Broadening Horizons 3. Conference of Young Researchers - Khalili ...
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Ferran Borrell Tena, Mònica Bouso García, Anna Gómez Bach,<br />
Carles Tornero Dacasa & Oriol Vicente Campos (eds.)<br />
<strong>Broadening</strong> <strong>Horizons</strong> <strong>3.</strong> <strong>Conference</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Young</strong> <strong>Researchers</strong> Working in the<br />
Ancient Near East<br />
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona<br />
Servei de Publicacions<br />
Bellaterra, 2012<br />
001-352 <strong>Broadening</strong> horizons.indd 5 17/07/2012 16:38:25
Dades catalogràfiques recomanades pel Servei de Biblioteques<br />
de la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona<br />
<strong>Broadening</strong> <strong>Horizons</strong> 3 : <strong>Conference</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Young</strong> <strong>Researchers</strong> Working in the Ancient Near East / Ferran Borrell Tena,<br />
... [et al.] (eds.) — Bellaterra (Barcelona) : Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Servei de Publicacions, 2012. —<br />
(Congressos de la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona; 8)<br />
ISBN 9788449028861<br />
I. Borrell Tena, Ferran ed.<br />
1. Orient Mitjà - Història - Congressos<br />
935<br />
CODI IBIC: HBJF1<br />
Organitzat per:<br />
Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona<br />
Amb el suport de:<br />
Departament de Cultura, Generalitat de Catalunya<br />
Composició:<br />
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Edició:<br />
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Tel. 93 581 10 22<br />
Fax 93 581 32 39<br />
sp@uab.cat<br />
http://publicacions.uab.cat<br />
Impressió:<br />
Anmar<br />
Fotografia de la coberta:<br />
© Anna Gómez<br />
ISBN 978-84-490-2886-1<br />
Dipòsit legal: B. 18.918-2012<br />
Imprès a Espanya. Printed in Spain<br />
001-352 <strong>Broadening</strong> horizons.indd 6 17/07/2012 16:38:26
Summary<br />
<strong>Broadening</strong> <strong>Horizons</strong> 3<br />
F. Borrell, M. Bouso, A. Gómez, C. Tornero & O. Vicente (eds.)<br />
Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11<br />
Josep Manuel Rueda Torres<br />
Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13<br />
Manel López-Béjar<br />
Introduction .to .the .<strong>Broadening</strong> <strong>Horizons</strong> 3 .<strong>Conference</strong> .Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . 15<br />
Ferran Borrell, Mònica Bouso, Anna Gómez, Carles Tornero, Oriol Vicente<br />
The .Italian .Prehistoric .Survey .in .the .Jazr .(Idlib .District-North .West .Syria) . .<br />
Preliminary .Investigation .<strong>of</strong> .human .occupation .from .Paleolithic . .<br />
to .Chalcolithic .times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19<br />
Claudia de Gregorio, Massimiliano Pepe, Daniele Aureli<br />
Les .derniers .chasseurs-cueileurs .et .les .premiers .agriculteurs .dans .le .Leja . .<br />
(Syrie .du .Sud): .nouvelles .donnees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33<br />
Joana Boix, Khaled Abdo<br />
Taphonomic .agents .in .the .formation .<strong>of</strong> .mortuary .deposits: .excavation . .<br />
methods .and .treatment .<strong>of</strong> .human .bones .at .the .pre-pottery .neolithic . .<br />
sites .<strong>of</strong> .Bal’as .and .Tell .Halula .(Syria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47<br />
Anabel Ortiz, Bérénice Chamel<br />
Quantitative .analysis .<strong>of</strong> .use-wear .patterns: .a .functional .approach .to .the . .<br />
study .<strong>of</strong> .grinding .stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63<br />
Maria B<strong>of</strong>ill<br />
Sourcing .the .flint .raw .materials .found .at .the .Neolithic .complex .<strong>of</strong> .Mamarrul . .<br />
Nasr .(Douara .Basin, .Syria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85<br />
Ferran Borrell, Oriol Vicente<br />
Les .foyers .de .Tell .Aswad .et .leurs .modes .de .cuisson .possibles . .Essai .de . .<br />
reconstitution .des .pratiques .domestiques .et .sociales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101<br />
Diaa Eddin Albukaai<br />
001-352 <strong>Broadening</strong> horizons.indd 7 17/07/2012 16:38:26<br />
7
8<br />
Summary<br />
Tell .al-Baharia: .an .important .site .in .the .Damascus .basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113<br />
Ghada Sulaiman<br />
A .northeast .African .‘Preformal’ .perception .<strong>of</strong> .‘Formal’ .space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123<br />
Martin Uildriks<br />
