TVR_106-3

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The Volta Review, Volume <strong>106</strong>(3) (monograph), 275-298 Family Empowerment: Supporting Language Development in Young Children Who Are Deaf or Hard of Hearing Jean L. DesJardin, Ph.D. The current model of early intervention with children who are deaf or hard of hearing emphasizes parental self-efficacy and involvement. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between mothers’ self-efficacy beliefs and involvement and children’s language skills in a group of mothers of children who are deaf or hard of hearing and wear hearing aids (N = 32). Mothers completed a questionnaire (Scale of Parental Involvement and Self-Efficacy), and mother-child interactions were videotaped. Mothers’ self-efficacy beliefs related to developing their children’s speech and language were positively associated with higher level facilitative language techniques (recast and open-ended question), and one lower level technique (closed-ended question). Perceived involvement was also positively related to lower level techniques. Regression analyses indicated that the same higher level techniques were associated with children’s language skills. Findings present early intervention implications for professionals who work with families and children who are deaf or hard of hearing. Introduction Families of young children who are deaf or hard of hearing have many more opportunities today than in years past to develop a child’s spoken language skills. In the past, parents may have felt isolated in their search for resources related to hearing loss, with parent-professional partnerships traditionally marked by “power over” relationships that are defined by professionals presuming a higher sense of competence and greater knowledge than parents (Turnbull, Turbiville, & Turnbull, 2000). The present model of early intervention, referred to as the empowerment model (Turnbull & Turnbull, Jean DesJardin, Ph.D., is an advanced research associate in the Children’s Research and Evaluation (CARE) Center at House Ear Institute in Los Angeles, Calif. Empowering Families of Young Children Who Are Deaf 275
2001), places an emphasis on parental involvement in an equal partnership with the professional. In this professional-parent partnership, both work collaboratively to learn from each other about better ways to support the child’s language development. Current recommended practices for children who are deaf or hard of hearing emphasize the importance of not only parental involvement, but also parental competence. Both the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA, 2004) and the Division of Early Childhood (DEC) Recommended Practices in Early Intervention/Early Childhood Special Education (Sandall, McLean, & Smith, 2000) specify that one desired outcome of early intervention is for parents to perceive themselves as capable of supporting their children’s growth and development—parental self-efficacy. Parental beliefs will, in turn, make an impact on the child’s learning. The role of early intervention professionals is to support parents as they seek to gain access to the information they require to become competent and confident in the skills necessary to support their children’s development (McWilliam & Scott, 2001; Turnbull et al., 2000). Parents’ beliefs about their skills and involvement in their children’s early intervention program are critical components for children’s language learning. Parental Self-Efficacy Parental self-efficacy beliefs are defined as one’s sense of knowledge and abilities to perform or accomplish daily parenting tasks and roles. According to self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1997), parental self-efficacy beliefs should incorporate (1) the level of specific knowledge pertaining to the behaviors involved in child-rearing and (2) the degree of confidence in one’s own ability to carry out the specific parental role. For example, Conrad, Gross, Fogg, and Ruchala (1992) noted that mothers’ increased knowledge alone did not result in better interactions with their young children. Increased knowledge and confidence together, however, resulted in more effective interactions with their hearing toddlers. A key component of self-efficacy theory states that parents’ efficacy beliefs are linked to the goals they have for their children (Bandura, 1989). These goals may translate into parental practices that support their children’s ability and persist until the goals are attained (Brody, Flor, & Gibson, 1999; DesJardin, 2004). In other words, a person who is self-efficacious both knows about and persists in attempting a given task until success is achieved, whereas self-inefficacious individuals may have the knowledge needed, but may be unable to persist because of self-doubt. Thus, parents of children who are deaf or hard of hearing need the knowledge and skills necessary to build their children’s spoken language abilities, but, to achieve confidence in those skills, they also need to use those skills daily as they interact with their children. Indeed, maternal self-efficacy beliefs may influence mother-child interactions. In a sample of mothers and their hearing infants, Teti and Gelfand 276 DesJardin
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Page 3 and 4: The Volta Review Early Hearing Dete
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Page 7 and 8: Center at Bar Ilan University, Rama
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Page 11 and 12: Figure 1. Percentage of newborns sc
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Page 27 and 28: Culbertson, J., & Gilbert, A.M. (19
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Page 61 and 62: Table 8. Summary of Regression Mode
Page 63 and 64: Roper & Dunst, 2003). Everyday occu
Page 65 and 66: References Akey, T., Marquis, J., &
Page 67 and 68: Lerner, G. (1952). Mr. Potato Head
Page 69 and 70: Appendix Scale of Parent Involvemen
Page 71 and 72: Parents want to know why their chil
Page 73 and 74: Incidence of UHL Impact of UHL Defi
Page 75 and 76: Children with UHL are at risk for a
Page 77 and 78: with this population of children to
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Page 81 and 82: Progression of hearing loss is a co
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Page 85 and 86: Environmental and Acoustic Modifica
Page 87 and 88: negative effects of unilateral hear
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Page 91 and 92: The Volta Review, Volume 106(3) (mo
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as Spanish, automatically there are
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In summary, young children with sev
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documenting speech production patte
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were determined by the child’s pr
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Table 1. Observed-to-Expected Ratio
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His Spanish language use did impact
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implants: Profiles and implications
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http://eire.census.gov/popest/data/
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Introduction Since the early 1980s,
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delayed, thereby increasing parenta
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fitting the second processor easier
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quickly and naturally. Children who
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Figure 2. Graphic example of a loud
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Table 2. Patients Patient ID Time L
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Speech Discrimination Tasks In addi
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The last two children with equal mo
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Figure 7. Loudspeaker arrangement f
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children will retain monaural stimu
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van Hoesel, R., Tong, Y., Hallow, R
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with hearing loss who receive early
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5 years (i.e., met the age cut-off
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location. Informed consent was obta
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Figure 1. Loneliness score and age
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analysis was conducted to determine
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eceive cochlear implants, significa
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effective public school programs fo
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The Volta Review, Volume 106(3) (mo
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for promoting EHDI in developing co
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Table 1. Levels of Prevention for C
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or unilateral hearing loss because
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were usually higher when babies wer
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Table 2. World Bank Classification
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total public expenditure (Gottret &
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is more cost effective to institute
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Figure 2. Proportion of births in h
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scant, although they are likely to
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a widely reported controversy conce
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their babies at such an early age b
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active, ongoing, culturally appropr
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this goal achievable. Reservations
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Clemens, C.J., Davis, S.A., & Baile
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Kale, R. (1995). Traditional healer
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A dream realized or nightmare in th
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Penn, C. (1998). The study of child
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Watkin, P.M., Baldwin, M., & McEner
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The Volta Review, Volume 106(3) (mo
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education or general education, the
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for both developmental and remedial
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Table 1. Type and Number of RSP Con
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process of closing the language gap
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phonologic and phonemic awareness;
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Westchester Institute for Human Ser
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Bohnert, Andrea; Spitzlei, Vera; Li
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