crops, sown in March and 

harvested in October and November, are cotton, sugar, and rice ; the autumn 

crops, sown in July and gathered in September and October, are rice, sorgho 

(a sort of maize), and vegetables generally. In Lower Egypt where perennial 

irrigation is effected by means of a network of canals tapping the Nile and 

traversing the Delta in every direction, the chief crops are cotton, sugar-cane, 

rice, Indian corn, wheat, barley, clover, cucumber; in Upper Egypt where 

the basin system of irrigation, i.e. submersion at high Nile is generally 

adhered to, cereals and vegetables are produced, but in summer cotton and. 

sugar-cane are grown in the Fayum and Ibrahimia canal tracts. "Where there 

is perennial irrigation two or three crops are secured annually ; lands irrigated 

in flood only are under millet, or if low-lying are drained when the flood goes 

otf, and then produce the winter crop of wheat, beans, or clover. 

Extensive works are in progress at Siut and Assuan for the purpose of 

facilitating irrigation. 

The production of cotton in 10 years was :— 

Year 

1890-91 

1891-92 

1892-93 

1893-94 

1894-95 

Kantars 

4,072,500 

4,072,520 

5,118,150 

4,933,666 

4,615,270 

Year 

1895-96 

1896-97 

1897-98 

1898-99 

1899-00 

Kantars 

5,275,383 

5,879,750 

6,543,128 

5,588,816 

6,510,000 

The area under wheat is (in acres) about 1,262,000; maize, 1,592,000 ; 

cotton,' 906,000 ; sugar cane, 67,120. In 1899 the sugar crop exported 

amounted to 64,390,550 kilogrammes, valued at £E664,427, and the cotton 

exported amounted to 6,001,222 cantars (of 50 kilogrammes), and valued at 

£E11,598,222. 

In the following table the agricultural condition of each of the provinces 

in Lower and Upper Egypt is indicated;— 



- 

Lower Egypt: 

Behera 

Charkieh . 

Dakahlieh . 

Gharbieb. 

Kalioubieh . 

Menoufieh . 

Upper Egypt: 

Assiout 

Beni Souef . 

Fayoum 

Guizeh 

Minia. 

Esna . 

Guerga 

Kena . 

Total, Egypt . 

No. of 

Villages 

403 

451 

449 

552 

166 

338 

2,359 

292 

174 

87 

168 

268 

195 

110 

126 

1,420 

3,779 

COMMERCE 11G5 

No. of 

Feddans 

cultivated 

467,662 

434,982 

462,367 

840,089 

187,180 

351,710 

2,743,990 

419,100 

231,610 

231,045 

181,176 

397,240 

150,459 

325,915 

280,927 

2,217,472 

4,961,462 

No. of 

Farm 

Animals 

Per 100 

feddans 

12 

12 

11 

17 

17 

33 

17 

10 

15 

8 

19 

6 

18 

16 

10 

13 

14 

No. of 

Sheep and 

Goats 

Per 100 

feddans 

13 

9 

13 

16 

19 

18 

14 

30 

16 

13 

36 

9 

11 

51 

34 

25 

20 

No. of No. of 

FruitTrees Date Trees 

Per 100 

feddans 

23 

24 

13 

16 

325 

43 

42 

21 

8 

54 

9 

17 

7 

9 

10 

17 

13 

Per 100 

feddans 

22 

116 

27 

25 

70 

8 

40 

84 

46 

105 

195 

54 

348 

96 

92 

The total number of date trees which yield fruit or seed is about 

4,500,000. Cattle and farm animals, including horses and camels, number 

1,668,860. 

Commerce. 

The exterior commerce of Egypt, comprising imports and exports of all 

kinds of merchandise and of specie, is given at the following figures for five 

years:— 

Year 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 

1900 

Imports 

£E 

9,828,604 

10,603,672 

11,033,219 

11,441,802 

14,112,369 

Merchandise 

Exports 

£E 

13,232,108 

12,321,220 

11,805,179 

15,350,908 

16,766,609 

Imports 

£E 

3,720,425 

2,921,722 

1 2,730,116 

4,515,917 

4,114,612 

Spe sie 

106 

69 

Exports 

£E 

1,826,160 

2,369,479 

1,891,513 

1,502,485 

2,602,790 

The following table shows the value of the commercial intercourse of 

Egypt with different foreign countries for three years :— 



1.166 TURKEY AND TKIIil'TARV STATICS: -KCJYPT 

- 

Great Britain 

British Colonies in the 

Mediterranean 

British Colonies in the 

Extreme East 

Germany . 

America 

Austria-Hungary 

Belgium 

China and Extreme 

East 

France and Algeria . 

Greece 

Italy . . . . 

Morocco 

Persia 

Russia 

Turkey 

Other countries . 

Total . 

