Revue d'histoire de la culture materielle - Memorial University's ...

34 ~
NATIONAL
Mc rst:I!m c~~
Sc.'IENCE AND
Do, CtINOLOCr
MI JSIi'E NATIONAL
!)ES SCIENCES
ET DE LA
TECIIN()LOGIE
FALL 1991 / AUTOMNE 1991
Revue d'histoire de la
culture materielle
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Material History Review
The Great Western Garment Company, Limited - - Edmonton, Alta .

Editorial Board /
Comite de redaction
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Editor in Chief l Chef de la r6daction
Peter E . Rider
CANADIAN MUSEUM OF CIVILIZATION /
MUSI;E CANADIEN DES CIVILISATIONS
Associate Editor and French-Language Review Editor/
Rddacteur ad joint et responsable des comptes
rendus en franFais
Jean-Pierre Hardy
CANADIAN MUSEUM OF CIVILIZATION /
MUS$E CANADIEN DES CIVILISATIONS
Managing Editor l Directeur administratif
Geoff Rider
NATIONAL MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY /
MUSI;E NATIONAL DES SCIENCES ET DE LA TECHNOLOGIE
Contributing Editors l R6dacirices invit6es
Catherine Cooper Cole
ALBERTA CULTURE
Pamela Blackstock
CANADIAN PARKS SERVICE
Members / Membres
Norman R. Ball
UNIVERSITY OF WATERLOO
G6rard Collomb
CENTRE D'EI'HNOLOGIE FRANGAISE
A . Gregg Finley
KINGS LANDING, FREDERICTON
Adrienne Hood
ROYAL ONTARIO MUSEUM
Robert B . Klymasz
CANADIAN MUSEUM OF CIVILIZATION /
MUSI".E CANADIEN DES CIVILISATIONS
Jocelyne Mathieu
UNIVERSIT$ LAVAL
W. John McIntyre
SENECA COLLEGE
Dianne Newell
UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
Sharon Reilly
MANITOBA MUSEUM OF MAN AND NATURE
Thomas J . Schlereth
UNIVERSITY OF NOTRE DAME
0
'`"°c~
' ec`05
© National Museum of Science and Technology 1991 /
Mus6e national des sciences et de la technologie 1991
ISSN 1183-1073
The contents of contributions to Material History
Review are solely the responsibility of the
individual authors and are not to be attributed
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staff or Editorial Board, or the National
Museum of Science and Technology.
La teneur des articles de la Revue d'histoire de
la culture mat6rielle n'engage qua les auteurs
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8tre attribu6e A la Revue d'histoire de la culture
mat6rielle, A ses r6dactetus et rtsviseurs, ia
son personnel de production ou ia son comit6
de rtsdaction, ni au Mus6e national des sciences
et de la technologie .
Editor & Production Co-ordinator / Rdviseuse
anglaise et coordonnatrice de la production
Lynn M . Wilson
French Editor / Rdviseuse frangaise
Gisi'le Cyr
Word processing / OpEratrice de traitement de textes
Lori Polger
Graphic Designer / Graphiste
Eiko Emori Inc .
All cover illustrations are taken from text inside
; clockwise from top right, see pages 34,
11, 33 and 89 .
Les illustrations de la couverture sont tir6es
du corps de 1'ouvrage ; en haut a droite, puis
dans le sens des aiguilles d'une montre, voir
pages 34, 11, 33 et 89 .

Material History Review
FALL 1991 / ALTTOMNE 1991
Revue d'histoire de la culture materielle
Table of Contents / Table des maiieres
Articles
Caveats in the Use of Corporate Literature by Costume Historians
CATHERINE C. COLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1
Documents from the Tailoring Trade as a Research Source
CATHERINE ROY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
La courtepointe quebecoise : creation ou emprunt?
MARIE DURAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Photographic Archival Sources for Costume Research
THERESA ROWAT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Bibliography / Bibliographie
Costume in Canada : The Sequel
JACQUELINE BEAUDOIN-ROSS AND PAMELA BLACKSTOCK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..42
Conference Report /Rapport de conference
American Dress as Social History
PAMELA BUELL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..68
Research Notes / Notes de recherche
The Labels of Thomas Nisbet
TIM G. DILWORTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..70
Clothing the Past : Costume Research at the Canadian Parks Service
GAIL CARIOU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..72
Notes and Comments / Notes et commentaires
Our Contributing Editors / Nos r6dactrices invitees
PETER E. RIDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..75
Recent Acquisitions, Newfoundland Museum, St. John's
WALTER W. PEDDLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Invitation to join the Regional Furniture Society
WALTER W. PEDDLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
Reviews / Comptes rendus
Thomas J . Schlereth, Cultural History and Material Culture: Everyday Life, Landscapes,
Museums
ANN GORMAN CONDON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Catherine C. Cole, ed ., Norwegian Immigrant Clothing and Textiles
DOROTHY K. BURNHAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81

Paul Rutherford, When Television Was Young: Primetime Canada, 1952-1967
JOHN E. TWOMEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..83
Garth Clark, Robert Ellison and Eugene Hecht, The Mad Potter of Biloxi : The Art and Life
of George E. Ohr
American Craft Museum, George Ohr: Modern Potter (1857-1918)
Canadian Museum of Civilisation, The Turning Point : The Deichmann Pottery (1935-1963)
JOHN B . COLLINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..84
Contributors / Collaborateurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..93

Resume
Caveats in the Use of Corporate
Literature by Costume Historians
Cet article d6crit certaines des caract6ristiques
et fonctions des publications d'entreprises
et suggere d'etablir des liens entre
1'etude de ces publications et celle du costume
. L'auteur de Particle souleve de nombreuses
questions et souligne des difficultes
qui se posent aux historiens du costume,
affirmant que, meme si les chercheurs y ont
toujours amplement puise, ces publications
n'ont jamais fait 1'objet d'une evaluation
adequate. Non seulement chercheurs et chercheuses
doivent-ils bien se garder d'accepter
telles quelles les donnees de ces publications
mais ils doivent s'interroger sur leur contexte,
]eur but et leur public lecteur.
Costume and other material historians are
continually identifying new sources which
enable them to interpret historical events
and trends through an understanding of the
material world . A growing interest in studying
the recent past has resulted in the need
for researchers to come to terms with sources
and media which are unavailable to those
studying earlier periods . The volume of data
alone, available to historians studying the
late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, is
overwhelming . Academic training prepares
researchers to examine, question and interpret
historical documents and archival
records but rarely addresses the need to utilize
other sources such as oral interviews,
photographs, television, artifacts, or corporate
literature much less provides any training
in how to interpret the sources .
Corporate literature is an umbrella heading
given to a number of sources, similar in
that they were generated by companies : corporate
records, advertisements, mail-order
catalogues, almanacs (which often also
served as catalogues), patents, trademarks,
Abstract
CATHERINE C . COLE
This paper identifies some of the characteristics
and functions of corporate literature and
suggests relationships between the study of
corporate literature and the study of costume
. It poses many questions and challenges
to costume historians asserting that
while corporate literature has been used extensively
by researchers, it has not been adequately
assessed . Researchers must be careful
not to accept the data at face value but to
question its context, purpose, and intended
audience.
and registered industrial designs, photographs,
and giveaways (Fig . 1) . Whether
the question is one of date, availability, taste,
style or materials, this data is referred to on a
regular basis both by researchers working in
museums and by other material historians .
However, little work has been done to define
the characteristics and functions of corporate
literature and to determine its relationship to
the objects themselves .'
Researchers must remember that when
this material was initially produced, its primary
purpose was to promote a company
and its products . It was therefore a form of
propaganda, an advertising and marketing
tool . As such, it documents a company's selfimage
more so than the values of society .
While corporate literature can be used effectively
in the study of costume, and other artifacts,
it must be interpreted carefully, keeping
in mind its original purpose . A failure to
understand the context of these sources, and
the terminology used within them, can lead
material historians to draw inaccurate conclusions
. This paper will identify some of
Material History Review 34 (Fall 1991) / Revue d'histoire de la culture mat6rielle 34 (automne 1991)

Edmonton F'nm Believes in Using Edmonton-Made Products
.
The above illustrations are reduced reproductions of a set of five hanger cards in four colors that are just completed for
the (-,rest Western Garment Company, Ltd . The order comprises 10,000 cards. 13x17 inches . and they are reproduced in tchau is
known. technically, as the four color process. This is the largest exclusive color job ever placed in the city of Edmonton .
It might be interesting to note that the G.W .G . overalls have the largest sale, in Western Canada . Of any ncerall ., and the
extensive and aggressive advertising campaign promoted by the Great Western Garment Company is largely responsible fur this
volume of salts.
The color drawin gs and color plates are the work of the MeDermid Engraving Company . Ltd., and the color printing was
, done by E adale Press, Ltd . Both are Edmonton firms .
The Great Western Garment Company are to be complimented for their confidence in local firms and their lucalt .% - to b:dmonton-made
products in placing this large order locally instead of sending it East .
the characteristics and functions of corporate
literature and determine the relationship between
the study of corporate literature and
the studv of costume .
Scope of Study
Research for this paper was undertaken between
1983 and 1990 when the author was
first curator of Interpretive Collections for
Historic: Sites Service (1983-1986), then curator
of Western Canadian Historv for the
Provincial Museum of Alberta (1989-1991) .
Both agencies fall under the Historical Resources
Division of Alberta Culture and Multiculturalism
and in both cases curatorial responsibilities
included costume collections .
The Eaton's catalogues were used by settlers
in the west and continue to be used by historians
and curators attempting to understand
the material history of the period . Also during
these years (1985-1988) the author completed
her master's thesis on the history
of the garment manufacturing industry in
Edmonton, centred around the early development
of the Great Western Garment Company
(GWG), the largest garment manufacturing
firm in the west . The examples chosen
reflect the sources used for this research ;
however, the thesis could easily be supported
by examples from other firms, or indeed
from other industries .2
Corporate Records
Corporate records for manufacturing firms
producing articles of costume, and for retail
or wholesale outlets, are often of great value
to costume historians . The category "corporate
records" includes any documentation
held in a company's archives . Archives is in
this context a generous word, meaning anything
from a professionally run archives with
staff and research facilities to perhaps a closet
in an underground parking lot, or a drawer
in the president's desk . If a researcher is fortunate,
companies have retained some information
about their own history . However,
one of the limitations of this source is that
whether due to lack of interest in their own
past or due to factors such as fires, frequent
moves, insufficient space, takeovers and
mergers, or the present and future oriented
thinking of businesses, the records of many
firms have been obliterated over time, and
exist neither in public archives nor in company
offices .
Even when records have been retained in
company hands, there are a number of difficulties
in accessing and utilizing them . First
is their inconsistency . The "hit and miss" nature
of retaining archival records has resulted
in a situation where one firm may have interoffice
memos, order books, dated garment
labels, samples, annual reports, correspondence,
etc ., spanning its entire history of operation,
while another firm may have an insurance
appraisal from one year, and two or
three photographs (Fig . 2) . ItJ is therefore impossible
to attempt any sort of meaningful
comparisons between the two firms on the
basis of data compiled from these sources .
Second, they may not have been organized
1
Fix. I
Giveafvays sach as these
hanger cards were one
ineans that companies
used to keep infages of
their prodacts in front oJ
their castorners . Alberta
Labor News, 22 /anasiy
1921 . (Photograph
coartesv Provincial
Archives of Alberta
(PAA) Alsonn)

Fig. 2
Photographs sach as this
one, ftom an Alberta
7rade Shots, showing the
GWG booth in 1928, are
typical of the. type of
photograph one might
find in corporate
(it-chives . This
photograph was donated
to the, Provincial
Archives of Alberta
alon,o ivith a large
collection of trade
association ntaterial bv
the granddaaghter of the
man who had organized
the trade show.
(Photograph courtesy
PAA A17805)
10.
in a way that is useful to researchers . Researchers
interested in corporate history
often would benefit from training as archivists
because it may be necessary to do a
considerable amount of sorting and filing before
being able to seriously analyse the data .
Once the data has been identified and
sorted it should be treated with the cautions
identified further below . An annual report
then as now served several functions ; it
recorded the major achievements of a given
year and provided financial statements .
However, it may also have been used to
"sell" the company to shareholders, government
officials, or in some cases, staff or
unions . An understanding of the operation of
a garment manufacturing firm or of a retail or
wholesale business, which may be obtained
from annual reports, may improve one's
understanding of the garments themselves
and how they were interpreted at the time
in question . For example, the Emery Manufacturing
Company began operation in
Edmonton in 1912 as a manufacturing firm
supplying Ramsey's department store, a local
shop interested in providing Edmontonians
with locally produced clothing with "New
York styling" (both because of a desire to initiate
and support local industry and because
of the firm's ability to acquire and therefore
market clothing at lower prices) . In 1914,
Emery's became independent of Ramsey's
and expanded its production into everyday
ladies wear .' Questions of availability, pricing,
styling, quantities, and the company's
solvency, etc ., are some of the issues which
may be addressed in annual reports .
Inter-office memos may have been written
to protect individuals from criticisms, such
as that they were producing "knock-offs" or
copies of garinents produced by other firms .
Correspondence with individuals from outside
the firm, other businesses, or government
agencies may address a broad range of
issues, among them questions of style, cut,
construction, production, etc .
Production records, order books, salesmen's
records, and correspondence with customers
are extremely useful because they indicate
what was actually purchased . In
contrast to advertisements and catalogues,
which onlv indicate what was available, this

sort of material can be used to determine
what was sold and, sometimes, how well it
was received . Unfortunately, financial
records contain little information about
styles, materials, etc ., so the price lists and
sales figures may mean very little without
further illustration of what was actually
being accounted for. Ideally this information
should be compared to advertisements and
catalogues to enable both sets of data to be
more accurately interpreted . All too often
only one set of data is extant .
Advertisements
Advertisements can be very useful in documenting
style, construction and fit . However,
they should not necessarily be interpreted
literally. Researchers, in common with today's
consumers, must be suspect of a firm's
claims . Costume illustrations may exaggerate
features ; written description may omit essential
details . The actual product may not have
been exactly as the advertisement suggested .
Some advertisements from the period have a
comical appeal which may overshadow our
ability to examine them objectively (Fig . 3) .
These points will be discussed further under
mail-order catalogues, which are a specific
form of advertisement .
Aspects of costume as social history are
also revealed through close scrutiny of advertisements
. For example, an advertisement
for GWG's "Blue Diamond" overalls in
Alberta Labor News describes a unique relationship
between the GWG firm and railwaymen
that evolved because of requests for
particular features in the design of overalls
(Fig . 4) .
. . .a committee of railroad men, in conjunction
with our designing department, were
responsible for the production of our new
high back overall.
When the design was finally decided
upon we submitted samples to the various
railwaymen's locals throughout the West for
their approval . . .
The name selected, "Blue Diamond,"
was suggested by Local No . 715, B . of L ., at
Saskatoon .^
These overalls had a number of special features
which were patented . The patent
records support the claims about the unique
features of these overalls . Unfortunately
there are few overalls extant in museum collections
and it has not been possible to compare
the garments to the advertisements . In
4
terms of the costume itself, therefore, it has
not yet been possible to determine whether
or not the claims made in the advertisements
are true .
Of perhaps greater interest to social historians
is the fact that the advertisement describes
an effective, collaborative relationship
that existed between the consumer and
the manufacturer . Critics of high fashion
complain that designers pay little attention
to their consumers, yet here, apparently, is
an example of occupational clothing being
designed in concert with the people who
would eventually be wearing the clothes . Researchers
should be able to verify this claim
through inquiries among railwaymen of the
period . They could then pursue the ideas
suggested by this relationship, consider to
Fig . 3
There were numerous
advertisernents featuring
the caption "They wear
longer because they're
made stronger, " often
showing men in
ridiculous positions. The
advertisements have an
immediate visual appeal
but one questions
whether in fact you
would be able to hold up
a 180-pound man with
one leg of a pair of
overalls . Alberta Labor
News, 9 April 1921 .
(Photograph courtesy
PAA A19002)
A . Commodity as Staple as the
Agriculture of NVestern Canada
' The wise investor will place his money in an industry where returns will be sure in hard times. Almost
any business can earn a profit for a while, or during an era of prosperity, but it is when hard times'
come that interest oat our investments is needed moat r '
- Before iuvesting,rt is well to ask whether there is a pe,rmanent demand for the product of the industry
. Many factories making specialties or fashionable goods dd well for a time but find themselves
out of business because of a change in fashion, or xcause the market for the specialty is filled and
there are no repeat orders. Such businesses have no chance to build up an army of loyal customers,
who kcep coming back regularly for new supplies.
No such danger exists in the businesq of
making workingmen's clothing. Such stapler
clothing must be replaced at frcqueut intervals
and a company that establishes a re ptation
for satisfactory goods will enjoy p the
regular patronage of pleased customers.
The Great Western Garment Company
Linlited, has succeeded in placing itselT in
the leading position for the manufacture and
safe of workingmen's clothing in Western
Canada. In, ten years their sales bavp fncreased
from $tE,00b in' 1911 to $1,500,000
in 19zo.
The reason for this snfcess is that the business
oras founded and is manag ed by, western
men who konw the needs of the country
because they live in it.
An opportnnity to iavest in this estab "
lished Westem indpatry is now open to yon .
Owing to the growing demand for their Foodncts,
the Company is tncreasing its eapttal .
and a block of first Preference
preference sbares b now
off ed at $100.00 per sham with a bonus of
25; in PartitYpating Second Preference
Shares.
SULLING AGENTS
.
'North West Sm' i es Corporation, . A . NONE- . e d .
EDMONTON, ALBERTA " PHONE S]76
Kiodly'pernlit us to send a mm co YOU who ~ttry19~the deta0s without obligation on your pr ,
what extent it was developed by others in
the industry, and perhaps why it was not developed
further.
One feature, common in advertisements
in this period, was the promotion of the firm
as stable and prosperous, a part of the

1
Fig . 4
"Blue Diamond"
overalls, illustrated in
Alberta Labor News,
8 March 1924 .
/ Llnacce" ssioned
photograph courtesy
PAM
The G.W.G . "Blue Diamond" High Back Overall
.
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SOME SPECIAL FEATURES
All the ep.cLl 1-tense uw prwtsted by
Canadian Pettish, held by tbiu Con,pur
for yes, pre-ti-
(I) Wide Suspenders -_4 high up
giving enln proteetion itit_k to th, bell
and kidneys.
No
Z... d- to
.-ff
P (1-k " for the Blue -"'I- Dlamond.l
(Y) Double Rule 1--ket ill, -0-H
lininr utd Patented Imek .
Try lo nhnke a rute or pair or filters,
nul af this , Net
Tnt. out .hnr.ld be feawred-ir. e
it, The ro~ma selected, "Blue Dlalnond ;' was suggested by loed No. 715, B . of L .
Sa!,ketr,"~~! The O-ll will tarry, a blue Ill-mond shaped Idwl on the dumond
an aped eher"' wherc the .ua enders rror~he ^Blue" ' den . It ., the colar ef the wx
.u and Ih, .'Dl .ntm~d" Siraun, its aa,Krwr ,p.rty.
The d,"mm ' the "Blue ~ Ihamohd" r o extra he .,, +elrht end specially
rloee e ~ cloth . It u ee unahrinkable se y deal. ran be used.. ad a11 p.
of the R .nnent ere designed to every eat. full- of eloUl Ierf paeararr
Rwrd age . o.t Mnnking.
The bark eit . up higher, taking mon eloth than at." *MY other e.-ere U .
ninR the double purpose of proteeanR the kidneys arahat eoW or rind, and at
the same nmr rovednr more of the r1oU,lnr .
d-a. 16. .wdeefel e.f.r
de .le. be.,_ th.w . .r ..ed..
(8) Put u Waleh m the Blb I'orAcL let
it po to the Iwltom of the pwket .
Turn 'he mnnll upnlde dnwu.
Shake It, whirl It uround your head.
The weteh Note under the exr,a aewedn
Me,.
it can't get oat until you lake it *at -
M Note the extr. newedtin nap, m the
front ufety pocked . Y ."u!
knife, knlfe, etc, . will not dlnp .,at .,f '"'- thaw
pork .ta, i nastier in what pu tion
you ,na, i,e,
1" he .u.P," nden .rn eatn,
lsrk uxll'.
wlde .nd
pheS
extra strong . being a
at croax .iY^ hi, up on ot Un
lhe "b, "uldera
:e Wck, and
. Tke
eoruerlurnUy rill ill t eWIY dmf
nll 1
ponderr re tfnuhed
,ultm,a
with heavy
e he etidlaed
Imu,a loup,
brar .
,lad slid-
~ V-11- V~n.11~,11 and ineidn band . are, wed. from "'net hew", dnll . Every 11 1
doubt,, .ul . hee'~ ,"inm,." ed by ~1-1 arklnr, end the outside -'- wee failed i end
The
6nesf leatura"""if's otry
f6au 6neruereaa 6aad~falford~u~e . DTbe mareriol 6iy, it is
R Rn hfstt
as eorela!!y
Y armeaf is the ia worfh
desi`ered
y o! eporal as
better than any other we have seen, and o! same interest note, as
to you
its qualify
l act that u deeidedly
ule are aoin~ fo continw
~ nt rxtro lor~cBtue Diamond " features . Perhaps, oleimlportann to is bein ~asAed
to
!or or
sell this
you is t
inary
fact this overall in"'
Not one
is made in Edreronfon .
growth of the western frontier . Company
plants were frequently photographed at an
angle intended to accentuate this impression
. An advertisement in Farm and Ranch
Review shows the GWG building from the
corner and the perspective makes it look
larger than it really is (Fig . 5) .' The view of a
strong man in the foreground and various
settlement images in the background (breaking
the land, a train, a grain elevator, etc .) was
intended to make one proud to be a Westerner
and to encourage men to buy GWG goods .
Consumers were buying the image as much
as thev were buying the product . It was effective
but not entirelv accurate .
Mail-Order Catalogues
Mail-order catalogues are a popular source
for material historians studying the late nineteenth
and twentieth centuries . Unlike some
of the other sources under discussion, thev
are easily accessible . Catalogues are readily
available on microfilm, a limited number of
reproductions exist, and many museums
have collections of original catalogues for
reference purposes . They are useful because
they contain numerous line drawings, often
some colour plates, pricing information,
written descriptions, etc . They give an immediate,
visual image of the range of goods
that was available to customers through mail
order .
Because they were aimed at families in
the lower economic brackets, they provide
examples of garments that can only rarely be
found in museum collections . Evervdav
clothing is generally not preserved either by
individuals or by institutions, a situation
which museums have recognized and addressed
since their attention to social history
was reawakened in the 1960s ." Mail-order
catalogues therefore help to provide a balance
to the better quality garments in museum
collections .
One method of examining catalogues to
determine what information they can reliably
provide, which has recently gained popularitv,
is to undertake a content analusis .'
As a case study, women's garments on the
pages of the Eaton's Spring and Summer Cat-

alogue for the years 1920, 1923, and 1926
were analysed and compared (Fig . 6) . Few
construction details were included in the descriptions
so some features were analysed
based upon visual examination of the illustrations
. For example, the location of garment
fastenings was usually inferred from
the illustration and previous knowledge of
period construction techniques . Descriptions
occasionally specified that garments "fastened
at the side" but the type of fastening
used was not mentioned . The information
provided in the catalogues is much more
fragmentary than a superficial glance suggests
. Researchers studying the pages of catalogues
for purposes such as costume reproduction
are left making of number of suppositions
on the basis of their own expertise .
Generally the intended occasion of use for
dresses was not mentioned . Occupational
clothing of any form was rarely mentioned .
One dress was referred to as "very suitable
for maids' or nurses' wear ."" The vast majority
of dresses appeared to be either house
dresses or afternoon dresses . Perhaps the reason
that fewer distinctions were made was
related to the increasing number of washable
dresses as well as to a less rigid social climate
which no longer dictated that a woman
had to change her clothing half a dozen
times a day. But it is also clear from a close
examination of these pages that Eaton's was
not trying to appeal to the fashionable set .
Dresses were available in a broad price
range, although the majority of them were
under $15 .00 . The least expensive dresses
were wash and morning dresses under $5 ;
only a couple of dresses were available in
the most expensive price range ($25-$29) .
Eaton's sold fewer expensive dresses as the
decade progressed . Although there was a
correlation between occasion of use and
price, there was no similar relationship between
occasion of use and length . One might
expect the most fashionable dresses to be either
all longer or all shorter but there was
quite a variation of length, particularly at the
beginning of the decade .
A number of the less expensive models
were produced by Eaton's but Eaton's did
manufacture garments in all price ranges, Although
Eaton's had a large garment factory,
which has gained notoriety because of labour
disputes, relatively few of the ladies dresses
in the catalogue were identified as having
been made by Eaton's . In 1920, only 15 of the
/
Guarantee
Eve" (Ituatoot bowing the
G.W .G. Lbbl L guuultead
to `ive lull Jd"ction to tha
v 6C wtYnunFhip.
='q aality, wsd In obtain this
~NdYttlon. should th. got
tomt provY d, laa w IItIrrLr~rYv , at'4urwh lurrs Lr Ib 1 I 'rn r `r ` " "
76 dresses available were identified as
"Canadian Made/Eaton's," suggesting that
the remaining 61 were imported, probably
from the United States . In 1923, they did not
specify the number of Eaton-made dresses
and in 1926 onlv five dresses were identified
as Eaton-made . However, what this means is
unclear. It may reflect the marketers' concept
of the value of such forms of boosterism
rather than the actual number of Eaton-made
dresses. If this is true, it suggests another
limitation of the value of mail-order catalogues
as a source .
The data compiled through this systematic
approach amounts to dozens of pages of
minute detail . Included among the findings
were a number of important observations .
Fig. 5
The Great Western
Garment firm as an
image ofthe progressivf
west, Farm and Ranch
Review, 21 April 1919 .
(Unaccessioned
photograph courtesy
PAA I

Fig . 6
Eaton's Spring and
Sunnier Catalogue,
1923, p . 10 . (Photograph
corutesv Gordon Wood)
i:
o .n.r 11. p5p
t:ww wwoe r
510-7041~r . . "' -
" 9.50
BIG VALUE IN
GINGHAM DRESS
. . .. a. u-..
51D-1a. :_ . ._
2.50
tt .,~
250
;
For example, although the text in 1920 referred
to round necklines as being the most
fashionable,' in fact there was little difference
between the number of round necklines
and the number of square necklines - 33 to
29 respectively . There were noticeably fewer
.+
SPECIALLY
PRI
51 D'~101 .
Bewtltul D- 1 ~
N .n.and~y Va14 n~Vw
.. ~L-.. .
~51D "103 . '
:~.Y?,==- ...r~r.a :. -
MD -100. ,~.:.~ .
._ ._-.,. ..._ __ ,. .-.. _d76 .76
qe~~Q~ 296
649 _
7{ID.tM
sio-ios." '
225
" J
2 .25
1!!V
6,Oa61
w .»~aTON,C`.
When Ordering Be Sure to Stete Sit* and~Color -70
2 .95
V necklines - only 14 . This supports the idea
that the claims made in the catalogues may
not be substantiated .
Another observation is that the questions
asked of the catalogues must be carefully developed
. For example, in trying to determine
the most commonly available colours of the
period, if one listed all of the exotic names
given for basic colours (i .e ., "Copenhagen,"
r,
.,cadet" and "sky" for blue), the sampling
would be too small to identify trends clearly.
By combining them under headings of common
colour names, it is possible to determine
the most frequently used colours .
When considering the usefulness of this
information it is important to remember that
a content analysis of data from mail-order
catalogues only indicates the range of material
that was available from this supplier. It
does not necessarily indicate what was the
most popular style, colour or fabric . Unfortunately,
records of purchases from Eaton's
during this period are unavailable for comparison
.
The illustrations can be considered within
the context of the history of fashion design to
determine to what extent high fashion filters
down to the average person . For example,
the 1920s are thought of in terms of flappers
and beaded dresses but the author's content
analysis of Eaton's catalogues from 1920,
1923 and 1926 showed that verv few dresses
with any applied beaded decoration were
available through the catalogues . The content
analysis does allow researchers to state,
with confidence, views that a more subjective
or cursory examination of the catalogues
might have suggested . It could also provide
contradictory evidence to previously held
suppositions .
Although historians are quick to point out
what can be gleaned from the pages of catalogues,
few have addressed the question of
their limitations ."' The fact that most of the
reproduction catalogues have been sponsored
by the companies themselves inhibits
objective assessment in introductions . In discussion
of goods purchased by mail order,
material historians have erroneously referred
to them as "the arbiters of good taste."" Although
some of their users may have felt that
through mail-order catalogues they had access
to some of the finer goods available to
city dwellers, our interpretation of what the
catalogues meant to customers is largely
speculation . The typical catalogue shopper
of the early twentieth century has not been
identified although some tentative efforts in
this direction have been taken. For example,
the archives of Sears, Roebuck and Company
are rich in data that have been used to interpret
the significance of the catalogues to its
users . Their popularity in the early twentieth
century was popularized recently in a docu-

mentary which aired on the Public Broadcasting
System . The approach has been
largely nostalgic rather than scientific .
Robert D. Watt, in his introduction to The
Shopping Guide of the West : Woodward's
Catalogues 1898-1953, includes a number of
personal comments from Woodward's catalogue
shoppers from the 1920s to 1940s,
which provide insight into the value these
catalogues held for them but, unfortunately,
he does not provide any quantitative information
. '2 Although not limited to costume,
his comments are useful particularly in placing
catalogues within the context of their
times, relating the catalogues to the events
which fostered their rise and fall . Further
work needs to be done to determine who
used catalogues (gender, income level, occupation,
region, ethnic background), what
they purchased from the catalogues (finished
garments versus materials, quantities of
ladies wear, children's wear, menswear),
how mail-order goods related to those available
in general stores, how availability
changed over the years, etc . Unfortunately,
the raw data required to answer these questions
does not exist in the Eaton's archives so
it must be compiled by other, less reliable,
means such as oral interviews with a large
sample of informants .
Large numbers of people relied on Eaton's
to bring them current fashions ; the catalogues
featured garments consistently and
would not have done so if it had not been
profitable . A better understanding of who
used the catalogues would enable costume
and social historians to interpret them more
accurately . While a formal series of interviews
specifically concerning the use of
Eaton's catalogues has not been completed,
the author has, in recognition of this problem,
routinely asked questions about their
importance during the course of interviews
related to recent museum acquisitions for Alberta
Culture . 13 Women have discussed various
means of earning their own money (selling
butter and eggs, etc .) to enable them to
purchase dresses or other personal items
from Eaton's . They expressed excitement in
occasionally being allowed to purchase a
garment from Eaton's rather than having to
make all of their own clothes . They have described
efforts to make clothes, without a
purchased pattern, based upon illustrations
in the Eaton's catalogues ." This data is en-
8
tirely subjective and remains to be verified
by a systematically addressed questionnaire .
Another source that is useful in providing
a context for interpretation of this data is
written records from the period (letters, journals,
etc.) . For example, in letters written
to her mother and sister is England, between
1912 and 1914 when she was living
in Windermere, British Columbia, Daisy
Phillips frequently commented about the variety,
quality and price of goods available by
mail order through Eaton's . To her sister
Freda she wrote,
I expect I shall always be writing home for
small things, for instance, all the lace . If
one wants any for toilet covers, etc . it is
quite impossible sort of stuff. The very commonest
and cheapest stuff like you see on
the very cheapest underlinen at home is all
you can get, and 1 have got the various catalogues
from Pryce-Jones and Eaton ."
A few weeks later she wrote to her sister
that,
The Madras muslin from the Stores has arrived
. It cost 2/- by parcel post. but we had
to pay $2 .85 duty, which is about 5/- in the
£. But Timothy Eaton or Pryce-Jones are no
good for anything like Madras muslin . The
Canadians are evidently not people of taste,
and all the old rubbish from England is
shipped out to the Colonies . . . 16
The "Stores" referred to here by Daisy is the
Army and Navy Stores . The Army and Navy
Stores in England, in contrast to the Army
and Navy Stores in Western Canada, were
considered comparable to Harrods and "although
they had very comprehensive stocks,
were supplying wealthy purchasers and
were not used by the vast majority of people
. "'7 The Army and Navy Stores have been
addressed by British historians and should
be considered in comparison with early catalogues
from Woodward's, the Hudson's Bay
Company and Eaton's . Researchers focus
upon Canadian catalogues forgetting that, depending
upon where one emigrated from,
other catalogues may have been used as well .
Middle-class English immigrants like
Daisy Phillips may have been disappointed
by the quality and selection of goods available
through Eaton's but in interviews,
Eastern-European immigrants, unable to read
the English descriptions or to afford to purchase
finished garments, said that they were
inspired by the illustrations ; illustrations

were in many cases more important than the
descriptions ."'
It is difficult to compare the descriptions
and illustrations with the actual goods to
know how accurate they are because there
are few known examples of garments purchased
through Eaton's in public collections .
Many of the items sold by Eaton's were not
produced in their own factories or labelled
with Eaton's labels . Accession records rarely
indicate where the owners purchased their
clothing . The few garments with Eaton's labels
that have been found in collections have
not been identified in the catalogues . One
man's shirt in the collection of the Provincial
Museum of Alberta was selected for reproduction
for use at the Ukrainian Cultural
Heritage Village a number of years ago ."'
However, in preparing the pattern for the
shirt it was discovered that the sleeves were
cut in a very unusual fashion, raising the
question of whether the shirt was a "second,"
and whether it had survived because it
was uncomfortable and therefore rarely if
ever worn . Unfortunately, the data which is
usually collected with museum artifacts is
rarely detailed enough to answer questions
such as these .
A systematic study of mail-order catalogues
is required, which would compare the
catalogues to extant artifacts and information
obtained through oral interviews and written
documents such as journals and letters . Until
this is completed, researchers should be
careful in assumptions regarding this material
. The fact that a particular style, colour, or
material was available in the catalogues does
not mean that a given person would have
worn it ; there are many other factors that
need to be taken into consideration . A comparison
with catalogues from other firms and
with popular ladies magazines provides a
price scale for costume of the period . Quantitative
analysis of the catalogues clearly
points out that Eaton's only featured garments
from the lower end of the scale, primarily
house dresses and day dresses, not
particularly fashionable clothing .
Almanacs and Household Handbooks
Initially, GWG produced an illustrated catalogue
which was sold to merchants for distribution
to their customers . It was a form of
joint advertising as the merchant's name, as
well as the manufacturer's name, appeared
on the front cover. Some firms introduced al-
manacs and household handbooks, a form of
enlarged catalogue which, as GWG explained,
aimed
. . .not only to display some of the most
popular of GWG's garments, but also to put
into your home a book you will want to
hang up and keep because of all the valuable
information it contains .2°
The idea was to produce a catalogue that was
useful so that as well as providing information
about the company's products, it provided
additional information that would ensure
that customers held on to it for future
reference . The firm could include photographs
of its premises and the costume being
produced, as well as detailed information
about advances in product development,
thereby educating customers .
The almanacs were issued annually and
featured a calendar which encouraged customers
to retain their copies . They included
household hints, first aid, gardening, laundry
and cleaning information alongside horoscopes,
tea cup reading and stock breeding
records - truly something for everyone . The
company's logo and brief claims about various
product lines appear on almost every
page . Inserted between recipes for Liver in
Gravy and Liver Casserole was a description
and illustration of a Women's Wool Plaid
Sports Jacket .21 Caveats associated with the
interpretation of almanacs are essentially
those of mail-order catalogues . In addition,
researchers should understand that almanacs,
unlike other forms of catalogues, did
not include the complete line of garments
manufactured by a firm, simply a sampling
of some of the more popular styles .
Patents, Trademarks, and Registered
Industrial Designs
The Department of Consumer and Corporate
Affairs in Hull, Quebec houses a valuable
collection of patents, trademarks and registered
industrial designs .22 Unfortunately, the
material is difficult to access . All files are organized
chronologically but are indexed inconsistently
. For example, several attempts
to develop a comprehensive list of patents issued
to the Great Western Garment Company
proved unsuccessful because some features
were patented by principals in the firm
rather than under the company's name .
These patents only turned up during an ex-
9

haustive search through all patent registrations
for the period . Similarly, it is impossible
to develop a list of all items patented by
inventors from a given province because the
material is not indexed by address. The material
is organized for the use of contemporary
inventors interested in finding out
whether or not they have come up with a
new idea .
Although not organized or indexed in a
way that is easily accessible for historians it
would be fruitful to develop a complete
index of costume and textile registrations by
Canadians . Some of the types of features registered
include : jewellery designs for items
inspired by the Klondike gold rush, colour
variations in knitting patterns, various types
of pockets and fastenings, innovations such
as pre-shrunk fabric . labels, applied decorative
features, etc . If the material was properly
indexed, costume historians would rind it
useful for a number of purposes, including
the dating of garments in their collections
and as a record of inventive activity in costurne
and textile manufacturing .
As with other corporate records, researchers
must be cautious about the use of
this data . The fact that a design was registered
does not mean that it was ever actually
put into production . Many ideas were registered
on speculation and once the inventor
tried to develop a prototype they were aban-
I ()
doned as impractical . Similarly, claims made
by manufacturers in patent applications can
not always be supported by further research
into a company's products . This data must
be substantiated bV documentation from directories,
advertisements, catalogues, and
most importantly, extant garments . Many of
the claims made in patent applications can
best be measured by an examination of the
items or features being patented . Do they in
fact live up to their claims?
Photographs
As is discussed further in Theresa Rowat's
paper elsewhere in this issue, photographs
are frequently misinterpreted by researchers
who do not understand the context in which
they were taken . One example in terms of corporate
photographs, is of a series of photographs
of the Great Western Garment factory
in Edmonton in the 1910s . Found by researchers
in the files of the Glenbow Archives
and the Provincial Archives of Alberta, these
photographs have twice been used to cfocurnent
problems in working conditions in the
garment manufacturing industry.' :` In fact,
this was one of a series of photographs taken
on behalf of the firm to document the clean
and orderly working environment in the
plant . Even before finding an advertisement
highlighting this photograph in Alberta
Labor News, a costume historian would sus-
1 1
Figs. 7 and 8
7tvo vieivs of the Great
Western Garrnent
Workroom in 1916 ;
notice the flowers the
workers are wearing, the
rnen and wornen lined
up across the back of thf
photograph and
the generally neat
appearance of the
factory. These were
obviouslv posed for
promotional purposes .
(Photographs courtesy
Glenbow Archives
NC-6-66520 and
NC-6-66519)