Burial .practices .in .the .middle .Euphrates .area .during .the .early .Bronze .Age: . .<br />
The .contribution .<strong>of</strong> .the .hypogeum .<strong>of</strong> .Tell .Ahmar .(North .Syria) . . . . . . . . . . 137<br />
Cristina Baccarin<br />
Urbanism, .social .organization .and .economic .dynamics .in .third .millennium . .<br />
BC .Northern .Palestine .and .Transjordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151<br />
Elisabetta Gallo, Valentina Tumolo<br />
Fortification .and .burial .grounds .in .Tell .Afis .(Syria) .between .middle . .<br />
Bronze .Age .and .Late .Bronze .Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169<br />
Angelo di Michele, Maria Elena Pedrosi<br />
Satellites, .surveys .and .site .destruction: .using .satellite .imagery .to .monitor . .<br />
damage .to .archaeological .sites .in .Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183<br />
Emma Cunliffe<br />
Did .the .assyrians .occupy .the .Euphrates-elbow .in .the .Middle .Assyrian . .<br />
period .(Late .Bronze .Age)? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203<br />
Jaume Llop-Raduà<br />
Géographie .sacrée .dans .l’Égypte .Ancienne: .méthodologie .et .perspectives . .<br />
à .partir .de .l’étude .du .territoire .des .deux .sceptres-w#s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227<br />
Núria Torras Benezet<br />
The .Neo-Assyrian .and .Post-Assyrian .Settlement .in .the .Leilan .Region . .<br />
(North-Eastern .Syria) . .The .evidence .from .the .pottery .from .the .Tell . .<br />
Leilan .regional .survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243<br />
Katia Gavagnin<br />
Recent .finds .in .the .Beqa .Valley .(Lebanon): .The .last .columns .<strong>of</strong> .the .Brisa . .<br />
inscription .in .Old-Babylonian .Script .(WBA) .<strong>of</strong> .Nebuchadnezzar .II . .<br />
(605-562 .BC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259<br />
Rocío Da Riva<br />
001-352 <strong>Broadening</strong> horizons.indd 8 17/07/2012 16:38:26
<strong>Broadening</strong> <strong>Horizons</strong> 3<br />
F. Borrell, M. Bouso, A. Gómez, C. Tornero & O. Vicente (eds.)<br />
Architects .and .engineers .in .Babylonia .in .the .mid .First .Millennium .B .C .: . .<br />
some .considerations .on .the .form, .development .and .function .<strong>of</strong> .the . .<br />
“salle .à .quatre .saillants” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271<br />
Riccardo la Farina<br />
Discontinuous .developments .in .settlement .patterns .and .socio-economic/ .<br />
political .relations .on .the .Malatya .Plain .in .the .4 th .and .3 rd .millennia .BC . . . . . 289<br />
Marcella Frangipane, Gian Maria di Nocera<br />
Rhythms .<strong>of</strong> .the .past: .Time .and .memory .at .late .Neolithic .Domuztepe . . . . . . . . 305<br />
Stuart Campbell<br />
Neolithic .Middle .East: .notes .on .the .neolithic .process .in .the .middle .Euphrates . .<br />
valley .and .the .contribution .made .by .the .Tell .Halula .(Syria) .project . . . . . . . . 325<br />
Miquel Molist<br />
Quo Vadis .young .researcher? .Archaeological .research .in .the .Near .East .from .<br />
a .young .researcher’s .perspective .and .trajectory .<strong>of</strong> .the .<strong>Broadening</strong> .<strong>Horizons</strong> .<br />
<strong>Conference</strong>s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343<br />
Ferran Borrell, Mònica Bouso, Anna Gómez, Carles Tornero, Oriol Vicente<br />
001-352 <strong>Broadening</strong> horizons.indd 9 17/07/2012 16:38:26<br />
9
F. Borrell, M. Bouso, A. Gómez, C. Tornero & O. Vicente (eds.), <strong>Broadening</strong> <strong>Horizons</strong> <strong>3.</strong> <strong>Conference</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Young</strong> <strong>Researchers</strong><br />
Working in the Ancient Near East. Congressos 8. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Servei de Publicacions. Bellaterra (2012).<br />
Sourcing the flint raw materials found at the<br />
Neolithic complex <strong>of</strong> Mamarrul Nasr (Douara<br />
Basin, Syria)<br />
Ferran Borrell<br />
School <strong>of</strong> Arts, Histories and Cultures, University <strong>of</strong> Manchester.<br />
SAPPO. Departament de Prehistòria, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona.<br />
Oriol Vicente<br />
SAPPO. Departament de Prehistòria, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona.<br />
Abstract<br />
This paper aims to establish the origins <strong>of</strong> the flint raw materials used in the newly discovered<br />
Neolithic complex at Mamarrul Nasr 2. Flint artefacts from Mamarrul Nasr 2 and<br />
the nearby flint outcrops have been sampled and the results compared using petrographic<br />
