Electronic Parts/Guidelines - infoHouse

Electronic Products, Parts and Supplies
Environmental Packaging Guidelines
Document Number GA23-2201-02
March 03, 1994
Worldwlde Dlstrlbution Engineering Services
Department W29
P.O. Box 12195
Research Triangle Park, NC, USA 27709

Electronic Products, Parts and Supplies
Environmental Packaging Guidelines
GA23-2201-02

About this book
This book has been created by IBM's Worldwide Distribution Engineering Ser-
vices (WDES) group. The information and materials contained in this manual
have been compiled by IBM engineers, designers and IBM suppliers and repre-
sent their best judgment about the materials mentioned herein based upon their
experience and knowledge. While we believe the information is accurate as
used and applied at IBM locations involved and under the conditions described
herein, IBM makes no representation or guarantee that the information or
recommendations contained herein are accurate as they may be applied by
others in their operations or that similar results will be obtained by others when
the information or recommendations are used in their business operations.
Materials in this guidebook were originally presented in 1990 at an IBM Tech-
nical Exchange, a forum designed to promote the exchange of information and
ideas amongst the Corporation's packaging engineers.
Questions related to the interpretation of specific information contained in this
guide or questions about current or pending national, regional, state or local
laws and regulations may be directed to WDES using the comment form at the
back of this guidebook.
The creators of this guidebook gratefully acknowledge the following groups and
organizations for providing information and materials used either directly or indi-
rectly in the compilation of this book. In no way does the inclusion of a group or
company in the following listing signify that the provider supports or condones
the information as presented.
American Forest Paper Association (AFPA)
New York. New York
Connelly Containers, Incorporated
Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania
The Coalition of Northeastern Governors (CONEG)
Source Reduction Taskforce
The Department of Environmental Resources
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
The Environmental Action Foundation
Washington D. C.
The Environmental Defense Fund
Washington D. C.
Fibre Box Association (FBA)
Rolling Meadows, Illinois
Gary Plastic Packaging Corporation
Bronx, New York
Greenpeace Action
Washington D. C.
Institute of Packaging Professionals (IoPP)
Reston, Virginia
Keep America Beautiful, Incorporated
Stamford, Connecticut
About this book iii

IV Environmental Packaaino Guidelines
The National Association of Printing Inks Manufacturers
Harrison, New York
The National Polystyrene Recycling Company
Washington D. C.
The National Wooden Pallet and Container Association (NWPCA)
Washington D. C.
Official Board Markets "Yellow Sheet"
Chicago. Illinois
The Pollution Probe Foundation
Toronto, Ontario
Resource Recycling Update
Portland, Oregon
The Society of Plastics Industry (SPI)
Washington D. C.
Tuscarora Plastics
New Brighton, Pennsylvania
The United States Environmental Protection gency
Washington D. C.
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Blacksburg, Virginia
The Waste Recycling Council
Washington D. C.

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Vi Envlronmental Packaging Guidelines