Fig . 9
Advertisement showing
the GWG workroom in
1919 Jeatured in
Alberta Labor News,
4 September 1920 ; the
original photograph is in
the Provincial Archives
oJ'Alberta : the firm
had promotional
photographs taken every
few Year-, . (Photograph
courtesV PAA A 18997)
~ nrK .
pect that the photographs had been staged
because of the way the workers were
dressed . Their white,~neatly pressed dresses
and perfectly placed hairdos are not what
one would expect in a factory. Furthermore,
there are two views of one photograph with
subtle changes in composition (Figs . 7 and
8) . Locating the advertisements was simply
confirmation of what had been observed .
The Alberta Labor Ne.i-vs states that this
photograph "illustrates the progress of industry
developing hand in hand with labor
in the service of the great masses of the people"
(Fig . 9) .1a The photograph was also used
The Great Western Garment Company, Limited - - Edmonton, Alta .
in an advertisement, in Farm and Ranch Re.vieiv
and the Farmers Alrnanac. and Home
Journal, contrasted with a photograph of the
first factory. 15 This advertisement states that
"Quality and Service were alone responsible
for what is said to be the greatest stride ever
made by a manufacturer in Canada ." GWG's
standards were beyond those required by
Alberta's labour legislation at the time . These
photographs were used to advertise the benefits
of supporting unionized occupations .
Many of the workers wearing GWG clothing
were unionized and would support a unionized
firm over a non-unionized firm .
Conclusion
This paper has posed many questions and
challenges to costume historians . Rather
than providing answers, the author intended
to provoke costume historians to reconsider
their underlying assumptions about corporate
literature . Corporate literature, while
used regularly by researchers, has not been
assessed with the sort of rigour and objective
analvsis that it requires . It is a valuable research
source, yet also fraught with potential
for abuse and misinterpretation . Researchers
must be careful not to accept the data at face
value but to question its context, purpose,
and intended audience .
11

NoTEs
1 . The literature search for this paper did not
reveal any material that had specifically addressed
this issue. While some authors have
examined mail-order catalogues to a limited
degree, the author was unable to locate any
references questioning sources in corporate
history or the use of corporate literature .
2 . For example, also during this period, the author
directed an ongoing research project examining
product packaging and labelling
from the early twentieth century. Dozens of
letters of inquiry were sent to manufacturing
firms ; the responses were inconsistent at best .
Some firms sent examples of period labels, or
names of individuals working in the firm at
the time ; perhaps more did not reply at all .
3 . Catherine C . Cole, "Garment Manufacturing
in Edmonton, 1911-1939," unpublished
M.A . thesis (Edmonton : University of Alberta,
1988), pp . 36-43 .
4 . Alberta Labor News, 8 March 1924 .
5 . Farm and Ranch Review, 21 April 1919 .
6 . This question has been addressed many
times in Material History Bulletin as well
as other sources . See Volume 8 of Material
History Bulletin for papers adddressing this
subject .
7. This technique is used extensively by graduate
students in the Department of Clothing
and Textiles at the University of Alberta, see
Catherine Roy's paper in this issue ; see also
Janice 1 . Smith's "Content Analysis of Children's
Clothing in Eaton's Catalogues and Selected
Canadian Museums 1890-1920," unpublished
M .Sc . thesis (Edmonton : University
of Alberta, 1991) .
8 . Eaton's Spring and Summer Catalogue, 1920,
p . 40 .
9 . Eaton's Spring and Summer Catalogue, 1920,
p . 27 .
10 . Even reproductions of early mail-order catalogues
usually contain introductions which
glorify and celebrate the history of the firm
rather than providing any insight into what
the catalogues actually represent. See Robert
D . Watt's introduction to The Shopping
Guide of the West : Woodward's Catalogues
1898-1953 (Vancouver : Vancouver Centennial
Museum, 1977) ; for discussion of the usefulness
of Eaton's catalogues in costume research
see M . Batts, "Eaton's and Its
Catalogues : An Expression of Canadian
Social History," Costume 7 : 68-69, and
K . Brett, "Notes on Fashion in Costume," in
G . Glazebrook, K . Brett, and J. McErvel, eds .,
A Shopper's View of Canada's Past : Pages
from Eaton's Catalogues 1886-1930 (Toronto :
University of Toronto Press, 1969) .
11 . Thelma Dennis, "Eaton's Catalogue ; Furnishings
for Rural Alberta," Alberta History, 37,
no . 2 (Spring, 1989) : 21 ; see also W. Stephenson,
The Store That Timothy Built (Toronto :
McClelland and Stewart, 1969) .
12 . Watt, pp . xii-xiii .
13 . The author began a series of interviews with
donors about their purchasing habits,
specifically focused upon their use of the
mail-order catalogues .
14 . Jennie Zarowny, unrecorded interview with
author, Edmonton, 1984 .
15 . Daisy Phillips to Freda Oxley, Windermere,
7 May 1912, Letters From Windermere
1912-1914, ed . R. Cole Harris and Elizabeth
Phillips (Vancouver : University of British
Columbia Press, 1984), 22 .
16 . Daisy Phillips to Freda Oxley, Windermere,
22 May 1912, Letters From Windermere, 32 .
17 . Gordon Watson, "`Supreme Value :' House-
hold Catalogues as a Source for Social Historians,"
Social History Curator's Group Journal
17 (1989/90) : 11 ; the Army and Navy
Stores have been addressed in Alison Adbrugham's
introduction to Yesterday's Shopping
: The Army and Navy Stores Catalogue
1907 (Newton Abbot : David and Charles,
1969), and R . H . Longbridge, Edwardian
Shopping : A Selection From the Army and
Navy Stores Catalogue 1898-1913 (Newton
Abbot : David and Charles, 1975) .
18 . Jennie Zarowny, unrecorded interview with
author, Edmonton, 1984 .
19 . Provincial Museum of Alberta, Acc . no .
H83 .210 .1 .
20 . Great Western Garment Household Handbook
(Edmonton : n .p ., 1943), 1 .
21 . [bid ., 5 .
22 . The registered industrial designs are physically
housed at the National Archives and
may be seen by advance request of specific
volumes, however the finding aids are on
microfiche at Consumer and Corporate Affairs
in Hull .
23 . ACCESS television's film "The Person's
Case" opens with photographs of GWG workers
and features a ficticious garment worker
who was poorly treated by her employer, suggesting
that GWG abused its staff . Paul
Voisey's article "The 'Votes for Women'
Movement," Alberta History 23, no . 3, (Summer,
1975) : 20, also features one of these photographs
within the context of a discussion of
women's entry into the workplace .
24 . Alberta Labor News, 4 September 1920 .
25 . Farm and Ranch Review, 21 June 1920 .

Resume
Documents from the Tailoring Trade
as a Research Source
Les publications en anglais repertoriees dans
]e cadre de la recherche effectuee pour un
memoire de maitrise peuvent etre utiles aux
historiens du costume qui etudient 1'evolution
des vetements pour hommes confectionnes
par des tailleurs aux XIXe et XXe siec]es .
La production de systemes de dessin de patrons
a commence au debut du XXe siecle et
s'est intensifiee avec le temps . Les publications
professionne]les pour tailleurs et les
planches de mode ant prolifere avec 1'augmentation
des publications techniques a ]a
fin du XIXe siecle . Des listes de prix enumerent
des vetements fabriques par 1'industrie
avec ]es prix demandes . L'auteur a
rep6re quelques manuels d'instruction . On
retrouve de ces sources dons les bib]iotheques
et les musees . Elles fournissent toutes
des renseignements detaillEs sur ]a mode, la
confection et les problemes d'ajustement, de
meme que les tissus et 1'equipement utilises
par 1es tail]eurs dans la production de vetements
de qualite pour hommes. Ces sources
se reveleront utiles aussi bien pour 1'histoire
du costume que pour ]e choix des mat6riaux
et des techniques d employer dans ]a reproduction
de vetements d'epoque .
Introduction
Our inheritance from the nineteenth and
twentieth century technological revolution
in the tailoring trade is a wealth of printed
materials that prescribe fashion, cut, fabric,
mode of assembly and prices charged for
work . These trade materials are rich in costume
detail : styling, construction particulars,
and insight into the lives of the makes of
men's fine clothing . During 1989 and 1990, a
sample of printed materials of the tailoring
trade between 1800 and 1920 was examined
and analysed during research for the author's
Master of Science thesis . The central goal of
the study was to examine a range of materi-
Abstract
c"Hat"
English -language printed materials located
during a master's thesis research project
have potential for the study of nineteenth
and twentieth century men's tailoring by costume
historians . Pattern-drafting systems
were produced beginning in the early nineteenth
century and increased in numbers as
the century progressed. Tailors' trade journals
and fashion plates proliferated with the
general increase in technical journals of the
late nineteenth century. Bills of prices listed
garments made by the trade and prices
charged . Some instructional manuals were
located . Sources can be found in libraries
and museums . All sources contain detailed
information about styling, construction,
fitting problems, and fabrics and equipment
used by tailors in the production of men's
fine clothing . They are useful both for costume
history and for specifying materials
and techniques for costume replication .
als in order to see what information they
contained for use by costume historians .
The study sought specific information
about evidence of intellectual development
within pattern-drafting systems (how did the
systems provide instructions for drafting,
how did tailors address the fitting problems
of posture and corpulency), references to the
trade in Canada, workshop practices of tailors,
and contemporary labour issues and
working conditions . The fashion continuum
of the study period was not addressed.
Sources produced as early as 1805 indicate
that the trade was literate . A large number
of journals and pattern-drafting systems
Material History Review 34 (Fall 1991) / Revue d'histoire de la culture matcrielle 34 (automne 1991)
13

were published during the nineteenth century
in Britain and the United States . Printed
sources grew and proliferated until by the
late nineteenth century many trade periodicals,
pattern-drafting systems and instructional
manuals were available . David
Williams, writing in 1895, noted the growth
of the technical press in America . Between
1872 and 1895, the number of (industrial)
trade and technical periodicals published
increased by approximately 700 per cent .'
Edward Giles, writing in 1887, commented
on a similar increase in publication in the
previous quarter century in Britain .2 The
Journeymen Tailor's Union of America published
a newspaper from 1887 until 1938 .
Professional associations were formed and
meetings were reported in trade journals .
Proceedings were also published .
Primary source materials were collected
through inter-library loan, through the cooperation
of other scholars, and also studied
at the Library of Congress and the Division
of Costume, Smithsonian Institution, in
Washington, D .C . Canadian documents
were sought, but not found in Canada. Both
American and British sources were found in
Canadian archival holdings and libraries .
Ninety per cent of the drafting systems studied
were American. Most of the instructional
manuals studied were British, but none of
the trade journals were . All of the bills of
prices examined were American . References
to Canadian subscribers, Canadian graduates
of drafting schools and Canadian executive
members of professional organizations, as
well as advertisements from Canadian tailoring
supply houses were found in American
publications . British fashion plates were
found in archival holdings of Gibb and Company,
Tailors and Shirtmakers of Montreal,
at the McCord Museum . Both the British
and the American trade affected the practice
of tailoring in English-speaking Canada .
Canadian researchers must remain aware of
the large amount of material that exists about
Canadian trades in both American and
British libraries . Tailors in Canada subscribed
to British and American trade journals
and joined American organizations .
Canadian libraries and museums have somewhat
spotty collections of these publications .
Libraries in the country of publication often
have more complete collections .
Data collection for the study comprised
two parts : 1 . an analysis of 102 pattern-
14
drafting systems, and 2 . an examination of
materials pertaining to labour issues, the
Canadian trade, and workshop practices
within the trade . The pattern-drafting systems
were studied by "content analysis" (a
systematic set of questions) . Basic bibliographic
questions gave a breakdown of place
and date of publication and sex of author .
The study questioned to whom (cutter, tailor,
home sewer) the drafting systems were directed
. It questioned whether authors of the
drafting systems applied the sculptural considerations
of postural assessment and corpulence
in their draft . Many of the drafting
systems studied appeared to invent unusual
methods for drafting and were marketing
with great claims for their product's reliability.
The question was posed, were the printed
instructions provided sufficient to generate
pattern pieces? A subset of thirty-three systems
was randomly selected and tested by
actually drafting according to the printed instructions
.
This rigorous means of examination meant
that it was possible for the researcher to
work through a large volume of material in a
consistent manner. A pilot study helped to
formulate questions that could extract meaningful
data . The resulting information was
numerically coded for computer analysis .3
Other printed materials - bills of prices,
instructional manuals and conference proceedings
- were examined and analysed . A
large number of trade journals were also examined
. The sources offered information
about construction techniques, styles, labour
issues, and billing practices .
Trade journals lend themselves to a cursory
examination by content analysis . Most articles
are titled and included in a table of
contents . Journals could be examined to determine
the amount of material that each
publication contains on a number of issues -
for example, salesmanship, styling, construction
methods . This kind of data could be
used to track the use of journals in the trade
- whether for fashion news or technical information
. Interestingly, the number of articles
on business practices increased as the
custom trade declined in the first two
decades of the twentieth century .
Evolution of the Tailoring Trade
During the nineteenth century, the method of
production of many goods changed radically.

The holistic practice of the craftsman was
replaced by a process-oriented assembly system.4
In the tailoring trade, the small shop
tailor was replaced by the factory system of
garment production . The early nineteenthcentury
custom tailor cut garments, assembled
them and then fit his clients, as well as
managing his own small business . By the
beginning of the twentieth century, even custom
clothing was likely to be made according
to the sectional system .' The merchant
tailor's client chose fabric and styling assisted
by a tailor/salesman . Garments were
assembled according to the "efficiency" system
by skilled and semi-skilled operators in
a factory.
In 1800, in the United States and Britain,
most of men's fine outerwear was made by
hand under the supervision of a master tailor.
The tailor might employ a number of
journeymen in his shop, or depend upon
the labour of his wife and children to help
him with his work . But as the population
increased in America and urbanization occurred
in Britain ,s a greater supply of clothing
was required . More cost-effective ways
of production began to be developed. Even
before the development of a commercially
viable sewing machine, clothing was made
by the sectional system, either in small manufactories
or in the worker's home (outwork) .
Workers specialized in pockets, or sleeves, or
hand finishing, and were supervised by the
former master tailor, now the merchant tailor
. He was responsible for obtaining materials,
cutting the fabric and parcelling out the
work to semi-skilled workers in an effort to
maximize his profit and ensure reliable delivery
of his product . The advent of the sewing
machine enabled garment producers to
train workers to an even smaller subdivision
of tasks, and to increase speed of production .
The result of these changes in the process
of construction meant that the traditional
roles of the tailor were being divided into
lesser tasks, filled by more workers . Specifically,
two positions replaced the early
nineteenth-century master tailor : the cutter
and the sewing tailor. The sewing tailor was
highly skilled at the moulding of woollen
cloth to fit the variety of human forms . He
might become the foreman of a factory of
hand- or machine-sewing tailors or the foreman/contractor
for menswear-producing outworkers
(homeworkers) .7 The cutter made
the patterns and fit the client of the merchant
tailor . The cutter, working within the new
sectional system of garment production,
might combine the skills of salesman, measurement
taker, maker of patterns and cutter
of the cloth . He (or his assistant, the trimmer)
would make up the work bundles of the cutout
garment components and its trimmings,
carefully marking with an order number and
any special fitting instructions to be executed
by the sewing tailors ."
This evolution of two distinct job descriptions
led to the development of a parallel set
of printed resources for cutters . The term
"cutter" began to emerge in the context of
pattern-drafting systems about 1850 .9 Many
pattern-drafting systems of the early twentieth
century were addressed to the factory
cutter of garments (custom or ready-to-wear) .
The cutters developed their own associations
for the improvement of their membership .
They published journals and organized conventions
. At least one group, the International
Custom Cutters' Association of America
(ICCAA), published the proceedings of their
annual conventions .
The Variety of Menswear Sources
Available
Trade journals, pattern-drafting systems,
price lists, style books and fabric-sample
books indicate the fashion and construction
methods of their time .
Sources for the examination of massproduced
menswear are held by libraries,
museums, and archives . Trade periodicals
were collected by libraries . The Library of
Congress, Washington, D.C . has a particularly
strong collection of American publications
. Other libraries may have occasional
numbers of a variety of periodicals . Patterndrafting
systems were "copyrighted" in the
United States by registration at the Library of
Congress - over 400 systems are available
there for study . Museums have collected
drafting systems as well . Occasionally, instructional
manuals and style books have
been collected by libraries . Three major bibliographies
aid access to these materials.'o
Style Books and Trade Journals
Style books were provided by mail order and
travelling custom tailors, indicating the most
popular lines of the current year. These style
guides are sometimes combined with fabric
samples . These fashion plates endure as a
15

mass influence on male fashion from the mid
nineteenth century until the present day.
Styles were also conveyed as part of a trade
journal or "fashion magazine ."
Valuable styling and fabric information is
illustrated and discussed in trade journals .
The issues of fit and controversies over the
correct solutions to these age-old postural
problems are also discussed and illustrated
in trade journals and proceeding of the
ICCAA . An early journal, Genio Scott's Mirror
of Fashion, was a combination of gentlemen's
magazine and tailor's guide . In the
1840s and 1850s it offered fiction, news,
fashion trends and illustrations, and drafts
for fashionable garments . Canadian subscribers
are among the printed lists of agents
for the sale of the publication and systems of
cutting . The 1870s and 1880s saw the Mirror
of Fashion giving only fashion information,
drafting instruction for the garments featured
and some tailoring news .
Between 1880 and 1890, a full range of
trade journals became available to the practising
custom tailor and cutter. A few publishing
houses located in New York City and
Chicago dominated the commercial production
of garment trade menswear journals,
fashion magazines and pattern-drafting systems
. They often also ran pattern-making
schools . Trade journals are useful, not only
for the styling information they contain, but
also for the advertisements of tailors' suppliers
. Advertisements for fabrics and trimmings
indicate popular fabrics and innovations
in materials for linings, buttons, and
other supplies .
The following trade journal sources were
identified in the course of the study project.
Clothing Designer and Manufacturer: Clothing
Trade Journal, published for the ready-towear
trade from 1912 to 1920 by the Clothing
Designer Company of New York, claimed
Canadian subscribers in an advertisement."
The journal was intended for cutting and
allied industries and was edited by Harry
Simons . The Clothing Gazette was published
between 1880 and 1903 in New York . The
journal was directed to large custom tailoring
houses and is useful for its colour illustrations
of fabrics and fashion . It was edited
by Jos . W. Gibson .
The Jno . J . Mitchell Company was the
most successful of the American publishing/cutting
school businesses . Mitchell pub-
16
lished The American Fashion Review from
about 1874 until 1895 . It was replaced by the
Sartorial Art Journal published until 1929 .
Both these journals offered fashion plates
and descriptions of fashionable menswear.
Unfortunately, as is often the case with
women's fashion publications, the fashion
plates or posters were removed from publications
now housed in libraries ; 12 but most
publications also include a miniature black
and white reproduction of the fashion plates
and these remain for costume historians .
Mitchell also published a technical journal
from 1880 to 1916 - American Tailor and
Cutter. This publication offered information
on fit and assembly techniques and would
be of use in the study of historic costume .
Mitchell also ran the Mitchell School of Cutting
and published his "Standard" patterndrafting
systems which remain for examination
in libraries . The "Mitchell system" name
remained associated with many patterndrafting
systems into the mid twentieth century,
published by the American-Mitchell
Fashion Publishers, Inc . (New York) .
The other major American publication of
the time was American Gentleman (1901 to
1929), containing fashion news for the tailoring
industry, published by the American
Fashion Company . Its associated cutting
school was the American Fashion Company
Schools of Cutting and Designing, which
published the technical periodical Custom
Cutters Exchange during 1908 and 1909 .
Other American trade journals were published
by the Croonborg Sartorial Co . -
Advanced Fashions and Custom Cutter'3 -
between 1908 and 1910 . A. D . Rude published
a journal, Modern Fashions, around
1905, and ran the New York Cutting School .
Only two numbers of the periodical were located
during the study, but mention was
made in them of Canadian graduates of the
New York Cutting School .14
Style books were used as guides for the
selection of styles by the salesman/tailor.
Garments were made to an individual's measurement
and were thus considered custommade
. The styles offered by each firm were
limited to several choices . Line drawings or
fashion illustrations describe each prototype .
Thus the restricted fashion range for men
was preserved . Such style books that also include
fabric swatches are a boon to costume
historians . Often swatches are missing due to

insect infestation or earlier use, but swatches
that remain are usually named and the
weight of the fabric is often indicated . These
resources are useful in preparing a vocabulary
of menswear fabrics and specifying fabrics
for reproduction costume .
Bills of Prices
An unusual but useful printed resource for
the costume historian is the "bill of prices ."
Tailors were among the earliest trades to
form labour or benevolent protective associations
and price lists were among the gains
made for the trade by these groups . The lists
include the usual garment styles made up at
the time for which the prices were negotiated
and as such give an indication of the
normal extent of the tailor's practice . Early
nineteenth-century bills of prices indicate
that tailors worked for women and children
(making heavy outer-wear and riding costume)
as well as for their usual male clients .
The practice of tailors of certain regions
might include a large proportion of military
clients . Some agreements allowed prices to
be determined on the weight, and difficulty
of handling the fabrics .
Instructional Manuals
Instructional manuals for the construction of
menswear, intended for the trade, are relatively
rare . Systems of garment assembly are
available for both hand and sectional systems
of construction in volumes of instruction
for tailors . Most of the systems located
in the study were British . A pre-1850 British
publication, The Tailor" was written for
young men considering entering the trade,
and includes advice for their parents . The
book describes the daily routine of the shop
and instructs the apprentice how best to fit
in . Detailed instruction for the construction
and assembly of coat, trousers and vests are
included . A repertoire of stitches is described
. Such instructions are a unique view
into the tailor shop of the past . The researcher
may experience difficulty in the interpretation
of terms .
J . J. Byrne's Practical Tailoring : Treatise
on Garment Making, published in 1895, also
includes steps of instruction for garment
assembly . A vocabulary of hand sewing
stitches is included . The more "modern" nature
of this publication makes it easier to
use. Detailed assembly instructions include
procedures for a fine, hand-tailored lounge
coat .
Instructions were also available for the
set-up and management of sectional system
shops.'6 General sewing and assembly instructions
are included . Alterations for fitting
the common postural problems are included .
Most interesting are the floor plans for shops
of different sizes and motivational tips for
managing the factory tailor.
Tailoring : How to Make and Mend Trousers,
Vests and Coats, published in 1909 and
edited by P. N. Hasluck as a part of a "handicrafts"
series is more representative of the
kind of instructional manuals found today .
Tailoring manuals of the twentieth century
tend to be directed to the home sewer and as
such are "shortcut" methods for achieving
a tailored "look ." It is doubtful whether
enough information is contained in this book
to train a tailor. However, it does contain detailed
alterations and mending instructions,
indicative of the kind of handwork jobs
available in menswear at the time .
An exception to the inadequate modern
manual is The Modern Tailor Oufitter and
Clothier, edited by A. A . White and published
in 1950 by the major British trade
journal, Tailor and Cutter. The series gives
pattern-drafting instruction for the full range
of men's outerwear . It also includes basic
anatomy and proportion for tailors, chapters
on cutting for the wholesale trade, and
"outfitting" (retail men's furnishings) . These
volumes contain styling, fabrics, and business
information .
Pattern-Drafting Systems
Pattern-drafting systems are the blueprints
from which the tailor cuts the required garment
style . Drafting systems allow for either
the use of a client's personal measurements
or measurements taken from a table of standard
sizes to produce individual patterns .
Pattern-drafting systems are an excellent
source of styling information, but pre-1850
drafting systems are often difficult to use . Instructions
may be inadequate for the example
represented by the author in the accompanying
drawings . The instructions may rely
on a great deal of tacit knowledge that is lost
to the twentieth-century technician . However,
all drafting systems offer the costume
historian the same kind of information : line
drawings of the pattern pieces and styling
17

details of the garment under consideration .
Later nineteenth-century pattern-drafting
systems have little difference from their
modern counterparts . By 1880, most systems
utilized a grid system for developing the pattern
pieces .
Advantages of using period patterndrafting
systems include : authenticity of cut,
patterns which can be made to fit the modern
interpreter, and many systems which include
some assembly instructions or fabric
suggestions . Drafting systems are also an untapped
potential resource for dating and
identifying costume . Many drafting systems
are available for the period 1840 to 1940 .
Close examination reveals the subtle changes
in detail such as pocket position or sleeve
width that can be used to help date extant
garments . Measurement-taking instructions
are a part of most drafting systems and usually
include a diagram of the ideal figure of
the period . A comparison of such drawings
for a particular span of dates could give valuable
information on postural norms for that
era. Lengthy pattern-drafting systems (especially
British'7) include many styles of diplomatic,
formal, business, leisure, and military
garb . They offer a source of information
about dress etiquette as well as terminology
for and illustrations of a tremendous range of
mens-wear. Since little detailed material has
been published about menswear fashion history,
pattern-drafting systems remain as a
rich source of data .
Proceedings of the Annual
Conventions of the International
Custom Cutters' of America
Nine volumes of this resource are held by
the Library of Congress . They comprise the
minutes of the annual meetings of an association
of cutters . Canadians played an important
role in the administration of this group .
The transcripts of technical papers presented
are a valuable resource to historians interested
in the progress of the science of garment
fitting . The group also held an internal competition
of garment-making at each convention
. Participants brought an example of
their finest work. Photographs and descriptions
of these garments are reported upon in
trade journals for cutters . As these garments
represent the early twentieth century, they
bear close examination . They offer the costume
historian insight into the subtle, tasteful
variety within the menswear field . They
18
document the sculptural nature of the tailor's
art .
The question must be posed : how much
technical skill is required to read materials
published by tailors? As this researcher was
trained as a tailor/cutter and practiced for a
decade, the question is difficult to answer
objectively . The materials were exciting to
read and interpret . Some problems of vocabulary
and training arose . Early patterndrafting
systems relied on the expertise of
the user to make use of the scanty instructions
. With practice, some of the expected
tacit knowledge - standard measurements
and fashionable styling requirements - was
assimilated . Puzzling terms were occasionally
defined in other journals of the period .
Most pattern-drafting systems will likely
only be used by technical people . However,
they do contain the obvious styling information
as well as some buried asides about the
trade (e .g ., assembly tips that refer to the
common practices of the period ; instruction
to the novice cutter) . Bills of prices require a
good knowledge of the contemporary styling
vocabulary since they list materials and style
variations to which their scale of prices pertain
. By far, trade journals are the easiest to
use. The reader is at once transported to the
world of competing quality men's tailoring
shops, the best sources of fabrics, the latest
styles and equipment .
Conclusions
A great deal of work needs to be done in the
area of men's costume history. A detailed
chronology of fashion remains to be produced
. Techniques of the production of tailored
menswear need to be understood by
costume historians and reproduction costumers
. Fortunately, the printed materials required
for these tasks are available . Materials
are available, not only for men's outerwear,
but also for the hat finishing trade.'e
The social history and business history of
the producers of men's fine clothing also
bears examination . The narrative of the
working tailor runs through the union newspaper.
The tale of the changing custom tailoring
trade is told in the trade journals published
. This dimension of costume history
reveal the human hands and minds that created
every garment we study . It adds to our
ability to interpret human history through
clothing .

1 . C . M . Depew, ed ., 1795-1895 : One Hundred
Years of American Commerce, vol . 1 (reprint,
New York : Greenwood Press 1968), 174-7 .
2 . Edward Giles, The History of the Art of Cutting
(London : F. T. Prewett, 1887) .
3 . SPSSx User's Guide (New York : McGraw Hill
Book Company, 1986) .
4 . Ursula Franklin makes the distinction between
holistic and prescriptive technologies,
a concept which well describes the change in
the tailoring trade . Holistic tradespeople
proudly practice all aspects of their craft. The
prescriptive process requires neatly defined
steps towards a reliable outcome - cf . the garment-making
industry . U . Franklin, The Real
World of Technology (Toronto : CBC Enterprises,
1989),11-32 .
5 . The sectional system is based on the division
of labour principle . It divides the work of
construction of a particular garment into its
steps of production . Each section of the production
line is responsible for a given number
of the steps of construction . The sectional
system was the forerunner of the modern garment
factory.
6 . J . A . Schmiechen, Sweated Industries and
Sweated Labor : The London Clothing Trades
1860-1914 (Urbana and Chicago : University
of Illinois Press, 1984) . S . Wilentz, Chants
Democratic, New York City and the Rise of
the American Working Class (New York : Oxford
University Press, 1984) .
7 . It must be noted that custom clothing was
being made in the factory setting and that the
factory sewing of menswear does not necessarily
imply that the garments were made for
the ready-to-wear market . Custom factory
salesman travelled the countryside in North
America, setting up shop in hotel rooms .
They measured clients, showed samples of
fabric, and took orders for suits and separates
. The resulting orders were individually
cut at the factory, then assembled by the sectional
or "efficiency" system . American Gentleman
9, no . 7 (1909) : 22 .
8 . W . D . F . Vincent, The Trimmers' Practical
Guide to the Cutting Board (London : The
John Williamson Company, n .d .) . A photocopy
is held at the Canadian Parks Service
costume library, Ottawa.
9 . C . Roy, "The Tailoring Trade 1800-1920" (unpublished
Master's thesis, University of
Alberta, Edmonton, 1990), 62 .
NoTEs
10 . P. A . Trautman, Clothing America (The Costume
Society of America, Region II, 1987)
is a bibliography and location index of
nineteenth-century American pattern-drafting
systems . K . Seligman, "Bibliography of
Flat Pattern Sources," Theatre Design and
Technology 8, no . 3 : 23-8, and no . 4 : 20-5
and 9, no . 1 : 32-6, includes periodicals,
drafting and instructional manuals, both
nineteenth and twentieth century. E . Rink,
Technical Americana (Millwood, New York:
Kraus International Publications, 1981) is a
checklist of pre-1831 technical publications .
See "Clothing and Shoemaking," 221-3 .
11 . H . Simons, Drafting Pants and Overalls (New
York : Clothing Designer Company, 1916), 2 .
(Available from the John Crerar Library, University
of Chicago .)
12 . Period photographs of tailor shops often
show these fashion plates as wall decor or in
window displays, evidently in use to help
clients decide upon a suitable style .
13 . Frederick T . Croonborg also published
The Blue Book of Men's Tailoring, popular
late in the twentieth century as a reprint .
(1907 ; reprint, New York : Van Nostrand and
Reinhold Company, 1977) .
14 . Modern Fashions (July 1904 and January
1905) are held by the Smithsonian Library .
Rude also published his pattern-drafting system,
The Great Modern System in 1900,
1909, and 1911 . They are available at the Library
of Congress.
15 . The Tailor (London : Houlston and Stoneman,
n.d ., pre-1850) . Available at the library of the
University of California, Berkeley .
16. Only one reference was found by this researcher.
F. A . Deiner, A Complete Handbook
of Tailoring and Shop Management on the
Sectional or Group System (New York : F. F.
Deiner and Company, 1920) . A photocopy is
held by the Clothing and Textiles Collection,
University of Alberta .
17 . For example J . P. Thornton, The Sectional
System of Gentlemen's Garment Cutting,
Comprising Coats, Vests, Breeches, Trousers,
etc. (London : Minister & Co., 1894) .
18 . See D . Bensman, The Practice of Solidarity :
American Hat Finishers in the Nineteenth
Century (Urbana : University of Illinois Press,
1985) for sources of trade materials in the hat
finishing industry.
19

La courtepointe quebecoise :
creation ou emprunt ?
MAxrE DuRAND
Abstract
In this article, the author examines the hypothesis
that, although French in origin, the
art of quilting in Quebec underwent a gradual
transformation as a result of various foreign
influences . She bases her analysis of
quilting in Quebec on various British, American,
English Canadian and Quebec publications,
as well as on other sources such as estate
inventories and quilts held in private
and public collections . The author is thus
able to demonstrate that quilting has existed
in Quebec since the period of French rule,
and that quilts were even made locally. By
exploring a number of possible areas of foreign
influence, the author shows that quiltmaking
in Quebec maintained certain unique
characteristics during its transformation .
Lorsqu'on aborde 1'histoire de la courtepointe
quebecoise, on se rend vite compte du
peu de connaissances que 1'on possede sur
ses origines et ses particularites . De nombreux
auteurs contestent 1'existence d'une
courtepointe particuliere au Qu6bec et Wen
traitent pas .
Pour r6aliser cet historique de la courtepointe
au Quebec, nous avons consult6 des
ouvrages quebecois, canadiens, britanniques
et americains . Afin de combler certaines lacunes,
surtout pour la p6riode du r6gime
frangais, nous avons recueilli divers renseignements
sur les courtepointes des XVIIe et
XVIIIe siecles dans des inventaires apres
deces de la r6gion de Quebec . Finalement,
un corpus compose de 210 artefacts provenant
de musees et de collections priv6es
nous a permis de tracer un portrait plus juste
de la courtepointe des XIXe et XXe siecles .
Resume
Dons cet article, 1'auteure 6tudie 1'hypothese
que la courtepointe qu6becoise, d'origine
frangaise, se soit lentement transform6e suite
a diverses influences etrangeres . Elle base
son analyse de la courtepointe au Qu6bec
sur differentes publications britanniques,
americaines, can adiennes-anglaises et
quebecoises ainsi que sur d'autres sources,
telles ]es inventaires de biens apres deces et
les courtepointes conserv6es dons des collections
privees et pub]iques . Elle d6montre
ainsi que la courtepointe est pr6sente au
Quebec As le regime frangais et qu'on la
confectionne meme sur place . Elle avance
ensuite, en explorant diverses avenues possibles
d'influences etrangeres, que la courtepointe
quebecoise a conserv6 certaines caracteristiques
particulieres a travers une
lente transformation de son style .
La courtepointe sous le Regime
franVais
Les premiers essais d'6tablissement en
Nouvelle-France datent du XVIe sibcle .
Toutefois, ce West qu'a partir du XVIIe siecle
que les colons s'y installent de fagon permanente
et en plus grand nombre . Ces premiers
habitants proviennent principalement des
provinces frangaises de Normandie et d'ilede-France
.
Ces colons sont plus ou moins bien nantis
a leur arrivee . Pour la plupart d'entre eux, les
annees d'6tablissement sont difficiles et les
biens de luxe, comme la courtepointe, ne se
retrouvent dans leur maison qu'en petite
quantite ou sont, le plus souvent, totalement
absents. Leurs habitations ne comprennent
qu'une ou deux pi6ces r6chauff6es par un
atre. Celui-ci ne suffisant pas a la tache en
hiver, on accumule sur le lit les couvertures
Material History Review 34 (Fall 1991) / Revue d'histoire de la culture mat6rielle 34 (automne 1991)
20

qu'on possede et on ajoute, si on le peut, un
dessus-de-lit en fourrure .
Les premi6res gen6rations de Quebecois
semblent porter peu d'interet aux travaux de
tissage et de couture . On enseigne dans les
couvents de Quebec et de Montr6al les travaux
textiles ainsi que les arts de 1'aiguille,
mais ces techniques restent le plus souvent
1'apanage des dames de la bourgeoisie et de
la petite noblesse . L'outillage pour tisser
toiles et serges ainsi que la matiere premiere
sont pour ainsi dire absents ou impossibles a
obtenir . Les tissus servant a la confection de
vetements, de literie ou de linge de table
proviennent donc de France, seule source
d'approvisionnement pour le colon .
En 1665 arrive 1'intendant Jean Talon qui
s'attaque, entre autres, au probleme de la
trop grande d6pendance de la colonie face a
la m6tropole . Il voit au d6veloppement de
1'agriculture et cherche aussi a encourager la
fabrication de tissus domestiques en distribuant
quelques metiers a tisser. Cette derni6re
initiative ne semble pas rencontrer un
franc succbs .
Ce West que quelques ann6es apres le d6part
de 1'intendant Talon que 1'on retrouve
une premiere mention de courtepointe dans
un document notarial . En effet, en 1679,
Frangois Provost et Genevieve Macart declarent
au notaire Romain Becquet posseder
une courtepointe d'indienne .' Ce tissu fort
populaire en Europe est importe des Indes .
Fait de coton dans une armure toile, il est
imprim6 de motifs colores a 1'aide de blocs
de bois . Pr6cisons que cette piece semble
correspondre a la definition que 1'on donne
de la courtepointe a cette epoque : un el6ment
de literie compose d'un dessus et d'un
dessous, rembourre et habituellement pique
avec un point arriere . La partie avers est
usuellement composee a partir d'un meme
tissu . Notons qu'en 1686 et 1689, on releve
6galement la presence d'une courtepointe et
d'une couverture de lit en indienne dans la
r6gion de Montreal .
Au debut du XVIIIe siecle, la vie quotidienne
se bonifie dans la colonie de Nouvelle-
France . Doit-on s'6tonner que, dans cette
p6riode d'aisance relative pour 1'ensemble
de la population, on retrouve un plus grand
nombre de courtepointes ? Ainsi, dans les
cinq premieres ann6es de ce siecle, on releve
plusieurs mentions de ces dessus-delits
dans les inventaires quebecois . On en
retrouve en serge de Caen, en serge verte, en
toile peinte ou en taffetas .z
Au cours des vingt-cinq ans suivants
(1705-1730), on note encore la presence de
courtepointes dans des inventaires qu6b6cois
des r6gions de Quebec et Montr6al . La majorite
d'entre elles sont confectionn6es dans
la toile ou 1'indienne, quoiqu'on mentionne
aussi 1'utilisation de droguet et de satin .
Au cours des ann6es 1730, on remarque
une augmentation des mentions de courtepointes
dans les inventaires que nous avons
releves . Ce ph6nomene se poursuivra d'ailleurs
jusqu'a la Conquete anglaise . Les courtepointes
sont encore confectionnees dans
1'indienne, la toile peinte, le droguet et la
serge, la toile blanche 6tant utilis6e comme
doublure . Mais on note aussi 1'apparition
d'autres tissus comme le droguet barr6, le
coton a rayures et la serge rouge . On rel6ve
de plus une premiere mention d'utilisation
de toile du pays dans la region de Montreal .
Au milieu du XVIIII siecle, les tissus servant
a la confection de courtepointes mentionnes
dans les inventaires ne different
guere de ceux relev6s pour les d6cennies
precedentes .
L'indienne est encore pr6fer6e,
suivie de la serge verte, du droguet, de la
toile peinte et du taffetas . On se sert aussi de
1'etoffe du pays .' Cette fibre entre 6galement
dans la confection d'une courtepointe relev6e
dans 1'inventaire apres d6ces de Pierre
Derivon De Budemont, habitant du Sault-au-
Recollet, en 1741 . Le notaire Porlier mentionne
la presence d'« une Courtepointe
de leine a Carreau Bord6 d'une frange de
Soye »' . Il note aussi que cette piece est cousue
au point de croix, technique peu usit6e
dans la confection de ce type de dessus-delit
. Tout aussi interessante est la « petite couverte
de berceau de taffetas vert vieux et
pique prisee et estimee 4 livres » qui fait partie
des biens de Gabriel Lambert, de Lauzon,
en 1748 .5 C'est la premiere mention relev6e
d'utilisation des techniques de la courtepointe
dans la confection d'un recouvrement
de berceau .
Notons qu'il n'y a pas que dans les r6gions
de Quebec et de Montr6al qu'on retrouve
de beaux recouvrements de lit . Ainsi,
a Louisbourg, 1'inventaire des biens apres
deces de Jean-Baptiste-Louis Le Pr6vost
Duquesnel, commandant de la forteresse, est
fait le 22 octobre 1744 . On y mentionne la
presence dans la chambre principale d'un lit
21

garni comprenant « . . . une courtepointe piquee
de taffetas blanc »6 . L'ensemble est evalu6
a la jolie somme de 380 livres . En 1752,
le capitaine d'infanterie Michel de Gannes
de Falaise d6c6de et on vend a la cri6e sa
courtepointe et son couvre-pieds pour une
somme plus modique . La courtepointe est
aussi pr6sente chez les civils de Louisbourg
puisqu'A la meme 6poque, la famille
Choteau en possede une en indienne 6valu6e
A 35 livres .7
Dans la derniere decennie avant la Conquete
anglaise, les serges et les droguets sont
les tissus les plus fr6quemment mentionnes
pour la confection de courtepointes dans les
inventaires consult6s . La serge est habituellement
de couleur verte. Fait int6ressant a
noter, deux courtepointes fabriqu6es dans ce
tissu sont entour6es 1'une d'un ruban jaune
et 1'autre d'un bord de soie jaune.8 Pour le
droguet, crois6 ou non, on sp6cifie assez souvent
qu'il est « du pays)), ce qui semble affirmer
une plus grande utilisation des tissus
confectionn6s sur place . L'indienne n'apparait
plus etre aussi populaire et les cotons,
ceux qui sont a fleurs entre autres, la remplacent
. Le satin et le taffetas ne semblent plus
entrer dans la composition de courtepointes,
exception faite du couvre-pieds de satin
que Louis Vignola, de Chambly, possede en
1760 .9 La conquete de la Nouvelle-France
par les Britanniques se produit cette meme
ann6e et modifiera sous plusieurs aspects la
vie quotidienne dans la colonie .
Evolution de la courtepointe et
influences depuis la Conquete
Dans ses premic?re ann6es, le nouveau r6gime
ne semble pas influencer la courtepointe
qu6b6coise. Si 1'on se fie aux mentions contenues
dans des inventaires faits entre 1762
et 1774, on utilise encore pour la confection
de dessus-de-lits 1'indienne, le droguet, le
coton et 1'6toffe du pays . Notons que, pour
presque toutes ces courtepointes, on mentionne
qu'elles sont vieilles ou us6es ou
qu'elles combinent ces deux conditions .1o
Le peu de changement dans la literie
qu6b6coise semble aussi confirm6 par la description
qu'en fait un officier allemand, stationne
a Batiscan lors de la Guerre d'ind6pendance
am6ricaine . En novembre 1776,
il 6crit a sa famille a propos des lits des
habitants :
22
In every room one will find at least one bed
capable of holding two persons . . . As soon
as you get out of bed, it is made up and covered
with a quilt of silesia, calico or wool,
with the ends hanging over the sides. The
poorest inhabitant has such a covering for
his bed by day; nor, indeed, have I ever seen
cleaner beds in any country."
Peu apres la Guerre d'ind6pendance aux
Etats-Unis et la signature du Trait6 de Versailles
(1783) r6glant le conflit entre ce pays
et la Grande-Bretagne, les citoyens am6ricains
qui choisissent de rester fid6les A la
Couronne britannique doivent quitter leur
pays . Pres de 100 000 d'entre eux sont 6vacu6s
vers 1'Angleterre, le Canada et les autres
colonies britanniques . Six mille loyalistes arrivent
au Qu6bec en provenance, pour la
plupart, des etablissements situ6s prbs des
frontieres entre la province et les Etats-Unis .
Le gouverneur canadien Haldimand leur accorde
le droit de s'6tablir en divers endroits
des Cantons de 1'Est .
Quelques annees plus tard, soit en 1791,
on divise la colonie en deux, cr6ant ainsi le
Haut et le Bas-Canada . Cette derniere province,
qui recoupe la superficie actuelle du
Qu6bec, compte 150 000 habitants, dont 93
p . 100 sont francophones . La population anglophone
est regroup6e principalement dans
les villes de Qu6bec et Montr6al et dans la
r6gion des Cantons de 1'Est . Les Canadiens
frangais, quant a eux, se retrouvent dans les
principaux centres urbains, dans la vall6e du
Saint-Laurent ainsi que dans quelques 6tablissements
a tenure seigneuriale .
II est interessant de noter que John Graves
Simcoe, nomme lieutenant-gouverneur du
Haut-Canada, passe son premier hiver au
pays a Qu6bec . Sa femme 1'accompagne et en
profite pour acqu6rir certains biens n6cessaires
a leur installation . Elle note dans son
journal en date du 10 janvier 1792 : ((1 bought
an Eiderdown quilt wich cost £14 16s »'z . Le
montant paye, assez imposant pour 1'6poque,
laisse supposer que la piece 6tait de belle
qualite . Cet achat prouve aussi qu'il est possible
d'acqu6rir des biens autres que ceux de
premibre n6cessite si on en a les moyens .
Au debut du XIXe si6cle, le mouvement
d'immigration se renforce . Des familles
provenant des iles britanniques, c'est-a-dire
de la Grande-Bretagne, de 1'Irlande et de
1'Ecosse, viennent au Canada . La plupart
d'entre elles s'installent dans le Haut-