techniques. Thin sections from both the archaeological and geological samples showed no<br />
significant differences in their mineral and fossil content. All the features observed were<br />
very similar and it can be stated with confidence that Eocene flint (Arak Flint horizon)<br />
was the only raw material used at Mamarrul Nasr.<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The .area .under .investigation .has .not .been .reviewed .since .the .late .1980s .and .the .beginning<br />
.<strong>of</strong> .1990s, .when .a .model .was .designed .to .account .for .the .Neolithisation .<strong>of</strong> .the .<br />
region .within .the .broader .context .<strong>of</strong> .the .Northern .Levant .(Cauvin .1981; .1987-88; .<br />
Stordeur .1993; .2000) . .The .vast .semi-desert .central .Syrian .steppe .is .a .region .where .<br />
the .Neolithisation .process .was .not .documented .until .a .later .stage, .compared .with .<br />
other .regions, .from .the .Neolithic .period . .It .is .also .considered .to .have .been .sparsely .<br />
inhabited .from .the .end .<strong>of</strong> .the .9 th .millennium .cal . .BC .until .the .very .end .<strong>of</strong> .the .8 th .millennium<br />
.(Akazawa .1979a; .1979b; .Cauvin .1981; .1987-88; .Stordeur .1993; .2000) . .<br />
However, .after .7000 .cal . .BC, .archaeological .evidence .<strong>of</strong> .occupation .was .abundant, .<br />
especially .in .the .El .Kowm .region, .where .a .series .<strong>of</strong> .well .stratified .sites .(Qdeir .1, .El .<br />
Kowm .2 .and .Umm .el .Tlel), .dating .to .the .first .half .<strong>of</strong> .the .7 th .millennium .cal . .BC .(Fi-<br />
001-352 <strong>Broadening</strong> horizons.indd 85 17/07/2012 16:38:45<br />
85
86<br />
Ferran Borrell and Oriol Vicente<br />
Sourcing the flint raw materials found at the Neolithic complex <strong>of</strong> Mamarrul Nasr (Douara Basin, Syria)<br />
nal .PPNB), .were .excavated . .Furthermore, .a .high .number .<strong>of</strong> .Neolithic .flint .factory .<br />
sites .were .discovered .by .the .University .<strong>of</strong> .Tokyo .during .the .1960s .and .1970s .in .the .<br />
Douara .and .Palmyra .basins .(Akazawa .1979b) .which .were .dated .to .the .first .half .<strong>of</strong> .the .<br />
7 th .millennium .cal . .BC . .Although .some .researchers .had .previously .proposed .that .the .<br />
Douara .area .may .have .been .densely .occupied .during .the .PPNB .(Akazawa .1979b, .<br />
216; .Fujii .1986; .Fujii .et .al . .1987; .Nishiaki .2000, .94) .<br />
Four .seasons .<strong>of</strong> .fieldwork .including .field .survey, .topographic .studies, .excavation .<br />
and .a .study .season .have .been .undertaken .since .2006 .by .the .Universitat .Autònoma .<br />
de .Barcelona, .Paris .Ouest .Nanterre .la .Défense .and .the .General .Directorate .<strong>of</strong> .Museums<br />
.and .Antiquities .<strong>of</strong> .Syria .in .the .Douara .Basin .(Central .Syrian .Desert) .(fig . .1) . .<br />
The .project .focused .on .gaining .new .insights .into .the .Neolithic .period .<strong>of</strong> .the .central .<br />
Syrian .Desert, .where .there .was .an .evolution .that .differed .from .the .mainstream .processes<br />
.<strong>of</strong> .Neolithisation .observed .in .the .Euphrates .and .Tigris .valleys . .In .conducting .<br />
fieldwork .in .the .Douara .Basin, .a .better .understanding .<strong>of</strong> .the .Neolithic .period .<strong>of</strong> .<br />
that .region .has .been .obtained, .which .has .contributed .to .an .appreciation .<strong>of</strong> .the .heterogeneity<br />
. and . complexity . <strong>of</strong> . the . Neolithisation . process . in . the . Northern . Levant .<br />
(Borrell .2011; .Borrell .et .al . .2011; .in .press) . .This .paper .summarises, .by .way .<strong>of</strong> .background,<br />
.the .recent .discovery .<strong>of</strong> .a .concentration .<strong>of</strong> .Neolithic .sites .in .the .Mamarrul .<br />
Nasr .passage .(Douara .Basin); .it .then .goes .on .to .describe .the .flint .deposits .identified .<br />
Figure 1: Location <strong>of</strong> Mamarrul Nasr and other major Neolithic sites <strong>of</strong> the Northern Levant.<br />
N<br />
Ceyhan River<br />
Ras Shamra<br />
TURKEY<br />
el-Kerkh 2<br />
Orontes River<br />
Aleppo<br />
Nebi Mend<br />
SYRIA<br />
Gürcütepe<br />
Mezraa Teleilat<br />
Akarçay Tepe<br />
Halula<br />
Mureybet<br />
Balikh River<br />
Abu Hureyra<br />
Seker al-Aheimar<br />
Assouad<br />
Damishliyya<br />
Sabi Abyad<br />
Qdeir 1<br />
Umm el Tlel<br />
El Kowm 2<br />
MAMARRUL NASR<br />
Palmyra Douara Cave II<br />
Thaniyyet Wuker<br />
Euphrates River<br />