1808 

;6E 

3,872,452 

103,500 

568,501 

310,127 

331,702 

716,050 

542,704 

83,639 

1,009,532 

97,673 

600.94S 

39,592 

42,092 

471,475 

1,701,934 

525,148 

Imports from 

1S99 

4,334,020 

80,205 

611,430 

350.203 

234,841 

735.295 

626,100 

S3.453 

1,060,224 

99,0S3 

658,871 

30,179 

37,022 

430,(125 

1,643,224 

301,763 

The value of the leading exports and imports of Egypt during the last three 

years is shown in the following table :— 

Merchandise 

Animals & animal 

food products . 

Skins and leather 

goods . 

Other animal products 

. 

Cereals, vegetables, 

COMMERCE 1167 

The receipts from tobacco were: in 1897, £E1,044,780; in 1898, 

£E1,080,669 ; in 1899, £E1,068,497. 

Of the total imports in 1899 the value of £E9,945,165, and of the exports 

the value of £E15,068,722 passed through the port of Alexandria. 

Goods imported into Egypt are examined by experts, who determine their value either 

according to the purchase price in their original country as indicated on the invoices, plus 

the cost of transport, freight, insurance, &c., or according to the wholesale price at the 

port of disembarkation, minus a discount of 10 per cent. In order, however, to facilitate 

customs operations, the administration, in communication with the merchants interested, 

establishes, on the same basis as above, periodical tariffs for such articles of importation as 

cotton-goods, indigo, coal, petroleum, rice, flour, metals, sugar, &c. Iu the statistics of the 

Custom House, the values are estimated according to the estimated price which served as 

the basis for the payment of duty now fixed at 8 per cent, ad valorem, without taking into 

account the amount of that duty. As regards exports, there are tariffs for nearly all of 

them, estimated monthly for some of them, quarterly for others, m the same manner as 

the tariffs of imports are established. 

The quantities recorded in statistics are thosedeclared by the merchants and controlled 

by the Customs. 

The origin of imports and destination of exports are declared by importers and exporters, 

and controlled, as much as possible, by the searchers and appraisers of the Custom House. 

The statistics of the Customs only give general commerce. In order to know the amount 

of special trade deduction must be made from the total of imports of the value of 

goods re-exported, which, however, has only an inconsiderable importance. In fact the value 

of these goods amounts to about three or four hundred thousand pounds, one half of which 

is due to tobacco re-exported in the form of cigarettes. The transit trade is of no importance. 

At the utmost its value amounts to 600,0001. per annum, nine-tenths of which 

represents the value of coal imported at Port Said to be re-exported on payment of a duty 

of 1 per cent, ad valorem. Goods temporarily deposited or re-shipped are not included 

in the "transit." 

From the efforts made by the Customs authorities to ensure accuracy, and from the 

method of valuation employed, the .commercial statistics of Egypt may be regarded as 

comparatively exact. 

The subjoined statement shows the total value of the imports from Egypt 

into the United Kingdom, and of the exports of British produce and 

manufactures to Egypt, in five years, according to the Board of Trade 

returns :— 

1895 

1 ■ - ■ - ■ 

18% j 1897 1898 \ 1899 j 

£ £ ! £ £ ' £ 

Imports from Egypt into U. K. 9,524,507; 9,659,376 i 9,294,240 [ 8,855,689 |lQ,914,354 

Exports of British produce to j j j 

Egypt . . . . 3,349,162| 3,777,966 | 4,435,101 ■ 4,419,078 , 5,061,686 

The following table shows the values of the principal imports into the 

United Kingdom from Egypt, and of the principal exports from the United 

Kingdom to Egypt:— 

Year 

1895 

1S96 

1897 

189S 

1899 

Raw 

Cotton 

£ 

6,420,971 ! 

6,833,315 

6,484,450 

5,881,396 

7,748,611 

British Imports from Egypt 

Cotton 

Seeds 

£ 

1,691,006 

1,590,429 

1,801,079 

1,922,938 

1,839,921 

Sugar 

£ 

264,055 

221,147 

94,829 

42,019 

28,390 

i Beans 

£ 

482,317 

342,638 

227,716 

147,831 

325,145 

Exports of British Produce to Egypt 

Cotton 

Goods 

£ 

1,491,791 

1,520,708 

1,722,955 

1,414,806 

1,647,926 

Coal 

£ 

763,568 

835 369 

899,005 

1,009,151 

1,220,863 

Iron 

Machinery 

£ £ 

143,346 146,138 

248,132 151,011 

409,172 249,479 

370,071 327,823 

492,622 1 261,526 



1168 TURKEY AND TR1HUTAKY STATES :—EGYPT 

The imports of wheat from Egypt, 352,005/. in J891, amounted to onlv 

29,908J. in 1898, and 7,180,?. in 1899. 

Shipping and Navigation. 

The following tables show the nationality and tonnage of vessels arriving 

and clearing at Alexandria. Great facilities have been afforded to steamers 

since the completion of the docks, wharfs, and quays ; and in order to still 

further facilitate navigation the Government have constructed a new pass, 

300 feet wide, to enable vessels, which have often been delayed off the 

port during stormy weather, to make a direct run into harbour. The new 

pass, 30 feet deep, was opened to navigation in July 1894. 