1
Fig. i
Detail d'une
courtepointe provenant
de la farnille Maclntosh,
/aite dans de.s tissus de
coton et rehauss0e
d'elements dessin0s ou
brodes . Aye.r's Clirf.
Cantons de l'Est,
Z' quart du XIX" siccle.
(Montr6al, Musee des
beaux-arts 26-DT-2,
photo Marie Durand)
Canada, meme si quelques-unes choisissent
le Bas-Canada . Certaines personnes ne font
que passer par le Quebec, comme John
Lambert qui, en 1806, 1807 et 1808, visite
la province ainsi que les bats-Unis . Il passe
la remarque suivante a propos des lits quebecois
: « Upon the. bedstead is placed a
feather or straw bed, with the usual clothes,
and covered with a patchwork counterpane,
orgreenstuffquilt . »'3
En 1820, le Bas-Canada compte 420 000
habitants dont 80 000 sont d'origine britannique
. E1 partir de cette epoque, le territoire
c:anadien connait une immigration massive .
Environ un million de personnes y arrivent
en provenance de 1'Irlande, de 1'Ecosse et de
I'Angleterre . Pendant la seule annee 1832,
50 000 immigrants debarquent a Quebec .
La plupart des immigrants, toutefois,
s'installent plus a 1'ouest . Le Haut-Canada en
accueille une partie, les Cantons de 1'Est,
1'Outaouais et Montreal, une autre . Certaines
familles britanniques apportent dans
leurs bagages leurs biens les plus precieux,
objets temoins de 1'Ancien Monde qu'ils
quittent . A preuve, le Musee McCord de
Montreal conserve une courtepointe datant
de 1726 .'4 Cette piece, probablement la plus
ancienne de ce genre en Amerique du Nord,
provient selon toute vraisemblance d'Angleterre
. Elle a traverse 1'ocean Atlantique en
meme temps que les parents de madame
John Cridiford (nee Purnell) on ceux de son
mari, immigres arrives au Canada en 1832 .
Les premiers exemples encore existants
de courtepointes quebecoises datent de cette
i;poque, soit du deuxieme quart du XIXI' siecle
. Leurs fabricantes viennent de familles
tant anglophones que francophones . L'applique
semble particulierement en faveur, du
moins si 1'on se fie aux pieces que nous
avons analysees . 11 faut toutefois noter que
les courtepointes a appliques sont plus complexes
de confection et requierent plus de
temps de fabrication . Elles servent le plus
souvent de dessus-de-lit d'apparat . On ne les
lave que tres rarement et, dans certains cas,
on reserve lour utilisation aux grandes occasions
(mariage, visiteurs, etc.) . 11 est donc
probable que 1'on ait conserve ce type de
picces de preference aux courtepointes plus
simples servant a garnir le lit en semaine .
Il est interessant de noter que le bassin de
population continue d'augmenter des ann6es
1840 a la Confederation, suite a 1'arrivee de
nouveaux immigrants et grace a un taux de
natalite eleve dans la communaute francophone
. L'apparition des premieres manufactures
textiles au Qu6bec date aussi de cette
epoque, tout comme la mise en vente de machines
a coudre .
Dans la deuxieme moitie du XIX'' siEcle,
les courtepointes a appliques continuent
d'etre fort populaires . Leurs dessus s'articulent
le plus souvent autour d'un ou de plusieurs
elements centraux . On confectionne
habituellement ces courtepointes dans des
tissus de coton a armure toile qu'on achete a
cette fin . Le travail de ces pieces est fait a
la main d'une maniere soignee, ce qui nous
fait penser qu'elles ont pu servir pour les
grandes occasions .
Les courtepointes a composition par blocs
se retrouvent aussi en grand nombre a partir
de la deuxieme moitie du XIX'' si6cle,
surtout durant les vingt dernieres annees .
Les blocs sont assembles a cru, alternes avec
des blocs unis le plus souvent blancs ou relies
par des bandes de chainage . Les motifs
sont frequemment bases sur des formes
geometriques . Les tissus sont parfois de recuperation,
parfois neufs . On les assemble a
la main dans la plupart des cas, quoiqu'on
commence a utiliser la machine a coudre
23

pour certaines etapes comme la 6nition de la
bordure .
Certains grands assemblages de pieces forment
la partie centrale de la courtepointe a la
place du regroupement par blocs . Les dessus
a motifs d'etoiles de Bethleem et de dentsde-scie
ne semblent avoir ete fabriques qu'en
petit nombre a cette epoque . Ces elements de
literie font partie, tout comme les appliques,
des courtepointes d'apparat car on les confectionne
dans des tissus neufs .
Dans le dernier quart du XIX'' siecle,
1'emigration des Quebecois, qui a debute
dans la periode precedente, va en s'accentuant
. Entre 1871 et 1891, 350000 d'entre
eux quittent la province suite a des conditions
economiques difficiles, principalement
pour travailler dans les manufactures de la
Nouvelle-Angleterre . Ce mouvement vers le
sud perdurera d'ailleurs jusqu'aux annees
1930 . Les Franco-Americains maintiennent
le contact avec leurs parents restes au Quebec
. Certains reviennent en visite on definitivement,
d'autres entretiennent une correspondance
plus ou moins soutenue . Est-ce
que des motifs de courtepointes ont voyage
du sud au nord et vice-versa par ces divers
moyens ? 11 est difficile de repondre a cette
question puisqu'aucune documentation ne
vient infirmer ni confirmer cette possibilite .
On sait toutefois que les Franco-Americaines
confectionnent des courtepointes a cette
24
epoque puisqu'on en retrouve des exemples
dans deux collections quebecoises privees .
C'est aussi dans le dernier quart du XIXf'
siecle que des filatures de coton quebecoises
commencent a produire des tissus et de la
bourre, que 1'on devait importer auparavant
et qui servent a la confection de courtepointes
. Des blocs aux motifs geometriques composent
de plus en plus le dessus de la courtepointe
. L'utilisation de 1'applique diminue
sans vraiment disparaitre . Cette technique
est en outre utilisee pour realiser des courtepointes
ornees de grands motifs phytomorphiques
qui ne sont pas sans rappeler les flocons
de neige . Notons que la technique des
"
ti
INFRF
uZore 0 I~,~-
" -. ~ '"6N_
" "
:0 """" " `. :;:m
"
r "
" r .
a el %%% ME
: .r 2~~'a~hrf
'ti
. r 5
"~!~"
. .~. ,~ _
pointes folles apparait au cours de cette p6riode
au Quebec et que la machine a coudre
est plus frequemment utilisee pour les travaux
de couture . La premiere ecole d'enseignement
menager date aussi de cette epoque
(1882) .
En 1886, Leon Gerin s'attarde a decrire
ainsi une partie de la production des femmes
au sein de la famille d'agriculteurs Casaubon
de Saint-Justin (Maskinonge) : « La mere
vend des courtepointes mi-laine mi-coton,
garnies de franges . Philomene confectionne
de grands chales en laine et de grands couvrepieds
en coton ou en indienne, ainsi que
des « catalogues » (tissu de retailles) qui servent
indifferemment de tapis pour le plancher
on de couvertures de lit . »'5
1
Fig . 2
courtepoir,r e (III Inotif de
carrF, n dents-de-scie
orn 6 d'appliques
phytomorphiyues, faite
de coton uni rouge et
blanc . Comt O de
Verch 6 res, VP.rS 1850 .
(Montrrsal, Mus 0 e des
beaux-arts 60-DT-2,
photo de Marie Durand)
Fig. 3
Courtepointe au motif de
double chaine irlandaise
de rnadarne Louis
Brunelle, faite de coton
blanc et rose . New
Bedford, Massachusetts,
vers 1880 .
(Sherbrooke, collection
Annette Neveu-/eanson
L81 .16C, photo du
Mus 6 e Benulne )
1

1
Fig . 4
Courtepointe au rnotif
de double X, faite. de
toiles de coton uni
jaune, orange et blanc .
Comt6 de Compton .
Cantons de I'F.st,
3'' quart du XIJc" siecle. .
(Montreal, Musee
McCord M966 .4 .2)
Fig. s
Pointes jolles de la
famille Filteau-Chaillez .
Pit~c,e polychrome ornee
de. points, de noms et de
rnotifs brod6s . et taillr3e
dans divers tissus de
soie et de coton et des
rubans . Saint-Pierre-Les-
BecCluets, corntP de.
Lotbiniere, 1897 .
(Montr0al, Musrse
McCord h1.965 .86.11
Herman Plante pr6cise qu'a la meme epoque,
on pique les courtepointes en corvee .
On invite les voisines et on tend 1'ensemble
du dessus de lit sur un grand cadre de bois .
Puis on s'installe autour et on pique . Selon
1'auteur, cette corvee a lieu au printemps,
avant le temps des jardinages .'e Richard
Hotte, quant a lui, la situe vers la fin du mois
de janvier ou au debut de fevrier, pour ce qui
est de la region de l'Outaouais."
Sensibilisation aux arts textiles et
mise en valeur
Au debut du XXI siecle, on fonde deux institutions
qui auront leur importance dans le
domaine des arts textiles et de 1'artisanat .
Vers 1900, des dames anglophones de la region
de Montreal, membres de la Woman Art
Society, organisent un voyage en Gaspesie .
Elles constatent sur place la richesse des arts
domestiques et le danger que representent
les catalogues des compagnies qui offrent
des marchandises en abondance . Ces publications
auraient tendance a annihiler, a plus
04
~.~..~i.~. .~~~ ~..
ou moins long terme, les diverses activites
creatrices . En 1906, ces dames fondent Line
societe a charte, The Canadian Handicrafts
Guild, dont les buts sont « de developper et
faire revivre 1'artisanat, de sensibiliser le
grand public a la richesse et a la beaute des
ceuvres faites a la main, d'organiser des expositions,
de monter tin centre de documentation
sur le sujet et d'elaborer Line collection
)) .18
permanente de pieces
Quelques ann6es plus tard, deux agronomes,
Georges Bouchard et Alphonse
Desilets, lancent I'idee de cr6er des groupes
de fermibres . Ceux-ci verront a utiliser les
notions d'economie domestique vehiculees
par les ecoles m6nageres . Le premier cercle
de fermibres est cree a Chicoutimi en 1915 . 11
a pour but d'introduire dans les fermes familiales
les industries de 1'aviculture, du
jardin potager et de la culture ornementale .
Plusieurs cercles ajoutent a ces activit6s
la promotion de divers arts domestiques
comme le filage, le tissage, le tricot, etc .
D'autres mettent sur pied des bibliotheques
et organisent des conferences pour renseigner
leurs membres . Notons que quelques
communautes religieuses feminines s'associeront
aux cercles pour les aider a realiser
leurs activites .
La courtepointe du d6but du XX`' siecle ne
diff6re guere de celle de la fin du siecle precedent
. Les assemblages de pieces par blocs
et les grandes appliques sont fort populaires,
de meme que les pointes folles coupees dans
des tissus varies . 11 semble qu'a cette epoque,
1~
25

les techniques de la courtepointe soient enseignees
dans les couvents quebecois . Mary
Conroy soutient cette possibilite tout en specifiant
que cet enseignement est donne aux
jeunes filles des la deuxieme moitie du XIXt'
siecle .'9 Nous n'avons pu confirmer ni infirmer
cet enonce .
En 1916, le gouvernement quebecois, par
le biais du minist6re de 1'Agriculture, vient
en aide aux cercles de fermieres et forme le
Service de renseignements agricoles et menagers,
qui organise des cours, des conferences
et des expositions . Trois ans plus tard,
lors d'un premier congres general des cercles,
on decide de faire paraitre une revue
qui portera le nom de La bonne fermiere .
Darts les annees 1920, les cercles de fermieres
multiplient leurs activites . Ils participent
aux expositions provinciales de
Quebec, organisent deux congres, forment
tin comite des industries domestiques et ouvrent
des comptoirs artisanaux a Quebec et
Montreal . Au cours de cette periode, les cerc.les
adoptent leur drapeau et embleme officiels
ainsi que leur devise « Pour la terre et le
fo_ver » .
t1 la fin de la periode 1920-1930, la popularite
des arts domestiques croit tant au
niveau quebecois qu'international . Oscar
Beriau, chimiste et artisan, prend en charge
1'Ecole des arts paysans (qui deviendra le
Service des arts domestiques), ouverte en
1929 par le gouvernement provincial . Il invite
divers specialistes quebecois et europeens
du tissage et des techniques artisanales
A participer a la formation de ses
eleves . En tant que techniciennes du ministere
de 1'Agriculture et de la Colonisation,
celles-ci propagent leurs connaissances
nouvellement acquises dans les cercles de
fermieres .
Darts les annees de crise economique
(1930 et suivantes), la recuperation de tissus
est importante puisque le budget d'un grand
nombre de familles est serre . On defait les
poches de farine, de sucre et de cereales
pour realiser 1'endos des courtepointes . Le fil
de coton qui ferme les extremites de ce type
de sac est teint et sert a broder le bord des
pieces ou des appliques . Les vetements en fibres
naturelles et artificielles (ex . rayonne)
sont decousus, decoupes et assembles pour
former des dessus de courtepointes aux motifs
geometriques ou abstraits .
En 1932, Georges Bouchard publie dans
Le Canada fran(~ais un article dans lequel il
26
se fait 1'apotre de la protection des « arts rus-
tiques » . Selon lui, plusieurs elements de la
civilisation moderne menacent ces arts de
disparition graduelle : le progres materiel,
1'expansion du commerce, les catalogues des
grandes maisons commerciales, le pouvoir
d'achat accru du cultivateur, les migrations
sociales, le systeme d'education, le phenomene
du « paraitre au lieu d'etre », la tarification
a I'heure et 1'abaissement du sens
esthetique .L°
L'artisanat connait une vague de popularite
qui va en croissant jusqu'a la Seconde
Guerre mondiale . Les cercles de fermieres,
1'Ecole d'arts domestiques et le ininistere de
1'Agriculture encouragent a divers niveaux
1'apprentissage d'une variete de techniques
des textiles . De plus, en 1937, Fran~oise
Gaudet-Smet lance la revue Paysana qui
paraitra jusqu'en 1948 . Par 1'impression de
patrons et de conseils techniques, cette publication
incite les lectrices a pratiquer
Fig. 6
Courtepointe orn0e de
motifs phytomorphiques,
faite de toiles de coton
uni rouge, vert et
nature], Province de
Quebec, d0but du
XX'"' sificle . (Montrtlal,
Musee des arts
d0coratifs 732-1245,
photo de Marie Durand)
.

1
Fig . 7
Courtepointe. au motif
d'(sventail de Fannie
attribucie a madame
Joseph Giguke,
r6unissant divers tissus
de coton et de fibres
synth6tiques, a la
doublure en sacs de
/arine Robin Hood et
aux bards des pieces
brodes au point d'6pine .
Saint-loseph-de-Beauce,
vers 1930. (QuEbec.,
Mus0e de ]a civilisation
74-153)
Fig. 8
Pointes sages de la
famille Napoleon Boily,
pike auX de,ssus
polychrome dont les
bords des composantes
sont brod0s au point
d'epine, taillk dons
divers tissus de coton, de
laine, de soie et de fibres
synthetiques (retailles de
v 6ternents e d'hiver) .
Saint-joseph-de-BeMlce,
inifieu A XXI' sikle.
(QuObec, Mus6e de la
civilisation 74-1611
divers arts de 1'aiguille, dont celui de la
courtepointe.
Pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, les
travaux de couture sont plus particulierement
mis a 1'honneur. En effet, tout le materiel
disponible sert a participer a 1'effort de
guerre et les tissus sont donc difficiles a
obtenir. A la tnaison, les femmes defont les
vetements pour en confectionner de nouveaux
. Les tlssus sont aussl recupPres pour
fabriquer des courtepointes . Les pointes
folles et les pointes sages sont particulierement
populaires, car ces motifs permettent
une meilleure utilisation des retailles .
A la fin du conflit mondial, le ministt>re
de 1'Industrie et du Commerce cree 1'Office
provincial d'artisanat et de la petite industrie
. Cet organisme voit a coordonner, promouvoir
et diriger la creation artisanale au
Quebec . Son premier president est Jean-
Marie Gauvreau . L'organisme se transformera
en Office d'artisanat du Quebec. en 1950,
puis en Centrale d'artisanat du Quebec en
1963 . C'est aussi en 1945 que nait la Cooperative
des arts domestiques du Qu6bec,
suite a une initiative des cercles de fermieres
et de leur federation . Les cercles relancent en
outre leur revue, dont la publication avait
provisoirement cesse, sons le nouveau titre
Terre et Joyer.
Si les lendemains de la guerre ont des effets
benefiques pour plusieurs secteurs d'artisanat,
il Wen est toutefois pas de meme
pour la courtepointe . La prosperite que c:onnaissent
les pays industrialises dans leur ensemble,
surtout en Amerique du Nord, a partir
des annees 1950 amene sur le marche de
27

nouveaux produits et facilite 1'acquisition de
marchandises . Les couvertures et couvre-lits
manufactures remplacent peu a peu les courtepointes
de facture domestique . Dans des
villes comme Montreal, Quebec, Sherbrooke
ou Saint-Hyacinthe, ou 1'on compte plusieurs
industries employant du personnel
feminin, le temps alloue par les femmes aux
travaux d'aiguille a la maison diminue de
maniere perceptible . Un peu de reprisage, de
reparation de vetements et parfois de tricot
en constituent 1'essentiel .
Les courtepointes fabriquees dans les annees
1950 proviennent le plus souvent du
milieu rural . La machine a coudre occupe
une place importante dans leur confection,
tant pour 1'assemblage des pieces que pour le
piquage . De nouveaux patrons publies dans
les revues sont a la mode et 1'originalite est
bien souvent sacrifiee a la standardisation .
Cependant, a la fin des annees 1960 et au
cours de la decennie suivante, la courtepointe
connait un renouveau . En 1967, suite
a Line experience de creation reunissant artisans,
architectes et concepteurs, on fonde a
Baie-Saint-Paul le premier CREA (pour creation,
recherche, education et artisanat) . Cet
organisme produit des courtepointes modernes,
inspirees de motifs traditionnels et
commercialisees sous la marque MANU .
Darts les annees 1970, Louise Fleury-
Bourassa, Monique Cliche-Spenard, Madeleine
Arbour et Jone Baker produisent tour a
tour des courtepointes aux motifs refletant
divers elements de la tradition quebecoise ou
dont les dessus relevent de 1'illustration . A la
meme epoque, Lise Nantel et Marie Decarie
utilisent les techniques de 1'applique et du
piquage pour confectionner des bannieres
portant divers messages .
C'est aussi dans la decennie 1970 que sont
publies plusieurs livres et brochures sur la
courtepointe . Des cahiers de patrons surtout
et quelques livres techniques sont edites par
divers auteurs et organismes tels le ministere
de 1'Agriculture du Quebec et la Federation
des cercles de fermieres .
Dans la decennie 1980, la courtepointe
continue d'etre populaire sans toutefois connaitre
la meme faveur que dans les annees
precedentes . Plusieurs musees organisent
des expositions regroupant ces dessus-delits
. En 1981, le Musee Beaulne de Coaticook
expose dans ses salles des courtepointes
provenant de nombreuses collections pri-
1
i
Ik
Aw 10
vees, sous le theme « Gardienne de mes
reves >> . Six ans plus tard, dans le cadre du
Salon national de la courtepointe-Quilt Canada,
tenu a 1'Universite Concordia de Montreal,
le Musee McCord organise tine exposition
ayant pour titre « Le jardin de Fleurs de
grand-mere » . Le Musee Marsil de Saint-
Lambert a, quant a lui, presente un ensemble
de trente courtepointes provenant de la collection
McKendry.
Les cercles de fermieres aident encore a
maintenir en vie la tradition de la courtepointe
. Plusieurs cercles continuent de produire
en groupe des courtepointes . Celles-ci
sont le plus souvent a theme commemoratif
et servent a feter un anniversaire de
fondation .
1
Fig. 9
Courrtepointe au motif de
petltes bonnes fenlnles
de Louisette Tremblay-
RUeI, falte de tlssus
neufs imprimOs et unis,
aux bords des
personnages brodess au
point de feston . Saint-
HermOnegilde, 1951 .
/Coaticook, collection de
Louisette Tremblay-Ruel
L81-32c . 1, photo du
Mushe Beaulnel

La courtepointe : creation ou emprunt
Plusieurs auteurs, tant quebecois que
canadiens-anglais, amdricains et britanniques,
ont tent6 d'analyser le cas de la
courtepointe d'ici et de ses origines . Certains
discutent de son originalite et d'autres, de
1'emprunt d'6l6ments a des cultures
6trang6res .
Du cot6 des milieux concern6s, quelques
auteurs2' avancent que la courtepointe
n'6tait pas connue en Nouvelle-France . Ainsi,
dans son ouvrage paru en 1915, Marie
Daugherty Webster affirme :
Extensive investigation has shown that the
introduction of the arts of patchwork and
quilting to the American continent is due
entirely to the English and Dutch . No evidence
has been found that Spanish or
French colonists made use of quilting . . .
The French who opened up Canada
brought none of the quilting or patchwork
of France with them . . . As a protection
against the biting northern winters, the
early French settlers sought protection
under furs, which could be obtained quite
readily in the great woods .zz
Comme nous 1'avons constate par 1'etude de
divers inventaires de biens apres deces, cette
affirmation est partiellement erronee . Bien
sur, les habitants de la Nouvelle-France se
servent de couvertures de peaux et de fourrure
pour couvrir leur lit mais ils utilisent
aussi des dessus-de-lits plus decoratifs . Les
courtepointes proviennent au depart de
France mais 1'utilisation, a partir du XVIIIe
sibcle, d'6toffes dites « du pays » prouve
hors de toute doute qu'on en confectionne
aussi sur place . La possibilite qu'on en fabrique
a partir de tissus d'importation ou de
contrebande ne doit pas etre negligee bien
que, dans 1'etat present des connaissances
dans ce domaine, on ne puisse 1'affirmer
categoriquement .
La courtepointe, selon la d6finition enonc6e
en premiere partie, est donc pr6sente en
Nouvelle-France . Sans la retrouver en aussi
grand nombre que la couverture, on note son
emploi tant dans la maison du seigneur ou
du marchand que dans celle de 1'habitant,
aussi bien en milieu urbain que rural . On doit
toutefois constater qu'elle sert le plus souvent
de dessus-de-lit d'apparat et que ceux
qui en sont propri6taires poss6dent un niveau
d'aisance minimum . A la base, la courtepointe
d'ici a donc des racines frangaises .
Quelques auteursz3 affirment que la
courtepointe queb6coise, telle qu'on la connait
aujourd'hui, est un apport culturel des
conqu6rants britanniques et des Loyalistes
americains . Nicole Grenier parle plutot
d'une forte influence de ces milieux sur la
forme que prend la courtepointe d'ici . Ainsi
ecrit-elle :
If est certain que la production qu~Ucoise
a et6 fortement influencEe par les Etats-
Unis; les techniques et les motifs communs
aux deux pays sont la pour le prouver. On
constate aussi que les courtepointes quEb6coises
les plus 6labor6es se retrouvent dons
les Cantons de 1'Est, r6gion plus particulierement
peupl6e par les Loyalistes .
Dons la Beauce, la proximite des Etats-Unis
se manifeste surtout par la faveur populaire
qu'obtient la courtepointe et par la variEt6
des motifs qu'on y retrouve .24
L'hypoth6se d'un important apport britannique
ou am6ricain, ou des deux a la fois,
merite une analyse un peu plus poussee .
Apres la Conquete, les premiers arrivants des
iles britanniques qui s'installent au Qu6bec
sont des fonctionnaires et administrate urs
envoy6s par Londres, des militaires de garnison
et quelques aventuriers esp6rant faire
fortune . Par la suite viennent s'ajouter des
membres de 1'arm6e britannique demobilis6s
apres la Guerre d'ind6pendance americaine
et des Loyalistes qui fuient les Etats-Unis .
Tous ces nouveaux habitants s'6tablissent
dans les grands centres urbains, soit Montreal
et Qu6bec, dans les Cantons de 1'Est ou
en p6riph6rie de la zone seigneuriale d6ja exploit6e
. Si des courtepointes se trouvent
dans leurs bagages, elles y sont en petit nombre
puisqu'aucun texte n'en fait mention et
qu'aucun mus6e ne possede de pieces qui
seraient entr6es de cette maniere au pays
pendant cette periode . De plus, on ne doit
pas oublier que la communaute anglophone
est ici en minorit6 et que, vingt ans apres la
Conquete, elle ne forme que 7 p. 100 de la
population .25 Notons aussi que, sans etre
froids et distants, les contacts entre les
groupes francophone et anglophone semblent
loin de former les bases d'une osmose
culturelle parfaite.
Au XIXe siecle, 1'immigration d'une population
provenant des iles britanniques augmente,
mais les nouveaux Canadiens s'6tablissent
majoritairement dans le Haut-
Canada . Les courtepointes fabriquees a cette
29

6poque, comme nous 1'avons deja mentionn6,
proviennent aussi bien des communautes
francophones qu'anglophones et des milieux
urbains que ruraux . Cela laisse supposer que
ce type de dessus-de-lits fait autant partie du
bagage culturel d'une population que de
1'autre . Bien qu'une certaine influence des
milieux anglophones transparaisse dans la
confection de la courtepointe du Quebec, il
est difficile d'affirmer de maniere categorique
qu'elle soit marquante.
Les influences etrangeres dans la courtepointe
qu6becoise semblent etre plus perceptibles
dans la deuxieme moiti6 du XIXe siecle
. Un meilleur reseau de transport et donc
de communication, 1'apport exterieur de revues,
de livres et de mat6riel divers ainsi que
1'emigration de Qu6becois vers les Etats-Unis
sont tous des facteurs qui modifient a la
longue la courtepointe d'ici . Mais les innovations
prennent toutefois beaucoup de temps
a s'implanter. Ainsi, la technique des pointes
folles, populaire des les annees 1860 en Angleterre
et aux Etats-Unis, ne s'impose au
Quebec qu'a la toute fin des annees 1880 . La
machine a coudre, disponible a partir de
cette 6poque (1860), ne sera utilisee de
manibre plus r6pandue dans la confection
des courtepointes qu'a la fin du siecle . Remarquons
aussi que certaines modes ayant
cours dans les milieux anglophones, comme
celle des blocs a signature, n'auront que peu
de popularite dans les milieux francophones .
La courtepointe quebecoise, surtout au
XIXI et au debut du XXe siecle, conserve certains
6lements distinctifs sur les plans de
1'esthetique et de la technique . On remarque
entre autres une intense utilisation du blanc
comme coloris de base ou compl6mentaire .
Jusqu'au debut du XXe siecle, le blanc est
Cet article est essentiellement bas6 sur une partie
du mEmoire de maitrise de I'auteure intitule « Les
courtepointes du Qu6bec», d6pose a 1'Universit6
Laval en 1990 et realise sous la direction de
madame jocelyne Mathieu .
30
NOTES
present dans la confection de 75 p . 100 des
courtepointes . Cette proportion grimpe A
pres de 100 p . 100 si 1'on exclut les pi6ces
fabriqu6es par les artisanes de milieu anglophone.
Le blanc est combin6 au rouge, au
vert et au jaune dans la majorite des pikes .
On utilise aussi dans certains cas le bleu, le
rose et 1'orange . Les tons choisis sont vifs et
font contraste avec la puret6 du blanc .
Par contre, les courtepointes anglaises et
canadiennes-anglaises sont plus fr6quemment
realisees dans des teintes neutres ou
sombres . Il en est de meme des courtepointes
americaines mais sur une moindre 6chelle .
Ceci s'explique partiellement par un apport
culturel plus varie et important dans ce pays .
Du cot6 technique, on remarque 1'utilisation
plus fr6quente du diamant comme motif
de piquage . Il prend parfois 1'apparence d'un
losange lorsqu'on 1'allonge . Ce motif de piquage
est deja pr6sent en France au XVIIe
sibcle et donne une apparence gaufr6e au
dessus de la courtepointe . On le retrouve
aussi present au Canada anglais, aux Etats-
Unis et en Angleterre, mais dans une bien
moins forte proportion .
Pour conclure, revenons A notre question
de depart : la courtepointe queb6coise estelle
une creation ou un emprunt ? Nous
croyons quant a nous que la r6alit6 se situe
quelque part entre ces deux poles . A la base,
la courtepointe d'ici est d'origine frangaise .
Elle a subi par la suite une lente transformation
due a certaines contraintes du milieu
puis a 1'influence d'apports 6trangers . Elle a
toutefois conserve, sur les plans de 1'esth6tique
et de la technique, certains 6l6ments
qui la distinguent bien souvent de 1'ensemble
de la production nord-am6ricaine .
1 . Robert-Lionel S6guin, La couverture de lit du
Qu6bec ancien, catalogue d'exposition (Vaudreuil
: Mus6e r6gional de Vaudreuil-
Soulanges, [s .d .]), p . 19 .
2 . Inventaire des biens de Catherine Fournier
veuve de Thimoth6e Roussel, 9e avril 1701,

Haute-Ville, Qu6bec, Archives nationales du
Qu6bec A Qu6bec, Greffe du notaire Jeanttienne
Du Breuil ; inventaire des biens de
Marguerite Fortin veuve de Pierre-Frangois
Fromage, 3e aout 1704, rue St-Pierre, Qu6bec
et inventaire des biens de Charles Normand
veuf de Marie Dionne, 2e avril 1703, Haute-
Ville, Qu6bec, Archives nationales du Qu6bec
A Qu6bec, Greffe du notaire Florent La
Ceti6re ; Robert-Lionel S6guin, La civilisation
traditionnelle de 1'« habitant)) aux 17P et
18e siecles (Montr6al : Fides, 1973), p . 389 et
« Catalognes et courtepointes de 1'Ancien
Qu6bec, au fil de la navette et de 1'aiguille
. . . », Le Petit journal des grandes expositions
n° 21 (avril-juin 1975), [p . 3) .
3 . Robert-Lionel S6guin, « Catalognes et courtepointes
. . . », [p . 3) .
4 . Robert-Lionel S6guin, La couverture de lit . . .,
p . 23 .
5 . Inventaire des biens de Ren6e Roussel veuve
de Gabriel Lambert, 11e septembre 1748,
Lauzon, Archives nationales du Qu6bec A
Qu6bec, Greffe du notaire Charles-Hilarion
Du Laurent.
6 . Blaine Adams, « Construction et occupation
des casernes du bastion du Roi », dans Lieux
historiques canadiens (Ottawa : Parcs Canada,
ministcre des Affaires indiennes et du
Nord, 1978), p . 130, Cahiers d'arch6ologie et
d'histoire 18, Contribution de la forteresse de
Louisbourg n° 3 .
7 . Mary Conroy, 300 Years of Canada's Quilts
(Toronto : Griffin House, 1976), p . 14 .
8 . Inventaire des biens de Marie-Ang6lique
Giroux et Ren6 Toupin, 288 janvier 1755,
Qu6bec, Archives nationales du Qu6bec A
Qu6bec, Greffe du notaire Charles-Hilarion
Du Laurent ; inventaire de Pierre-Joseph
Bourret veuf de Marie-Joseph Normand, 24e
avril 1755, Notre-Dame-de-Qu6bec, Archives
nationales du Qu6bec A Qu6bec, Greffe du
notaire Antoine-Jean Saillant .
9 . Robert-Lionel S6guin, La civilisation traditionnelle.
. ., p. 390 .
10 . Relev6 du fonds Jocelyne Mathieu pour Les
int6rieurs domestiques compar6s Perche-
Qu6bec, ensemble de photocopies d'inventaires,
de notes et de tableaux d6pos6s aux
Archives de folklore de 1'Universit6 Laval .
11 . W. L. Stone, traducteur, Letters of Brunswick
and Hessians Officers During the American
Revolution (Albany, N .Y. : Joe Munsell's Sons
Publishers, 1891), p . 19 .
12 . Mrs John Graves Simcoe, The Diary of Mrs
John Graves Simcoe (Toronto : William
Briggs, 1911), p . 74 .
13 . John Lambert, Travels through Lower Canada,
and the United States of North America,
in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808 (Londres :
Richard Phillips, 1810), vol . 1, p . 157 .
14 . Jacqueline Beaudoin-Ross, « An Early- Eighteenth-Century
Pieced Quilt in Mont- real »,
RACAR, vol . VI, n° 2 (1979-1980), p . 106-
109 .
15 . L6on G6rin, « L'habitant de St-Justin », M6moires
et Compte-rendus de la Soci6t6
Royale du Canada, s6rie II, tome IV (1898),
p . 148 .
16 . Herman Plante, Saint-Justin, foyer de s6rEnit6
rurale (Trois-Riviiires : $ditions du Bien public,
1937), p . 91 .
17 . Richard Hotte, « Un nouveau mode d'expression
dans Fart de la courtepointe au Qu6bec
» (Sainte-Foy : Universit6 Laval, 1985,
thbse de maitrise cs arts), p . 48 .
18 . Michel Lessard et Huguette Marquis, L'art
traditionnel au QuEbec : trois siccles d'ornements
populaires (Montr6al : Les $ditions de
1'Homme, 1975), p . 32 .
19 . Mary Conroy, 300 Years of Canada's Quilts,
p. 56-57.
20 . Georges Bouchard, « La renaissance des arts
domestiques », Le Canada frangais, vol . XIX
(janvier 1932), p . 355-357 .
21 . Voir Una Abrahamson, Crafts Canada : The
Useful Arts (Toronto : Clarke Irwin and Co .,
1974), p. 118 et Lenice Ingram Bacon, American
Patchwork Quilts (New York : Bonanza
Books, 1980), p . 55 .
22 . Marie Daugherty Webster, Quilts : Their Story
and How to Make Them (D6troit : Gale Research
Co ., 1972), p . 60-61 .
23 . Voir entre autres Una Ambrahamson, op . cit .,
p . 118 et Richard Hotte, Un nouveau mode
d'expression . . ., p. 35 .
24 . Nicole Grenier, Courtepointes quEbEcoises
(Montr6al : Mus6e du Qu6bec, Ministiire des
Affaires culturelles, 1977), p . 5-6 .
25 . Jacques Lacoursi6re et Denis Vaugeois, Histoire
1534-1968 (Montr6al : L`ditions du Renouveau
p6dagogique inc ., 1968), p . 252 .
31