.
Contents
About thls book ..................................... iii
How to use this manual online ............................ v
1.0 Envlronmental Packaging Design Guide - Introductlon ............ 1
1.1 Document Control ................................. 1
1.2 Guidebook Abstract ................................ 1
1.3 Guidebook Purpose ................................ 1
1.4 Guidebook Scope ................................. 2
1.5 Guidebook Introduction .............................. 2
1.6 IBM Corporate Environmental Policy ...................... 3
1.7 IBM Corporate Environmental Position .................... 7
1.7.1 IBM Goals ................................. 7 . 7
1.7.2 IBM Actions .................................. 7
2.0 Ozone Depleting Substances ........................... 9
2.1 Introduction ..................................... 9
2.1.1 Abstract ..................................... 9
2.1.2 Purpose ..................................... 9
2.2 Ozone Depletion .................................. 9
2.3 CFC and HCFC Use in Packaging ........................ 9
2.3.1 Elimination Specification ........................... 10
3.0 Toxic Material Reductlon .............................. 11
3.1 Introduction ..................................... 11
3.2 Dioxins ........................................ 11
3.2.1 Introduction ................................... 11
3.2.2 industry Activities ............................... 14
3.2.3 Legislation/Regulation ............................ 14
3.2.4 Recommendations .............................. 1'4
3.3 Heavy Metals in Inks ................................ $5
3.3.1 Introduction ................................... 15
3.3.2 industry Activities ............................... 16
3.3.3 LegislationlRegulation ............................ 27
3.3.4 Recommendations .............................. 17
3.4 Toxins in Plastics .................................. t8
3.4.1 Introduction ................................... t8
3.4.2 Industry Activities ............................... 20
3.4.3 LegislationlRegulation ............................ 20
3.4.4 Recommendations ............................... 21
3.5 Summary ....................................... 21
4.0 Recycllng ....................................... 23
4.1 Introduction ..................................... 23
4.1.1 Abstract ..................................... 23
4.1.2 Objective .................................... 23
4.1.3 Scope ...................................... 23
4.1.4 Purpose ..................................... 24
4.2 Legislation ...................................... 24
4.3 Recycling and the Economy ........................... 25
4.4 Outlets for Recycled Materials .......................... 25

vill Environmental Packaaina C.uidelines
4.4.1 Intermediate Outlets ............................. 26
4.4.2 Finaloutlets .................................. 26
4.5 IBM Packaging Waste Profile ........................... 26
4.5.1 Collection Systems .............................. 26
4.6 Wooden materials ................................. 27
4.7 Cellulosic (Paper) Materials ........................... 28
4.7.1 Histoty ...................................... 28
4.7.2 Outlets for Recycled Fiber ........................... 28
4.7.3 Sources of Recycled Fiber .......................... 28
4.7.4 Paper Recycling Process .......................... 29
4.7.5 Paper Products Manufactured from Recycled Fiber ........... 29
4.7.6 Performance of Recycled Paper Products ................ 30
4.7.7 Recycling Aids for Cellulosic Materials .................. 30
4.7.8 Guidelines for Recycled Fiber Content .................. 31
4.7.9 Recycling Specification ............................ 34
4.8 Polymeric (Plastic) Materials ........................... 34
4.8.1 Reclamation .................................. 34
4.8.2 Commingled Plastics ............................. 34
4.8.3 Plastics Separated by Resin Type ..................... 35
4.9 Plastic Recycling Process ............................. 35
4.9.1 Plastic Recycling Aids ............................ 35
4.9.2 Plastic Coding System ............................. 35
4.9.3 Marking of the Resin Identifier ....................... 36
4.9.4 Guidelines for Recycled Resin Content .................. 37
4.9.5 Engineering Specifications for Plastics .................. 37
....................
4.9.6 Expanded Plastic (Foam) Materials 38
4.9.7 Reclamation of Expanded Plastics ..................... 38
4.9.8 Products Made from Recycled Plastics .................. 38
4.10 Degradability in Packaging ............................ 39
4.10.1 Biodegradable Packaging ......................... 40
4.10.2 Photodegradable Packaging ........................ 41
4.10.3 Compostability ................................ 41
4.10.4 Conclusions .................................. 41
4.10.5 Recommendations .............................. 42
5.0 Truth In Adveltlslng ................................. 43
5.1 Introduction ..................................... 43
5.1.1 Abstract ..................................... 43
5.1.2 Purpose ..................................... 43
5.2 Environmental Marketing Guideline Application ............... 43
5.2.1 Environmental Marketing Guidance .................... 43
5.2.2 Environmental Marketing Claims ...................... 43
5.2.3 Conclusions .................................. 44
5.2.4 Recommendation ............................... 44
8.0 Material Reduction and Reusable Packaging Guidellnes ........... 45 .
6.1 Introduction ..................................... 45
6.1.1 Abstract ..................................... 45
6.1.2 Purpose ..................................... 45
6.2 Material Reduction ................................. 45
6.2.1 Objectives ................................... 45
6.2.2 Material Reduction Techniques ....................... 45
6.3 Reusable Packaging ................................ 47
6.3.1 Elements of Cost ............................... 47
6.3.2 Technical & Business Considerations ................... 48