Arrivals and clearances of commercial vessels at Alexandria in five years :— 

Year 

1895 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 

2,393 

2,132 

2,203 

2,454 

2,805 

Arrivals Clearances 

2,206,667 

2,123,591 

2,267,120 

2,555,396 

2,414,674 

Vessels 

2,339 

2,105 

2,143 

2,428 

2,758 

Tons 

2,194,964 

2,094,684 

2,270,836 

2,559,876 

2,389,058 

The following table shows the nationality of commercial vessels arrived 

and cleared in 1899 :— 

Nationality 

Vessels Tons 

British . . . . 

French . . . . 

Austrian . . . . 

Turkish . . . . 

Russian . . . . 

Italian . . . . 

Greek . . . . 

Swedish and Norwegian . 

' German . . . . 

Other countries 

Total for 1899 . 

Vessels 

747 

119 

115 

1,382 

76 

141 

124 

22 

30 

46 

2,803 

Arrivals 

Tons 

1,150,231 

272,327 

223,854 

158,818 

162,834 

253,031 

43,758 

42,614 

56,378 

50,829 

2,414,674 

Suez Canal. 

Vessels 

741 

117 

113 

1,345 

73 

142 

121 

28 

31 

47 

2,758 

Clearances 

Tons 

1,139,698 

267,458 

220,028 

152,586 

159,631 

252,943 

42,520 

52,463 

57,806 

33,925 

2,389,058 

The following table shows the number and gross tonnage ot vessels of all 

nationalities that passed through the canal in 1899 : — 



SUEZ CANAL 1169 

The number and gross tonnage of vessels that have passed through the 

Suez Canal, and the gross receipts of the company, have bean as follows in 

six years :— 

Year 

1891 

1895 

1896 

Country 

Great Britain . 

Germany , 

France 

Holland . 

Austria-Hungary 

Japan . . ! 

Russia 

Italy 

Norway . 

Spain 

America . 

No. Of 

Vessels 

3,352 

3,434 

3,409 

No.' 

2,310 

387 

226 

206 

101 

65 

55 

69 

59 

39 

26 

Gross 

Tonnage 

Gross 

Tonnage 

9,046,031 

1,492,657 

940,125 

583,011 

371,364 

321,128 

266,444 

200,625 

165,738 

164,202 

101,246 

Receipts 

11,283,855 ! 2,951,073 

11,833,637 3,124,149 

12,039,859 ! 3,182,800 

Revenues applied to improvement of canal 

Redemption and Insurance Funds 

Tear 

1897 

1898 

1899 

Country 

Denmark. 

, Turkey . 

Belgium . 

Greece 

Egypt . 

Portugal . 

Sweden . 

Siam 

Total . 

No. of 

Vessels 

2,986 

3,503 

8,607 

Gross 

Tonnage 

11,123,403 

12,962,632 

13,815,992 

Eeceipts 

£ 

2,913,222 

3,411,791 

3,652,751 

464,100,827 

151,174,307 

17,764,598 

. 633,039,732 

There were besides, 100,000 founders' shares, with right to participate in 

surplus profit under certain conditions. In 1899 the net profits amounted 

to 54,153,660 francs, and the total amount distributed among the shareholders 

was 51,538,028 francs. 

No. 

21 

26 

5 

4 

2 

3 

2 

1 

3,607 

Gross 

Tonnage 

76,106 

52,385 

16,759 

11,223 

2,892 

2,260 

1,021 

775 

13,815,992 

The number of passengers who went through the canal in 1899 was 

221,347 as against 219,671 in 1898, 191,215 in 1897, and 308,227 in 1896. 

The Suez Canal is 87 miles long, 66 actual canal and 21 miles lakes, 

connecting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea, opened for navigation 


The state of the capital account as regards bonds in circulation and redeemed 

was as follows, on December 81. 1899 :— 

Francs Francs 

Capital, 400,000 shares at 500 francs . . { >een!ed°? ^STIMO } 200 ' 000 > 000 

Consolidation of unpaid coupons, 400,000 f 393,382 in circulation 33,437,470) o« nno ooo 

bonds at 85 francs . . . . 1 6,618 redeomed . 562,530 j o*> mv > mv 

Loan (1867-68), 333,333 obligations at 300 ( 218,108 in circulation 65,432,400 1 QJ ' ' 

Loan (1871). 120,000 30-year bonds at 100 f 16,780 in circulation 1,678,000 ) 19 nftft ,,„„ 

francs' 110.1,220 redeemed . 10,322,0001 ".o." 

Loan (1880), 73,026 3 per cent, obligations, f 68,498 in circulation. 25,325,821) „B 0(m 0(W 

various prices \ 4,528 redeemed . 1,674,141 } ■"."■'•'.•"^ 

Loan (1887), 195,000 3 per'cent. obligations, ( 217,708 in circulation 90,151,859) 0, inn(¥1r 

various prices . ' . . . . \ 2,292 redeemed . 949,106/ J 1 . 1 .-"" 

Total

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