Photographic Archival Sources
for Costume Research
~ - TMESA RowAT
Resum6
Les documents photographiques constituent
un element essentiel de 1'interpretation du
costume . Les patrons et dessins temoignent
de ce qui etait congu, les objets preserves
montrent ce qui etait produit et livre, ]es
archives de commerce font etat des coats et
des quantites, alors que les catalogues et
documents a caractere prescriptif representent
des ideaux. Les photographies ajoutent
une dimension unique a 1'etude du costume
qui etait effectivement porte, de la fagon
dont on le portait et de ce qu'i1 signifiait, tant
pour la personne qui le portait que pour ]es
autres . Par leur contenu visuel, la maniere
de presenter ce contenu et la documentation
qui les accompagne, les photographies fournissent
de precieux renseignements sur le
contexte social du vetement et so relation
avec d'autres objets materiels . Cet article
presente les sources photographiques pour la
recherche sur 1'histoire du costume, soulignant
1'importance de 1'etude des photographies
dons ]e contexte des collections
d'archives, et il suggere des facteurs a considerer
quand on veut interpreter les images
photographiques .
The Photographic Medium and
Portraiture Formats
just as the knowledge of materials and techniques
in textiles and construction contributes
to the study of costume, an understanding
of the history of photography helps
in assessing the validity of particular photographic
images for specific costume research
projects .' It reveals the technical constraints,
and the formal and stylistic considerations,
that influenced the making of the image .
Photography is the registration of an image
on a light-sensitive surface . The earliest photographic
process, the daguerreotype, was introduced
in 1839 . The image is registered on
Abstract
Photographs are an essential component in
the interpretation of costume. Patterns and
designs record what was conceived; surviving
artifacts present what was produced and
delivered; business records document volumes
and costs ; catalogues and prescriptive
materials portray ideals . Photographs contribute
a unique dimension to the study of
what was actually worn, how it was worn,
and what it meant to the wearer and the
viewer. Through their pictorial content, presentation
format and accompanying documentation,
photographs provide essential
clues to the social context of dress and to the
relationship of costume to other material artifacts.
This article will explore photographic
sources for costume research, stressing the
importance of studying photographs in the
context of archival collections, and it will
suggest factors to be considered in the interpretation
of photographic images .
a metal plate and has a characteristic mirrorlike
appearance . The daguerreo-type found
widespread commercial application throughout
the1840s and 1850s as a medium of
portraiture (Fig . 1(a)) then lost popularity
in the 1860s . It was followed by the ambrotype
where the image was registered on a
glass support, and then the tintype . Usually
mounted in small cloth-lined cases, their
presentation format was derived from the
traditions of miniature portrait painting .
, As new photographic processes for paper
prints were introduced throughout the nineteenth
century, the fashionable presentation
formats for studio portraiture also changed
Material History Review 34 (Fall 1991) / Revue d'histoire de la culture mat6rielle 34 (automne 1991)
32

Figs. 1(a) - (c)
These images illustrate
three common
nineteenth-centui~~
prese.ntation /'ornluts :
the daoiierreotype (a) .
the carte de visite (h)
and the cabinet card (c).
((a) Credit National
Archives of Canada,
C 88066,
(b) credit HodKe,
National Archives of
Canada . C 88055,
(c) Credit William
Notfnan . National
Archives of Canada,
U88062)
lh)
_ I
(c)
(a)
WILL AM NOTMAN
;i 3

34
Ibl
Figs . z (a) - (d)
Swinlwear in a
prornotional photograph
taken at the BanJf
Springs Hotel (a)
contrast with more
casual images, (b)-(d).
((a) Credit National
Archives of Canada,
PA 46133,
(b) Credit National
Archives of Canada,
PA 181073,
(c) Credit National
Archives of Canada,
PA 181069,
(d) Credit AdPlaid
Mc :Donald, National
Archives of Canada,
PA 12-t245)

td) from the carte de visite, which first appeared
in the early 1860s (Fig . 1(b)) to the cabinet
card of the 1880s (Fig . 1(c)) to the studio
folder . 'Carte de visite' refers to the size of
the card (about 4 x 2 1/2 inches) on which
the photograph was mounted . Cabinet card
refers to a mount, sized about 6 x 4 inches .
Both the photographic process and the
presentation format contribute to the dating
of a photograph . They reflect the artifactual
aspects of the photograph . They also remind
us that the sitter had expectations of the material
context in which the portrait would
appear - hung on a wall, inserted into an album,
or perhaps placed into an intimate
locket . The selection of appropriate pose and
costume were influenced by the interplay of
contemporaneous fashion, the hand of the
photographer, the self-image of the sitter, and
the prevailing conventions of portraiture .
Over the course of the nineteenth century,
technological developments took photography
outside the studio and beyond portraiture
into documentation, advertising, journalism,
ephemera and art . Photography became
accessible to the amateur with increased
portability of cameras and equipment, commercial
processing of film and reduced costs .
As industrialization fostered the changes
that resulted in the mass-manufact tire of costume,
technology promoted the diversification
of photography .
As the range of both personal and commercial
photographic applications grew . so
did the variety of subject matter. From portrait
studios, to worksites, to public events,
to homes and places of leisure, photography
has recorded the dress of those who knowingly
and unknowingly appeared before the
camera lens . For the researcher, once the
area of costume study has been determined,
the next step is to identify the most likely
photograph occasions in which it might have
appeared, and the most likely archival
sources.
Photographic collections provide a range
of sources for comparative study, complementing
prescriptive fashion found in catalogues
and promotional materials . For example,
wedding dresses appear in formal
portraits taken by professional photographers
commissioned by the family . The
search for wedding portraits will take the researcher
to family photograph collections
and to commercial photographers' collections
. Other costume subjects might logically
lead the researcher to collections which originated
from newspapers, business organizations,
social agencies, or governments . The
researcher must judge the context in which
the costume would have appeared and been
photographed, and the context in which the
images were created and preserved . Another
example might be swimwear (Figs . 2(a)-(d)) .
The informality of snapshots reveals the actual
fit and posture, which contrasts with the
idealized, and contributes to interpretation
for historical accuracy . This group of photographs
includes a promotional image taken
at the Banff Springs Hotel for Canadian
Pacific Railways in 1928 ; two images from
an album containing extensive coverage
of beach scenes at Grand Beach, Lake
35

Winnipeg, Manitoba, taken for Canadian
National Railway, ca 1914 ; and a snapshot
from an album of photographs taken by summer
camp participants in 1917, found among
the archival records of the Young Women's
Christian Association .
The Archival Context
The value of a photographic image as documentary
evidence is greatly enhanced by the
context in which it is found.' This archival
principle of `respect des fonds' refers to the
integrity of the original grouping . Together
with the concept of provenance, which refers
to the original source of the document, interpretation
proceeds from all that is found
within proximity and all that may be revealed
through original order. Thus, the information
about costume in a single image is
enhanced both by the knowledge of the photograph's
origin, and by the information contained
in other photographs, correspondence,
diaries, logbooks or other materials
that belong with it .
In most archives, subject-oriented indexes,
guides and finding aids provide researchers
with access to specific components of archival
collections . These tools are a convenient
mechanism for initially locating images relevant
to particular interests . Once located,
however, these images must then be examined
in the context of their grouping, and
with knowledge of their origin, to reveal
their full documentary potential . For example,
what begins as a single portrait photograph
then becomes part of a grouping when
it is pasted into an album . This album is
then recognized as part of a larger grouping
when it is found among family papers . Each
successive grouping contributes to the understanding
of the costume worn in the
portrait ; the more that is known about the
family being photographed, the greater the
information about the subject. The added insight
derived from this expanded context reveals
more about the subject, the original
purpose behind the photograph, and the subsequent
meaning that it had for its keeper. It
can serve to verify the researcher's interpretation
of an image subject for consistency or
variation within its grouping.
The following sections describe types of
archival photographic collections which may
be particularly relevant to the study of costume,
with suggestions outlining some of the
36
limitations and advantages inherent in these
holdings for costume interpretation . The observations
are intended as a guide only, reflecting
frequently encountered patterns . By
definition, archival collections are unique,
demanding caution before proceeding with
any sweeping generalizations .
Personal and Family Collections
Photographs in family collections appear in
albums, snapshot groupings, scrapbooks,
with correspondence, and as autographed
presentation portraits and memorabilia . The
fact that they have found their way into archival
repositories suggests that the originators
were conscious of the social status of the
family . Many of these collections were acquired
as donations directly from the family,
suggesting that the family recognized its
place in the community, intentionally preserved
its documentation, and a self-ascribed
continuity.
The cross-section of society represented
in these collections tends, therefore, to be
limited to those with a sense of family lineage,
and with disposable income to obtain
photographs . It also suggests there has been
a continuity of family home where the material
was physically collected and preserved
over time . For example, an extensive family
photograph collection in an archival repository
more likely originates from an established
family with property than a migrant
worker's family. This parallels the availability
of better quality and special occasion
costume as extant artifacts in museum
collections .
Family collections allow costume researchers
concerned with the identity of the
wearer to expand their profile of the individual
depicted by referring to other photographs,
as well as diaries, letters, scrapbooks
and clippings that form part of the
collection . The occupation, social and economic
status, and position within the family
can often be determined . Anecdotal information
about the events photographed and the
costume worn might be found in personal
papers accompanying the photographs, and
may perhaps recast the interpretation of the
costume .
For example, the costume wearer's aspirations,
ideals and cultural values can be reflected
in a diary, or in a scrapbook that contains
images of royalty, sports heroes or pop
stars . The researcher might then ask : what

were the wearer's models? how successful
was the wearer in emulating these models?
was this due to skill, economic status, or
availability? or was this due to the influence
of a parent or authority figure or outside
dress code that controlled what was actually
worn in the photograph?
Professional and Studio Photographers
The photographer's studio has been an integral
part of services in the community . As a
creator of images and as a businessperson,
the successful photographer identified a
client base and integrated their image of
themselves . Individual and family group
portraiture, wedding and special event photos
form a large component of these collections
. Their continuity and comprehensiveness
make them particularly valuable as
research sources .
These collections are most often acquired
by archival repositories as a complete working
record of a studio . While the finished
prints were sold to the client-sitters and
might now be found scattered in family collections,
the negatives remained part of the
photographer's inventory and have sometimes
made their way into archival collections
intact . They are often accompanied by
the appointment logbooks which identify the
sitter, the date, the format and extent of
prints ordered .'
Costume in studio collections may be limited
to formal attire and frontal views, since
the photograph occasion is governed by the
conventions of portraiture . However, the
strength of these collections lies in the continuity,
comprehensiveness and identification
that they offer as a source for comparative
costume study. As relatively complete working
records, they are not subject to the personal
selection process that influence the
composition of family collections . With the
context of studio portraiture established and
constant, the researcher can consider other
variables such as date, location, or peculiarities
of style or detail .
Amateur Photography
Rather than addressing casual snapshooters,
this section deals with the serious amateur
who approached photography as an area for
study, art and craft . Although this work is
less abundant and less consistent in its content
and internal organization than some of
the other collections discussed, the unique
perspective from which the amateur approached
the photograph makes this a viable
alternate source for costume study.4 The amateur
photograph is more likely to exist outside
the approval of public tastes or business
practice, since there was no reliance on selling
prints to earn a living . Stylistic innovation,
obsessive observation and devoted perfection
can run free in the realm of amateur
photography driven by the love of art or craft
or subject matter. Spontaneity, naturalness
and familiarity are more likely to appear in
this domain . The very personal perspective
of the serious amateur enriches the study of
dress in informal or intimate situations, unposed
postures or pure flights of fancy.5
Due to the eclectic nature of amateur collections,
patterns of research and possible
findings are more difficult to predict . This is
in contrast to studio collections, for example,
where identification and organization are inherent
in the structure of this type of photographic
production.
Press Photography
Press photography appears in collections
originating from newspapers and photojournalists
. Newspapers are among the most
prolific creators of photographs . As negatives
taken by staff photographers are taken out of
active use, or as newspapers cease to operate,
the large collections of negatives (sometimes
with accompanying contact sheets or
assignments sheets) may be acquired by archival
institutions .
These collections are most often organized
chronologically by assignment, containing
all of the negatives in a photo shoot.
While only one cropped image may have
been reproduced in the original publication,
the archival collection allows the researcher
access to a wealth of additional images that
were rejected in the editing process . It provides
a more comprehensive context, and the
possibility of incidental information that
may be revealing .
This photography is event-centred or
story-driven . The subject or perspective must
have been considered newsworthy, defining
the range of documentation and approach in
these collections . Captions that usually accompany
these photographs not only provide
extensive identification, but the vocabulary
and language structures employed
reveal cultural values that have informed the
viewpoint from which the photograph was
37

taken and the viewpoint from which it was
interpreted in its time .
Organizational and Business Records
Archival documents from corporate bodies
include financial and administrative records,
correspondence, and promotional materials .
Related photographic holdings document the
workplace, production processes, product
lines, and organizational activities . As costurne
sources, these collections document
dress in the work context, as well as in group
activities such as company picnics, promotions
and celebrations .
The records of community service organizations
include rich photographic documentation
on members and activities . Groups include
religious organizations, benevolent
societies, sports and recreational associations,
multicultural organizations and educational
bodies . These collections tend to cover
organized activities which are repeated at
regular intervals, and therefore allow costume
comparisons over time . Examples include
panoramic group portraits taken at
annual conferences, or photographs documenting
groups at summer camps, or sport
teams, showing baseball uniforms, gymsuits
and swimwear.
Government Records
Government departments and institutions
have been prolific producers of photographic
collections . The National Archives of Canada
in Ottawa is the official repository of
Canadian federal government records, including
large photographic holdings from
federal departments. Provincial, regional and
municipal governments also designate
official archival repositories for their inactive
records .
These public collections served a precise
purpose that can be connected to stated departmental
mandates . They are also often
well-documented through captions, and
comprehensive in spanning time periods .
The study of the costume in these images is
enhanced by an understanding of the cultural
values that are reflected in the objectives
of the institution . These values are likely to
be echoed in the choice of identifying information
appearing with the images, and in
the language used in original captions .
Government photo holdings which contain
extensive research material for the studv
of costume include those of social service
:38
departments or promotional &~;encies such as
tourist offices . The researcher's assessinciii (d
the use of costume should include not only
the subject content, but also the intended audience
and the positioning of' the photographer
or sponsoring institution in relationship
to the photographic subjects, (Fig . 3) .
This image of three unidentified Inuit children
was taken at Chesterfield [Inlet], NWT,
in 1948 by S . J . Bailey for the Department of
Indian and Northern Affairs, Government of
Canada . The original caption information
found with the image reveals the prevailing
perspective from which the photograph was
taken, and is essential for the interpretation
of dress . It states : "Eskimo children wear far
better clothing since Family Allowance was
introduced ." This caption does not concern
itself with providing factual identifying information
such as the names of the individuals,
nor specific details about the clothing
such as fabric, manufacturer or supply
source . Its message is the judgement about
"far better" clothing, and the apparent
benefits of the family allowance . It provided
an intended interpretation for contemporaneous
viewers, and now provides the researcher
with clues to the social, political
and economic context within which the photograph
was taken .
Fig. 3
Merit children at
Chesterfield 11riletl,
N.W.T., taken in 1948
6v S . 1 . Baile1v for- the
Department of Indian
and Noilhern Affairs .
Governrnent of C;unndn
(Credit: S. J. Bailev.
Archives of Canada .
PA 167632)

1
Fig. 41a1
Photographers at Me-
Saint-Paul. Quebec,
1929 . (Credit National
Archives of Canada,
c 31682)
Interpretation
The mechanical aspects of photography lead
to the perception that it is an objective recorder
of nature, a faithful witness of reality.
However, its artisanal and artististic attributes
suggest a more expressionistic view.
Whether the aim was fact or fancy, the act of
picture-taking involved the process of looking
and being looked at . The subject was mediated
by cultural values that influenced
both the ~ photographer and the context in
which the photograph was taken, and the
viewer and the context in which the photograph
was viewed .
Figures 4(a) and 4(b) illustrate significant
considerations for the interpretation of costume
in photographs, suggesting factors that
might influence the choice of costume and
how it is worn . They point to photography as
a mediator of perception, with a history of
portrait conventions . In assessing the costume
in a photograph, the researcher can
begin by stepping back, to replace the presence
of the photographer into the picture (as
in Fig . 4(a)) . A further step might consider
the wearer's expectations about the purpose
of the photograph, who will see it and in
what context . Figure 4(b) shows the range of
.
1' i'
frames and mounts displayed in a photographer's
studio that reflect the nature of the
service that the client is buying .
To explore the broader content of the photograph,
the researcher might pursue a line
of questioning from the perspective of the
photograph itself . Who took the photograph?
Who was the sitter or subject? Was the photograph
commissioned? Were there technical
constraints in the production of the photograph?
What are the stylistic and formal conventions
of presentation? Another tack might
delve beneath the factual identification of
the image . What was the intended use of the
photograph? Who was the intended audience?
What was the photograph intended to
communicate? Were the individuals in the
photograph aware of this purpose or involved
in the commissioning of the photograph
(as clients, for example)?
To focus on the costume, the researcher
might ask if any prior preparations were
made to dress for the taking of the photograph?
From the archival perspective, what
were the circumstances that contributed to
the photograph's survival and preservation?
What was its source and what kind of collection
is it now a part of? What does this reveal
39

about the cultural values behind the image?
Although the answers to these questions may
not be definitive, thev (to contribute to unravelling
the underlying meaning inherent in
the taking and viewing of the photograph .
This approach to identification and interpretation
acquires a broader dimension in support
of costume research .
In the interpretation of costume, dress is
viewed as one part of the system of signs
which communicate cultural values and social
context . In using photographic sources,
the researcher's analysis can focus on the interplay
of the conventions of dress and the
conventions of photography. Figures 5(a) and
5(b) reinforce the iconographic : representation
of the model family. Dress is part of the
emblematic structure that convevs class, economic
status, gender roles, race, beliefs . In
the conscious photo occasion, dress and
pose work together to place the individual
within a system of signification . The image is
constructed so that it controls the manner in
which it is read by its intended audience .
The costume in the photograph is an attribute
of the wearer. The act of selecting
dress, and the constraints and liberties in
40
that process are essential factors in the interpretation
of costume . Archival collections
provide the researcher with the clues to that
process .
Fig . 4(b)
Nineteenth-century
mounts and frames
available at Notman's
photographic studio
operated by W. /. Topley
in Ottawa . (Credit W. /.
Topley, National
Archives oJ C(jnada, PA
9273)
1
Fig. 5(a)
This portrait o/'an
unidentified Lratbbridge,
Alberta, family was
taken by George Hunter
for the National Film
Board in 1945 . (Credit
C. Hunter, National
Archives of Canada, PA
111371)

1
Fig. 5(6)
This portrait of an
Ottawa, Ontario, family
was taken bv studio
photographer Paul
Horsdal, in 1958 .
(Credit P. Horsdal,
National Archives of
Canada . PA 133 .910)
Ralph Greenhill and Andrew Birrell . Canadian
Photography: 1839-1920 (Toronto : The
Coach House Press, 1979) provides a good
overview of historical photography in Canada .
Mary Lynn Ritzenthaler, Gerald J . Munhoff
and Margaret S . Long, Administration of Photographic
Collections (Chicago : Societv of
American Archivists, 1984) . This publication
provides an overview of archival handling of
photograph collections . Here the researcher
can find explanations to the manner in which
archival repositories might organize and provide
access to material . Although illustrated
with American examples, the methodologies,
descriptions of photographic processes and
discussion on the use of photographs as documentary
evidence apply generally .
The precision of dating from studio collection
appointment records permits tight comparison
research such as the project described
by Norma Morgan where the time
lapse between the appearance of stvlistic
changes in foreign fashion plate publications
was compared with portraits taken by
N( YI't.,.s
Montreal photographer William Notman, in
the 1860s . Norma Morgan, "Fashion-Plates :
Sources for Canadian Fashion," The fournal
of Canadian Ail Historv 5 . no . 2 (1981) .
4 . For an introduction to the wealth of research
material contained in Canadian amateur photography,
see Lilly Koltun, ed ., Private
Realms of Light : Amateur Photooraphy in
Conada . 183 .9-1940 (Markham : Fitzhenry
and Whiteside . 1984) .
5 . One example of an amateur collection is the
collection of negatives of John Bovd at the
National Archives of Canada . Bovd was an
arnateur photographer who lived in the Parkdale
district of Toronto, Ontario . Between
1888 and 1920 he took about 30 000 photographs
of his family in their daily activities,
his neighbourhood, and cities and towns
across eastern Canada and the United States .
He worked for the Grand Trunk Railway, and
always carried a camera on business trips.
Boyd's sensitivity with familiar day-to-day
subjects provides an excellent resource for
the study of informal attire .
41

Bibliography
Bibliographie
Costume in Canada : The Sequel
JACQUELINE BEAUDOIN-ROSS AND PAMELA BLACKSTOCK
In Material History Bulletin 19 (Spring 1984)
we published an annotated bibliography of
over 250 publications on Canadian costume
history. Seven years later we felt it was time
to update this work and have another look at
progress in the field of costume .
This bibliography reflects the disciplines
that study the subject, with an emphasis on
material history . By its inclusions, it defines
what is generally considered to be costume
history, including studies that range from
simple descriptions of museum artifacts to
those that incorporate a broader contextual
analysis . Costume had to be the main focus
for any work to be included, although chapters
on costume from books on wider subjects
were also included . The content had to
be Canadian . We have once again excluded
the subjects of military, native, and theatrical
costume, and modern fashion, including
popular culture or sociological studies . Studies
on the museological practices of storage,
conservation, and display techniques are not
covered, though works related to material
culture research are . For example, a study on
working methods for computer-assisted research
in the field of costume is included .'
One of our objectives in preparing these
bibliographies has been to bring potential
new research resources to the attention of
the costume historian . As such we have included
where possible information on private
and museum collections, and on how to
access some types of publications . The reader
is directed to the essay introducing our
1984 bibliography for a discussion on research
resources, and past and current trends
in research .
Publications produced between March
1984 and March 1991 were reviewed, but we
have also added any that we missed last
time . Once again we would be pleased to
hear of any work we have omitted . In this
bibliography we are indebted to Peter LeRoy,
Canadian Parks Service librarian, and Loren
Singer of Concordia University for their assistance
.
As we found in 1984, writers on the subject
of costume have come from a number of
academic backgrounds : art history, history,
decorative arts, material culture, ethnology,
folklore, archaeology, home economics, and
theatre . These disciplines have been linked
by their common interest in the subject, and
drawn together by various costume societies
who continue to actively promote the subject
. Those who study costume see it as one
of the most obvious symbols of individual
and group cultural values . However the historiography
of costume has been a fight to
achieve recognition as a valid area of study.
For example, it was only in the early
1940s that costume was included in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art's collection,
and only recently that it was featured prominently
with other decorative arts in an exhibit
and catalogue at the Metropolitan Museum
.2 Other museum curators and historians
have traditionally accorded costume a second-rate
status . The term "costume historian"
implied to them a specialist whose expertise
is dress of the past ; the "costume"
content being frequently emphasized over
the "historian's" methodology. This lower
status may be because the study of fashion
was considered either too frivolous, or too
domestic, but at any rate, a woman's subject .
The majority of authors on the subject are
still women .
Dress : The Annual Journal of the Costume
Society of America in 1988 published a
forum on costume research and publication,
Material History Review 34 (Fall 1991) / Revue d'histoire de la culture materielle 34 (automne 1991)
42

which discussed scholarship on the subject .3
Two "camps" of scholarship were identified :
1) research that focuses on the garment for
its own sake ; and 2) research that uses the
garment as evidence to illuminate some
other question, where the artifact becomes
the method, not the primary focus of the
study. Nancy Rexford further suggests three
levels of scholarship within all camps : raw
data of costume with minimal interpretation ;
costume placed in a larger context, usually
with emphasis on the technical; and costume
placed in the broadest context of aesthetic,
social and political ideas . Rexford's classification
of scholarship roughly parallels E.
McClung Fleming's model for artifact study.4
While the research forum is careful to point
out that these camps and levels of scholarship
should be considered as ends of a continuum,
the classification is useful in clarifying
perspectives, and the way in which one
scholar can be totally misunderstood by
another .
The research approach that focuses on the
garment for its own sake has the longest tradition
of publication in the costume field,
and continues to be reflected in many museum
catalogues and popular articles . Many
costume studies from English Canada in the
last bibliography, particularly from museums,
represented this type of scholarship . In
the intervening years, fewer museum catalogues
have appeared, though several exhibits
of interest have been mounted, notably
"Measure for Measure" at the Royal Ontario
Museum . Since most costume collections
in Canada are housed in history museums,
these museums view costume for its historical
qualities . Few Canadian museums approach
costume as a decorative art, focusing
on its aesthetic qualities, though the recent
exhibit "Pierre Cardin : Past Present Future,"
at the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts from
March to May 1991 was of this type .
In the same research forum in Dress,
Nancy Rexford and Patricia Cunningham go
on to discuss the second approach that does
not focus on an individual garment but uses
clothing as evidence to answer an outside
question about people, for example about
their economic systems or cultural behaviour.
This approach is used by the material
historian and the traditional historian alike .
The ongoing debate over "objects" and "documents"
is discussed . Patricia Cunningham,
in a section of the forum entitled "Beyond
Artifacts and Object Chronology," focuses on
the importance of material culture methodology
to costume studies, and the need to have
knowledge of the objects before they are
used as evidence . She argues for the importance
of using objects (i.e ., costumes) even in
studies that do not appear to need objects as
evidence, and recommends an interdisciplinary
approach . Francis Back and Luce
Vermette, and David-Thiery Ruddel support
this interdisciplinary approach in their work
in this bibliography.
Generally we have seen a sophistication
in the level of scholarship since 1984 . Publications
dealing with material history in this
bibliography now usually place costume
within a cultural or economic context, and
use a wider diversity of sources and perspectives
to interpret the artifact . The Prairie Costume
Society's Norwegian Immigrant Clothing
and Textiles is an example of material
history scholarship which combines approaches
. Overall the book uses costume to
provide insights into the immigrant experience
. Some of the individual authors still
focus on the costume artifact, but provide a
higher level of cultural analysis and interpretation
than would likely have been found a
few years ago .
Quebec costume historians have generally
followed a different approach, that of the traditional
discipline of Folklore Studies, now
being generally known as Ethnology. Writers
such as Marius Barbeau, Edouard-Zotique
Massicotte, Robert-Lionel S6guin, and
Madeleine Doyon-Ferland had an enormous
influence on how costume was viewed . This
perspective of Ethnology continues today
through the province, and especially at the
Centre d'6tudes sur la langue, les arts et les
traditions populaires des francophones en
Amerique du Nord (CELAT), at the Universit6
Laval . Many costume studies included
in this bibliography emanate from students
in this programme. In fact David-Thiery
Ruddel suggests that the term "ethnohistorian"
has replaced the term "historian"
in Quebec .5
Dr . Jocelyne Mathieu explains how costume
is approached today in Quebec by ethnologists
: "The study of costume through the
discipline of Ethnology embraces its distinct
methodology. It attempts to explore a particular
culture and civilization through the examination
of its dress in various contexts .
The study emphasizes interviews with indi-
43

viduals. This information is collated with
other data, such as that from related written
and oral sources, from iconographical evidence
and from the artifact itself. In Ethnology,
this synthesis is particularly important .
Results from this study can further be enhanced
through comparison with evidence
from other cultures or civilizations, and/or
from other historical periods . 116 While all or
parts of the ethnological perspective are obviously
also used by other authors, its importance
needs to be emphasized to understand
costume history in Quebec .
Indeed, publishing on costume has been
extremely strong in recent years in Quebec,
as will be seen in this bibliography. In 1988
two journals published there devoted an entire
issue each to the theme of costume . They
are Cap-au-diamant : Revue d'histoire du
Quebec, a journal structured to have a popular
appeal, and Canadian Folklore canadien,
a more scholarly one .
The current interest in social history, and
in particular aspects of women's history, has
also helped to promote costume generally as
a valid area of study by historians . An important
subject we neglected last time was
the clothing industry . We have tried to rectify
this omission by broadening the scope of
our search, and by including a number of entries
which predate 1984 . Nevertheless the
increasing number of authors on this subject
since 1984, and the number of historians
now turning their attention to the subject, is
worthy of note .
There are probably two reasons for its current
interest among historians . First, as
Gerald Tulchinsky points out, the very characteristics
of the industry - the large and
rapid turnover of small shops, relatively simple
technology, and difficult-to-trace records
making research difficult - led to its neglect
by business historians .' The work of historians
such as Tulchinsky has now piqued the
interest of others .
Perhaps more importantly, feminist social
historians are turning their attention to the
topic . The garment industry was not only the
leading industry in Canada at the turn of the
century but also has been the leading employer
of women to the present day. A number
of studies included here examine the status
of women and the relationship of gender,
as opposed to class, to the industry.
One further discipline to mention is that
of the Social Sciences, as reflected by a num-
44
ber of student theses in this bibliography
from the Department of Clothing and Textiles
at the University of Alberta in Edmonton .
As part of a Faculty of Home Economics, students
are required to use a social science
methodology in their work, rather than an
historical one, which might sometimes more
comfortably fit the subject. These theses
do, however, help to test and evaluate new
methodologies for the field . Content analysis,
oral history, material culture research, and
group testing for cognitive and effective
learning are methodologies recently used ."
Looking back at our 1984 bibliography,
our introductory article pointed out the need
for future research to be more interdisciplinary
in approach to sources . In recent
years, the interest shown by ethnologists,
historians and others makes for a rich diversity
of documentation and interpretation in
publication . Current work found for this bibliography
reflects a broader base of discipline
and methodology than in 1984 . Costume
history formerly tended to be written
by specialists in costume, who focused on
describing the garments themselves . Now
however we find that costume is beginning
to be considered as a valid subject by the
non-specialist. At the same time "costume
historians" are attempting to go beyond simply
chronicling fashion change to use costume
as a stepping-off point to explore wider
questions . Of the seven topics we suggested
for further exploration in 1984, most have
been pursued and subsequently published,
or are under current study. While current research
continues to open up new topics and
directions, progress has indeed been made .
Anderson, Douglas N. "Redressing the Past :
the Fascinating World of Historical Costume
Design ." Canadian Collector 20
(March/April 1985) : 26-29 . Despite the
title implying costume in general, this
article is a personal account about the
process of reproducing military uniforms
of the 78th Highlanders ca 1869 to
1870 for the Halifax Defense Complex,
by the artist who researched and prepared
the illustrations used as specifica-
tions .
General information on sources
used . French summary. Illustrated .
Back, Francis . "Le capot canadien : ses origines
et son evolution aux XVIIO et XVIIIO
siecles." Canadian Folklore canadien
(revue de 1'Association canadienne d'eth-

nologie et de folklore/Journal of the
Folklore Studies Association of Canada)
10, nos . 1-2 (1988) : 99-128 . The 1988
volume of this journal was entirely devoted
to costume, and presented ten articles,
written in English or French . Nine
fit within the parameters of this bibliography.
This article is a definitive, richly
documented work on the evolution of
the most characteristic item of Quebec
dress, the capot - a hooded overcoat
worn by men . Considerable commentary
on previously enigmatic issues including
the relationship of this garment to
that worn by sailors or sea-faring folk of
Europe ; how this item, designed for
work, was adapted for more elegant
wear in Quebec in the seventeenth century
; and its evolution, with modification
and/or embellishment from its early
days into the nineteenth century. Illustrations
include the author's drawings .
Well documented .
Back, Francis. "Des petits messieurs au capot
bleu : le costume au Petit Seminaire de
Quebec :" Cap-aux-diamants (Revue d'histoire
du Quebec) 4, no . 2 (Summer 1988) :
33-36 . The first of eighteen articles from
this 1988 issue of Cap-aux-diamants to
be reviewed in this bibliography . This
issue was almost entirely devoted to various
aspects of costume . Editorial policy
of the journal states that its subject of inquiry
is the Quebec past, with its approach
being a popular one . An overview
of the articles reveals that they are
not documented (i .e ., there are no footnotes
or endnotes) ; however the information
contained within is of interest
and often suggests directions for further
research . This excellent article focuses
on the evolution of the blue wool uniform
(capot bleu) of the Petit Seminaire
de Qu6bec from its origin in the seventeenth
century to its gradual demise
in the mid-twentieth century, and also
its adaptation with modification by
other schools in Quebec . Interesting
illustrations .
Back, Francis . "S'habiller a la canadienne ."
Cap-aux-diamants 24, (Winter 1991) :
38-41 . An excellent overview of traditional
male costume in what is presently
known as Quebec . Emphasizes utilitarian
aspect of winter clothing designed to
combat the cold . Focuses on garments
worn between 1740 and 1760 . Interesting
documentation of the gradual disappearance
of this type of clothing, especially
during the first quarter of the
twentieth century. Also information on
its use as a type of uniform for snowshoe
clubs at the end of the nineteenth century.
Perhaps could have mentioned photographic
evidence of the same from the
1860s onward in the Notman Photographic
Archives, McCord Museum of
Canadian History . Unfortunately, in
keeping with the popular approach of
this journal, the article is not documented
. Illustrated with photographs
and drawings .
Back, Francis and Luce Vermette . "Sources
pour 1'histoire du costume au Quebec ."
Canadian Folklore canadien 10, no . 1-2
(1988) : 209-226 . A very clear discussion
of primary sources available for the
study of costume in Quebec . These are
identified as being material (costume
artifacts themselves) ; iconographic
(replications of a reality, usually twodimensional,
which include costume,
e.g ., paintings, drawings, etc.) ; manuscripts
(documents) ; and information in
print (e .g ., newspapers, travel accounts
and pattern books) . Of these, the manuscripts
section in this article is of most
interest for costume historians since
it incisively chronicles, describes and
evaluates ten examples of this type of
documentation, e.g ., post-mortem inventories,
marriage contracts, etc . Illustrated
. Bibliography .
Bara, Jana . "Fashion Plates and Muffins."
Horizon Canada (English edition) 5, no .
53 (1986) : 1256-1261 . A popular approach
to the same subject presented in
greater depth more recently in Dress,
this article describes articles of winter
clothing worn by young British officers
and their "muffins"(the mid-Victorian
term for marriageable young ladies of the
same social set) . Includes some information
on fur garments, and Montreal as
the fur fashion metropolis of the north .
Presents a view of entertainment and
Canadian winter social life . Not documented
. Illustrated .
Bara, Jana . "Cradled in Furs : Winter Fashions
in Montreal in the 1860s." Dress
(Journal of the Costume Society of America)
16 (1990) : 38-47 . Includes an over-
45

view of the fur trade in Canada since the
seventeenth century and a discussion of
Montreal's leading photography studio
in the 1860s, William Notman and Son .
Also covers types of furs used in dress
of the period, cut of this clothing, fur
merchants, and fur processing . Informative
. Documented . Illustrated with
photographs .
Barbeau, Marius . "Tisseuses de ceintures
fl6ch6es ." Canada frangais 28, no . 1
(September 1940) : 7-19 . Discusses the
history of the "ceinture fl6ch6e," as well
as describing such items as the textile's
weaving technique, its colours, and
types of wool used . Mentions sashes
found in various European collections .
Not documented .
Barrett, Lois (Pete) . "Clothes Had To Be Tidy
and Clean ." Them Days (Stories of Early
Labrador) 9, no . 3 (March 1984) : 33-35 .
Oral history recorded in 1982 from
Harriet Barrett of Happy Valley, Labrador,
commenting on Sunday clothes,
aprons, laundry, and sewing . Illustrated .
Barrett, Lois (Pete) . "Things We Had, We
Made ." Them Days 10, no . 3 (March
1985) : 41-43. More oral history from
Harriet Barrett, reminiscing about various
articles of clothing made by her family
when she was a child . Mentions the
Grenfell Mission and Hudson's Bay
Company, but no dates given . Illustrated .
Bates, Christina . "Beauty Unadorned:"
Dressing Children in Late Nineteenth
Century Ontario . Microfiche Report Series,
no . 382 . Ottawa : Environment
Canada, Canadian Parks Service, 1984 . 3
microfiches . Mentioned as forthcoming
in our 1984 bibliography. Written by an
historian as support material for an interpretive
programme for Woodside
National Historic Site in Kitchener,
Ontario . The focus is on clothing for
children ages 3 to 15, of the urban middle
class, from Southwestern Ontario
in the period 1880 to 1900 . The report
addresses two main areas : the changing
societal attitudes to children and children's
dress as an expression of those
ideas ; and secondly the dress itself,
sources of supply and typical garments
worn for different activities . Research is
based on written and pictorial information
from Canadian and American fashion
periodicals, mail order catalogues,
46
and photographs . Documented . For interpretive
value, emphasizes visual information
with 143 illustrations . Bibliography.
Information on publications from
the Canadian Parks Service is available
from Research Publications, Canadian
Parks Service, 1600 Liverpool Court,
Ottawa, Ontario, K1A OH3 .
Bates, Christina. "`Beauty Unadorned :'
Dressing Children in Late Nineteenth-
Century Ontario." Material History Bulletin
21 (Spring 1985) : 25-34 . A summary
of the report above . Addresses
problems of practicality, and age and
gender differentiation . Documented .
Illustrated .
Bates, Christina, and Phil Dunning . "Selected
Reading List on Loyalist Costume for the
Bicentennial ." Costume Society of Ontario
Newsletter 14, no . 1 (April 1984) :
part 2 . Intended for those wishing to
recreate costumes of the mid-1770s to
mid-1780s, this outlines costume components,
and presents an annotated bibliography
on the following subjects :
background reading ; history and description
of costume ; drawings and patterns
; and textiles .
Bazin, Jules . "L'album de consolation de
Jacques Viger." Vie des arts 17 (Christmas
1959) : 26-30 . The album under discussion
is a rare collection of watercolours
by James Duncan depicting
nuns' costumes seen in the province of
Quebec from the seventeenth century to
the mid-nineteenth .The dated illustrations
of the earlier dress were not based
on examples of costume but on descriptive
information found in the archives of
the various orders . The text at the end
of the album was written in the 1850s
by Jacques Viger, the first mayor of
Montreal . In addition to his official activities
Viger was interested in history
and archaeology. The album itself
was titled "Costumes de communaut6s
religieuses de femmes au Canada en
1853 ." The title given to the album in
this article's title is an invention of the
author, a curator at the time of the Bibliotheque
municipale de Montr6al, and
is seen as a private illusive pun. The text
does not elucidate on the meaning the
writer attributes to its mysterious title,
which in itself does not serve to elucidate
but rather to mystify the nature of

the contents of the album. The article
does however include the provenance of
the album, which is on deposit at the
Bibliothbque municipale de Montreal .
Beaudoin-Ross, Jacqueline . "Clothing." The
Canadian Encyclopedia 1 : 442-444 .
Edmonton : Hurtig Publishers Ltd ., 1985 .
A general overview of clothing in
Canada with a concentration on that of
Quebec and Ontario . Included are brief
references to the garb of the coureur de
bois, the voyageur and the habitant, as
well as the ethnic costume of recent immigrants
. Consistent with the editorial
policy of The Canadian Encyclopedia,
the article is not documented . Coloured
photographs of garments from the collections
of the Royal Ontario Museum
and the McCord Museum of Canadian
History.
Beaudoin-Ross, Jacqueline . "The Influence of
Fashion on Folk Costume." Canadian
Folklore canadien 1-2 (1988) : 79-98 . Explores
the dialectic of influence between
rural dress and stylish wear . Uses primarily
visual evidence and some documents
to examine several examples of
how eighteenth and early nineteenth
century Quebec rural costume was influenced
by French fashion . Suggests
closer links with French fashion in the
eighteenth century even after the fall of
Quebec than previously assumed . The
author then covers the history of the
capot through to its development as the
Red River coat so popular for children in
the early twentieth century, to illustrate
how a colourful piece of rural dress was
adopted into fashionable wear. Suggests
directions for further research . Documented
. Illustrated .
Beauregard, Yves, Alain Duscheneau and
Jocelyne Mathieu . "Vingt-cinq ann6es de
carribre : entrevue avec le couturier
Michel Robichaud." Cap-aux-diamants
4, no . 2 (Summer 1988) : 63-65, 68 . A
perceptive interview with well-known
Montreal designer, Michel Robichaud .
Reveals the couturier's own insight into
the classical character of his style . The
designer, not surprisingly, expresses
admiration for the work of the Spanish
couturier, Balenciaga . Also comments on
the great interest Quebec women have in
clothes . Not documented . Illustrated
with photographs .
Blackstock, Pamela . "Nineteenth Century
Fur Trade Costume." Canadian Folklore
canadien 10, no . 1-2 (1988) : 183-208 .
This article explores costume as it was
worn at the fur-trading posts in Canada
during the early and mid-nineteenth
century. Its breadth is wide, and brings
together many disparate research resources
for the first time . Surveys the
fashionable clothing worn by administrative
staff, workmen, wives and children,
including M6tis and natives .
Cross-cultural influence of clothing
styles is discussed . It additionally comments
on sources for this clothing .
An excellent tool for further research .
Illustrations using various media .
Bibliography.
Blackstock, Pamela . "Perfecting the Period
Costume : Patterns, Prototypes and Patience
." Historic Sites Supplies Handbook,
47-57 . Toronto : Ontario Museum
Association, 1989 . Part of a collection of
fourteen monographs in a book designed
to help historic sites locate appropriate
reproductions, accompanied by a computerized
database of suppliers . This article
deals with the technical aspects of
reproducing costume and includes factors
to consider, such as the choice of
patterns, methods of having the costumes
made, construction and fit, fabrics,
and degree of authenticity. Bibliography
of technical publications includes
some Canadian titles .
Bouchard, Lorraine . "Le costume de la mariee
de la region du Qu6bec entre 1910 et
1960 ." Master's thesis, "Arts et traditions
populaires" (Ethnology) . Quebec City :
Universite Laval, 1990 . Due to plans
for publication this thesis is presently
inaccessible .
Bouchard, Lorraine . "Le costume de la mariee,
reflet de la vie quotidienne?" Canadian
Folklore conadien 10, no . 1-2
(1988) : 53-78 . Discusses the genesis
of both rural and urban bridal costume
in Quebec between 1912 and 1960 .
Information is based on interviews
with brides and one seamstress . Focuses
on changing customs, and the influences,
socio-economic and other, which
resulted in this evolution . 1945, the year
of the cessation of hostilities for World
War II, is mentioned as a key date, one
in which white wedding dress became
47