6.3.3 Evaluation Process for Reusable Programs ............... 52
6.3.4 Process Checklist ............................... 52
6.3.5 Cost Analysis Guide ............................. 52
7.0 Life Cycle Aeresrment ............................... 55
7.1 Scope ......................................... 55
7.2 Purpose ....................................... 55
7.3 The Three "1"s of Life Cycle Assessment .................... 55
7.4 Life-Cycle Inventory ................................ 56
7.4.1 Overview .................................... 56
7.4.2 Problems and Challenges of Life-Cycle Inventory ............ 56
7.5 Examples of Environmental Impact Analysis .................. 57
7.5.1 Environmental Impact of Corrugated Fiberboard ............ 57
7.5.2 Environmental Impact of Polystyrene ................... 59
7.5.3 Environmental Impact of Polyethylene Foam ............... 61
8.0 Pallet Reutlllzatlon ................................. 65
8.1 Abstract ....................................... 65
8.2 Purpose ....................................... 65
6.3 Scope ......................................... 65
8.4 Pallet Standardization ............................... 65
8.5 Pallet Reutilization ................................. 66
6.6 Pallet Disposal Options .............................. 66
8.7 Recommendations for Pallet Reuse and Reutilization ............ 67
8.0 Other Guldellnes for Environmental Packaglng ................. 69
9.1 Introduction ..................................... 69
9.2 PackageDesign ................................... 69
9.3 CONEG Preferred Packaging Guidelines .................... 70
9.4 ~nvironmentally Responsible Packaging-- ................... 72
Appendix A . Pubilcatlons and Olpanizatlons .................... 75
A.1 Publications ..................................... 75
A.2 Organizations .................................... 77
Appendlx B . Glossary of Terms ........................... 81
P^".n.*' 1"

X Environmental Packaclino Guidellnes

1 .O Environmental Packaging Design Guide - Introduction
1.1 Document Control
1.2 Guidebook Abstract
1.3 Guidebook Purpose
.:.I
This document was originated and is controlled by IBM's Worldwide Distribution
Engineering Services (WDES) and is intended for the use of IBM Packaging Engi-
neers, designers and our suppliers. Materials presented in this guidebook are
based upon IBM business applications and may not be appropriate for all indus-
tries, groups and/or businesses.
This Guidebook is intended to be a dynamic and changing document and will be
updated periodically. This documentation section will provide a history of all
update activities by section and date.
Table I. Guidebook History
D8te Change
05/15/90
Initial Release of IBM Environmental Packaging Design Guide
09/28/90
06/24/93
03/24/94
Revise for External Publication
1st Revision - Updated to reflect current environment.
2nd Revision - New AFPA Symbols, LCI definitions 8 Green Labeling
The Guidebook is a tool to assist electronics manufacturers' Packaging Engi-
neers in their development of packaging and distribution systems. This will
ensure consideration of environmental factors for the entire life cycle of their
package designs and processes.
The Guidebook outlines the recommendations of WDES and others on how to
best improve IBM's packaging and distribution processes to address and mini-
mize their impact upon the environment.
The purpose of this Design Guide is to sewe as a reference and working tool for
IBM Packaging and Distribution Engineers in their evaluations of packaging
material and distribution process alternatives. This guidebook should help IBM
and its suppliers improve their impact on the environment by:
I. Eliminating ozone depleting expansion agents in packaging materials,
2. Eliminating intentionally-introduced heavy metals from all IBM packaging
materials,
3. Eliminating the use of polybiphenyl bromides (PBBs) and polybiphenyl
bromide oxides (PBBOs) from all IBM packaging materials,
4. Minimizing toxic elements in packaging materials and in the byproducts of
their manufacture,
5. Identifying methods, processes and product and package designs to reduce
the volume in the solid waste stream,