200 km<br />
Khabour River<br />
Tell Es-Sinn<br />
Bouqras<br />
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<strong>Broadening</strong> <strong>Horizons</strong> 3<br />
F. Borrell, M. Bouso, A. Gómez, C. Tornero & O. Vicente (eds.)<br />
in .the .Douara .Basin .and .finally .presents .the .initial .results .obtained .from .petrographic<br />
.analyses .<strong>of</strong> .both .archaeological .and .geological .samples .in .order .to .identify .the .flint .<br />
raw .materials .and .the .general .patterns .and .extent .<strong>of</strong> .their .use .during .the .Neolithic .<br />
period .<br />
2. The Neolithic complex <strong>of</strong> Mamarrul Nasr<br />
The .research .focused .on .field .surveys .along .the .northern .side .<strong>of</strong> .the .Jebel .Douara .<br />
(fig . .2) . .A .substantial .Neolithic .occupation .was .indicated .by .a .concentration .<strong>of</strong> .<br />
small .Pre-Pottery .sites .in .the .northern .passage .which .connects .the .Douara .Basin .<br />
and . the . flat . steppe . lands . between . Jebel . Douara . and . the . Palmyrides . mountains, .<br />
called .Mamarrul .Nasr .(Eagle’s .Passage) .(Borrell .et .al . .2011) . .Eleven .extremely .high .<br />
concentrations .<strong>of</strong> .flint .scatters .were .identified .under .rock .shelters .(Mamarrul .Nasr .<br />
1 .to .8, .11, .12 .and .13) .and .one .concentration .<strong>of</strong> .lithic .artefacts .in .a .cave .(Mamarrul .<br />
Nasr . 10) . . A . large . semi-circular . dry . stone . wall . attached . to . a . bigger . rock . shelter .<br />
(Mamarrul .Nasr .9) .was .also .found . .Finally, .a .huge .structure .identified .as .a .desert-<br />
Figure 2: Map <strong>of</strong> the Douara Basin showing the location <strong>of</strong> the flint factory sites without pottery<br />
identified by the University <strong>of</strong> Tokyo team, the cluster <strong>of</strong> sites found at Mamarrul Nasr and the<br />
known flint outcrops (modified map from 2009 Google Earth ©).<br />
Syria<br />
38<br />
Douara Cave II<br />
Mamarrul Nasr<br />
F3<br />
36<br />
34 33<br />
F2<br />
35<br />
1 km<br />
Flint Factory Sites Mamarrul Nasr Sites Flint Outcrops<br />
001-352 <strong>Broadening</strong> horizons.indd 87 17/07/2012 16:38:46<br />
F1<br />
87
88<br />
Ferran Borrell and Oriol Vicente<br />
Sourcing the flint raw materials found at the Neolithic complex <strong>of</strong> Mamarrul Nasr (Douara Basin, Syria)<br />
Figure 3: General view <strong>of</strong> Mamarrul Nasr 2 after the test pit.<br />
kite .(Mamarrul .Nasr .14) .was .found .in .the .lower .part .<strong>of</strong> .the .passage .itself . .It .is .<br />
worth .mentioning .that .chipped .flint .was .the .only .material .found .on .the .surface .<strong>of</strong> .<br />
any .<strong>of</strong> .the .sites . .The .flint .used .seems .to .have .been .the .same .at .all .sites . .The .selected .<br />
raw .material .was .an .excellent .material .for .knapping; .it .was .light .brown .to .dark .<br />
brown-black .in .colour .and .had .a .chalky .cortex . .No .pottery .or .white .ware .sherd .or .<br />
other .evidence .<strong>of</strong> .later .occupation .was .found .during .the .two .field .surveys . .It .was .<br />
also .remarkable .that .no .trace .<strong>of</strong> .earlier .occupation .was .found .during .the .surveys, .<br />
although .evidence .<strong>of</strong> .earlier .periods .was .abundant .in .the .Douara .Basin .itself .(Akazawa<br />
.1979a) . .<br />
In .2008, .Mamarrul .Nasr .2 .was .pit .tested .(fig . .3) . .Rich .archaeological .deposits, .40 .<br />
cm .deep, .were .found .from .surface .to .bedrock .from .which .nearly .10,000 .flint .artefacts .<br />
were .recovered . .The .flint .was .brown, .fine-grained .as .described .above, .and .macroscopically<br />
.there .was .an .apparent .lack .<strong>of</strong> .variability .within .the .assemblage .<br />
The .study .<strong>of</strong> .the .lithics .from .Mamarrul .Nasr .2 .and .a .preliminary .investigation .<strong>of</strong> .<br />
the .material .found .on .surface .at .the .rest .<strong>of</strong> .the .sites .revealed .a .lack .<strong>of</strong> .variability .<br />
within .the .assemblages .(fig . .4) . .The .technology .was .extremely .consistent .and .the .reduction<br />
.trajectory .was .blade-oriented .with .opposed-platform .cores . .Diagnostic .traits .<br />
<strong>of</strong> . a . specific . bi-directional . reduction . sequence . termed . the . “<strong>of</strong>f-set . bi-directional .<br />
strategy” .were .identified .at .Mamarrul .Nasr .2 .and .at .the .other .sites .located .in .Mamar-<br />