(and continued to be for some time)
exceedingly popular. Illustrated ; the photographs
are unfortunately not-numbered
or identified although they can be
easily linked with the text. Bibliography .
Bouchard, Lorraine . "La mariee des annees
'40." Cap-aux-diamants. 4, no . 2 (Summer
1988) : 21-23 . Discusses the wedding
dress of Quebec in the 1940s, concentrating
on the elements, such as
socio-economic, which influenced the
ultimate choice of gown . Suggests that
during World War II this clothing was
often coloured, and frequently modest,
being made in haste and without the
availability of rich French fabrics . The
resurgence of more sumptuous dress and
the increasing predominance of white
from 1945 is noted . Not documented .
Illustrated .
"A Brief History of the Founding of the Costume
Society of Ontario ." Costume Society
of Ontario Newsletter 17, no . 2 (Summer
1987) : 10-11 . Discusses Eileen
Collard's career in Canada and the growing
interest in costume through the
1960s, culminating in the founding of
the Society in 1970 .
Burgess, Joanne . L'industrie de la chaussure
a Montreal, 1840-1870: de 1'artisanat a
la fabrique . Master's thesis, Sciences sociales
(Economie) . Montreal : Universite
du Quebec a Montr6al, 1977 . 150 pp . A
survey of the shoe industry in Montreal
from 1840 to 1870 . The perspective is
primarily socio-economic . Of interest to
the costume historian is a description of
pre- and post-industrial fabrication
methods in shoemaking . The latter includes
a discussion of the gradually increasing
use of mechanized tools including
the sewing machine, and finally the
introduction of steam . The development
of retail and wholesale markets in footwear
is also investigated, as well as a fascinating
inventory of tools and stock of a
mid-nineteenth century Montreal shoemaker.
It is of interest to note that by
1861, 1300 shoemakers were employed
in the city. Only research known to have
been done on the topic . Charts . Bibliography.
All student theses are available
on microfiche from the National Library
of Canada .
Burgess, Joanne . "L'industrie de la chaussure
a Montr6al : 1840-1870 - le passage de
48
1'artisanat a la fabrique ." Revue d'histoire
de 1'Amerique frangaise 31, no . 2
(September 1977) : 187-210 . Clearly and
succinctly synthesizes the more relevant
information found in the author's thesis
above . As in the thesis, focuses on the
slowly evolving changes in shoe manufacture
from that of the master craftsman
operating perhaps with journeymen and
apprentices in his shop, to that of a large
industrially steam-powered operation .
Excellent and clear basic reference work .
Well documented . Not illustrated .
Cass, Janice . "A History of Boys' Costume :
1900-1920." Alberta Museums Review
(Spring 1984) : 14-15. Background information
for an exhibit at the Provincial
Museum of Alberta in 1984, on the
changing roles of children between 1890
and the 1920s, as depicted through their
clothing . This article is descriptive only,
based on secondary non-Canadian
sources, and lightly documented .
Illustrated .
"Centre de documentation Marius Barbeau."
Costume Society of Ontario Newsletter
17, no . 3 (Fall-Winter 1987) : 6 . Information
on this centre created in 1977 by the
National Folk Dance Ensemble "Les sortileges,"
which is based in Montreal . The
centre specializes in the dissemination,
and in some cases the conservation of
traditional costume, dance and music,
and the publication of articles .
Charest, Nicole . Monsieur Mode . N .p . : Les
editions de 1'Homme, 1988 . 163 pp . A
biography of Montreal designer Michel
Robichaud, as well as a review of the
city's fashion history from ca 1963 to
1987 . Much of this latter history has not
yet been previously collated . Also comments
of fashion design and industry
during these years in France, Italy,
Germany and Japan . Not documented .
Illustrated with photographs and
drawings .
Cleaver, Katherine . "Victorian Looking
Glass ." Costume Society of Ontario
Newsletter 18, no . 3 (Fall-Winter 1988) :
11-12 . Excerpts from a paper on women's
clothing of the 1880s which accompanied
an exhibit of the same name
held at Ryerson Polytechnical Institute .
Focuses on underwear. Descriptive .
Cleaver, Katherine . "Souffrir pour etre belle."
Costume Society of Ontario Newsletter

19, no . 2 (Summer 1989) : 7 . A short review
of the exhibit "Suffering To Be
Beautiful" held at the Musee de la civilisation
in Quebec City in 1989 . The exhibit
was not only about clothes but
about all means women have used in the
past to make themselves look beautiful .
(See our entry under the exhibit title for
the accompanying catalogue) .
Cole, Catherine C. Garment Manufacturing
in Edmonton, 1911-1939 . Master's thesis,
(History) . Edmonton : University of
Alberta, 1988 . 135 pp . The garment industry
in Edmonton at the turn of the
century was significant in local terms .
This study introduces the nature of the
Edmonton industry, outlines the development
of some of the larger firms, notably
Great Western Garment (GWG),
and provides insight into government
legislation and labour relations . Business
and government records and interviews
with retired workers were used .
Some points of interest are that garments
produced in the west tended to be utilitarian
ones for regional consumption,
less subject to fashion change ; also that
labour relations in this period were relatively
harmonious compared to those in
eastern cities . Tables and photographs .
Bibliography .
Cole, Catherine C., ed . Norwegian Immigrant
Clothing and Textiles . Edmonton : Prairie
Costume Society, 1990 . 113 pp . This
nicely-presented book includes five papers
from a 1987 seminar on a topic previously
neglected by Canadian costume
historians . Papers by Heather Prince and
Barbara Schweger discuss and describe
Norwegian costume and textile artifacts
found in Alberta (see entry for Prince's
thesis on this topic) . Aagot Noss and
Carol Colburn provide an outside perspective,
discussing the Norwegian immigrant
experience in the United States .
David Goa's introductory paper provides
further context, by examining the impetus
for Norwegian migration to western
Canada, and the influence the Norwegian
character and social and cultural institutions
have had . The overall theme of
this book is the continuity of culture
within a changing environment . This
work has made an important contribution
to expanding Canadian costume
history, and the presentation of material
culture . Well documented . Small black
and white photographs and some drawings
. Bibliography. For further detail, see
book review by Dorothy Burnham in this
issue .
Collard, Eileen . "Canadian Trousers in Transition,
1830-50." Cutter's Research journal
1, no . 4, (Winter 1990) : 3 . Short introduction,
unscaled pattern drawings,
descriptions and brief construction notes
for two pair of trousers from the 1840s .
Cook, Mary . View From the West Hill .
Carleton Place, Ont . : Wallace Enterprises,
1987 . 157 pp . Mary Cook is a
well-known Ottawa Valley author, journalist
and broadcaster. Her entertaining
anecdotal stories stem from her girlhood
on a valley farm during the Depression .
While nostalgic in tone, and by her own
admission sometimes embroidered by
her imagination, they provide an autobiographical
perspective on simple day-today
events . For those interested in costume,
there are stories such as "The
Hand-Me-Down Box," "A Cloud of Pale
Green Organza," and "The Spanking
New Coat ." Her three earlier books have
similar content . Illustrated with family
photographs .
Cordonnerie traditionelle . Quebec City :
Mus6e du Qu6bec 1977 . 32 pp . An exhibition
catalogue of a travelling display
on the domestic manufacture of footwear
in Quebec, especially in the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries . Documented
. Bibliography. Illustrated .
"Costume Collections of Ontario : Museums
and Private Collections ." Costume Society
of Ontario Newsletter 18, no . 2 (Summer
1988) : 11-12 . Phase 1 of a proposed
computerized registration of costume
collections . Sixty-nine are listed here .
Dahl, Becky G. Grade 3 Students' Cognitive
and Affective Responses to Wearing Reproduction
Costumes in the Edmonton
1881 Schoolhouse . M.Sc . Thesis, (Clothing
and Textiles) Edmonton : University
of Alberta, 1988 . 261 pp . The author
tested and evaluated student responses
to an interpretive programme where the
students themselves wore reproduction
costume . She discusses the differences
in both cognitive (thinking) and affective
(feeling) scores between the experimental
(who wore costume) and control
(who did not wear costume) groups . Re-
49

sults conclude support for the use of reproduction
costumes in this programme .
Emphasis on test methodology. Also
discusses educational programming in
museums, experiential learning theory,
and use of replications . Theoretical .
Illustrated . Bibliography.
Davidson, Maurice . Montreal's Dominance of
the Men's Fine Clothing Industry. Master's
Thesis (Graduate Studies) . London :
University of Western Ontario, 1969 . 261
pp . Listed in 1984 bibliography as not
seen . The earliest recent research on the
industry, this geographer has studied
the location factors that contributed to
Montreal's dominance relative to other
centres, especially Toronto, from ca 1870
to 1968 . Labour supply and organization,
organization of production and production
costs, marketing and agglomeration
are all considered . Concludes that
Montreal's prime advantage was in the
abundant supply of cheap skilled and
unskilled labour. Part of the research
for the 1938 to 1968 period involved an
extensive survey of firms in Montreal
and Toronto . Provides good information
on the state of the industry in the 1950s
and 1960s, comparing leading firms, and
commenting on recent trends . Reviews
the usefulness of research sources . Well
documented . Short glossary . Statistical
emphasis, with maps and 108 tables .
Bibliography .
Davis, Stephen . "Button, Button : Buttons for
the Collector - And the Archaeologist."
Canadian Collector 20, no .
5 (Septem-
ber/October, 1985): 33-36 . Long of interest
to collectors, buttons are now
receiving increasing attention by archaeologists
as signposts reflecting technology,
fashion and social history. They are
often the only archaeological evidence of
what occupants wore . This article surveys
the history and technology of nineteenth
century buttons . Comments that
buttons found during archaeological excavations
at National Historic Sites display
most of the types popular in the
nineteenth century . French summary .
Documented . Illustrated .
Davis, Stephen . Wearing Apparel From Le
Machau]t : A Descriptive Inventory
(1982) . Microfiche Report Series, no . 97 .
Ottawa : Environment Canada, Parks Ser-
50
vice . 2 microfiches, 131 pp . Mentioned
as forthcoming in our 1984 bibliography .
The Machault was a French frigate scuttled
in 1760 en route to Montreal, carrying
military and commercial supplies .
Included in the collection of artifacts recovered
from underwater archaeological
excavation were approximately 170
items which could be considered wearing
apparel ; including clothing fasteners,
accoutrements and textile fragments .
This report presents this material for
comparative research purposes, and as
such it describes and analyses them
from an archaeological perspective, emphasizing
details which identify and individualize
each artifact . Also included
are overviews of the dress of naval
officers and sailors ca 1760, and the development
of both the textile and knitting
industries in eighteenth-century
France . 61 illustrations include artifact
photos and line drawings . Bibliography .
Davis, Stephen . "Up On Your Heels, Down
On Your Toes : Shoe Fashion in Canada
ca 1700-1760." Costume Society of Ontario
Newsletter 17, no . 3 (Fall-Winter
1987-88) : 13-14 . Survey of eighteenthcentury
footwear styles and construction
techniques . Mostly based on a study of
archaeological footwear excavated from
Canadian Parks Service sites, particularly
from Louisbourg and the Machault .
Davis, Vaune . "A Made-To-Measure Exhibit
for Fashion Fans ." Flare 11, no . 10 (October
1989) : 146 . Information about the
then soon-to-open "Measure for Measure"
exhibit at the Royal Ontario Museum.
Illustrated with photographs of garments
in the exhibit .
Dawson, Joyce Taylor. "An Analysis of Liturgical
Textiles at Sainte Marie Among the
Hurons ." Material History Bulletin 24
(Fall 1986) : 1-12 . Through inference, reconstructs
the overall appearance of
liturgical vestments and textiles used at
the French Jesuit Mission, Sainte Marie
Among the Hurons, from 1639 to 1649 .
(The mission is now a reconstructed historic
site in Midland, Ontario.) Information
based on the Jesuit Relations, correspondence
between ecclesiastics, and
other pertinent documents . Concludes
with discussion of probable suppliers in
France from whom these artifacts could

e ordered, and their possible appearance
. Documented . Photographs and
drawings . (See also Folkes/Penny .)
Dean, Ankaret . "The ceinture fl6ch6e . . . of
old New France ." Canadian Collector
21, no . 4, (July-August 1986) : 31-33 .
Popular survey of the ceinture flechee,
its history, revival in the twentieth century,
characteristics and construction .
Not documented but based on Barbeau's
work . Useful as a brief introduction to
the subject . Illustrated .
Dionne, H6lene . Les contrats de mariage d
Quebec (1790-1812) . National Museum
of Man, History Division, Paper no . 29 .
Ottawa : National Museums of Canada,
1980 . 174 pp . Clothing was considered
part of the basic property of a couple
when they were about to marry in Quebec,
and as such could be mentioned in
marriage contracts (see especially pages
58 to 76) . Garments so listed for men
and women are discussed, and seasonability
and occasion are shown to be
reflected in the costume . Includes quotations
from primary sources on this type
of clothing . Documented . Illustrated .
Bibliography .
Dubuc, Elise . "Costumes des gens de mer
du XVIe si6cle trouv6s dans 1'estuaire
du Saint-Laurent : un bon exemple de
hardes de marins au temps de la decouverte
du Nouveau Monde." Canadian
Folklore canadien 10, no . 1-2 (1988) :
129-154 . A clearly written article of
great interest on Basque marine costume
of the sixteenth century. Research is
based on the recent discovery of seventeenth
century costume artifacts discovered
during archaeological excavation at
Red Bay, Labrador . Costume remains
(just some fragments) include shirts,
breeches and stockings .
Discussion cen-
tres on the cut of these garments . Also
includes information suggesting how
other European mariners were dressed
and who actually made these clothes . Illustrations,
including photographs, and
drawings of great sensitivity executed by
the author. Documented . Bibliography .
Dumas, Monique . "I:enfant, ce petit adulte . . ."
Cap-aux-diamants 4, no . 2 (Summer
1988) : 29-31 . An interesting article on
the problem of the documentation of
Quebec children's costume until the
twentieth century. The author perceives
iconographic sources to be of importance
here . Useful references to publications
which are tangential to the subject .
Not documented . Illustrations in various
media .
Dumas, Monique . "Le feutre au Qu6bec : fabrication
domestique des bas et des semelles
." Material History Bulletin 32
(Fall 1990) : 17-27 . Interesting article discussing
the domestic manufacture of felt
in Quebec, from its origins, to its disappearance
around 1950 . Commentary on
technology, focusing on the fabrication
of felt socks and soles for footwear . Well
documented . Illustrated with photographs
and drawings .
The Engag6s . "An American Fur Company
Voyageur's Contract ." Museum of the
Fur Trade Quarterly 23, no .
1 (Spring
1987) : 12-14 . Reproduces an official
copy of a voyageur's engagement for
a trip to Michilimackinac, negotiated
in Montreal in 1818 . The contract is in
French with the article providing a short
English commentary . As well as several
items of clothing and equipment the
man received a pair of souliers de boeuf,
which the authors found to be somewhat
unusual . They then elaborate on this
point, and mention that the French-
Canadian term "souliers de boeuf" is
usually translated by the American
Fur Company as "cowhide shoes ."
Documented .
"Every Hour an Occasion ." Costume journal
(formerly the Costume Society of
Ontario (CSO) Newsletter) 19, no . 3 (Fall
1989) : 4 . Information on an exhibit presented
by the CSO at Ryerson Polytechnical
Institute in October 1989, of
women's dress, 1900 to 1910 . This article
includes a general discussion on
fashions of this era, and one illustration .
Fallis, Donna . "World War I Knitting ."
Alberta Museums Review (Fall 1984) :
8-10 . Discusses the efforts of Albertan
women through women's groups, individual
volunteers, and the organized efforts
of the Canadian Red Cross Society,
to contribute to the war effort in World
War I, by knitting . Includes a list of
women's organizations in Alberta that
actually participated . Emphasis is on the
influence of the Red Cross on standards,
types of goods made and their distribution
. Sees this as a social and economic
51

phenomenon which helped contribute
to the women's own sense of self-esteem
and national pride . Uses photos, documents
and periodicals as reference . Documented
. Illustrated .
Fedorak, Rose . "Sweatshops in the Developing
Canadian Garment Industry ."
Canadian Home Economics journal 31,
no . 3 (Summer 1981) : 164-185 . Examines
in a general way the emergence,
control and "eventual disappearance" of
sweatshop working conditions from the
late 1800s through to the 1940s . A useful
short survey of improvements enacted
by legislation and union activity, though
Steedman (see entry) is better . Concludes
that the unions were responsible
for cleaning up conditions and improving
wages, and that eventually the
sweatshops disappeared . Other research
disagrees with this conclusion (see for
example Johnson, Lepp, MacLeod, and
Mochoruk and Webber entries) . Does not
consider the common use of "contracting
out" or "home work" that resulted in
the same conditions outside the immediate
factory . Documented . French abstract.
Short bibliography.
Ferland, Jacques . "`Not for Sale' American
Technology and Canadian Shoe Factories
: The United Shoe Machinery Company
of Canada, 1899-1912 ." American
Review of Canadian Studies 18, no . 1
(Spring 1988) : 59-82 . An historical case
study of the United Shoe Machinery
Company of Canada's (an American subsidiary)
establishment of a monopoly in
the Canadian industry in the early twentieth
century, and the ensuing government
investigation in 1911-12 . Uses
marxist perspective to argue that class
analysis and conflicting social relations
in this industrial activity must be considered
in examining this early example
of the technological dependency by
Canada on the United States . Some
background information on the shoe industry
in Canada at the time may be of
interest to costume historians . Heavily
documented .
Folkes, Patrick, and Nancy Penny. Cassocks,
Doublets and Deerskins: Religious and
Secular Costume on the Mission Frontier
of New France in the First Half of the
Seventeenth Century. Midland, Ont . :
The Friends of Sainte Marie, 1988 . 67
52
pp . This small book is dedicated to and
based upon the work of the late Nancy
Penny. Her research was applied to the
costuming needs of Sainte Marie Among
the Hurons and is a good example of the
type of information directed to interpreters
at an historic site . The first part
of the book, "social history," gives an
overview on the clothing of the French
Jesuits, Indians and Indian children, and
the cross-cultural influence between the
two groups . The second part, "technical
history," describes the physical characteristics
of individual garments worn by
Jesuits and donnes (workmen) . While
secondary sources are widely consulted,
most of the information comes from the
Jesuit Relations, first-hand accounts of
life in New France and the missions . Research
recent in Quebec (e .g ., Back on
capots) has shed more light on this subject,
but nevertheless it is an important
introduction to a little-researched
period . Documented . Glossary . Reproductions
of art work, mainly European .
Bibliography
Gagnon, Louise . "L'apparition des modes
enfantines au Qu6bec : reflets du costume
vestimentaire bourgeois." Master's
thesis . "Arts et Traditions populaires"
(Ethnology) . Quebec City : Universit6
Laval, 1990 . Due to plans for publication
this thesis is presently inaccessible .
Gallichan, Gilles and Jean-Ren6 Lassonde .
"Les costumes sous differentes coutures
." Cap-aux-diamants 4, no . 2 (Summer
1988): 15-16 . Co-authored by two librarians
from the Biblioth6que nationale
du Qu6bec, one of the stated aims of this
article is to promote the rich holdings of
the Bibliotheque as a resource for costume
. The text underlines the numerous
different approaches to the study of
Quebec costume . Aspects discussed
include its role as protection, viewed
through the New France colonists' adaptation
of certain Amerindian sartorial
practices ; and its function as a political
symbol, seen through the 6toffe du
pays costume of Quebec patriots in
the uprising of 1837 . Not documented .
Illustrated .
Gannag6, Charlotte . Double Day, Double
Bind: Women Garment Workers . Toronto :
Women's Press, 1986 . 235 pp . Reports
on interviews held with male and female

factory workers in 1980 at Edna Manufacture,
a coat-making firm in Toronto .
Most of the interviewees were immigrant
women, and the book comes alive with
their own words . The author then discusses
their double responsibilities of
work and home and those interrelationships,
the garment industry, gender and
ethnic divisions of labour, the company
and the unions . Argues that neither traditional
Marxist nor Feminist theory
takes into account the duality of
women's work . Chapter 3, on the garment
industry in Toronto today, includes
a history of Edna Manufacture, which
was founded in 1939 . No illustrations .
Bibliography, mainly labour related .
Garling, Carol . "Millinery : A Dying Art ."
Costume Society of Ontario Newsletter
18, no . 2 (Summer 1988) : 10-11 . History
of women's hatmaking in Toronto from
1890 to 1988, with information on the
early period from advertisements, catalogues
and labels in hats in the Toronto
Historical Board collection . Also includes
information on the millinery
trade at present in Toronto .
Giroux, Jacqueline . Femme de cmur et
femme de tetes . Montreal : La societe historique
du marigot de Longueuil, 1989 .
116 pp . Basically a biography of wellknown
Montreal milliner Yvette Brillon,
active from the 1930s to 1960s, also a social
history of Montreal's French east
end and the city as a whole . From the
viewpoint of costume, it includes interesting
photographs of the milliner's very
large shop on Saint-Denis Street, her
workroom and shop window . Informative
on the extent of her business : she
was known to have had as many as
sixty-five on staff in her made-to-order
hat business . Some interesting discussion
on Brillon's method of work, and on
fashion shows in Montreal at the time .
The publication is strangely quiet about
her clients . Partially documented . Photographs
and reproduction art work .
Godin, Christine . "L'ceuvre pionniere de
Madeleine Doyon-Ferland ." Canadian
Folklore canadien 10, no . 1-2 (1988) :
13-33 . Madeleine Doyon-Ferland was
professor of "arts et traditions populaires"
at The Universite Laval from
1944 to 1977 . Besides her pedagogical
duties, she gathered a great deal of docu-
mentation on her subject, now in the
"Fonds Madeleine Doyon-Ferland" at
the university. This article comments on
her work, the author using as sources
Doyon-Ferland's course notes on costume,
and information from her delivered
papers . (These were collated in
1982 into an unpublished text by
Andree Paradis, entitled "Trois si6cles
de costume au Canada, d'apres les documents
du Fonds Madeleine Doyon-
Ferland .") Doyon-Ferland in addition
promoted the reproduction of authentic
Quebec traditional costume . This article,
written by an ethnologist, clearly
overviews and evaluates this pioneer's
work . Documented . Bibliography .
Godin, Christine . "Les femmes au chapeau :
une mode empreinte de la coutume ."
Cap-aux-diamants 4, no . 2 (Summer
1988) : 25-28 . Discusses some aspects of
twentieth-century millinery in Quebec
from an ethnological perspective, based
on interviews with milliners identified
only by their first names . Focus is given
in these statements on the aesthetic,
practical and sociological problems encountered
in the practice of millinery .
Not documented . Photographs, drawings,
newspaper illustrations .
Godin, Christine . "Creer des chapeaux : la
pratique du m6tier de modiste." Capaux-diamants
4, no . 2 (Summer 1988) :
51-54 . Again, an ethnologist's view of
the milliner's profession . Includes diverse
information on their "job description,"
including working hours, customer
relations, promotion, and division
of tasks in the workroom . Oral interviews
of some in the profession in Quebec
City, using first names only. Not documented
. Illustrated by photographs .
Godin, Christine and Jocelyne Mathieu .
"Armand Caron : precurseur de la haute
couture quebecoise ." Cap-aux-diamants
4, no . 2 (Summer 1988) : 55-57 . An interesting
interview held by these two ethnologists
with designer Armand Caron .
This Quebec City designer reached his
apogee in the 1950s creating models for
well-known French-Canadian stars of
the stage and radio in Montreal . A1though
this city is mentioned in the interview,
the subject of Montreal couture
was not discussed . Not documented . Illustrated
with photographs .
53

Gordon, Joleen . "Handwoven Hats ." Canadian
Collector 21, no . 4 (July-August
1986) : 48-51 . Popular article introducing
the traditional craft of straw, wood
and rush hat plaiting or weaving in
Nova Scotia. See our bibliography for a
description of her excellent book by the
same title . Describes the history and process,
and several hats in Nova Scotia
museum collections . Illustrated .
Graham, Frank W. Ahead of Her Time : A
Biography of Ellen Carbery. St . John's :
Creative Publishers, 1987 . 83 pp . Ellen
Carbery was "a politician in her own
right, a businesswoman, a writer and a
philanthropist." She was also a leading
milliner in St . John's between 1887 and
her death in 1915 . Although it contains
some very interesting information about
her millinery business, the book is frustrating
for costume historians in its emphasis
on the other aspects of her life,
and in particular on her role as a leading
citizen of St . John's . Information on fashion
is superficial and taken from C. W.
Cunnington (not Cunningham as stated
on page 27) . Documented, though most
notes are "social asides ."
"Halifax ." Costume Society of Ontario Newsletter
14, no . 2 (Winter 1984-85) : 2 . Note
on an exhibit at Mount Saint Vincent
University entitled "Rags," devoted to
Nova Scotian clothing designers . 8 page
catalogue (not seen) .
Hamster, Ingrid . The Dress of Children
(1987) . Microfiche Report Series, no .
303 . Ottawa : Environment Canada, Parks
Service . 2 microfiches, 142 pp . Following
Christina Bates' study of children's
clothing in the social context (see Bates),
this was designed as a technical resource
book on clothing for school children
ages 6 to 12 for the period 1885 to 1890 .
It was used by Bethune Memorial in
Gravenhurst, Ontario to support a programme
of costume reproduction for
school students . The preface gives a general
interpretive view on social issues of
the time, followed by chapters on individual
garments from underclothing up .
The prime sources for the designs were
school photographs, portraits and paintings
. However, for the detail required for
reproduction costume a wider range of
sources was also consulted : artifacts in
Ontario collections ; mail-order cata-
54
logues ; dressmaking and needlework
manuals ; and fashion periodicals . Some
designs are speculative, some copied
from artifacts . Scale patterns, construction
notes, fabrics and notions, and a
glossary are also included . Documented .
Heavily illustrated . Bibliography .
Hansen, Charles E., Jr. "The Traders' Dress."
Museum of the Fur Trade Quarterly 25,
no . 1 (Spring 1990) : 1-5 . Intended for
the re-enactor, describes the costume
worn by the trader, "the real fur trade executive,"
who normally dressed in ordinary
European business garb . A couple
of Canadian references . Documented .
Illustrated .
Hastie, R. "Development of the Apparel Industry
of Winnipeg ." In Winnipeg,
1874-1974 : Progress and Prospects, edited
by Tony Kuz . Winnipeg : Manitoba
Department of Industry, Trade and Commerce,
1974 . pp . 129-145 . Summarizes
the evolution of the industry from the
cottage and home crafts of the early settlers,
through production by skilled artisans
in the 1870s and 1880s, to the manufacture
of apparel on a large scale. Although
it has been claimed that the Winnipeg
industry, now the third largest in
Canada, was first founded to provide adequate
supplies of work clothes for farm
and railroad workers, the author instead
found that the first provincially chartered
manufacturing firm (1902), requested
the right to manufacture ladies
clothing . Using primary sources such as
the Manitoba Gazette from 1890 to 1974,
proves that throughout its 72 year history,
the industry has been an increasingly
reliable and stable contributor to the
economy of Winnipeg and Manitoba .
Discusses the pattern of establishment
and failure of factories, lifespan and capitalization,
the growth of unions and the
formation of the Fashion Institute of
Manitoba. (For a different interpretation
see Lepp .) Heavy on statistics . One table .
Annotated bibliography .
Hiebert, D . "Discontinuity and the Emergence
of Flexible Production : Garment
Production in Toronto, 1901-1931 ." Economic
Geography 66, 3 (July 1990) :
229-253 . Not seen .
Holford, Mary. "Notes on Dress and Society
in Upper Canada ." Costume Society of'
Ontario Newsletter 16, (Fall-Winter

1986-87) : 8-11 . Extracts from a talk, focusing
on the period of the 1790s, with
information up to the 1830s . Good information
on sources for costume research
for early Ontario. Basically a summary of
her article in Costume in 1983 (reviewed
in our 1984 bibliography) . One illustration
. Short bibliography.
Holford, Mary . "Looking Back : the CSO
Founding Conference ." Costume journal
(formerly the Costume Society of Ontario
Newsletter) 20, no . 3 (Fall 1990) :
2-3 . Included in the twentieth anniversary
celebration issue . Describes
the events of the conference day, and
gives a sketch of the Society's history.
Illustrated .
Hooke, Peggy. "A-Dressing the Past: Seneca's
Fashion Resource Centre ." Costume
Journal (Formerly the Costume Society
of Ontario Newsletter) 20, no . 3 (Fall
1990) : 6-7 . Description of the recent
founding of this resource centre, its collection
and resources . It includes over
2 000 historical garments and accessories
intended for use by students, industry,
college and community. Illustrated .
Humphries, Mary. "Profile - Costume Society
of Ontario : Alan Suddon ." Costume
Society of Ontario Newsletter 16 (Spring
1986) : 10 . Profile of this long-time CSO
newsletter editor, retired head of the fine
arts department of the Metro Toronto Library
system, and well-known costume
collector and lecturer.
Jamieson, Arthur. "Musers : A Gown Fit for a
Queen and a Queen Fit for All." Rotunda
20, no . 2 (Fall 1987) : 58-59 . Part of a
series intended for children, this article
uses the description of a dress worn in
Canada by Queen Elizabeth the Queen
Mother during her 1939 visit, as the introductory
note to information on the
current royal family. The embroidered
white satin Norman Hartnell dress is
now in the ROM textile collection . Two
photographs .
Job, Marilyn . "From Inconspicuous to Proud :
A Look at the Design and Marketing of
Maternity Clothes in the Twentieth Century."
Costume Society of Ontario Newsletter
15, no. 1 - 2, (Autumn 1985) : 6-10 .
Based on Eaton's catalogues, discusses
clothes advertised as maternity wear
from their first mention in 1908 to present
advertising .
Johnson, Laura . The Seam Allowance : Industrial
Home Sewing in Canada . Toronto :
Women's Educational Press, 1982, 135
pp . Based on conversations held between
1980 and 1982 in Toronto, southern
Ontario and Montreal, with 50
women who work at home doing industrial
sewing, plus government officials,
trade union officials and employers, this
study by now falls into the costume history
category. Proves that the practice of
homework still thrives . Homeworkers
in Canada today receive lower wages,
and work under worse conditions than
the rest of the labour force . Discusses
reasons for this system's continued existence
and what it will take to eliminate
it. Chapter 2, by Robert E . Johnson,
covers the origins of industrial homework
in fairly general terms with some
Canadian content . Documented . Illustrated
with photographs. Labour-related
bibliography.
Jutras, V. P "Cordonnerie domestique ." Parler
frangais 13 (September 1914-1915) :
25-37, 75-82 . This article defines the
various types of footwear, both fashionable
and traditional, made by domestic
cobblers during the 1850s . A glossary of
technical terms used in this activity is
included . Documented .
Kerkhoven, Marijke. "Prairie Panache."
Glenbow 6, no . 4 (July-August 1986) : 10 .
Two evening gowns and one afternoon
dress from the 1912-1916 period were
on display at the Glenbow Museum in
1986, as the first of a miniseries on social
aspects of clothing. This article describes
the garments (one of them designed
by Poiret) and their fashionable
owner, Mrs . Lillian J . Young . Reprinted
in the Prairie Costume Society Newsletter
1, no . 4 (n. d.) : 2-3 . One photograph .
Kerkhoven, Marijke . "Bloomers, Books and
Belles : School Costume in Alberta."
Glenbow 6 (November-December 1986) :
9-10 . A small exhibit on this subject was
held at the Glenbow in 1987 . This article
outlines changes in the Alberta school
system between the turn of this century
and the late 1940s, articles of clothing
required by dress codes in certain
schools, and personal accessories related
to school activities . Not documented .
Reprinted in the Prairie Costume Society
55

Newsletter 1, no . 3 (May-June 1987) :
2-3 . One photograph.
Kimmel, Fran . "Kerby Museum of Fashion :
More than just Old Clothes." Discovery
(The National Lifestyle Magazine for Mature
Canadians) 9, no . 5 (June 1988) :
28-30 . Profiles the Kerby Museum of
Fashion in Calgary, an historical collection
and travelling fashion show created
in 1974 . The collection includes over
300 historical garments and accessories .
Models between the ages of 65 and 84
perform over 50 shows a year in Alberta .
Although the article assures us that each
item is catalogued, inspected and sorted
between shows, and fragile ones are displayed
in showcases, this wearing of antique
costumes which will result in their
destruction, is decried by museum professionals
. Illustrated .
Klug, T. O . "Fashionable Quebec Doctor Provides
Eighteenth Century Suit for Recent
Study." Cutter's Research Journal 1, no .
2 (Summer 1989) : 1, 2-6, 8. The author
has provided drawings, 1/4 scale patterns
and construction notes for a threepiece
patterned velvet suit from the
McCord Museum of Canadian History.
The material has been dated to ca 1775,
the style of the dress coat and breeches
to ca 1790 . The waistcoat was altered
later . A description of the suit, and
biographical notes on its wearer, Dr.
Philippe Louis Frangois Badelart (1728-
1802) have been contributed by the
McCord . One photograph.
Laforge, Val6rie . "Madeleine Doyon-Ferland ."
Culture et Tradition 9 (1985) : 13-31 .
Outlines the education and professional
life of Madeleine Doyon-Ferland, the
Laval university academic . The scholar
had multi-disciplinary interests, including
those of art, music and theatre . However,
a major research focus became that
of rural costume in Quebec . Investiga-
tion here was undertaken utilizing the
methodological approach of ethnology.
This early evaluation of the work of the
Laval university authority has been followed
by one, more profound, published
recently. (See "Godin .") Documented .
One Photograph . Bibliography.
Le fil du temps : 200 ans de broderie sur costume.
/ A Stitch in Time : 200 Years of
56
Embroidery on Costume. Saint-Lambert,
Qu6bec : Marsil Museum, 1990 . 36 pp .
Catalogue to accompany the fine 1990
exhibit of the same name, which featured
outstanding examples of embroidered
costume from Quebec museum
collections . This catalogue is intended to
supplement the exhibit by providing an
overview of different types of embroidery
on western fashionable dress over
the past 200 years . While the catalogue
succeeds in this objective, and is clear
and concise in style, it has no Canadian
content, and is somewhat disappointing
in its lack of a checklist of items in the
exhibit . Some documentation . Illustrated
in black and white . Bibliography.
LeBel, Alyne . "Une vitrine populaire : les
grands magasins Paquet ." Cap-auxdiamants
4, no . 2 (Summer 1988) : 45-
48 . Documents the birth and growth
of an important department store in
Quebec City, owned and operated by
three generations of the Paquet family .
La Compagnie Paquet Limit6e closed in
1981 after more than 130 years of operation
. Not documented . Illustrations in
various media .
LeBel, Jean-Marie . "Habiller la haute-ville ."
Cap-aux-diamants 4, no . 2 (Summer
1988): 80 . Discusses four leading department
stores in Quebec City in the nineteenth
century - John Darlington, Holt
Renfrew and Co ., Simons, and Glover
and Fry and Co . Although brief, explores
a hitherto uninvestigated realm . Suggests
further directions for research . Not
documented . One illustration .
Leboeuf, Francine . "Le costume ." Videopresse
14, no. 8 (April 1988) : 24-25 . A
popular brief overview of Quebec rural
costume . Includes a discussion of the
initial Amerindian influence on this
costume and a description of early
nineteenth-century garments of this
type ; also, the home manufacture of
cloth, footwear and straw headwear in
Quebec . Other more heavily documented
articles discuss some of these subjects in
much greater detail (see for instance
Back, and Ruddel) . Insufficiently footnoted
. Two illustrations of Quebec rural
costume, which unfortunately are not
related to the text .
Lepp, Annalee, David Millar and Barbara
Roberts . "Women in the Winnipeg Garment
Industry, 1950s-1970s ." In First
Days, Fighting Days : Women in Manitoba