1.4 Guidebook Scope
1.5 Guidebook Introduction
6. Promoting the use of packaging materials which are recyclable,
7. Identifying and promoting the use of packages manufactured with recycled
material content,
8. Demonstrating that IBM is an environmentally responsible company, and
9. Providing industry leadership in the environmental arena.
IBM intends to address packaging-related environmental issues from a "cradle to
grave" standpoint. This means that IBM will attempt to control and improve the
packaging and distribution processes in all packaging related activities from pur-
chasing of raw materials and components to the final disposition of the finished
product and parts packaging by our customers.
IBM has established guidelines and specifications to minimize any detrimental
impact of Its packaging and distribution processes on the environment. These
documents function as controls to accomplish this task and pertain to all facets
of the IBM's Packaging and Distribution activities including:
Incoming parts and materials,
Internal containers and material handling processes,
lntraplant and interplant shipments,
Products, supplies and replacement parts packages to customers
Each section of this guide discusses a specific issue or concern and how it might
best be addressed. For example, the toxic materials section identifies which
packagings may contain toxic materials, which processes may introduce them,
and how such items can be eliminated or minimized.
IBM Engineering Specifications have been developed to provide clear and
uniform controls. In other cases, checklists or guidelines are supplied. There
are also some special sections and an Appendix to aid in understanding the
importance of these issues:
Definitions
Technical References and Literature
- CONEG Model Toxic Legislation
Appropriate Internal and External Contacts

1.6 IBM Corporate Environmental Policy
SUBJECT Environmental Protection
IBM has established three policies which demonstrate its commitment to envi-
ronmental protection, conservation and recycling and environmental affairs.
These policies serve as the basis for many of the environmental activities that
IBM pursues; They are reproduced in their entirety on the pages that foliow.
Number 1298
July 30, 1979
IBM wlll reduce to a minimum the ecological impact of all of its activities. Management in
IBM is expected to be continuously on guard against adversely affecting the environment and
to seek ways to conserve natural resources.
Although IBM is not in a business which creates severe pollution problems, IBM is committed to:
Meet or exceed ail applicable government regulations in any location.
Establish stringent standards of its own where government regulations do not exist.
Attempt to utilize nonpolluting technologies and to minimize energy and materials
consumption in the design of products and processes.
Minimize dependence on terminal waste treatment through development of techniques
to recover and reuse air, water and materials.
Assist government and other industries in developing solutions to environmental
problems when appropriate opportunities present themselves and IBM's experience
and knowledge may be helpful.
Replaces Corporate Policy No. 129A, dated May 24. 1973
Frank T. Cary
Fnuironmental Packmin0 Desim Guide - lntradudian 3

I
I
I SUBJECT: Environmental Affairs
Number 139
November 29, 1990
Page I of 2
IBM is committed to environmental affairs leadership in all of its business activities. IBM has
long-standing corporate policies of providing a safe and healthful workplace and safe products
(Policy Letter Number 127), protecting the environment (Number 129), and conserving energy and
natural resources (Number 131), which were initiated in 1967, 1971, and 1974, respectively.
These policies continue to guide our operations, and they are the foundation for the following
corporate policy objectives:
Provide a safe and healthful workplace, inClUding avoiding or correcting hazards and
ensuring that personnel are properly trained and have appropriate safety and emergency
equipment.
Be an environmentally responsible neighbor in the communities where we operate and act
promptly and responsibly to correct incidents or conditions that endanger health, safety,
or the environment, report them to authorities promptly, and inform everyone who may be
affected by them.
- Maintain respect for natural resources by practicing conservation and striving to
recycle materials, purchase recycled materials, and use recyclable packaging and other
materials.
Develop, manufacture, and market products that are safe for their intended use,
efficient in their use of energy, protective of the environment, and that can be
recycled or disposed of safely.
Use development and manufacturing processes that do not adversely affect the
environment, including developing and improving operations and teChnOlOgieS to
minimize waste, prevent air, water, and other pollution, minimize health and safety
risks, and dispose of waste safely and responsibly.
Ensure the responsible use of energy throughout our business, inClUding conserving
energy, improving energy efficiency, looking for safer energy sources, and giving
preference to renewable over nonrenewable energy sources when feasible.
Assist in the development of teChnOlOgiCal solutions to global environmental
problems, share appropriate pollution prevention technology and methods, and
participate in efforts to improve environmental protection and understanding
throughout industry.