001-352 <strong>Broadening</strong> horizons.indd 88 17/07/2012 16:38:48
<strong>Broadening</strong> <strong>Horizons</strong> 3<br />
F. Borrell, M. Bouso, A. Gómez, C. Tornero & O. Vicente (eds.)<br />
Figure 4: Central bi-directional blade (1), end-scraper (2), dihedral burin (3), opposed-platforms<br />
core (4) and broken Byblos point (5).<br />
001-352 <strong>Broadening</strong> horizons.indd 89 17/07/2012 16:38:50<br />
89
90<br />
Ferran Borrell and Oriol Vicente<br />
Sourcing the flint raw materials found at the Neolithic complex <strong>of</strong> Mamarrul Nasr (Douara Basin, Syria)<br />
rul .Nasr . 1 .The .relative .date .(no .C14 .dates .were .avaliable .at .this .point .in .the .research) .<br />
<strong>of</strong> .Mamarrul .Nasr, .was .established .at .between .the .end .<strong>of</strong> .the .8 th .millennium .cal . .BC .<br />
and .the .first .quarter .<strong>of</strong> .the .7 th .millennium .cal . .BC .(Late-Final .PPNB) .(Borrell .2011; .<br />
Borrell .et .al . .2011) . .This, .together .with .the .apparent .absence .<strong>of</strong> .both .earlier .and .later<br />
.occupation, .led .to .the .proposal .that .there .was .a .certain .degree .<strong>of</strong> .contemporaneity .<br />
between .the .sites .and .suggested .that .Mamarrul .Nasr .was .a .Neolithic .complex .comprising<br />
.a .series .<strong>of</strong> .different .types .<strong>of</strong> .inter-related .sites, .where .flint .tool .production .<br />
was .an .important .activity .<br />
Comparison .<strong>of</strong> .the .lithic .assemblages .from .Mamarrul .Nasr .and .those .found .by .<br />
the .University .<strong>of</strong> .Tokyo .(Akazawa .1979a; .1979b) .in .the .Douara .Basin .and .Palmyra .<br />
region .indicated .that .they .were .extremely .similar .and .that .the .high .number .<strong>of</strong> .Neolithic<br />
.flint .factory .sites .discovered .during .the .1960s .and .1970s .in .the .Douara .and .<br />
Palmyra .basins .(Akazawa .1979b) .constituted .part .<strong>of</strong> .the .same .specific .techno-complex<br />
.(Borrell .2011; .Borrell .et .al . .2011) .<br />
<strong>3.</strong> Geological framework and flint availability in the Douara Basin<br />
The .Jebel .Douara .is .a .horseshoe-shaped .range .<strong>of</strong> .mountains, .which .open .out .toward .<br />
the .east . .These .mountains .enclose .the .Douara .Basin .which .has .been .eroded .by .the .<br />
action .<strong>of</strong> .Wadi .Khawabi .El-Kharrar .and .Wadi .Jaria, .along .the .axis .<strong>of</strong> .a .Paleogene .<br />
limestone .dome .structure . .The .upper .and .lower .parts .<strong>of</strong> .the .hill .slopes .are .formed .<strong>of</strong> .<br />
Eocene .limestone .and .Paleocene .Eocene .marls .respectively .(Sakaguchi .1978; .1987) . .<br />
Based . on . geomorphological . evidence, . the . climate . <strong>of</strong> . the . Palmyra . district . since .<br />
600,000 .BP .has .fluctuated .between .semi-arid .and .semi-humid .environments . .The .<br />
hypothesis .that .lakes .occupied .the .Palmyra .Basin .in .the .past .was .made .during .the .<br />
mid .1970s .and .the .beginning .<strong>of</strong> .the .1980s .(Sakaguchi .1987) . .It .was .suggested .that .<br />
lakes .existed .until .at .least .7000 .cal . .BC .and .Lake .B .probably .disappeared .around .<br />
6000 .cal . .BC .and .after .this .the .Palmyra .Basin .evolved .to .a .playa, .in .which .temporary .<br />
lakes .were .sometimes .formed .and .the .climate .became .similar .to .that .<strong>of</strong> .the .present .<br />
day .(Sakaguchi .1978; .1987) .<br />
The .Douara .and .Palmyra .basins .delineate .a .region .which .has .extensive .and .accessible<br />
.flint .deposits . .The .central .Palmyrides .region .<strong>of</strong> .Syria .contains .two .major .geological<br />
.flint .horizons: .the .Middle .Eocene .Arak .Flint .horizon .and .the .Upper .Cretaceous<br />
.R’mah .flint .horizon .(Brew .et .al . .2001; .Julig .et .al . .2007; .Long, .Julig .2007) . .<br />
These .two .flint .types .have .similar .geological .origins, .having .formed .on .the .same .type .<br />
1 . . Reconstruction .<strong>of</strong> .the .opposed-platform .knapping .sequence .from .Mamarrul .Nasr .2 .has .contributed .to .<br />
the .understanding .<strong>of</strong> .bi-directional .technology .in .the .Northern .Levant .and .the .context .in .which .this .specific .<br />
lithic .production .was .undertaken, .as .well .as .the .knappers, .knapping .expertise .and .the .transmission .<strong>of</strong> .knowledge<br />
.(Borrell .2011) .<br />
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Figure 5: Arak Flint horizon outcrops (F2 in figure 2) in the Douara Basin.<br />