History, edited by Mary Kinnear. Regina :
Canadian Plains Research Center, 1987 .
pp . 149-172 . Part of a volume on women's
social history in Manitoba. (See also
Mochoruk and Webber .) Proposes that
the industry slump in 1957 was the beginning
of a new era in which traditional
craft skills and sweatshops were gradually
replaced by assembly lines in large
new "superfirms." The article traces
this change from the workers' point of
view and highlights the various types of
government aid that were crucial to this
process . Comments on the 1957 Swan
Commission, a provincial inquiry into
the predominantly female work force,
and the manufacturers' lobby, the Fashion
Institute . Disagrees with some of
Hastie's conclusions (see Hastie) . Like
most other current authors, comments
on continuing low wages and the wage
gap between male and female workers .
Thoroughly documented . Tables . Bibliographic
information in endnotes .
Les chapeaux feminins d'hier et d'aujourd'hui
/ Women's Hats Yesterday and
Today . Montreal : Chateau Ramezay,
1989 . 90 pp . An excellent bilingual catalogue
from a hat exhibition held simultaneously
in three different Montreal institutions
: the Chateau Ramezay ; les
Archives nationales du Quebec ; and the
Maison de sir George-Etienne Cartier
National Historic Site . The introduction
advises that an ethnological approach
provided the framework for research .
The publication includes a discussion of
the birth and development of the hat industry
in general and in Quebec, also
hatmaking at home . Interesting information
on the teaching of sewing skills in
early Quebec convents and the beginnings
of the textile industry. Translation
of uneven quality. Scholarly and well
documented . Photographs and reproductions
of art work.
Lessard, Denis, France Bourque, Normand
Legault, Jocelyne Mathieu, Gynette
Tremblay, Guy Landry, Pierre Monette
and Lynda Dumais . Danses et costumes
regionaux au Quebec . Montreal : F6d6ration
des loisirs-danses du Quebec, 1977 .
2 vols ., 189 and 268 pp . In Volume 1 we
have descriptions of types of dance
prevalent in various regions of Quebec,
as well as information on costume in
Quebec City during the first half of the
nineteenth century. Quebec costume, in
general, is discussed in volume 2 . Documented
. Bibliography. Illustrated with
drawings .
Lessard, Michel . "La photographie t6moin et
servante de la mode ." Cap-aux-diamants
4, no . 2 (Summer 1988) : 59-62 . An art
historian comments on aspects of the
documentary role of photography as a
tool for the study of costume . Includes
references to the portrait-photograph
and the more casual snap-shot, as well
as to other types of photography . Also
discusses the role of photography as a
commercial means of promoting and
marketing the latest sartorial styles . Examples
referred to are all from Quebec,
mostly Montreal and Quebec City . Useful
as a tool for directions in further research
on the subject . Not documented .
Interesting photographs .
Lessard, Pierre . "`Costumes populaires' sur
cartes postales ." Cap-aux-diamants 4,
no . 2 (Summer 1988): 71 . Focuses on
four colour postcards of Quebec rural
costume, designed by Madeleine Doyon-
Ferland and entitled "costumes populaires
." These are deposited in the
"Fonds Madeleine Doyon-Ferland." Not
documented . Colour reproduction of the
postcards .
L6vi-Strauss, Monique . "Dendera : Threads of
Deception." Rotunda (The magazine of
the Royal Ontario Museum) 21, no . 2
(Summer 1988) : 46-50 . A renowned
French shawl expert documents a midnineteenth
century French shawl in the
ROM's collection . This article traces the
scholarly research into legal records that
disclosed a battle over counterfeit designs
that may have involved this same
shawl . A good example of the possible
intricacies of costume and textile identification
. Documentation given within
body of article . Illustrated with photographs
and drawings .
Lichtblau, Dorothy . "Couple Collects Antique
Costumes ." Canadian Jewish News
28, no . 3 (11 February 1988) : 36 . A short
profile of collectors Judy Herscovitch
and Mel Orecklin, a husband-and-wife
team who have collected costumes from
Great Britain, Canada and the United
States .
57

"London, Ontario : `The Fashion Subject."'
Costume Society of Ontario Newsletter
14, no . 2 (Winter 1984-85) : 2 . Note on
an exhibit at Eldon House, London, of 13
costumes representing 200 years of fashion
from 1760 to the fall of 1984 . Catalogue
and poster (not seen) .
MacAndrew, Barbara . "Century and a Half of
Fashion." The Atlantic Advocate 74 (October
1983) : 40-42 . A very generalized
description of fashion change from the
1840s to the present, and commentary
on the recurring cycles in fashion . Only
one Canadian reference . Some errors, for
example in the dating of an illustration
of garments ca 1900 as representing the
1840 to 1860s period . Not documented .
Redrawings .
MacDonald, Ann C. "Historic Costume on
the Island : An Analysis of Family Photographs/P.E
.I . Women's Fashions of the
1870s and 1880s." Canadian Home Economics
journal 39, no . 1 (Winter 1989) :
22-24 . Using a sample of six from the
many photographs brought in by students
during a project, concludes that
clothing during this period in P.E .I . was
similar in silhouette and general detail
to that seen in the rest of the western
world . However, since the author herself
has attributed dates to many of these
photos, we cannot really verify the accuracy
of the comparisons. It would have
been more useful had she used dated
photographs. Black and white photos .
Bibliography of three entries .
MacIntyre, Florence . "Clothes Make the Man :
Fashions and Fabrics at Eighteenth-
Century Louisbourg ." Canadian Collector
20, (March-April 1985) : 45-47 . A
very general review of eighteenth-century
costume as worn at the Fortress of
Louisbourg, concluding with two paragraphs
on the reproduction process .
French summary. Illustrated with photographs
of interpreters wearing reproduction
costumes .
Macleod, Catherine. "Women in Production
: The Toronto Dressmakers' Strike
of 1931 ." In Women at Work, 1850-
1930, edited by Janice Acton, Penny
Goldsmith and Bonnie Shepard . Toronto :
Canadian Women's Educational Press,
1974 . pp . 309-329 . Part of a collection of
essays on women's work in Ontario from
a feminist perspective . Describes the
58
strike and its failure . In discussing in
greater depth the reasons for its failing,
the author considers the economic context
of the Depression ; the industry in
Canada and competition with Montreal ;
the social ideology of the time ; working
conditions ; the exploitation of women
workers ; and, their lack of participation
in unions . It may be interesting to compare
the management perspective of R. P.
Sparks in the same period (see Sparks) .
Macleod proposes that the strike's failure
demonstrates that unionization was
not able to meet the long term needs of
working women. Concludes that the
1931 strike was typical of the strike experience
of women to the present day .
Documented . Five tables .
Marchand, Suzanne . "Le culte du corps ou
le culte de Fame : mode f6minine et soci6te
qu6b6coise au cours de la p6riode
1920-1939." Master's thesis, "Arts et Traditions
populaires" (Ethnology) . Quebec
City : Universit6 Laval, 1990 . Due to
plans for publication this thesis is presently
inaccessible .
Marchand, Suzanne . "La `gargonne :' un nouveau
modele f6minin (1920-1929)." Capaux-diamants
4, no . 2 (Summer 1988) :
19-20 . As indicated by the title, the article
concerns the boyish style of dress of
the 1920s . Its interest lies in the setting
where this particular style is seen, that
of Quebec . Discusses its promotion in
Quebec's La Revue moderne, as well as
its criticism by the clergy and some
women's groups, exemplified, for example,
in the magazine La bonne fermi6re .
Not documented . One photograph and
advertisements.
Marendy, Michael. The Development and
Evaluation of Costume Reproduction
Pattern Blocks for an 1880s Women's
Dress. M.Sc . thesis (clothing and textiles)
. Edmonton : University of Alberta,
1988 . 149 pp . The purpose of this thesis
was to document an 1880s bustle dress
in the university's Historic Costume and
Study Collection, and to develop and
evaluate a set of period pattern blocks to
reproduce this garment. Three processes
were tested to determine which would
provide the most authentic reproduction
in a standard modern size 12 . Grading a
pattern taken from the original garment
was chosen as the most successful . Sug-

gests further experimentation is required
to test the applicability of period drafting
systems and the potential use of contemporary
ones . Tables and eight appendices
. Illustrated . Bibliography.
"Mary Holford, Assistant Curator, Textile
Dept, ROM" Costume Society of Ontario
Newsletter 16, (Fall-Winter 1986-87) : 7 .
A short profile of Mary Holford, covering
her interests in costume at the ROM, and
the textile department in general .
Massicotte, E.-Z . "L'an6antissement d'une industrie
canadienne sous le r6gime frangais
." Bulletin des recherches historiques
27, no . 7 (July 1921): 193-200. A
partial listing of hat-makers who were
active in Montreal during the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries. Describes
the destruction of the so-called
hat industry in Montreal by French royal
decree in 1736 . However, it seems that
only one hatter who actually specialized
in beaver hats was really active in the
city at this time . Interesting inventory of
materials and tools used in hat-making
in this period . Documented .
Massicotte, E.-Z . "Chapellerie et chapeliers
en la Nouvelle-France ." Bulletin des
recherches historiques 30, no . 6 (June
1924) : 164-165 . Relates an unsuccessful
attempt by a Parisian hatmaker to found
a beaver hat-making enterprise in New
France in the early eighteenth century.
Documented .
Mathieu, Jocelyne . "Au sujet des rapports
entre le costume traditionnel et la mode .
Le cas du costume canadien ." Canadian
Folklore canadien 10, no . 1-2 (1988) :
35-52 . Scholarly and fascinating article
by an ethnologist which covers more
than its title suggests . In the first part of
the text costume theory plays a primordial
part . Includes a discussion on the
manner in which certain norms affect
traditional costume's ability to absorb
fashionable influences, climate of course
being important in Quebec . Also an historical
overview of the increasing absorption
of modish influence in traditional
costume over three centuries .
Concludes with remarks on the problem
of regional costume, and that of the
question of the existence of a Quebec
mode . Rich documentation. Photographs
and newspaper illustrations .
Mathieu, Jocelyne . "Et si les habits parlaient
. . . savez-vous lire sur vos vetements
?" Cap-aux-diamants 4, no . 2
(Summer 1988) : 17 . An amusing short
article on the messages that our daily
wardrobe can convey . Not documented .
Illustrated .
Mathieu, Jocelyne . "Costumes et d6guisements
de carnaval ." Cap-aux-diamants
4, no . 2 (Summer 1988) : 41-44. The
principal focus of this interesting article
is the evolution and genesis of types
of disguises and attire seen during the
Quebec Carnival, and on similar other
occasions . The evolution towards a more
Canadian profile in this dress for outdoor
wear in the Quebec Carnival is
identified, culminating for men in a
snowshoe costume in grey wool . Not
documented . Photographs .
Mathieu, Jocelyne and Monique Dumas .
"Une garde-robe du XVIIe siecle ." Capaux-diamants
4, no . 2 (Summer 1988) :
69 . Comments on the importance, for the
study of costume in Quebec, of the
clothing entries in this province's notarial
accounts after death. Publication of
one example . Not documented .
McGrath, Judy et al . "Waste Not, Want Not
(Flour Bags and Other Handy Material)" .
Them Days 10, no . 2 (December 1984) :
57-63. Transcripts of seven short oral
histories recorded in the late 1970s and
early 1980s in Labrador on the theme
of reusing various materials, mostly
for clothing . Topical with today's interest
in the environment . Illustrated with
photographs .
McKay, Linda M. "Clothing as a Social Indicator
: 1760-1960 ." Canadian Home Economics
journal 39, no . 3 (Summer 1989) :
99-102 . Another general history of fashion
on the theme of the relationship between
women's dress and social conditions
. Standard references works have
been consulted (Flugel, Laver, Payne)
and there is no Canadian content. Three
illustrations . Short bibliography.
Mills, Ruth K . "Have our Cake and Eat It
Too." Embroidery Canada 17, no . 4
(Summer 1990) : 15-17 . Reports on a
fashion show held during "Seminar
'90" in Victoria, which included historic
costumes owned by individuals and the
Canadiana Costume Museum and Archives
of British Columbia. Outlines the
59

.
.
reasons for not wearing historic cos- Panache : 200 Years of the Fashionable
tume, and alternative ways of enjoying Woman. Vancouver : The Vancouver Mu-
them . Documented .
seum, 1990. 46 pp . The text of this exhi-
Mochoruk, James D ., and Donna Webber . bition catalogue consists of a brief
"Women in the Winnipeg Garment overview of selected trends in the history
Trade, 1929-45 ." In First Days, Fighting of western fashionable costume from
Days : Women in Manitoba History, 1770 to 1990 . It is written with flair, some
edited by Mary Kinnear. Regina : Cana- striking insights and contains nuggets of
dian Plains Research Center, 1987 . interesting information . For instance the
pp . 134-148 . Argues that female gar- popular white of "Empire" garb (1790ment
workers were not simply passive 1820) is connected to the white linen un-
victims . The authors set the context by derdresses of French women who had
describing pay and conditions in the in- met with "Madame Guillotine ." The didustry,
then activities of the different mensions of eighteenth-century panniers
unions, and women's responses Points are discussed as well as those of the
out, as have other social historians, that nineteenth-century bustle . Minimal Cana-
apart from wages there were few condian content . Unfortunately loans of coscrete
gains made ; women were not well tumes from other collections are not indi-
served by their male-dominated unions, cated in catalogue . Not documented .
and had to abandon union solidarity in Colour photographs, black and white and
order to achieve wage parity with male colour illustrations .
workers . Chronicles some of the strate- Paradis, Andree . "L'avc?nement d'un costume
gies, struggles and defeats, and com- canadien : d'apr6s les documents du
mends these women's resilience and Fonds Madeleine Doyon-Ferland ." Cap-
willingness to fight. Overall emphasis is aux-diamants 4, no . 2 (Summer 1988) :
on union development . Documented . 11-13 Based on the Madeleine Doyon-
Photographs of union groups . (See also Ferland archives, outlines the early mod-
Lepp, from the same volume) .
ifications made to French seventeenth-
"New Period Dress Patterns From ROM" century civil costume in New France ;
Costume Society of Ontario Newsletter the birth of the textile industry here in
14, no . 2 (Winter 1984-85) : 15 . Explana- the seventeenth century with its subsetion
of the three pattern packages from quent development ; and the birth of
the Royal Ontario Museum, which in- shoe manufacturing in the same century
clude scale patterns for nine dresses in this area . Concludes by connecting
from the museum's textile department . the birth of Canadian costume with that
See Holford and Barnwell in our 1984 of the utilization of etoffe du pays which
bibliography .
the author dates from the eighteenth
Newell, B. K. From Cloth to Clothing : the century. Not documented . Illustrated .
Emergence of Department Stores in Late Parr, Joy. The Gender of Breadwinners :
Nineteenth-Century Toronto . Master's Women, Men and Change in Two Indus-
thesis . Peterborough : Trent University, trial Town 1880-1950. Toronto : Univer-
1984 . Not seen .
sity of Toronto Press, 1990 . 314 pp .
Palmer, Alexandra . "Two Superb Gifts Up- Compares the development of two
date and Enhance the Costume Collec- Ontario towns from the point of view of
tion ." Rotunda (The magazine of the the new "social feminist historian," that
Royal Ontario Museum) 22, no . 3 (Win- of both class and gender together . The
ter 1989-90) : 7-8 . Profiles two dona- towns are treated separately but in a partions
: a "Bent Boys" label dress and allel way, and the first half of the book is
jacket ensemble ; and a partially made of interest to costume historians . Paris,
three-piece man's suit from "Lloyd Ontario, a knitted-goods manufactur-
Brothers Ltd.;" both manufactured reing centre and home of Penmans Ltd .,
cently by Toronto firms. Describes the is used as the example of a "woman's
garments and their significance to the town," shaped by the large work force of
collection . These garments are now in- women, who were more than often the
cluded in the "Measure for Measure" ex- breadwinners . On another level it is a
hibit . The dress ensemble is illustrated . community history, and it provides a
60

good background on socio-economic
conditions in the garment industry. The
other town is Hanover, home to a woodworking
industry. For both towns the author
looks at labour recruitment and ethnic
composition, the influence of gender
on company policy, sexual division of
labour, labour organization, and family
and community values . Business
records, newspapers, photographs and
interviews were among the sources used .
Innovative and scholarly . Illustrated
with photographs. Bibliography .
Payette-Daoust, Michelle . The Montreal
Garment Industry 1871-1901 . Master's
thesis (History) . Montreal : McGill University,
1986 . 147 pp . Between 1871 and
1901, the garment industry was the largest
employer in Montreal, and Montreal
dominated the industry in Canada .
Focused primarily on the manufacture
of inexpensive menswear, Montreal's industry
was heavily dominated by large
wholesale manufacturers, whose success
was achieved by a tremendous expansion
of the market, and a large semiskilled,
essentially rural, work force . The
industry relied on contracting out work
to small shops and rural homes, usually
in dismal working conditions . Since
little had been published at that time,
the author has provided a good introduction,
relying heavily on primary documents,
and using some American monographs
. An excellent work with a thorough
bibliography, although it might
have been useful to have also consulted
Kidwell's Suiting Everyone . One map,
20 tables .
Poulin, Pierre . "Au tournant du siecle : ateliers
et manufactures de vetements ."
Cap-aux-diamants 4, no . 2 (Summer
1988) : 49-50 . Rare article on Canadian
clothing manufacturing in Quebec City
from 1870 to 1900 . Not documented . Illustrations
in various media .
Poutanen, Mary Anne . For the Benefit of the
Master : The Montreal Needle Trades
During the Transition 1820-42 . Master's
thesis (History) . Montreal : McGill University,
1985 . 199 pp . Focuses on Montreal's
dressmaking and tailoring shops
from 1820 to 1842, and their growth,
which resulted in changing socioeconomic
conditions, including an increased
division of labour . Of signifi-
cance since there had been no study
done to that date on the subject . Some
interesting information is revealed such
as that on men's ready-mades ; these
were advertised as early as 1821, and the
business was particularly busy in the
fabrication of uniforms for the militia . In
addition, we learn of one successful
dressmaker, Margaret Major, who employed
as many as 17 apprentices in
1841, and also that dressmakers were
often expected to be milliners, and even
furriers as well . Heavily documented .
Charts . Bibliography .
Prince, Heather Diane . Norwegian Clothing
and Textiles in Valhalla Centre, Alberta:
A Case Study and Inventory in an Eco-
Museum Framework. M.Sc . thesis (Clothing
and Textiles) Edmonton : University
of Alberta, 1988 . 227 pp . Based on a
combination of complementary methods
; oral histories; written and visual
documentary sources ; and artifacts, both
surviving and no longer in existence .
The author examines and analyzes Norwegian
ethnic clothing and textiles in
Valhalla Centre as a reflection of that
community's material culture . Examines
the significance of these artifacts in the
community and demonstrates the continuity
and adaptation of tradition, and
that a continued interest is shown
through the private use of such symbols
within the home . Presents this case
study as an example of the immigrant
experience in Canada . Also discusses
material culture research and the 6comusee
concept . Glossary and translation
of Norwegian terms . Illustrations include
photos of artifacts . Bibliography .
"The Queen's University Collection of Canadian
Dress ." Costume Society of Ontario
Newsletter 17, no . 3 (Fall-Winter 1987-
88) : 12 . A profile of the Queen's collection,
formed by Dr. Margaret Angus and
now housed by the Agnes Etherington
Art Centre . One illustration .
Routh, Caroline . "The CSO Costume-of-the-
Month." Costume Society of Ontario
Newsletter 17, no . 3, (Fall-Winter 1987-
88) : 10 . An ongoing series which begins
in this issue .
The author describes and
illustrates, with a delicate touch and
good detail, costumes from various
Canadian museums and private collections
. Descriptions are usually physical
61

ones only, but can include some social
context . Occasionally the illustrations
are submitted by other people . This
issue features a dress ca 1918, made
from green fagonn6 velvet and other fabrics,
from the private collection of Alan
Suddon . One illustration .
-. "The CSO Costume-of-the-Month ." Costume
Society of Ontario Newsletter 18,
no . 1 (Spring 1988) : 5 . Profile of a "1920ish"
beaded net dress from the collection
of the Glengarry Pioneer Museum,
Dunvegan, Ontario . One illustration .
-. "The CSO Costume-of-the-Month ." Costume
Society of Ontario Newsletter 18,
no . 2 (Summer 1988) : 6. A mid-1930s
evening gown in a private collection is
featured . One illustration .
-. "The CSO Costume-of-the-Month ." Costume
Society of Ontario Newsletter 18,
no . 3 (Fall-Winter 1988) : 5 . Description
and illustration of an 1838 wool-andsilk
floral print dress from the Dugald
Costume Museum, Manitoba . One
illustration .
-. "The CSO Costume-of-the-Month ." Costume
Society of Ontario Newsletter 19,
no . 1 (Spring 1989) : 8-10 . A longer than
usual examination of a pair of wool
trousers found during the restoration of
Montgomery's Inn in Etobicoke. With
contributions from other specialists, this
article describes the trousers' construction,
condition, and conservation, and
includes some historical notes on possi-
ble social context .
It suggests a date of
the 1820s or 1830s and comments on
their evidence of long wear through extensive
patching . A pattern is available
through Montgomery's Inn . Not documented
. Four illustrations .
- . "The CSO Costume-of-the-Month ." Costume
Society of Ontario Newsletter 19,
no. 2 (Summer 1989) : 5 . Features an afternoon
or dinner dress, ca 1915-16, in
windowpane check chiffon, from the
collection of Alan and Mary Suddon .
One Illustration .
-. "The CSO Costume-of-the-Month ." Costume
journal (formerly the Costume Society
of Ontario Newsletter) 19, no . 3
(Fall 1989) : 8 . A 1964 grey wool tunic of
Mary Quant design is discussed this
time, again from the collection of Alan
and Mary Suddon . One illustration .
62
-. "The CSO Costume-of-the-Month ." Costume
journal 20, no . 2 (Summer 1990) :
6 . Profiles the centrepiece of the Dugald
Costume Museum's "Silhouettes in
Style" exhibit of 1990, an eighteenthcentury
brocaded silk open robe and
matching petticoat . One illustration .
-. "The CSO Costume-of-the-Month ." Costume
journal 20, no . 3 (Fall 1990) : 7. A
1970 printed-silk jersey, Pucci design,
evening sheath, from the Seneca College
collection is featured . One illustration .
Rowat, Theresa . Apergu . Dressing Up : Costumed
Canadians from Fancy Dress
Balls to Amateur Theatricals/Apergu . La
valse des atours : Canadiens d6guis6s,
des toilettes de bal aux costumes de
the8tre. Ottawa : Photography Service Division,
Public Archives of Canada, 1985 .
Brochure to accompany a travelling exhibit
of photographs from the National
Photography Collection . Points out the
popularity of fancy dress in Victorian
times, whether for a large costumed ball,
historical pageant, or a simple children's
play . Such photos of costumed Canadians
are found throughout the Public
Archives collection, and particularly
from the work of W. J . Topley of Ottawa .
One page text and three large black-andwhite
photos comprise the brochure .
Roy, Catherine L. The Tailoring Trade 1800-
1920 : Including an Analysis of Pattern-
Drafting Systems and an Examination of
the Trade in Canada . M.Sc. thesis
(Clothing and Textiles) . Edmonton : University
of Alberta, 1990 . 172 pp . The author
has attempted broad goals in this
thesis, using printed primary sources
produced by the tailoring trade between
1800 and 1920 to describe this period of
great change within the trade, and its development
in Canada . A key component
was the content analysis and practical
testing of 102 pattern-drafting systems .
Findings showed that technological
change affected the content and format
of the systems ; that the Canadian trade
was slower to industrialize than its
American counterpart ; and that while
Canadians were active members of American
associations they used both British
and American styling and drafting information
. A good tool for further research,
with recommendations on potential di-

ections . Glossary . Good bibliography
plus a bibliography of the drafting systems
studied. Tables .
Ruddel, David-Thiery . "Domestic Textile
Production in Colonial Quebec, 1608-
1840 ." Material History Bulletin 31,
(Spring 1990) : 39-49 . Comprehensive
well-documented historiography of domestic
textile and rural clothing production
in Quebec focusing on its various
research methodologies . Interesting
example of the constantly evolving research
methods in the history of costume
. In defining these disciplines and
their scholars, the author has utilized the
most recent terminology. Thus for example
the term ethno-historian has replaced
the earlier one of historian amongst
Quebec scholars . Comments on the lack
of contributions from social and economic
historians towards research in
this area . Foresees, as an ideal, a more
multidisciplinary approach capable of
complementary and comparative work
on the subject. A definition for the term
ethno-historian would have been useful
for the non-historian, as would a reference
to where the term was first used in
print . Illustrated .
- . "Consumer Trends, Clothing, Textiles
and Equipment in the Montreal Area,
1792-1835 ." Material History Bulletin 32
(Fall 1990) : 45-64 . This far-reaching article
by an historian embraces aspects of a
number of subjects, and uses a variety of
approaches, its method being close to
multidisciplinary. Through an analysis
of a large number of computerized
post-mortem inventories, and "donations"
(for definition of this word see
Vermette), two subjects are given focus .
Firstly the problem of the "homespun
myth" is discussed . Secondly, the changing
character of the wardrobes of four
different socio-economic groups, as revealed
by the study of clothing entries in
post-mortem inventories, is elaborated
upon . Interesting commentary on the relationship
of the increasing size of individual
wardrobes to the economy of the
time ; and on social implications of
dress, this information being derived
from four mid-nineteenth century cana-
dien novels . Some small errors in costume
content. Heavily and significantly
documented . Tables, and illustrations of
various types .
Schweger, Barbara . "Studying the Relationship
of Clothing and Climate in the
Nineteenth Century Arctic ." Alberta Museums
Review 11, no . 1 (Spring 1986) :
10-12 . Reports on the methodology used
in her study of nineteenth-century clothing
worn in the Arctic, which formed
part of a wider forensic study on the
death of the crew of the Franklin expedition
in 1845 . Written and visual sources,
plus surviving textile and leather artifacts
from inside and outside Alberta
were consulted . Emphasis was placed
on types of footwear and clothing assemblies,
and an effort to isolate factors that
affect thermal balance . Written sources
proved most useful . Points out the need
to consider the complex interactions between
the body, clothing and the environment
in order to understand the historic
clothing practices in the north .
Documented . One illustration.
"Shawls : A Common Thread" (Burlington) .
Costume Society of Ontario Newsletter
14, no . 2 (Winter 1984-85) : 2 . Note on
an exhibit held in the fall of 1984 of 43
shawls at the Joseph Brant Museum . A
three-leaf poster catalogue was prepared
(not seen) .
Shein, Brian . "The Way They Were ." Toronto
Life 20 (November 1986) : 258-261, 272 .
The photo article, showing "then and
now" shots of clothing worn by notable
Toronto businessmen, is superficial .
However, of greater interest is the lighthearted
text, tracing the personal history
and meaning of the author's own clothing
symbols, a white T-shirt and a dark
suit .
Silhouette : ]e costume feminin 1850-1930./
Silhouettes : Lady's Fashion 1850-1930 .
Saint-Lambert, Quebec : Marsil Museum,
1985 . 17 pp . A bilingual exhibition catalogue
focusing on the Marsil Museum's
costume collection . The costumes in the
exhibit date from 1856 until the 1930s .
The catalogue documents the history of
western fashionable dress for the period,
and also features photographs of twelve
garments in the exhibition, accompanied
by some of their history and related general
information . Some documentation .
Illustrated .
63

"Silhouettes in Style ." Manitoba History 17
(Spring 1989) : 22 . The highlight of the
"Silhouettes in Style" exhibit at the
Dugald Costume Museum in 1989 was a
blue-and silver brocaded silk gown ca
1780 . This short article describes the
gown and its provenance, and mentions
that it was conserved by the Canadian
Conservation Institute, and documented
by Aileen Ribeiro . One photograph of
the gown .
Smith, Dianne R. Dressmaking Occupations
in Edmonton, 1900-1930 . M.Sc . thesis
(Clothing and Textiles) . Edmonton : University
of Alberta, 1987 . 235 pp . Highlights
dressmaking as a flexible occupation
that offered a range of employment
within the formal and informal economy,
which was especially important during
periods of unstable economy . Concentrates
on information about the
dressmakers themselves, almost entirely
women . The author found an overall decline
in employment level and skill level
in the period of study, and that the nature
of dressmaking changed from custom
production to alteration or services
for the home sewer. Emphasis placed on
the methodological approaches used :
content analysis of newspaper advertisements,
and oral history. Glossary .
Bibliography .
Smith, Janice I . Content Analysis of Children's
Clothing in Eaton's Catalogue and
Selected Canadian Museums: 1890 to
1920 . M.Sc . thesis (Clothing and Textiles)
. Edmonton : University of Alberta,
1991 . 221 pp . After conducting two content
analyses, the author compared children's
clothing illustrated in Eaton's catalogues
with examples from Canadian
museums . Analyses findings and raises
questions for further research related to
use, distribution, quality and quantity of
garments sold through the catalogue .
Examines regional differences between
Toronto and Winnipeg editions of
Eaton's catalogue . Also discusses content
analysis methodology, and material
culture research . Glossaries . Documented
. Drawings, tables and charts .
Bibliography .
Smith, Kathleen M . "Study the Creed's Family
Tree and You'll Find a Haute-to-Hip
History of Fashion in Toronto ." Toronto
Life Fashion 21, no . 19 (Holiday 1987) :
64
77-78 . A popular article on the history
of Creed's store on Bloor Street, which
began in 1914 as a custom-made women's
dress shop, and the changes it
experienced over three generations of
family ownership . Focus is on the most
recent changes . (Unfortunately this business
recently closed .) Not documented .
Souffrir pour etre belle. Quebec : Mus6e de la
civilisation et Corporation des Editions
Fides, 1988 . This catalogue accompanied
an exhibit held at the Mus6e de la
civilisation in Quebec City in 1988-89 .
It is essentially a collection of essays on
the subject by French, i .e ., non-Canadian
authors . Therefore it was not read for
this bibliography.
Sparks, R. P. "The Garment and Clothing Industries,
History and Organization,"
Manual of the Textile Industry of Canada
(1930) : 107-130 . Perhaps the earliest
history of the garment industry, this can
be equally used as a primary document .
Has been quoted by most researchers on
the subject since . Overlook the occasional
lapses into a generalized "ancient"
history of clothing, and concentrate on
the excellent history of the Canadian
clothing industry from the late nineteenth
century to the time of writing . Information
is based on the author's personal
knowledge (and management
perspective) of the trade, reminiscences
of others, and his analysis of documents
such as census returns . Covers mens and
women's clothing of all types, oiled and
waterproof clothing, trade organizations,
tariffs, and mortality in the industry .
Much useful information on the nature
of the industry, problems in production,
technological change, competition with
the United States and Europe, and Canadian
businesses . Argues that the garment
industry merits protection and encouragement
as the largest employer of women
workers in Canada . Generalized
and subjective in places as such reminiscences
usually are, but valuable for
twentieth century research . No documentation
. Illustrations of prominent
men in the industry.
Steed, Guy P. F. An Historical Geography of
the Canadian Clothing Industries :
1800-1930s . Research Notes No . 11 .
Ottawa : Department of Geography and
Regional Planning, University of Ottawa,

1976 . 52 pp . Good overview of the development
of the clothing industry in
Canada, though his treatment of the
early nineteenth century has become
somewhat dated by more recent research
. Contrasts Montreal and Toronto,
with some mention of Hamilton and
Winnipeg . Considers the problems of
distance between suppliers and markets,
the shift in production from artisan to
factory, introduction of new production
techniques, and the impact of urban Jewish
labour. Emphasizes the shifting organization
within the industry, and the
variety of factors contributing to the
pattern of localization . Naturally statistics
and geography are the focus . Uses
mostly secondary sources and government
documents, but well documented .
Four maps and 8 tables . Bibliography .
Steedman, Mercedes . "Skill and Gender in
the Canadian Clothing Industry, 1890-
1940 ." In On the Job: Confronting the
Labour Process in Canada, edited by
Craig Heron and Robert Storey, 152-176 .
Kingston and Montreal : McGill-Queen's
University Press, 1986 . This essay explores
the complex role of women in the
Canadian clothing industry from the
time of the custom tailor and dressmaker
to the era of the large factory. It argues
that throughout the industrialization
process there remained a clear sexual division
of labour that reflected the patriarchal
structure of Canadian society .
This period established a permanent
separation in jobs for men and women
in the needle trades that remains to this
day. Excellent overview of the development
of the industry, with considerable
information on technological aspects .
Also traces the growth of unions and
their perpetuation of the inferior role for
women despite other improvements .
Thoroughly documented .
Syms, E . Leigh and Pamela Smith . "Unbuttoning
the History of Fort Riviere Tremblante
." The Beaver 314 (Spring 1984) :
26-30 . Describes the range of buttons
found in the archaeological excavation
of this fort, a North West Company fur
trading post built on the Upper Assiniboine
River in 1791, and used in that
decade . Like Davis comments that buttons
can provide insight into the history
of technological discovery and develop-
ment, trade networks and social relationships,
and ultimately aid in helping to
understand the fort . Not documented .
Drawings and photographs.
Tait, Elizabeth . Dressing Up History : A Study
of the Costume Programs and the Role of
Reproduction Costume as an Interpretive
Tool at Historic Sites in Ontario .
Master's thesis (Museum Studies) .
Toronto : University of Toronto, 1989 .
101 pp . Argues that costume, as a facet
of individual and group behaviour, can
play an important role in museum interpretation,
and that reproduction costume
in particular offers more educational
potential than is currently being
realized . The methodology included a
survey of, and site visits to 25 historic
sites in Ontario to examine the significance
of reproduction costume, and the
processes used to produce and interpret
it . The author found that although costuming
interpretive staff in period reproductions
is a popular activity, sites have
concentrated on the technical process of
striving for accuracy without addressing
the messages conveyed to visitors . She
likens this to former costume publications
which were descriptive without
presenting the broader social significance
. Unfortunately the thesis does not
propose alternative ways to interpret
costume more deeply. However, of wider
interest are chapters on approaches to
historic costume within the traditional
museum context, and issues surrounding
the use of reproduction, specifically
reproduction costume . Documented .
Bibliography .
Taylor, Loretta M. Fabric in Women's Costumes
from 1860 to 1880 : A Comparison
of Fashion Periodicals and Selected
Canadian Museum Collections . M.Sc .
thesis (Clothing and Textiles) . Edmonton
: University of Alberta, 1990 . 188 pp .
The author's study of fabrics in dresses
dating from 1860 to 1880 in 13 Canadian
museums and her examination of dress
fabric descriptions in Godey's Lady's
Book and Peterson's Magazine of the
same years reveals that fabrics both in
the clothing and in the fashion journal
descriptions are similar. Contains useful
glossaries of nineteenth-century fabric
and colour terms . Interesting brief history
of the fashion journal, as well as infor-
65

mation on the textile industry in Canada.
Charts . Extensive bibliography.
Tulchinsky, Gerald . "Hidden Among the
Smokestacks : Toronto's Clothing Industry,
1871-1901." In Old Ontario: Essays
in Honour of f. M. S . Careless, edited by
David Keane and Colin Read, 257-284 .
Toronto : Dundern Press, 1990 . Points
out that as early as 1871, the clothing industry
was the largest employer in
Toronto . In the following three decades
Toronto emerged as a leading centre for
custom and ready-made clothing in
Canada, capturing fully 25 per cent of
the national output and more than half
of Ontario's . The characteristics of this
industry - the large number and rapid
turnover of small shops, relatively simple
technology, and difficult-to-trace
records - have led to its neglect by business
historians . This fine article gives it
a higher and well-deserved profile . The
author provides an excellent overview of
the industry's growth during this thirtyyear
period using a variety of documentary
sources . Concludes that this industry
does not follow the usual business
models in its growth trends, modernization
and structure . Well documented .
Six tables .
Vallieres, Nicole . "ttude du costume : 1'informatique
au service de la m6thode ."
Canadian Folklore canadien 10, no. 1-2
(1988) : 227-243 . Discusses methodology
required for computer-assisted research
in the discipline of costume history. Essential
as a guideline for this type of investigation
where a rigorous approach,
including careful standardization of
data, is the only manner in which to
achieve justifiable conclusions . Touches
on the issue of the use of the video-disc,
and of classification systems suitable for
computerizing data on costume collections
. Well documented . Illustrated with
diagrams . Bibliographical information in
footnotes .
Vermette, Luce . "L'habillement traditionnel
au d6but du XIXe siecle ." Material History
Bulletin 20 (Fall 1984) : 44-47. This
excellent article by an historian discusses
rural Quebec costume of the early
nineteenth century. Evidence is based on
that found in 300 documents related to
the so-called donations. These are notarial
contracts signed by individuals, usu-
66
ally married middle-aged couples, in
which they transfer all or a portion of
their estate to the next generation in return
for guaranteed care in their old age .
The provision of clothing is part of this
care . Thus clothing needs for head-to-toe
are listed for both male and female, as
well as their quantity and quality . The
rhythm of replacement for the garments
as well as needs for upkeep could also
be included . Information for this article
emanated from the author's Les donations
1800-1820 : activites domestiques
et genre de vie . Rapport sur microfiche
no . 16 . Ottawa : Parcs Canada, 1982 (reviewed
in our 1984 bibliography) . Accompanying
illustrations by Francis
Back are based on a synthesis of the data
found in this article, costume illustrations
of the period and travel accounts .
Documented . Scholarly.
Walford, Jonathan . "The Social Fabric :
Women's Fashion as a Reflection of the
Times, 1850-1950." Museum Quarterly
16, no . 4 (May 1987) : 15-19 . Argues that
a more sophisticated interpretation of
Western fashion is now demanded by
the public, which has been accustomed
to the attention given to accurate, academic
recreations of historical costume
so important to many current film productions
. A museum must be equally
rigorous in displaying and interpreting a
garment . Gives guidelines for selecting
and collecting, emphasizing the need to
collect everyday as well as fine clothing ;
documenting the collection ; and creating
the story line, recommending a balance
between basic description and a more
in-depth interpretation of the social context
. Summarizes the change in fashion
and silhouette in women's dress in this
period . Illustrated .
Wells, Karen Leslie . Children's Cognitive and
Affective Response to Costume Reproductions
Worn by a Female Interpreter
at the Victoria Settlement . An Alberta
Provincial Historic Site . M.Sc . thesis
(Clothing and Textiles) . Edmonton : University
of Alberta, 1988 . 206 pp . The author
tested the effect on grade 4 and 5
students' cognitive and affective responses
to an interpretive programme
when delivered by a costumed, as compared
to a uniformed, interpreter. She
found that the information transferred to

the subjects was greater when the interpreter
was dressed in reproduction costume
. Concludes with support for the
use of costume reproductions in interpretive
programming . Emphasis on test
methodology. Also discusses learning in
the museum environment and the use of
costume reproductions . Illustrated with
photographs . Bibliography.
Whitfield, Eileen . "The Old Soft Shoe ." Saturday
Night 102, no . 8 (August 1987) :
32-33 . Profiles Sonja Bata, the shoe collector
and connoisseur, with some
superficial information on shoes in the
collection . No mention of the Bata Shoe
Museum Foundation . One illustration of
Mrs. Bata .
Wilson, Alan . John Northway: A Blue Serge
Canadian . Toronto : Burns and MacEachern
Ltd., 1965 . 235 pp . John Northway
emigrated from London in 1869 and rose
1 . See Nicole Vallicres entry, "$tude du costume :
1'informatique au service de la m6thode."
2 . R . Craig Miller, Modern Design (New York :
The Metropolitan Museum of Art and Harry
N . Abrams, Inc ., 1990) .
3 . Nancy Rexford, Patricia Cunningham, Robert
Kaufman, Patricia Trautman, "Forum : Research
and Publication," Dress 14 (1988) :
68-75 .
4 . E. McClung Fleming, "Artifact Study : A Proposed
Model," excerpted from Winterthur
Portfolio 9 (June 1974) : 153-161, and reprinted
in Material Culture Studies in America,
ed . Thomas Schlereth (Nashville : The American
Association for State and Local History,
NoTEs
from obscurity as a tailor in Tillsonburg,
Ontario to prominence as owner of a
chain of retail stores throughout Ontario,
a manufacturing firm and a leading
ladies' department store in Toronto . The
biographer presents the man and his personal
life in balance with his business
life, with reference to the economic and
political context of the day . He sees
Northway as a representative of the expanding
middle class, "men neither so
big as to be popular figures nor so small
as to be mere social statistics," yet worthy
of a full-scale biography. Good information
about the Northway business but
little about their products other than that
they were reputed to be of fine quality.
However some dresses from the 1920s
are illustrated . Compelling reading . Documented
. Illustrated.
1982) . See also conference review by Pamela
Buell in this issue .
5 . See Ruddel, "Domestic Textile Production in
Colonial Quebec, 1608-1840 ."
6 . Information abstracted and translated from
written correspondence of 12 May 1991 with
Dr. Jocelyne Mathieu, Ethnologist and Professor
at the Universit6 Laval .
7 . See 'Ihlchinsky, "Hidden Among the Smokestacks
: Toronto's Clothing Industry, 1871-
1901 ."
8 . See Becky Dahl, Heather Prince, Dianne
Smith, Janice Smith, Loretta Taylor and
Karen Wells .
67

Conference Report
Rapport de conference
American Dress as Social History
PAMELA BUELL
A review of the Seventeenth Annual
Meeting and Symposium of the Costume
Society of America, Boston and Plymouth,
Massachusetts,
15-19 May 1991
"The relevance of costume to social history
is that people made it or wore it ." This simplistic
statement effectively summarizes the
theme of the Seventeenth Annual Meeting
and Symposium of the Costume Society
of America, held in Boston and Plymouth,
Massachussetts, May 15-19, 1991 . Two hundred
and fifty costume' enthusiasts convened
to examine "American Dress as Social History
." The relevance and importance of this
topic to the study of Canadian material culture
was reflected in the large contingent of
Canadian participants at the symposium .
Twelve individuals representing Canadian
institutions as diversified and as far flung as
the Fortress Louisbourg, the Ontario, Prairie
and national headquarters offices of the
Canadian Parks Service, the McCord Museum,
the University of Prince Edward Island,
L'Universit6 de Montreal and the Bata Shoe
Museum attended the four days of presentations
and the tours of Plimoth Plantation and
Old Sturbridge Village .
The keynote address provided by Laurel
Thatcher Ulrich of the University of New
Hampshire, entitled "A Social Historian's
Perspective of Costume History," kicked off
the symposium on an upbeat note . The recent
author of two social history publications,
the Pulitzer Prize winning Good
Wives : Image and Reality in the Lives of
Women in Northern New England, 1650-
1750 and A Midwife's Tale : The Life of
Martha Ballard, Based on Her Diary, 1785-
1812, she introduced her ambitious new pro-
ject of a history of textiles in the colonial period
in America . The extreme economic, social
and political importance of textiles in
this period has been relatively unexplored in
mainstream history . Ulrich examined the
reasons for this void, and offered two hypotheses
. The history of textiles is the history
of women in this period, as these are often
the only records remaining of women's life
in the colonial era . Study of this topic has
historically been compartmentalized into the
field of home economics, museums and
academia . Ulrich legitimized the study of
costume in the field of social history by
proposing a wholistic approach, examining
items of apparel connected to economic
themes, transportation and trade, inter-racial
and ethnic identity and religious themes .
As promising as the keynote address and
the theme of the symposium sounded, many
of the papers presented over the next three
days fell somewhat short of their goal of exploring
costume in any real context of social
history. Costume, like all artifacts when formally
analysed, can reveal the attitudes, beliefs
and assumptions that form a culture .
Using a well known methodology devised by
E . McClung Fleming for studying material
culture, objects can be "read" on many levels
. Fleming's model is best recognized for its
five properties and four operations that
apply to these. The properties are : history,
material, construction, design and function .
His operations are : identification, evaluation,
cultural analysis, and interpretation . Identification
is the complete physical description
of the clothing with regard to date, provenance,
materials, construction, use and
maker if known . Evaluation involves an examination
of quality of workmanship and
materials used in construction, as well as
Material History Review 34 (Fall 1991) / Revue d'histoire de la culture mat6rielle 34 (automne 1991)
68

judgements on the aesthetic properties of a
piece in comparison with others of its kind .
Cultural analysis looks at an object in the
context of its own milieu among the people
and culture that produced it . Interpretation,
the highest level of analysis, engages scholars
to use their understanding of the historic
importance of an object in its time, and
place the object correctly . Demographics,
economics, political and social history are
drawn into making this assessment, and
from this analysis conclusions may be drawn
about culture .'
As social historians, we see the importance
of interpreting the past to yield issues
of particular interest and meaning to us
today. From topics as diverse as, "Social Response
and Clothing Adaptations of Civil
Was Amputees," to "Suburbanization, Automobility
and Shorts : What it Takes to Bare
Men's Legs," conference attendees were tantalized
with the prospect of new and revolutionary
glimpses of costume and social history.
Unfortunately many of the papers did not
progress beyond the identification and evaluation
levels of analysis .
Linda Baumgarten, of the Colonial
Williamsburg Foundation, in "Underdrawers
and Waistcoats : Layered Clothing for Cold
Weather," described Thomas Jefferson's
woollen undergarments in great detail but
did not reveal much about the society that
produced Jefferson, the garments or the
chilly Monticello that required Jefferson to
don these layered garments .
Patricia Warner of the University of
Massachusetts in "The Comely Rowers,
Crew of Wellesley, 1876-1900 : The Beginnings
of Collegiate Sport Uniforms for Women,"
illustrated year by year the fanciful
costumes of the "singing crews" in their
"tubs," but fell short of the cultural analysis
that may have enlightened us to the broader
social context of these gaily uniformed students
.
A handful of presenters managed to delve
beyond mere identification and evaluation
and truly approached their topics through a
careful cultural analysis and interpretation
including Christina Bates of the Canadian
Parks Service with "How to Dress the Children?
A Comparison of Prescription and
Practice in the Late Nineteenth Century."
She examined the juxtaposition of prescription
and practice in dressing children by
comparing dress reform advice in authorita-
tive books, with descriptions and illustrations
in women's fashion journals and the
Eaton's mail-order catalogue .
Loyce Arthur of SUNY at Stoneybrook examined
"An Avon Lady in Philadelphia,
1938-1968 :
A Study of Beauty, Culture and
an African American Women ." Avon afforded
women the opportunity through selfpromotion
to become business women and
"ladies" at the same time . This concept appealed
to black women who were intent on
establishing a respectable place for themselves
in the postwar society of America .
Adrienne St . Pierre, an independent researcher
from Dayton, Ohio examined,
"Luther Edgerton's Cloathing Books : A
Record of Men's Ready-to-Wear from the
Early Nineteenth Century." These business
records from the first store in the Northwest
Territory, in Marietta, Ohio, from 1817 to
1821 were used to describe ready-made
men's garments and their costs . Through
these, the social and economic situation in
the rapidly expanding western territories
was examined . The particular significance of
this paper was that it studied material culture,
minus the material, as there are no extant
examples of this type of clothing remaining
in museum collections .
The majority of presentations fell somewhere
between the merely descriptive and
truly interpretive . Most attempted to stay
within the broad theme of social history, indeed
choosing topics and examining costume
items that might be too utilitarian and
commonplace to notice in any sense of connoisseurship
or antiquarianism . The fact that
the Costume Society of America chose as its
theme "American Dress as Social History,"
may indicate that costume has finally been
legitimized as a valuable cultural resource
deserving the scholarship of the members of
this illustrious society .
NOTE
1 . Joan Severa and Merrill Horswill, "Costume
as Material Culture," Dress 15 (1989) : 50 .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fleming, E . McClung. "Artifact Study: A Proposed
Model ." WinterthurPortfolio 9 (1974) .
Rexford, Nancy, Patricia Cunningham, Robert
Kaufman and Patricia Trautman . "Forum : Research
and Publication." Dress 14 (1988) .
Severa, Joan and Merrill Horswill . "Costume as
Material Culture ." Dress 15 (1989) .
69

Research Reports
Rapports de recherche
The Labels of Thomas Nisbet
TIM G . DILWORTH
Thomas Nisbet, a Saint John . New Brunswick,
cabinetmaker (w. 1813-48) was unusual
in that he labelled many pieces of his furniture,
unlike most of his contemporary New
Brunswick cabinetmakers . His paper labels
not only indicated that the piece of furniture
was his shop's work and gave the location of
his shop, but also listed what was available
in both the furniture and upholstery lines
from his business - his labels were advertising
rather than identification labels . Most
labels used by contemporary cabinetmakers
in the United States were of the identification
type while British cabinetmakers tended
to use the advertising type of label more
extensively .
Published material on Nisbet up to this
time has indicated that he used two labels -
an early label and a later one after he and his
son, Thomas Jr ., formed a co-partnership in
1834 known as Thomas Nisbet & Son.' As a
result of my intensive research on his labelled
furniture, it has been determined that
there are really three paper labels whicli h1?
used . In addition, there are three version of
the second label . Knowing that a particular 1
sequence of labels existed even though it may
not be possible to determine accurately all
the dates when they were used allows a person
to more accurately date both the labelled
furniture as well as the pieces attributed
to this cabinetmaker . Based on the present
knowledge I have of Nisbet's labels, I will
present what appears to be the most logical
sequence of use by Nisbet's cabinet shop .
The earliest label (ca 1815) was found
on a neoclassical writing table from a Saint
Andrew's home and is in the collection of
the New Brunswick Museum (Fig . 1) . While
.
. .~ "
~t- i , `r
- 1 ., . . k .
., 4A ! . . .
:
;.
. ., ,
Material History Revietr 34 (Fall 1991) / Revue d'histoire de la cultare materielle 34 (automne 1E
. .
Fig . 1
A neoclassical writing
stand (ca 181 .5) of
bird's-eye maple with
mahogany moulding,
which has Nisbet's
earliest label attached .
(All photography by
Roger Smith)
Fig . 2
Thornas Nisbe.t s earliest
label (ca 181 .5) showing
the different border
design from all other
Nisbet labels known to
date .

Fig . 3
The second label used
bv Thomas Nisbet
showing the
characteristic border
design used on all
subsequent labels .
,Q&~ _ /`~T l,1 ,~~_~~.~ ;' ",~, ~~ ~
(, .\ i)r 1.* t, _N I A Y~E l? & TU PFI OLCT ;:R I- ;I I,
i'RI!~c .'1 : it"ILI .I~ldf ST'RF.F:?',
N'HLltl ; ' . %Y ill', 1: .' .1),
A1 1 Ii.Ati4Eti ~ariouskindi ; Sophasand S ;tpha I:crt ; ;
'C!ra :ri+ ; 'habirs ; Si('-boa :cfs ; Portable fird ; 3na
tVritirt, Desks ; I3rd and III1 i :tdotiS ('or ; ;i .l:c-" ;t.:d t ;urtain . ;
, :r(i ur~ry iLin ; in the t'.aat .-- ; .T ._nd IJreo! .~lxuiu I,irt .,
,'" Old Ft: rt v t rt, it t: fZgaiw cl, or arcJcwr ;r :d for 11'e ;r .
Fig . 4
The second version o(
Ni .tihvt's srctind label .
I W ~ I
A- , '. #
the remnants of the label are heavily stained
and foxed, the following can still be detertnined
. The border design is different from
all other variations of his labels (Fig . 2) .
Nearly all the wording can be determined
by extrapolation from later labels as the
wording is similar on all his labels . It reads
as follows :
I
t ofya'
I I Il i I ~1~ I .
ll~Ae Ma
-iirf; -,111d
IV f) inUCClUtc Mji,~ 40
I, J
oil/
7 ~
xJIT,
sit 1) It L1.1 _1 1 1
J, 37 Y) L,~-'l
-.;Qiy?A 7, !." AIL
. 0 .1 j 1% ~ 1) , II, - -A
~Iu(
.,
IiAbIcs ;AK
0 "0., , -
. . ,y
_-
THOS . NISBET,
CABINETMAKER & UPHOLSTERER,
PRINCE WILLIAM STREET,
WHERE may be had : Mattrasses various
kinds ; Sophas and Sopha
Beds ; Chairs ; Tables ; Sideboards ; Portable
Beds and Writing Desks ; Bed and
Window Cornishes and Curtains made,
and everything in the Cabinet and Upholsterer
line, on moderate terms .
N. B . Old Furniture Repaired .
Saint John, New-Brunswick
The W in WHERE is two lines in height,
being the first letter of lines one and two of
the listing of goods and services offered . It
could not be determined whether it reads
"everything" or "every thing" as on the later
labels . The major differences between this
label and later labels, besides the border design,
is the positioning of "Saint John, New-
Brunswick" at the bottom of the label rather
than after "PRINCE WILLIAM STREET;" the
use of " . . .on moderate terms" rather than
' . . .made on moderate terms" and "Old Furniture
Repaired" rather than "Old FURNI-
TURE Repaired or exchanged for New."
The second label has the characteristic
linked border design (Fig . 3) which is used
on all labels other than the one described
previously . The wording of the first version
is as follows :
THOS . NISBET,
CABINETMAKER & UPHOLSTERER,
PRINCE WILLIAM STREET,
Saint John, New Brunswick ;
WHERE MAY BE HAD,
MATTRASSES various kinds ; Sopha and Sopha Beds:
Chairs ; Tables : Sideboards ; Portable Beds and
Writing Desks : Bed and Window Cornishes and Curtains ;
and every thing in the CABINET and UPHOLSTERER Line,
made on moderate terms.
Old Ft IRNITURE Repaired and exchanged for New.
The M in MATTRASSES is two lines in
height .
The second version of this label (Fig . 4)
consists of a change in how the words are
positioned . While they are the same words,
thev are on different lines as follows :
Writing Desks : Bed and Window Cornishes and Cur-
tains ; and every thing in the CABINET and UPHOLSTERER
Line, made on moderate terms .
71

The third version (Fig . 5) consists of a minor
change on one line where " . . .CABINET and
UPHOLSTERER" becomes " . . .CABINET
UPHOLSTERER."
The wording in the third label (1834-I8),
used after Thomas Jr . joined his father's business,
was as follows :
THOMAS NISBET & SON,
Cabinet Makers & Upholsterers,
PRINCE WILLIAM STREET,
SAINT JOHN, NEW-BRUNSWICK,
WHERE MAY BE HAD.
MATTRASSES various kinds ; Sofas and Sofa Beds ;
Chairs ; Tables ; Sideboards: Portable Beds and Writing
Desks : Bed and Window Cornices and Curtains ; and every thing
in the CABINET & UPHOLSTERY Line. made on moderate terms .
Mahogany in Boards, Planks and Veneers .
Old FURNITURE Repaired or exchanged for New.
The M in MATTRASSES again is two lines
in height .
While the labels have been discussed
according to what appears to be the most
logical sequence, the versions of the second
label could have conceivably been used in a
different sequence . Further study is now required
whereby the labelled furniture is
grouped based on which label or variation of
label is attached to them . Based on these
groupings, the sequence. for the labels and
their versions will allow a more accurate
dating of Nisbet's labelled and attributed
furniture .
~t
CI, ffjv 1.STE;ItF : : ;
ILL[ A 1 sT11' ~
No'rEs
1 . Charles H . Foss, Cabinetinoke(s of the Eost-
ern Seaboard (Toronto : M. F. Fehelev, 1977) ;
Huia G. Rvder . Antique Furniture-1)y New
Brunslvick Craftsmen (Toronto : McGraw-Hill
Rverson, 1965) ; Donald Blake Webster,
English-Canadian Furniture o( the GeoiKion
Period (Toronto : McGraw-Hill Rverson,
1979) ; Antiques (April 1989) : 942-949 ; T. G.
Dilworth, "'I'homas Nisbet : A Reappraisal of
His Life and Work," Material Histon~ Bulletin
15 (1982) : 77-82 ; Ne.tv Brunstvic.k Courier
(Saint john), 26 April 1834, 7 )une 1834 .
Clothing the Past :
Costume Research at the Canadian Parks Service
GAIL CARIOU
The costume section of the Interpretation
Branch of the Canadian Parks Service headquarters
office in Ottawa was established in
1972 and since then has undergone a numher
of changes which reflect the changing
focus of the branch as a whole .
Originally, the in-house curators and designers
undertook not only site-specific costume
research and planned costume programmes,
but produced the costumes worn
by interpreters at some national historic
sites . By 1979 the number of sites using cos-
72
tume had increased to the point that the resources
of the costurne unit were stretched to
the limit . The increased demand for costumes
resulted in the creation of a costume
resource centre at the headquarters office .
At present, there are approximately 1000
costumed interpreters at 57 historic: and
national parks across the country, representing
periods and themes that range from
eighteenth-century French military establishments
to an earlv_ twentieth-century prairie
farm .
,I'
WA t
Fig . 5
The third version o/'
Nishet ;s second lohel .

Between 1984 and 1986 three of the regional
Parks Service offices hired costume
curators . The responsibility for conducting
site-specific research and for monitoring the
production of costumes by independent contractors
was gradually decentralized to the
regional level . In addition, military curators
in each region are responsible for costume
matters related specifically to military costume
. Fortress Louisbourg, with a costumed
staff of over 100 military and civilian interpreters,
is the only site with its own costume
curator .
At the headquarters level, our staff includes
two costume curators, a costume designer
and a costume resource coordinator.
Occasionally, contract researchers and designers
are hired for specific projects .
Though we are no longer directly involved
with site related matters we provide guidance
on national concerns, including the development
of costume standards and guidelines,
the operation of a research resource
centre, and the compilation of interpretive
activity resource manuals and source lists of
costume reproduction suppliers and contractors
. We also respond to hundreds of inquiries
each year from outside agencies,
researchers and members of the public .
In addition, the costume unit continues to
initiate and conduct a variety of research
projects .'
The changes in the direction of the branch
are reflected in the nature and focus of these
projects .
Though our research is no longer
site specific, we focus on broader social and
historical themes and provide "deep background,"
which, in the hands of the regional
curators, can be applied at site level . For example,
our research on protective foulweather
clothing has application to sites
throughout the system offering winter
programmes .
Another example of one of our recent
major projects is our ongoing work to produce
basic patterns, prototypes and research
reports for a broad range of nineteenthcentury
men's and women's garments which
can be used at appropriate sites across the
system or as new costume programmes are
initiated . Our intention is to represent fully
the range of garment styles worn during the
nineteenth century with patterns adapted to
modern standard size ranges . The accompanying
prototype garments set the standards
for the construction methods used in the
production of these costumes .
Due to the practical limitations of clothing
hundreds of interpreters, individual original
garments are seldom copied stitch-for-stitch,
except for display or education programmes .
Instead, principles and methods of clothing
construction consistent with established
practices of nineteenth-century tailors, dressmakers
and home sewers are applied to authentically
styled and cut patterns . Rather
than focusing exclusively on changes in
style, our recent research has emphasized
the technical aspects of garment cut and construction,
which has been given surprisingly
little attention in the literature . Often, research
on garment construction and production
is limited to descriptions of individual
garments, or is focused on the labour movement
within the garment industry, not on
garment construction .
This specific goal of producing authentically
cut and constructed garments necessarily
directs our attention to original garments .
Our costume documentation files, which
currently include information on several
hundred garments in collections throughout
Canada, England and the United States, as
well as in the Parks Service collection, describe
the garments in detail, from both a
stylistic and technical perspective . These
details are analyzed to establish the predominance
of specific styles and the use of particular
construction techniques . This information
has also been useful in developing
dating chronologies . Unfortunately, everyday
working class garments and those with
known provenance are more rare than we
would wish, and costume collections are
consistently weighted toward the middle
and upper classes . As a result, written and
visual documentary evidence plays an
equally important part in our research strategies,
especially when original garments are
lacking .
These sources include paintings, drawings
and photographs, inventories, letters,
trade and mail-order catalogues, travel literature,
journals and memoirs, newspaper advertisements,
business records, registered
designs, periodicals, and dressmaking and
tailoring construction manuals and patterndrafting
systems .
Though some public repositories are rich
in resources most are weak in some fields,
73

notably in the area of fashion and garment
trade periodicals . Fortunately, in recent years
the Parks Service has assembled a large
collection of original nineteenth-century
women's fashion, needlework and homemaking
periodicals which enjoyed widespread
Canadian readership . A network
of devoted men's costume historians in
England and the United States has provided
us with copies of rare British and American
tailor's periodicals subscribed to by Canadian
tailors . In addition, we have a good collection
of nineteenth-century trade catalogues
and dressmaking and tailoring
construction manuals .
The costume research conducted by the
Interpretation Branch differs from that done
in either a purely academic or a conventional
museum setting in one very specific way :
in a sense our "conclusions" are already
drawn for us . No matter where our research
might lead us, our research strategies and,
consequently, the methods and sources we
use must always conclude with the same
end product : period clothing to be worn by
the interpreters at the historic sites . We cannot
limit our methods to prove a methodological
point, nor can our sources be restricted
to those which can be neatly
74
manipulated . Source limitations must be
compensated for by consulting as wide a
range of sources as necessary to provide the
required answers . In some respects our approach
tends to be closely allied with that of
historical and experimental archaeologists .
We are concerned not only with conducting
costume research but with applying it .
Within the context of a re-created historic
environment, costumes are expected to contribute
to the interpretation of the site in the
same way as other objects . Since a costumed
interpreter is often the first point of contact
for the visitors to a site, the relative impact of
costume may be disproportionately great .
The same stringent standards that apply to
the reconstruction, restoration and furnishing
of historic buildings apply to the costumes
worn in those buildings . Our costume
research reflects the contribution period costume
makes to our interpretation of the past .
NoTE
1 . For more information about the costume re-
sources of the Canadian Parks Service contact
the Interpretation Branch, Canadian
Parks Service, 2630 Sheffield Road, Ottawa,
Ontario, K1A OH3 .
.

Our Contributing Editors
PETER RIDER
The respected editor of one of Canada's leading
history journals once commented that his
authors had left him with few illusions about
human nature . He, in turn, assumed that one
promise in five would be honoured . While
contributors to Material History Review have
demonstrated more reliability than this, the
task of assembling one of our issues is not
without its frustrations and disappointments
. Thus the editors and editorial board
always welcome the temporary assistance of
colleagues who are willing to share the challenges
and rewards that come with working
on this publication .
Readers will quickly note that the content
of the current issue of MHR is significantly
oriented towards the history of costume in
Canada, particularly mass-produced items .
This is due to the efforts of two contributing
editors, Catherine C . Cole and Pam Blackstock
. Both will be known to many of our
readers as senior researchers in their field in
Canada . Catherine is, in addition, a member
of our editorial board . They undertook to arrange
for the preparation and review of several
articles and other material at a time
when both were extremely busy . Pam has
been working on a special project with the
Canadian Parks Service while Catherine has
been completing arrangements for a move to
the Solomon Islands . The editors of MHR are
fortunate to have had the help of these two
dedicated scholars with this issue and wish
to thank them for their endeavours on our
behalf.
Notes and Comments
Notes et commentaires
Nos redactrices invitees
PETER RIDER
Le redacteur en chef 6minent de 1'une des revues
d'histoire les plus importantes du Canada
se plaignait un jour de ce que ses auteurs
lui dvaient laiss6 peu d'illusions sur la nature
humaine . Pour sa part, il s'attendait A ce
que seulement une promesse sur cinq qu'on
lui faisait soit respect6e . Bien que les collaborateurs
et collaboratrices de La revue
d'histoire de ]a culture mat6rielle se soient
montres plus fiables, la tache de rassembler
les 6l6ments de 1'un de ses num6ros n'est pas
sans engendrer des frustrations et des d6ceptions
. Pour cette raison, les responsables de
la r6daction ont toujours fait bon accueil a
1'aide temporaire de coll6gues prets A
partager les joies et les defis de ceux qui travaillent
a la publication .
Les lecteurs et lectrices se rendront vite
compte que le contenu du pr6sent num6ro
de la Revue est ax6 de fagon marqu6e sur
1'histoire du costume au Canada, et plus particuli6rement
des vetements confectionn6s
en s6rie .
Ce num6ro a t;t6 rendu possible
grace aux efforts de deux r6dactrices invit6es,
Catherine C. Cole et Pam Blackstock,
dont les noms seront familiers a plusieurs
d'entre vous en raison de lour contribution
importante a la recherche dans lour domaine
au pays . Catherine est en outre membre
du Comite de r6daction de la Revue . Toutes
deux ont accepte de travailler a la pr6paration
et la r6vision de plusieurs articles et
d'autres textes A une 6poque ou elles 6taient
extremement occupees : Pam travaillait a un
projet sp6cial pour le Service canadien des
parcs, tandis que Catherine se pr6parait a
d6m6nager aux Iles Salomon . La r6daction
de la Revue s'estime heureuse d'avoir pu
compter sur 1'aide de ces deux sp6cialistes
lors de la pr6paration de ce num6ro et tient a
les remercier du devouement dont elles ont
fait preuve .
Material History Review 34 (Fall 1991) / Revue d'histoire de la culture matMelle 34 (automne 1991)
75

Recent Acquisitions, Newfoundland Museum, St . John's
WALTER W. PEDDLE
Recently, the Museum collected a pine picture
frame (Fig . 1) from the town of Cupids,
Conception Bay. The applied rope-twist and
shell carvings link this generously decorated
item to Ireland . The rope-twist motif is commonly
found on buildings in Irish coastal
towns as well as on pieces of Irish furniture .
Shell carvings were used by Irish carpenters
as decorations both on shop fronts and on
furniture . (See Bernard D . Cotton, "Irish Vernacular
Furniture," Regional Furniture 3
(1989)) . The picture frame is finished in several
contrasting colours over a white ground .
The rope-twist carvings are painted bronze ;
the shell carvings and the tiny pyramidshaped
pieces of wood (many of which are
missing) surmounting the chip-carved
crosses are highlighted with a brown pigmented
glaze ; and the remainder of the item
is painted red . The frame measure 34 .5 cm
by 32 .5 cm and was probably made in
Cupids ca 1900 .
The Newfoundland Museum also collected
a nineteenth-century painted pine table
(Fig . 2) with a games board chip-carved on
the surface of the top . This Newfoundlandmade
table was acquired from the Hoddinot
family in Grand Falls . Despite the fact that
the carving (Fig. 3) is covered over with several
layers of paint, it is obvious that it was
executed with great skill . The chip-carving
suggests the influence of Scandinavia and,
perhaps, Ireland . Chip-carving, of course, is a
Scandinavian vernacular device . Shell carv-
76
ings similar to those gracing the corners of
the table top were decorations employed by
Irish carpenters .
At first glance the table itself, unlike the
chip carving, appears to be an unimpressive,
naively assembled, piece of work . When it is
examined carefullV, however, evidence of ingenious
craftsmanship is revealed . The
squared legs, for example, do not simply
pass through the lower shelf. Cut into the
sides of each one is a shoulder or groove, in
which the lower shelf is snugly fitted . More
interestingly, the tops of the legs do not terminate
at the underside of the table as they
appear to do . Instead, each one of the leg
tops is reduced in size so that it forms a
tenon which passes through an open mortise
to rest flush with the top surface of the table .
The visible ends of these through tenons are
chip-carved to match and enhance the other
chip-carved decorations which adorn the top
of the table . They can be seen just in front of
each one of the four shell or fan carvings . A
truly observant individual might notice that
the end of one of these four visible tenons is
Fig . 1
Pine picture frame.
Cupid's, Conception
Bay . Ca 1900 .
s4 .s cfn x 32.s cin .
The applied rope-tivist
and shell carvings link
this decorative itern to
Ireland .
1
Fig . 2
Nineteenth-century
painted pine table with
n gaines board
chip-carved on the
surJace ofthe top .

1
Fig . 3
Chip-carved detail on
the table top.
carved differently that the other three . While
three have a pattern consisting of four loops,
one is favoured with six . Perhaps the carver
first completed the pattern of six loops to be
consistent with what he had already done on
the games board. Having then experienced
the difficulty of carving on endgrain, he prudentlv
decided to make his task easier bv re-
F .~ ;~ .I ~~i~ ~a~r~~~~~~~ .~~~r::~~~>,~~~~~,
r Z r.r11G11 :IN : .N '.,6" .ArA ~ t IN. 'A FA ~(A
Invitation to join the Regional Furniture Society
WALTER W PEDDLE
The Regional Furniture Society was founded
in England in 1985 to promote the study and
appreciation of regional furniture, particularly
that which is commonly called "country"
furniture . In addition to all branches of domestic
furniture, the Society is interested in
furniture made for institutions and places of
work . The Societv is also concerned with the
social history of furniture use and undertakes
inventory analysis, the study of workshop
practices and construction techniques .
The study of vernacular architecture is pursued
since it suggests how furniture styles
arose in relation to house construction, and
how the social use of furniture was dictated
by the layout of the house. Members of the
..r.
~11
\
ducing the number of loops in his pattern to
four .
Another reason the table, itself, may appear
unimpressive at first glance might be
due to the simplicity of its design . Perhaps
the maker chose to keep the design of the
table simple so that it would not compete for
attention with the excellence of his carving .
Society receive regular illustrated newsletters
containing details of relevant exhibitions,
book reviews, articles of general interest
and events such as lectures, conferences,
courses of study and workshops . Each spring
the Society also publishes a scholarly, well
illustrated journal entitled, Regional Furniture,
which is sent to members onlv .
The Regional Furniture Society's interests
are not limited to Britain alone . The study of
other countries' furniture traditions is being
encouraged in the extension of membership
in the commonwealth countries and the
United States . The Society has over 500 memhers
in Britain, between 75 and 100 in the
United States . but only four in Canada, and

the Society would like to have its Canadian
membership increased . Society members reflect
all levels of interest ranging from a mild
fascination for antique furniture to a more serious
interest in material culture generally.
The informative publications and newsletters
mentioned above keep members informed
about the latest developments in furniture
and related research both in Britain
and elsewhere and can provide individuals
interested in finding links between the early
furniture of their particular areas and oldworld
examples, with comparative models .
78
Members also have the opportunity to network
with people having similar interests for
the purpose of exchanging information and/
or pursuing a cooperative project . The cost
of membership is £16 per individual per
year, or £28 for 2 years ; £19 per family or institution
per year, or £34 for 2 years . A
money order in English pounds is required .
Requests for membership along with the
required fees should be sent to : Regional
Furniture Society, c/o Walter W. Peddle,
P.O . Box 282, Spaniard's Bay, Newfoundland,
AOA 3X0.

Thomas J . Schlereth,
Cultural History and Material Culture:
Everyday Life, Landscapes, Museums
ANN GoxMAlv CoNnoN
Schlereth, Thomas J . Cultural History and
Material Culture : Everyday Life, Landscapes,
Museums . Ann Arbor, Michigan : UMI Research
Press, 1990 . xxiv, 440 pp ., 163 illus .
Cloth US$45, ISBN 0-8357-1899-9 .
In his famous inquiry into the implications
of democracy for American development,
the French sociologist Alexis de Tocqueville
expressed grave concern that "amongst
democratic nations . . .
life is generally spent
in eagerly coveting small objects which are
within reach." De Tocqueville feared that
this preoccupation with "the pursuit of comfort"
and physical enjoyment would enervate
the souls of democratic citizens and distract
them from more strenuous, loftier goals . "A
man cannot enlarge his mind as he would
his house," he noted . Small satisfactions,
vulgar pleasures threatened to lull democratic
communities into mediocrity, to confine
their ambitions to easily attainable, petty
desires, so that over time they could "lose
sight of those more precocious possessions
which constitute the glory and the greatness
of mankind" (Alexis de Tocqueville,
Democracy in America, ed . John Stuart Mill
(reprint, New York : Schocken Book, 1961) 2 :
156-8,292) .
De Tocqueville's apprehensions are not
shared by Thomas J . Schlereth. In his latest
publication on material culture studies in
North America, Cultural History and Material
Culture, Schlereth's message once again is
celebratory. Readers familiar with this scholar's
previous work are well aware that over
the past decade he has carved out a unique
position within the material culture field . He
Reviews
Comptes rendus
is our chronicler, our bibliographer, probably
our foremost advocate . At the same time, he
is also our pied piper, a tunesmith whose
siren song invites our diverse collection
of researchers, curators, souvenir hunters,
and museum managers to join hands with
his and dance together into an unspecified
future . This new work exemplifies
Schlereth's dual role . It is both scholarly reference
and siren song . An evaluation of its
importance must address both aspects .
The work divides into two parts . The
largest portion is a series of ten research
essays which use artifactual evidence to explore
themes in American social history .
Most are set in the nineteenth century, often
in Chicago or the American midwest . They
range in subject matter from mail order catalogues
to world's fairs, from urban artisans to
children in photographs, from rural landscapes
to city pavements . Each essay is
gracefully written and unfailingly accompanied
by a connoisseur's collection of apt
photographs, amusing anecdotes, and bibliographical
references .
Yet for all their undeniable technical virtuosity,
these descriptions of encounters
between the American people and their material
possessions lack urgency or bite . They
seem peripheral, devoid of both conflict and
enduring significance . This arises from
Schlereth's lack of interest in the negative
potential, the messy underside of his topics.
For example, did the Chicago World's Fair
mark the moment when Americans shifted
their allegiance from a transcendent Christian
deity to an earthly, man-made electric
generator? Henry Adams, an acute eyewitness,
thought so, but Schlereth's celebratory
Material History Review 34 (Fall 1991) / Revue d'histoire de la culture matErielle 34 (automne 1991)
79

description of the fairs takes no note of this
criticism . Or, how innocent are children's
photographs? Do they merely define childhood
more precisely, as Schlereth suggests,
or do they document the development of
more manipulative, more intrusive adult
controls, as feminists have argued? Even the
chapter on mail-order catalogues, for me the
best read in the entire book, is one-sided .
Schlereth captures the exuberance, the
insouciant commercialism of this new market
device wonderfully well . But the unfortunate
side effects of the catalogues, their
assault on rural culture and the imposition
of middle class, urban values, are missing .
Above all, what about Chicago, the city
whose very name has come to symbolize
American social tensions? Schlereth gives us
the boosters, the planners and the architects,
but no race riots mar his text, no machine
politics, not even a Jane Addams much less
an A1 Capone .
In short, although Schlereth occasionally
refers to such notions as hegemony or patriarchy,
his basic enthusiasm imparts a sunny,
squeaky clean, fourth of July feeling to his
text . Some will find this wholly delightful,
but serious students must question its validity
and its potential influence on material culture
research . Are our explorations of objects
and our exhibits limited to the sunny side of
life? And if so, how far have material culture
studies really come from the sentimental,
pious banalities of the nineteenth century?
Schlereth's evidence is not encouraging
despite all the academic paraphernalia . And
yet in the very same season when this book
was published, a television documentary
series on the American Civil War (Ken
Burns, The Civil War (New York : Florentine
Films, 1990)) was able to use precisely the
same evidence - objects, photographs, and
landscapes - to probe the most fundamental
struggles of our species . War versus peace,
love versus hate, brutality versus tenderness
were depicted with both historical accuracy
and stunning sensitivity .
Why is it that so
much material culture work avoids the big
questions, the ravaging experiences, the leap
into the dark recesses of the human condition?
The problem is clearly not one of
insufficient evidence .
The other, more theoretical portion of this
book is equally troubling . It deals with current
approaches to both the interpretation of
objects and their exhibition within museum
80
settings . Despite the greater density of the
subject matter, the same aura of optimism
and innocence prevails . We get personal
vignettes on the author. He is a farm boy, an
intellectual historian, a gardener, a professor,
an admirer of fine craftsmanship . His job is
simply that of a recorder, a faithful observer,
a fair-minded patron of material research .
Yet beneath this geniality and openness,
the undeniable charm and generosity of
Schlereth's approach, there lies a specific
philosophic assumption and a very purposeful
social agenda . Like the nineteenthcentury
entrepreneurs and curators whom
he admires so much, Schlereth is a positivist
. He genuinely believes that all human
experience can be subjected to laboratory
analysis, to the so-called scientific method . It
follows logically from this assumption that
what material cultural studies and museums
most urgently need is, quite simply, more .
More data, more measurements, more research,
more reviews, more inventories of
objects, photographs, scrapbooks, and landscapes,
more conferences to pool our finds,
more slides to document them, more associations
and more museums to extend their
power .
There is no doubt in Schlereth's mind that
out of this vast, ever increasing assemblage
of objects and data, truth will emerge . A simple,
spontaneous "inquiry approach" to objects
will produce enlightenment . The contribution
of "ordinary people" to history will
become apparent . Progress will ensue . People
will write their own histories . The faith
of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Auguste Comte,
and John Dewey will be vindicated .
This philosophic outlook, this faith, is
widely shared within our field . It emphasizes
quantity over quality, process over
results, doing over thinking, and method
over theory. And it poses two fundamental
challenges : one concerns the allocation of
scarce resources ; the other involves the very
nature of democracy.
To put the first issue bluntly, can museums
afford Schlereth's omnium gatherum
approach to material culture? Competition
for cultural funding is already severe in
Canada and increasingly so in the United
States . Museums must continually demonstrate
their value as keepers of indispensable
collections, teachers of important truths,
sites of culturally meaningful expression and
fulfillment. And their curators, God bless