<strong>of</strong> .open .marine .carbonate .shelf . .Both .provided .good .to .excellent .material .for .stonetool<br />
.making, .and .they .occurred .in .surface .exposures .as .bedded .and .nodular .forms . .<br />
Palaeolithic .and .Neolithic .populations .in .central .and .eastern .Syria .made .use .<strong>of</strong> .both, .<br />
depending .on .local .availability .and .other .factors .(Krasheninnikov .et .al . .1996; .Diethelm<br />
.2004; .Julig .et .al . .2007) . .The .Eocene .flint .deposits .were .most .extensive . .<br />
Reconnaissance .surveys .in .Douara .Basin .have .enabled .three .major .extensive .flint .<br />
outcrops .near .the .Neolithic .sites .(fig . .2) .to .be .identified . .The .flint .was .light/dark .<br />
brown .to .black .in .colour .(though .some .nodules .are .slightly .lighter .toward .the .centre),<br />
.fine-grained .and .homogeneous; .which .made .it .an .excellent .material .for .knapping<br />
. .It .had .a .chalky .cortex .5-10 .mm .thick . .Both .nodules .and .discontinuous .layers .<br />
<strong>of</strong> .flint .lay .in .exposed .sections .(seams .<strong>of</strong> .flint .nodules .in .wadi .exposure) .within .the .<br />
Middle/Early .Holocene .formations .(fig . .5 .and .6) . .These .nodules .were .large, .typically<br />
.30-40 .cm .long, .sometimes .larger, .and .they .were .generally .flat .and .easy .to .obtain<br />
.(figs . .7 .and .8) . .No .direct .evidence .<strong>of</strong> .flint .exploitation .was .observed .at .the .outcrops<br />
. This .raw .material .was .extremely .abundant .in .the .Douara .Basin .itself .and .its .<br />
macroscopic .features .suggested .that .these .sources .belonged .to .the .regionally .extensive<br />
.Arak .Flint .horizon .<br />
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Figure 6: Arak Horizon flint outcrops (F1 in figure 2) in the Douara Basin.<br />
Figure 7: Flat nodule found at the Eocene outcrops (F3 in figure 2) in the Douara Basin.<br />
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Figure 8: Large flat nodule found at the Eocene outcrops (F3) in the Douara Basin.<br />
4. Flint petrography<br />
Prior .to .this .study, .some .<strong>of</strong> .the .geological .and .petrographic .characteristics .<strong>of</strong> .Syrian .<br />
flints .were .described .by .several .researchers .(Delaune-Mayère .1978; .Saito, .Tiba .1978; .<br />
Diethelm .1995; .Krasheninnikov .et .al . .1996; .Julig .et .al . .2007; .Long, .Julig .2007) . .<br />
These .studies .concluded .that .flint .was .locally .abundant .in .two .main .strata .in .the .central<br />
.Syrian .Desert: .late .Cretaceous .(late .Campanian .to .early .Maastrichtian) .and .middle<br />
.Paleogene .(Eocene, .Ypresian) .age .(fig . .9) . .<br />
Both .the .Cretaceous .(R’Mah) .flint .and .the .Eocene .(Arak) .flint .lacked .abundant .<br />
clay .minerals .and .iron .oxides . .The .R’Mah .flint .tended .to .be .light .grey .to .brownish .<br />
grey .in .colour . .It .can .be .highly .fractured .with .irregular .or .poorly .developed .conchoidal<br />
.fractures .and .typically .contains .no .fossils .(Diethelm .1995; .Long, .Julig .2007) . .On .<br />
the .other .hand, .flints .from .the .Eocene/Ypresian .strata .<strong>of</strong> .the .Arak .Flint .horizon .have .<br />
a .dense .and .subvitreous .appearance .and .are .predominantly .light .brown .to .brown, .<br />
with .darker .brown .and .black .colours .present .only .in .the .thicker .nodules .(Saito, .Tiba .<br />
1978) . .The .Arak .Flint .horizon .flints .are .rarely .fractured .and .have .excellent .conchoidal<br />
.fractures . .Previous .petrographic .studies .<strong>of</strong> .Arak .Flint .have .identified .a .series .<strong>of</strong> .<br />
characteristic .microscopic .features . .Thin .sections .displayed .abundant .pseudomorphs .<br />
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Figure 9: Geological map <strong>of</strong> central Syria (from Julig et al. 2007).<br />
after .foraminifera, .as .well .as .sponge .spicules .and .scattered .pseudomorphs .<strong>of</strong> .carbonate<br />
.grains . .Clear .chalcedonic .quartz .appeared .to .have .infilled .pore-spaces .in .the .interiors<br />
. <strong>of</strong> . foraminifera, . prior . to . the . replacement . <strong>of</strong> . the . tests . with . cryptocrystalline .<br />
quartz .(Saito, .Tiba .1978) . .Other .petrographic .analyses .<strong>of</strong> .the .Arak .Flint .horizon .indicated<br />
. that . they . were . replacement . flints . that . contained . pseudomorphs . and . foraminifera<br />
.(Long, .Julig .2007), .which .were .partly .recrystallised .with .microcrystalline .<br />