'em, must be one part entertainer, one part
researcher, one part teacher, and one part
brilliant administrator! This is the real challenge
facing museums today . I was disappointed
that Schlereth had nothing to say
about the training of curators . And I found
his clinging to the image of the museum as a
community attic seriously out of date . Surely
museums must pursue a very different strategy
if they are to survive - consisting of well
defined goals, carefully selected collections,
and profound respect for the intelligence of
museum goers, especially their willingness
to confront hard truths and their need to
probe the complex meaning of the world
they have created .
What is that world created by our democratic
societies? Small objects? Petty pleasures?
A preoccupation with physical ease?
De Tocqueville's forebodings about the
capacity of creature comforts to enervate our
souls seem even more salient today. Yet surely
that is not the whole story. The world is
full of strenuous challenges and many of
them, ironically enough, involve objects . The
generation of electric power, once such an
unquestioned boon, is now a more complicated
part of our lives . The coming of mass
industrial society, with its densely packed
cities and standardized habits of dress and
behavior, has raised new questions about
sexual identity and reduced the number of
safe outlets for our aggressive impulses . The
penetration of less industrialized societies
Catherine C . Cole, ed .,
Norwegian Immigrant Clothing and Textiles
DoxoTHY K . BuRNHAM
Cole, Catherine C., ed . Norwegian Immigrant
Clothing and Textiles . Occasional Paper
no . 1 . Edmonton : Prairie Costume Society
1990 . 113 pp ., 58 illus . Paper $13 .00, ISBN
0-9694539-0-6 .
In May 1987 at the Beaver House Gallery in
Edmonton an interesting gathering took
place . Canadian and American researchers
came together with a Norwegian costume
expert to discuss what information exists
concerning the clothing worn in North
America by Norwegian immigrants and to
with our goods and our gospel of consumption
has provoked both emulation and
exploitation .
One could go on about the poisoning of
the natural world, the destruction of the
landscape, etc . My point is, and I think Tom
Schlereth would agree, that museums and
material cultural studies are ideal sites from
which to contemplate the impact of objects
upon humanity . Such projects are not without
risk, as the recent uproars over the "Into
the Heart of Africa" exhibit at the Royal Ontario
Museum and the Robert Maplethorpe
photography exhibit in the United States
chillingly attest . Perhaps what we need is
not more data, but more courage : a firm
sense of the importance of our cultural mission
and a willingness to contest the role
objects play in what de Tocqueville calls
"the greatness and the glory of mankind."
Schlereth's new book is a superb place to
begin the dialogue which we must all undertake
in order to meet this challenge . Although
I and perhaps others may disagree
with individual points, we must all be grateful
for the range of his subject matter, the
depth of his research, and the profundity of
his commitment. I urge everyone to read it .
They will find new insights in every chapter,
interesting comparisons of Canadian and
American practice, and a truly midwestern
cornucopia of strategies to explore the meaning
of the object .
what extent the textile making skills of the
homeland were utilized as adjustment was
made to a pioneering life . It is not easy to
gather the necessary funds for a publication
and to expend the energy necessary to turn
the passing excitement of a one day seminar
into a permanent contribution but, with this
small book, that has been accomplished .
Congratulations to the Prairie Costume Society
and Catherine C . Cole, editor, and to all
others who have worked on the project .
The publication is well designed, the
cover is attractive, the format excellent but
the type is rather too small for comfort . The
81

size is modest, but within its slender 113
pages there are five important essays concerning
a so-far almost ignored subject . The
essays provide easy and interesting reading
even for the nonspecialist . As the texts are
well supported by footnotes and there is a
long and varied list of suggestions for further
reading, the earnest student will find the
way open to a rich area for costume research .
The scene is set by David Goa, Curator
of Folk Life at the Provincial Museum of
Alberta, Research Fellow of the Calgary Institute
for the Humanities, lecturer in Religious
Studies at the University of Alberta and himself
of Norwegian descent, a combination of
experience that provides rich insights for his
introductory essay. Humour there is but, as
with so many others who found their way to
North America, emigrants from Norway were
making a serious escape from a way of life
that was becoming increasingly difficult both
economically and religiously. Facts are given
concerning areas of settlement, dates and
sizes of the waves of newcomers but, more
importantly, the thrusts back of the decision
to emigrate are brought into focus: a growing
desire for democracy, the spread of education
generating a middle class that had little
to look forward to in Norway and, above all,
the strength of the pietist movement . In ten
very thought provoking pages a firm foundation
is provided for the costume research
contained in the papers that make up the rest
of the book.
The second essay, "Tradition and Transition
: Norwegian Costume from Norway to
the United States 1840-1880," is by the wellknown
authority, Aagot Noss, head curator
and in charge of the folk costume department
at the Norsk Folkemuseum, Oslo . As
indicated by the title, only costumes worn in
Norway and their adaptation to life in the
United States are covered . An interesting
body of information is given and the references
from letters written home are fascinating,
providing rich and very human insights
into the changes the newcomers were facing .
One wishes very strongly that similar quotes
from letters written from Canada could have
been given ; but, in spite of the later time
frame for settlement on this side of the border
much of the information is relevant .
The third article "Immigrant Handweaving
in the Upper Midwest," also concentrates
on the United States . The author, Dr . Carol
Colburn, as a graduate museology student
82
had an internship at Vesterheim in Decorah,
Iowa and the opportunity to study the western
immigrant textile experience . In her
essay, she fits the Norwegian contributions
in with the general picture of development
as that part of the country opened up : home
production, professional work on a local
scale, small factory work and finally, all processes
out of the home and into large factories
. As the area of settlement she deals with
predates the Norwegian presence on the
Canadian prairies, only part of the information
she gives applies directly to a Canadianbased
textile and costume use; nevertheless,
her information provides valuable background
for Canadian Norwegian studies .
The fourth essay, "The Tradition in
Alberta : A Case Study of Valhalla Centre," by
Heather Prince, is apparently based on research
done for a Master's thesis for the
University of Alberta . Valhalla Centre, in
northwestern Alberta, was founded as a Norwegian
Lutheran community by a missionary
-evangelist, Halvor Nilsen Ronning. Where
better to look for Norwegian textile traditions?
The periods of major settlement are of
late date, 1912-1920 and again 1925- 1929 .
Many of the settlers came to Valhalla after
some years in the United States and their old
country traditions had already weakened .
Few of those who came directly from Norway
were still accustomed to wearing distinctive
folk costumes but,' treasured in
various families, Heather Prince discovered
articles of clothing and household textiles
that had been brought when people came
from Norway or that had been sent later by
family members . She also found distinctively
Norwegian taste in the embroidery done
locally for such things as cushion covers and
decorative table linens . It is known that Norwegian
settlers did do simple weaving in
Alberta, but there was no evidence for it in
Valhalla . The spinning of wool was common
in the community and garments knitted from
the homespun yarn show the influence of
Norwegian patterns . In Valhalla Centre after
more than 75 years, ties with Norway were
still strong .
The fifth essay, "The Farvolden Collection
of Norwegian Costumes and Textiles," by
Barbara Schweger of the Boreal Institute for
Northern Studies, describes in considerable
detail material brought by one family who
came from the Telemark region to Alberta.
Most immigrants arrived with few posses-

sions but the Farvolden exit from Norway in
the years following 1922 must have been a
major operation . It seems that nothing was
left behind and the numerous large crates
that came with them contained not only the
useful things needed to start a new life but
family treasures and memorabilia of all
kinds . What remains has now been given to
the Alberta Provincial Museum in Edmonton
and as most pieces have good documentation
they provide a valuable resource for
those interested in Norwegian decorative arts
and costume . Disappointingly, nothing is
recorded concerning the Farvolden's produc-
tion after arrival in Alberta. David Goa, in his
introduction, tells of a baptismal blanket
woven by Nona Farvolden, donor of the collection
to the Museum and to whom this volume
is dedicated, but in Schweger's article
there is not a word of description and no picture
- possibly the article is not photogenic
but it was a bit of a let down that this piece
of documented Norwegian-Canadian weaving
was ignored .
In spite of this last small criticism, this is
an excellent and interesting publication and
one that deserves a wide distribution .
Paul Rutherford,
When Television Was Young: Primetime Canada, 1952-1967
JOHN E. T~NOMEY
Paul Rutherford, When Television Was
Young: Primetime Canada, 1952-1967 Toronto:University
of Toronto Press, 1990 . 637 pp .,
66 illus . Paper $25.95, ISBN 0-8020-6647-X .
Cloth $65 .00, ISBN 0-8020-5830-2 .
At long last students and scholars in the field
of Canadian communications have an indepth
historical analysis of Canadian television
programming even if limited to the
prime time hours (7 pm to 11 pm) and the
monochrome years (1952-67) .
With the exception of the study of Canadian
television drama by M . J . Miller, Tune
Up The Contrast : CBC Television Drama
Since 1952 (Vancouver : UBC Press, 1987)
and F. B . Rainsberry's A History of Children's
Television in English Canada, 1952-1986
(Metuchen, N .J . : Scarecrow Press, 1988)
insights on television programming had to be
fathomed from the published reminiscences
and biases of on-air personalities such as
Knowlton Nash, Peter Trueman, Alex Barris,
Warner Troyer, and Roy Bonisteel .
Paul Rutherford, chairman of the University
of Toronto's history department and
author of several books on Canadian media
history, states his book is an amalgam of
three distinct subjects : 1 . the story "of the
noble experiment of a national programming
service . . .that strove to supply viewers with a
made-in-Canada brand of entertainment,
news and views ;" 2 . the "art of television . . .
broadly defined to include both the styles
and the messages programmers and producers
offered viewers;" and 3 . the answer to the
"McLuhan Question . . . what happens to
society when a new medium of communication
enters the picture?" (pp . 5, 6) .
Rutherford further tells us that his book is
"a viewer's history" focused on "what people
saw in the way of home-grown shows when
they tuned in the TV set" (p . 6) .
The first three chapters are on the structure
of the Canadian system of television and
how it was shaped by CBC/Radio Canada,
CTV and other private broadcasters . The
richness of detail in these chapters indicate
that Rutherford and his team of researchers
thoroughly mined the lode of historical
materials on broadcasting found in periodicals
of the time, government documents and
CBC archives . More data was gathered via
personal interviews and by monitoring
recently created oral history tapes of public
and private broadcasting decision makers .
The larger second part of the book consists
of seven chapters on the genres of prime
time programming . They are reviewed in
chronological order as each genre attained
prominence . Rutherford labelled his five
genres : Information (newscasts, panel discussions,
talk shows, etc .) where the viewer is
83

provided data about reality, Display (variety,
the arts) where performers demonstrate their
talents ; Contests (sports, games, quizzes)
where rules govern the performance of the
participants ; Storytelling (all fictional drama) ;
and Commercials .
He calls his method of reviewing each
genre "close readings," a technique of viewing
analysis based on the semiotic technique
described in Fiske and Hartley's "Reading
Television" (London : Methuen, 1980) . A
research protocol on the "viewing analysis"
technique is provided in an appendix .
Some readers will be disturbed by
Rutherford's approach to his subject. Carefully
measured terms of traditional historians
are not to be found here . Paul Rutherford's
style of exposition is personal, provocative,
opinionated, unequivocal, and colloquial .
For this reader, admittedly once involved as
a CBC middle manager in the events Rutherford
describes, his approach proved totally
engaging . There simply are no dull moments .
In his opening chapter, "A Personal journey,"
readers are given a hint that Rutherford's
personal views will play a significant
part in his book.
Readers will detect my sympathy for the
CBC, especially the English service, which
struggled to meet an impossible mandate as
well as to satisfy public demands . I didn't
begin with that view- but the evidence was
convincing : while CBC made mistakes, its
stubborn persistence and efforts in the
realm of programming were impressive
(p . 8). . .I trust that I've avoided the dangers
of nostalgia, even if this book has the taint
of a personal journey through my past .
There's definitely a particular kind of pleasure,
rare for a historian, in being able to
talk about one's own experiences (p . 9) .
A prime example of Rutherford's pointed
rhetoric is found in his chapter "Expectations,"
which sets the scene for the beginning
of television in Canada . Here a dozen
pages headed "McLunacy?" contain a scathing
critique of Marshall McLuhan .
McLuhan's gospel was too flawed to deserve
favour. His letters show he never understood
why . . .Perhaps more important,
though, students and the fashion-minded
public just got bored with a person whose
insights, however outrageous, were no
longer novel. He suffered, in short, the fate
that awaits any pop star whose image
becomes too stereotyped in the minds of the
fickle audience (p. 37) .
This is an important and timely book, as
the future of CBC's television programming
is once more the centre of debate . Paul
Rutherford's encyclopedic work, 637 pages
supported by dozens of charts, tables, and
photographs, should be a major resource for
anyone hoping to make a meaningful contribution
to defining CBC's future role in Canadian
television .
Garth Clark, Robert Ellison, and Eugene Hecht,
The Mad Potter of Biloxi : The Art and Life of George E. Ohr
American Craft Museum,
George Ohr: Modern Potter (1857-1918)
Canadian Museum of Civilization,
The Turning Point: The Deichmann Pottery (1935-1963)
JOHN B. COLLINS
Clark, Garth, Robert Ellison, and Eugene
Hecht . The Mad Potter of Biloxi : The Art and
Life of George E. Ohr. New York : Abbeville
Press, 1989 . 192 pp ., 300 illus . Cloth US$65,
ISBN 0-89659-927-2 .
George Ohr: Modern Potter (1857-1918) .
American Craft Museum, New York City ;
84
funded in part by the National Endowment
for the New York State Council on the Arts,
and Mr . and Mrs . Thomas C . Dillenberg,
mounted at the Everson Museum of Art of
Syracuse and Onondaga County, Syracuse,
New York, 15 February to 14 April 1991 .
Curator : Dr. Martin Eidelberg

The. Turning Point : The Deichmann Potteiy
(1935-1963) . Canadian Museum of Civilization,
Hull, Quebec, mounted in the Arts and
Traditions Hall .
Curator: Dr. Stephen Inglis
Duration : 17 January 1991 to 1 March 1992
The publication of The. Mad Potter of Biloxi :
the Art and Life of George E. Ohr by Abbeville
Press and the exhibition "George Ohr :
Modern Potter (1857-1918)" curated by Dr.
Martin Eidelberg of Rutgers University for
the American Craft Museum, New York, are
coincidental in time and theme but otherwise
distinct events . Together they reflect
1
a current interest in George Ohr, whose
Fi g . 1
important contribution to the history of
G George Ohr. Tall vase, American art pottery remained obscure until
ca 189.5-1900 . Height, 1972, when over 7 000 pieces of his mature
13 1/2 in . Private work that had been packed away in crates
Collection, New York . were purchased by an antiques dealer from
(From the book reviewed his family in Mississippi .
with the permission of It was in 1972 that the first serious study
Abbeville Press) of American art pottery in the context of the
Arts and Crafts Movement was undertaken
by Dr. Eidelberg in an exhibition organized
Fig . 2
George Ohr. Vase,
ca 189 .5-1 .900.
Height, 7 5/8 in . Private
Collection, New York .
(From the book reviewed
with the permission of
Abbeb7lle Press)
i6 -79
,
by Princeton University, "The Arts and
Crafts Movement in America 1876-1916 ." In
the catalogue . Dr . Eidelberg wrote that this
was an experimental period for art pottery
tending toward oriental influences and
inspired by the ideals of craftsmanship advocated
bv William Morris . The earlier work of
Ohr included in the 1972 exhibition would
appear to fit this description, though Dr .
Eidelberg pointed out the history of the
Biloxi potter was still somewhat unclear .
Unfortunately, with no catalogue to accompany
the current exhibition, Dr . Eidelbere
was not orovided with the oooortunitv
`
to reflect on almost 20 years of study and
awareness of Ohr's work . What makes Ohr
fascinating for us now, and this can be
attributed to the availability of his more
mature work, is that he made beautiful pottery
while breaking the number one rule of
good craftsmanship . Few of the pots, especially
of the later work, could be said to be
entirely useful . Spun to thicknesses of only a
few millimetres, the pots were then folded
into themselves, twisted, crimped or col-
ti 5

lapsed until they were barely recognizable as
functional shapes . Ohr's glazes are colourful,
unpredictable, often combined in unlikely
experimental patterns on a single pot. His
trademark "lava glaze" is a thin red glaze,
that has bubbled, burst and hardened into
crusty glass accretions on the surface . It is at
once visually stimulating, yet deterring to
the touch .
The Abbeville publication, of a very high
production standard and finely illustrated
with colour plates, serves as a good introduction
to Ohr's life and work in the essays
by Eugene Hecht, Robert A. Ellison, Jr. and
Garth Clark . References to dating and chronology
are scattered through all three essays .
This kind of overlay, while allowing for different
interpretations of the facts, is no substitute
for a catalogue raisonne where one
expects a more complete and focused assessment
of how Ohr's life and work affected his
stylistic development . The exhibition attempts
this kind of connoisseurship of Ohr's
work by period, starting off with the earlier
utilitarian and novelty items and ending
with unglazed bisque ware, all arranged in
cases dwarfed under the tall ceilings of the
Everson Museum of Art in Syracuse, New
York, a centre for ceramic studies designed
by I . M. Pei . Many of the more intriguing
pieces from the book are missing from the 82
exhibited works dating from 1882 to 1907 .
The exhibition had originally been conceived
to contain 190 pieces, but this had to
be reduced due to prohibitive insurance
costs .
Each of the essays in the book take on a
different theme with Eugene Hecht concentrating
on Ohr's biography, Ellison on the
sources and context of Ohr's style and Clark
the more difficult issues of artistic expression
and Ohr's use of language, which he
claims in its abruptness, disruption, and
play with conventions anticipates the manifestos
and poetry of the European dada and
futurist movements . Yet Ohr would appear
to have fostered no movement and it is clear
from the handbills referred to that it was not
his intent to propose a radical vision of the
world, beyond the promotion of his own
work as part of it . As all authors point out
Ohr was a proud loner, albeit one of obvious
humour and good will, with few steady patrons
and little to document his work other
than what he embellished for the contemporary,
of which the authors provide plenty of
examples . One of the primary references for
each of the three essays is the autobiographical
article of 1901 in Crockery and Glass
Journal, "Some Facts in the History of a
Unique Personality," illustrated with a photograph
of Ohr grinning behind his 18-inch
waxed moustache .
In Hecht's essay we find that Ohr was the
son of a blacksmith who began his potter's
apprenticeship in 1879 with a New Orleans
potter of utilitarian ware . By 1884 Ohr was
to claim for the benefit of souvenir hunters
that no two pieces he made were alike,
although in reality Ohr produced a substantial
quantity of utilitarian ware to support his
family . During the early 1890s, Ohr began to
manipulate his forms as well as to expand to
colour range of his glazes . Much of this work
was destroyed in a fire of 1894 . The rationale
for the dating of pottery illustrates in the
book is not explained but seems to be broken
into periods, ca 1888-94, ca 1895-1900, ca
1898-1910, based on the style of signature
Ohr used during these years .
Ellison's essay, "'No Two Alike :' The Triumph
of Individuality," is the most satisfying
in its discussion of contemporary sources
that raise questions as to whether Ohr's work
belongs strictly within the context of the Arts
and Crafts Movement . His role model was no
Fig . 3
George Ohc Pitcher,
ca 1895-1900 .
Height : H in . Private
Collection, New Yor
(From the book revii

1
Fig. 4
George Ohc Handled
vase, ca 1895-1900 .
Height : 8 in . Private
Collection, New York.
(From the book reviewed
with the permission of
Abbeville Press)
William Morris, but Bernard Palissy (1510-
90) the French sixteenth-centurv ceramicist
whose eccentric table settings and decorations
for the Royal Court had been published
in the 1850s . Contemporary comparisons
made by Ellison include the line of folded,
bent and indented pots designed by
Christopher Dresser for Linthorpe Pottery
of Middlesborough, England ca 1879-82,
which in the English context is less like art
than novelty or whimsy . In France a more
serious approach to adventurous, high-fired
colours was undertaken by Ernest Chaplet
and Auguste Delaherche . Ellison presents
some convincing comparative illustrations of
the work of Delaherche, as well as tenthcentury
Chinese examples and Greek redfigured
vases to show that Ohr had studied
his field carefully . While Ellison points out
on page 76 that Chaplet and Delaherche
exhibited pieces at the Chicago Worlds'
Columbian Exhibition of 1893, he neglects to
mention what Hecht discussed many pages
before, that George Ohr was there also . Obviously
Ohr recognized the "novelty" trend in
ceramics as a legitimate pursuit for a serious
potter and he didn't hesitate to explore its
expressive limits with the help of traditional
sources .
Ohr's best work both confirms and challenges
the principles of the Arts and Crafts
Movement that had been developing since
the mid-nineteenth centurv . An enthusiasm
for art pottery, produced primarily for aesthetic
or decorative purposes, grew in the
1870s with exposure to imported Japanese
ceramics and intolerance with unappealing
industrially-produced decorative art . To
resolve this problem John Ruskin and
William Morris had advocated that there
should be no distinction between the artist
and artisan or technician, that no decorative
art could be of good quality unless there was
joy in the making, that there should be a
more honest approach to form and ornamentation
and experimentation and exploration
of the full possibilities of materials . In order
to achieve a decorative art with greater aesthetic
value, followers of the Arts and Crafts
Movement turned to nature for inspiration .
Art potters who adhered to the movement
most often interpreted nature as strong, perfect
and fertile in sensuous organic forms
integrated into the decorative scheme of the
vessel . Ohr, however, in his mature work
presents us with a contrary vision of the nat-
ural world as aberrant, wilted, uncontrolled,
while his glazes preserve the failures and
mistakes of nature .
George Ohr's claim that no two of his
pieces were alike was not simply a promotional
slogan to sell souvenirs of Biloxi ; it
also served as a parody of what the Arts and
Crafts ethic had become by the end of the
nineteenth century in the wake of the movement's
popular commercial success . To meet
the demand for their work, American art potteries
such as Rookwood, Greuby and Van
Briggle hired staff to apply prescribed glazing
and decorative painting to pots massproduced
from moulds, forcing art potteries
to embrace the very production techniques
for which they had been founded to provide
an alternative . The attractively decorated,
functional shapes developed by art potters
would eventually be adopted by industry
in the "Machine Art" era of the 1920s and
1930s . At a time when this transition was
underway, Ohr perceived his "babies," as he
called them, as art works that could never be
duplicated by a machine . As he maintained
full control of his pottery from concept to
firing, Ohr should more properly be seen as a
forerunner of the studio-potter .
87

died in 1896 just as Ohr entered his mature
period, would have approved of the Biloxi
Potter's style . Both men's careers were committed
to preserving the artist's role in making
and proposing an alternative to machine
production, but Morris was bound by the
craftsperson's ethic of fitness for purpose and
a romantic obsession with the past . Ohr's
obsession was with what Garth Clark terms
the "theomorphic role" of the potter ; the act
of creation that led Ohr to reveal a degree
of individual presence in the manipulated
forms and experimental glazes that would
have been alien to Morris . Ohr's fortunes,
however, were very much tied to the Arts
and Crafts Movement . His retirement from
the art pottery business in 1915 was a result
not so much of neglect of his work as it was
of a general decline in interest in the handmade
object as industrial production came to
supply the variety and quality of art pottery
at considerably lower prices .
The exhibition, "The Turning Point : The
Deichmann Pottery 1935-1963," at the Canadian
Museum of Civilization from 17 January
1991 to 1 March 1992, provides a unique
opportunity to contrast the art pottery prac-
tice of George Ohr with the next generation
of studio potters represented by the ceramic
work of Kjeld and Erika Deichmann . The
exhibition highlights a major acquisition
from Erika Deichmann-Gregg of work surveying
the couple's early struggle with local
clays to the successful production of domestic
and decorative ware . The ceramic pieces
are supported in the exhibit by sketch books,
photographs, a visitor's register and notebooks
containing glazing recipes . National
Film Board documentaries from the 1950s
are a rich source of information about the
Deichmanns' working methods, though their
continuous play in the exhibition space
tends to be distracting .
Kjeld studied philosophy before travelling
to Paris, Munich and Florence to study
painting and sculpture . Attracted no doubt
by Canada's aggressive immigration campaigns,
he first settled in Saskatchewan
where he met Erika, who was visiting with
her parents . In 1932 the couple moved to
the Kingston Peninsula in New Brunswick
where Kjeld first discovered his interest
in clay. After apprenticing with a Danish potter
in 1934 they returned to the Kingston
Peninsula and built a studio . His training as
88
ment of the pottery is made evident in the
exhibition with the inclusion of charcoal and
pastel studies on paper . One sheet is covered
in quick sketches of shapes for vases, bowls
and plates, another sheet contains working
drawings for the "After Dinner Set" commissioned
in 1951 by the City of Saint John for
Queen Elizabeth 11 . In this drawing the coffee
pot and cups are drawn precisely, and
accompanied by notes as to weight, dimensions
and scale . It is doubtful if Ohr, on the
other hand, ever picked up a pencil to develop
his ideas, as the result seems so much
like the outcome of chance and impulse at
the wheel .
The Deichmanns are recognized today as
Canada's first studio potters and the forerunners
of the craft revival of the 1960s . While
the Deichmanns chose an isolated location
for their studio on the Kingston Peninsula
after their arrival in Canada in 1934, they
maintained close contact with Maritime artists,
as well as colleagues in the Canadian
Guild of Crafts, founded in 1936 . Family
photographs in the exhibition show the couple
with artists Louis Muhlstock and Millar
Brittain . Portraits of Erika by Brittain and
Jack Humphrey from the late 1930s reveal a
fascination with her striking Scandinavian
features . An oil on panel of the potters' studio,
ca 1940, by Peggi Nichol Macleod depicts
the couple hard at work watched by
their three young children . It was under the
auspices of' iho Canadian Guild of Crafts
that the Deichnnanns' exhibition career was
1
Fig . 5
Deichmann Pottery.
plate with animal
design . Stoneware p
1950 . (Courtesy
Canadian Museum ~
Civilization)

Fig . 6
Erika Deichmann . Little
animal. Stoneivare
creature, ("Goofus").
Ca 1957. (Courtesy
Canadian Museum of
Civilization)
launched at the Paris World's Fair in 1937 .
Evidence that the Deichmanns were instrumental
in establishing professional credentials
for the studio potter is provided in the
exhibition with the inclusion of a number of
magazine features including the widely read
Canadian Geographic Journal.
The 70 pieces included in the Canadian
Museum of Civilization exhibition are displayed
in large glass cases with unobtrusive
white metal frames . They sit on raised platforms
of a light wood with a muted grain
finish that works well with the range of glaze
colours . The exhibition catalogue was, unfortunately,
delayed in production, although it
will be available for review in the next issue
of Material History Review . The catalogue
should be of great use in documenting the
Deichmanns' style, which develops discernably
from case to case through the exhibition
. An informative commentarv on techniques
and glaze mixes by Erika Deichmann-
Gregg however, accompanies the labels
of each piece. The case containing the earliest
work from the mid-1930s show the
Deichmanns working with simple forms in
dark glazes inspired by traditional Danish
pottery and fired in a wood-burning furnace .
Examples from the 1940s show a broadened
range of sources evident in the yellow glazed
"Kish" bowl of 1942, inspired by archaeological
excavations of the ancient citv in southern
Iraq, and the "Porringer" bowl of the
same year, recalling a popular form for early
soup or porridge bowls . By the 1950s the
forms of Deichmann pottery had become
more ambitious and freely interpreted . An
example is the 1955 double-flared stoneware
bowl, glazed in copper carbonate with a light
surface colour of alkaline blue .
The cases surveying the period 1955 until
Kjeld's death in 1963 represent the real
maturity of the Deichmann pottery . An
exceptional range of technique and glazings,
including beautiful thrown porcelain pieces
and the use of magnesium carbonate pebble
glazes reflect the Deichmanns' continuing
interest in ceramics as a venue for the application
of aesthetic principles . A statement
made on the occasion of a 1961 exhibition at
University of New Brunswick reflects the
Deichmanns' desire to have their pottery
viewed within the context of current artistic
practice : "Our approach to our work is an
attempt to capture and express the abstract
in line, colour, texture and shape." As craftspeople
the Deichmanns' work remained tied
to tradition of Far Eastern ceramics and the
example of such studio potters as Bernard
Leach, who had studied with the Japanese . A
porcelain bowl from 1959 to 1962, Erika
relates, was gas-fired (in an alternating atmosphere),
"with a widely flanged edge - what
the Chinese call the 'white lip .' " In addition
to the lighter forms of Far Eastern ceramics,
the influence of the freer shapes popularized
in commercial ceramics by such designers as
Russell Wright and Eva Zeisel, are also suggested
in this period . A lamp base shows
that the Deichmanns could adapt traditional
pottery techniques to new and innovative
forms required for the modern household . It
is clear that the functional role of the large
scale pieces contained in the final case in the
exhibit is secondary to the Deichmanns'
interest in decorative form, colour and surface
texture . The tall bulb-shaped porcelain
vase of 1963, for example, would be reminiscent
of the 1930s work inspired by traditional
Danish forms, were it not about a half
metre high and left in the unglazed bisque
state . One can only guess what a few more
years of Deichmann production would have
yielded .
The narrator of the National Film Board
documentary included in the exhibition
broadcasts loud and clear that the
Deichmanns were "working together as families
did ages ago," implying they were not
only reviving a craft, but a way of life that
was contrary to the urban . industrial boom of

the 1950s, just as George Ohr in his time was
proud that no machine would ever duplicate
his work . One of the last nanels in "The
l;uratorial Ntatemel
The 7lirning Point:
The Deic6mann Potter
STEPHEN INGLIS
In January, 1991, "The Turning Point : The
Deichmann Pottery (1935-1963)," an exhibition
on Canada's first studio potters, opened
at the Canadian Museum of Civilization . In
March 1992 it will begin travelling to six
other locations across Canada . This statement
outlines the background to the exhibit
project, the collection on which it is based
and the c:uratorial objectives .
In the Spring of 1987, Erica Deichmann-
Gregg of Fredericton, New Brunswick, came
to Ottawa to receive the Order of Canada in
recognition of her pioneering contribution
to the crafts in Canada . During her stay, we
met and she agreed to facilitate an acquisition
by the CMC of ceramics spanning her
Turning Point" contains a quote by Kjeld 1
Deichmann that expresses sentiments close
to George Ohr's claim of no two alike : "The
real craftsman is essentially an experimenter
who dislikes repeating himself. He is happiest
when he is creating fresh designs and
finding new ways of expressing old truths ."
It is clear from the publication and exhibition
reviewed that Ohr was indebted to traditional
practice, but there was also a provocative
side of his work that explored the
structural and functional limits of the medium,
limits that the Deichmanns would
appear to have adhered to faithfully. While
Ohr's example of independence and insistence
on the integrity of his craft as an
avenue for personal expression reflect the
influence of William Morris and look forward
to the generation of studio potters that
included the Deichmanns, he did not share
with them the craftsperson's love of detail,
but was rather more interested in the expressive
gesture . This lead to a body of work that
sometimes obscures the delineations
between pottery and sculpture and places
Ohr's example closer to the work that dealt
with problems of formalism during the craft
revival of the 1960s .
ueicnmann . in ixovemuer iaaa, i iraveiieu w
Fredericton and selected 64 pieces from
Mrs . Deichmann-Gregg's personal collection,
which were acquired by the CMC through
donation and purchase . I returned to New
Brunswick again in the summer of 1990 . It is
this collection with its accompanying documentation
that was on exhibit in the Fine
Crafts Gallery of CMC's Arts and Traditions
Hall, and presented in the catalogue released
in June 1991 .
The collection is significant because it
documents the Deichmanns' entire career
from first firing to last and because it is fully
described by the artist . Some of these pieces
were retained for the 55 vears since the
*. ., ,~ .~ . ,_
Fig. 7
Deichmann Pottery.
Tall balb-shaped vase
Porcelain vessel, 1963
Gift of Mrs . Erika
Deir,hmanr}-Gregg .
(Com-lo,;v Canadian
Mu .srurn ~)/ Civilizalio

served for the 27 years since their production
ceased . Although other examples of
Deichmann ceramics exist, in public collections
in New Brunswick and Ontario and in
private hands, this is probably the most
important single group of work .
The Deichmanns are widely acknowledged
tobe the first studio potters in Canada ;
that is, the first to set up a studio, kiln and
other facilities, which enabled them to produce
a personalized series of domestic and
decorative art pottery as a means of making a
living . In this sense, they are the precursors
of virtually all the contemporary ceramists
represented in our fine crafts collection . The
collection and exhibit in this way provide an
historical perspective on our collection, on
those of other institutions and on those of visitors
who own or collect Canadian ceramics .
The exhibition project had four main
objectives . The first was to document the
development and scope of the Deichmanns'
ceramic production . The thematic focus here
was the development of the career of Erica
and Kjeld Deichmann as exemplified by
their work, from rough ware made with local
clays and fired with wood in the 1930s to the
more sophisticated forms, surfaces, colours
and techniques which characterized their
final work in the early 1960s . Emphasis was
placed upon the vast range in quality, style
and function of work during their career,
their constant experimentation with clay
composition and glaze types (over 3 500
glaze tests), and the division of labour by
which Kjeld did the throwing and Erica the
painting and glazing .
This thematic focus was developed by
arranging the collection chronologically,
highlighting the earliest, latest and bestknown
pieces . In addition, the technical
developments and innovations are described
in the artist's own words (from Erica's taped
descriptions) . The working processes are
presented through excerpts from taped interviews
and historical photographs of Erica
and Kjeld working in their studio . Film
footage of the Deichmanns at work augments
the photographs .
A second objective was to examine aspects
of the history of the studio crafts movement
in Canada . The thematic focus here
was the pioneering role of the Deichmanns
in the studio crafts in Canada and on their
work within the wider context of the crafts
movement. Their innovative ceramic work is
emphasized as is their search for markets
and contacts . We have used interview transcriptions
which describe these searches .
The Deichmanns were instrumental in
gaining support for craftspeople . Excerpts
from their brief to the 1951 Massey Commission
on the Arts are included . Historical
photos of the pioneering demonstrations and
workshops in Montreal and New York, for
example are displayed as are early magazine
articles and film footage on their work and
contribution to Canadian art and tourism in
New Brunswick .
A third objective was to identify the social
and cultural context of the Deichmanns'
work and lifestyle . The thematic focus here is
the artistic milieu in which the Deichmanns
worked. Through them, the contact between
the crafts movement and the wider artistic
movement in Canada is explored . Their circle
of friends in New Brunswick included
Millar Brittain, Jack Humphrey, and Kay
Smith among other painters, photographers
and supporters of the arts who frequently
visited and stayed with them .
The artistic energy of this "salon" in the
Maritimes is highlighted by original drawings
and paintings of the Deichmanns by
other artists, most of which were originally
exchanged for ceramics . We have also included
photographs of these friends together .
Beyond this, their position as important pioneers
in the crafts and as respected citizens
of New Brunswick is recorded through
examples of their commissioned work, particularly
for the Royal Visit of 1951 .
A fourth objective was to contribute to the
recognition of various cultural groups in
Canada . The thematic focus here involves
the Deichmanns' Danish origin and the
influence of this heritage on their work . This
was developed through text drawn from interviews
with Erica Deichmann referring to
their origins . Attention is given to the Scandinavian
design elements evident in their
ceramics, particularly in the painted designs .
We have also included personal and professional
memorabilia referring to Denmark, as
well as family photographs. This theme is
also alluded to in the exhibit design by use
of Scandinavian influenced elements, for
example, "Danish modern" furniture, which
became extremely popular in Canada during
the latter part of the Deichmanns' career.
91

Through this project, we suggested an important
Danish-Canadian contribution to the
arts in Canada .
This project furthers our efforts to document
the social and cultural context and
meaning of the arts and crafts in Canada
92
by focusing on the "pioneers" of the studio
crafts movement. In this case, this study of
the Deichmanns' career builds a useful foundation
to the appreciation of the work of
over 100 Canadian studio ceramists currently
represented in our collections .

JACQUELINE BEAUDOIN-ROSS is Curator of
Costumes and Textiles at the McCord Museum
of Canadian History, Montreal .
PAMELA BLACKSTOCK is Senior Curator
(Costumes) with the National Historic Sites,
Interpretation Branch, Canadian Parks Service,
Ottawa . She is currently on an eighteenmonth
assignment with the Interpretation
Branch's Visitor Activities division
PAMELA BUELL is a curator with the
Ontario Region of the Canadian Parks Service
in Cornwall, Ontario . She was previously
Director of Heritage House Museum in
Smiths Falls, Ontario, and Education Officer
at the Diefenbaker Centre at the University of
Saskatchewan, Saskatoon .
DOROTHYK. BURNHAM, formerly Curator of
Textiles at the Royal Ontario Museum and
currently Research Associate at the Canadian
Museum of Civilization, has had a long and
distinguished career in research and publishing
.
GAIL CARIOU is the Costume Curator in the
Interpretation Branch of the Canadian Parks
Service, Ottawa .
CATHERINE C . COLE, former Curator of
Western Canadian History for the Provincial
Museum of Alberta, is currently preparing
to replace Barbara Riley as Cultural Affairs
Advisor for the Western Province of the
Solomon Islands . Catherine has served on
the Editorial Board of the Material History
Review since 1987 .
JOHN B. COLLINS is Curatorial Assistant,
Twentieth Century Art and Design, at the National
Gallery of Canada . His graduate work
at Carleton University was on Canadian industrial
design .
Contributors
Collaborateurs
ANN GORMAN CONDON is a Professor of
History at the University of New Brunswick
(Saint John) and is coordinator of the Materi-
al History Programme . Her research interests
extend as well to the Loyalists in Canada .
Tim G. DILWORTH is a Professor of Biology
at the University of New Brunswick,
Fredericton and a Research Associate in the
Curatorial Division at Kings Landing Historical
Settlement near Fredericton .
MARIE DURAND est une ethnologue ind6pendante
qui s'interesse plus particulierement
aux vetements et aux textiles . Elle d6tient
une maitrise en ethnologie de 1'Universit6
Laval avec sp6cialisation en culture
mat6rielle .
STEPHEN INGLIS is Chief, and Curator of the
South and West Asia Programme, at the
Canadian Centre for Folk Culture Studies at
the Canadian Museum of Civilization .
WALTER W. PEDDLE is Curator of History at
the Newfoundland Museum and an expert in
the vernacular furniture of Newfoundland .
THERESA ROwAT has held a number of
posts at the National Archives of Canada
since 1980, including Photo-archivist and
Curator of Costume Documentation . She is
currently working in the Public Programmes
Branch .
CATHERINE ROY, a custom tailor for ten
years, completed her M.Sc . in costume history
in 1990 and is the Acting Curator of the
Clothing and Textile Collection at the University
of Alberta .
JOHN E. TWOMEY is a retired Professor
of the School of Radio and Television Arts,
Ryerson Polytechnical Institute, Toronto .
Material History Review 34 (Fall 1991) / Revue d'histoire de ]a culture mat6delle 34 (au tomne 1991)
93

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