quartz .fill . .Most .<strong>of</strong> .the .samples .examined .were .massive .or .weakly .stratified .<br />
Representative .geological .samples .were .collected .during .the .field .survey .from .the .<br />
three .outcrops .identified .(F1, .F2 .and .F3) .and .archaeological .samples .from .Mamarrul .<br />
Nasr .2 . .A .total .<strong>of</strong> .15 .thin .sections .have .been .analyzed, .including .nine .from .Mamarrul .<br />
Nasr .2 .and .six .from .outcrops .F1 .and .F2 .(fig . .10, .11) . .Macroscopically, .all .the .flints .<br />
were .predominantly .light .brown .to .brown, .with .grey .shaded .areas .caused .by .carbonaceous<br />
.matter . .The .dark .brown .colour .is .commonly .due .to .disseminated .organic .material<br />
. .Bedding .was .<strong>of</strong>ten .observed .and .appears .to .be .due .to .alternating .layers .with .<br />
differing .amounts .<strong>of</strong> .carbonate .grains . .All .samples .examined .represent .replacement .<br />
flints .from .an .original .limestone .composed .by .intrabasinal .grains .with .a .packstone .<br />
depositional .texture, .as .reported .by .other .authors .(Dunham .1962) . .Thin .sections .<br />
have .enabled .the .identification .<strong>of</strong> .pseudomorphs .after .foraminifera .as .well .as .other .<br />
abundant .unidentified .carbonate .grains . .In .the .samples, .chalcedonic .and .microcrys-<br />
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talline .quartz .have .replaced .the .grains .while .the .surrounding .matrix .was .replaced .by .<br />
dark .coloured .microcrystalline .quartz . .No .evidence .<strong>of</strong> .terrestrial .input .was .observed . .<br />
The .matrix .<strong>of</strong> .some .samples .appeared .to .contain .small .crystals .<strong>of</strong> .relict .calcite, .indicating<br />
.incomplete .replacement .<strong>of</strong> .limestone .by .silica, .though .the .results .<strong>of</strong> .tests .using .<br />
dyes .on .some .samples .indicated .that .the .presence .<strong>of</strong> .calcite .was .minimal .<br />
Figure 10: Thin section (x 30) <strong>of</strong> Arak Flint showing abundant foraminifera.<br />
The .same .features .were .found .in .both .the .geological .and .archaeological .samples, .<br />
which .fall .within .previous .descriptions .<strong>of</strong> .the .Arak .Flint .horizon .samples .made .by .<br />
different .scholars .(Krasheninnikov .et .al . .1996; .Saito, .Tiba .1978; .Brew .et .al . .2001; .<br />
Long, .Julig .2007; .Julig .et .al . .1999) . .This .strongly .suggests .that .all .the .samples .analyzed<br />
.were .derived .from .the .Eocene .strata .and .belonged .to .the .Arak .Flint .horizon . .<br />
5. Results and conclusions<br />
The .petrographic .analyses .have .enabled .the .statement .to .be .made .that .Eocene .flint .<br />
belonging .to .the .Arak .Flint .horizon .was .the .main .source .<strong>of</strong> .flint .in .the .Neolithic .<br />
complex .<strong>of</strong> .Mamarrul .Nasr .and .potentially .in .the .area .around .the .Douara .Basin .and .<br />
Palmyra, .as .previously .suggested .by .others .(Krasheninnikov .et .al . .1996; .Long, .Julig .<br />
2007) . .Even .though .Eocene .flint .was .also .extensively .exploited, .together .with .Cretaceous<br />
.flint, .for .stone .tool .production .during .the .Palaeolithic .(Diethelm .2004; .Julig .et .<br />
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Figure 11: Detail <strong>of</strong> a thin section (x 60) <strong>of</strong> Arak Flint. Note the numerous ghosts <strong>of</strong> foraminifera<br />
replaced by silica.<br />
al . .2007), .the .Arak .flint .seems .to .have .been .the .only .raw .material .exploited .at .the .<br />
Neolithic .sites .studied .around .the .Douara .Basin . .The .grey .to .tan .and .olive .coloured .<br />
Cretaceous .flint .was .not .used . .Rather, .the .best .quality .Arak .Flint, .extensively .available<br />
.close .to .the .sites .in .different .parts .<strong>of</strong> .the .Douara .Basin, .was .preferred .and .deliberately<br />
.chosen .for .production .<strong>of</strong> .lithic .tools . .The .homogeneity .and .lack .<strong>of</strong> .variability .<strong>of</strong> .<br />
the .lithic .assemblage .is .striking .and .other .non-local .flints .were .also .absent . .There .was .<br />
no .trace .<strong>of</strong> .flint .from .the .Euphrates .terraces .(with .characteristic .eroded .cortex), .nor .<strong>of</strong> .<br />
the .characteristic .pink/purple/red .flint .whose .presence .was .recurrent .during .the .Pre-<br />
Pottery .Neolithic .in .the .Levant .which .was .found .at .different .regions .such .as .the .Mesozoic<br />
.Baer-Bassit .Ophiolite .Complex .in .north-west .Syria .(Long, .Julig .2007), .the .Upper<br />
.Cretaceous .Amman .Silicified .Limestone .deposits .distributed .on .the .Jordanian .<br />
Plateau .(Quintero .1996; .Rollefson .et .al . .2007) .and .the .river .Euphrates .terraces .(Borrell<br />
.2010) .<br />
The .raw .material .could .have .been .extracted .from .primary .bedrock .from .any .<strong>of</strong> .the .<br />
nearby .extensive .Eocene .flint .deposits .that .occurred .in .surface .exposures .as .bedded .<br />
and .nodular .forms . .It .has .not .yet .been .possible .to .determine .local .variations .<strong>of</strong> .Eocene .<br />
flint, .although .further .analysis .could .help .in .doing .so . .This, .together .with .the .absence .<br />
<strong>of</strong> .direct .evidence .<strong>of</strong> .extraction .at .the .outcrops .located .in .the .Douara .Basin .itself, .<br />
make .it .difficult .to .establish .the .specific .outcrop .the .Neolithic .people .gathered .the .<br />
flint .from . .<br />
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Figure 12: Panoramic view <strong>of</strong> the Douara Basin from Mamarrul Nasr.<br />
<strong>Broadening</strong> <strong>Horizons</strong> 3<br />
F. Borrell, M. Bouso, A. Gómez, C. Tornero & O. Vicente (eds.)<br />
The .flint .was .taken .to .the .rock .shelters .in .the .Mamarrul .Nasr .passage, .again .indicating<br />
.the .importance .<strong>of</strong> .the .Mamarrul .Nasr .passage .as .a .strategic .spot .for .visual .control<br />
.<strong>of</strong> .the .steppe .(fig . .12) . .The .quality .<strong>of</strong> .the .Arak .flint .was .fully .adequate .for .percussion<br />
.flaking .and .was .extensively .used .for .bi-directional .blade .production .(Borrell .2011; .<br />
Borrell .et .al . .2011) . .The .size .and .shape .<strong>of</strong> .the .nodules .extracted .also .made .it .a .desirable .<br />
resource . .Preliminary .decortication .<strong>of</strong> .the .nodule .may .have .been .undertaken .next .to .<br />
the .outcrops .themselves, .since .there .were .only .a .few .cortical .flakes .at .the .sites, .although .<br />
no .direct .evidence .was .observed .at .the .outcrops . .Periodic .and .intensive .knapping .episodes<br />
.were .undertaken .at .the .rock .shelters, .and .included .shaping .out .opposed-platform<br />
.cores, .blade .production, .the .maintenance .and .the .abandonment .<strong>of</strong> .the .core .and .<br />
retouched .tool .production . .In .this .interpretation, .the .sites .identified .were .understood .<br />
as .short-time .shelters .and .suggested .the .existence .<strong>of</strong> .highly-mobile .groups .whose .presence<br />
.on .the .semi-arid .steppe .<strong>of</strong> .the .Central .Syrian .Desert .was .related .to .the .exploitation<br />
.<strong>of</strong> .steppe .animal .and .mineral .resources . .However, .it .is .not .yet .possible .to .determine<br />
.whether .these .sites .provided .evidence .<strong>of</strong> .nomadic .or .semi-nomadic .communities .<br />
who .lived .permanently .in .the .semi-arid .steppes .or .whether .these .groups .could .have .<br />
come .from .sedentary .settlements .far .from .the .Douara .Basin .<br />
In .conclusion, .the .Arak .Flint .horizon .played .a .major .role .in .the .extensive .use .<strong>of</strong> .<br />
mineral . resources . by . the . Neolithic . communities . who . settled . the . Central . Syrian .<br />
Desert .at .the .very .end .<strong>of</strong> .the .Pre-Pottery .Neolithic .<br />
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Acknowledgements<br />
We .would .like .to .express .our .gratitude .to .Dr . .E . .Boëda, .Dr . .M . .Molist, .and .Dr . .H . .<br />
al-Shakel .who .helped .to .make .this .work .possible .and .to .the .General .Directorate .<strong>of</strong> .<br />
Antiquities .and .Museums .(DGAM) .<strong>of</strong> .Syria . .We .also .wish .to .thank .Dr . .R . .Estrada .<br />
for .her .helpful .support .concerning .the .petrographic .analysis .<strong>of</strong> .the .flint .samples, .Dr . .<br />
Darrel .F .G . .Long .and .Dr . .Patrick .J . .Julig .for .their .help .with .the .geological .map, .and .<br />
the .anonymous .peer .viewers .for .their .interesting .comments . .Finally, .we .want .to .express<br />
.our .gratitude .to .our .funding .sources .including .the .French .Ministère .des .Affaires .<br />
Etrangères . et . Européennes, . the . Spanish . Ministerio . de . Ciencia . y . Tecnología .<br />
(HAR2010-18612), .the .Spanish .Ministerio .de .Ciencia .e .Innovación .(MICINN/Fulbright<br />
.2008-0125) .and .the .Generalitat .de .Catalunya .(SGR-2009-00607) . .<br />
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