Number 139
November 29, 1900
Page 2 of 2
Meet or exceed all applicable government requirements. Where none exist,
set and adhere to stringent standards of our own and continually improve these
standards in light of technological advances and new environmental data
* Conduct rigorous audits and self-assessments of IBM's compliance with this
policy, measure progress of IBM's environmental affairs performance, and report
periodically to the Board of Directors.
Every employee and every contractor on IBM premises is expected to follow
the company's policies and to report any environmental, health, or safety
concern to IBM management. Managers are expected to take prompt action
John F. Akers
Environmental Packaging Design Guide - lnlrOdUdElon 5

SUBJECT. Conservation and Recycling
Number 131 A
September 28, 1989
It is IBM's policy to conserve energy and raw materials, to recycle commodities and to help
protect the environment.
The oil crisis of the early 1970s forcefully demonstrated that with planning and imagination
we were able to reduce our fuel and power consumption significantly. The solid waste
disposal crisis now confronting the United States and other countries gives us an additional
challenge to reduce waste by making more efficient use of raw materials and recycled
commodities. Recognizing the need for prudent energy use and global environmental protection,
while maintaining safe and healthful workplaces, management must strive to keep its focus on
both energy conservation and material recycling.
Therefore, I expect each operating unit to cooperate fully in conservation programs, giving
high priority to energy efficient operation of our facilities and processes and to conservation
of energy and raw materials in the design and manufacture of our products. You should also
emphasize the use of recyclable packaging and components, the recycling of used commodities,
and the purchase of recycled materials. Similarly, i expect managers at ail ieveis to
implement these policies by personal exampie--whether it be in simply turning off equipment
or lights or in the prudent purchase, consumption, and recycling of supplies and materials.
This approach is good business practice and serves the broader purpose of helping to conserve
the world's limited resources.
Replaces Corporation Policy No. 131, dated September 9, 1974
6 Environmental Packaging Guldellnes
John F. Akers

1.7 IBM Corporate Environmental Position
1.7.1 IBM Goals
The following are recycling goals established by the EPA and IBM.
I. IBM - CFC Elimination in Packaging 100% 1990
2. IBM - Heavy Metals in Packaging Reduction 100% 1991
3. EPA - Recycling Proposed Targets 25% 1992
4. IBM - Recycling Targeted Amount 50% 1992
5. IBM - CFC Elimination in Emissions 100% 1993
6. ISM - HCFC Elimination in Packaging 100% 1994
1.7.2 IBM Actions
In support of the aforementioned goals, IBM has implemented the following:
7
Appointed Environmental Coordinators at each location
Developed close working relationships between WDES, Corporate Environ-
mental and Corporate Governmental Groups.
Established plastic recycling sub-committee
Environmental section expanded to Packaging and Materials Handling
Requirement Manual (GA21-9261)
Implemented environmental packaging competition programs
1990 $10.5 million savings
/j I992 1991: $14.2 $8.5 million savings
1993: wmillion savings
,9+7/9497
Expanded IBM recycling goals to branch offices and field operations in USA
Expanded IBM environmental goals worldwide
Conducted two pilot test programs on reclamation of IBM Packaging mateb
7 rials. z
v
Developed Environmental Engineering Specifications inClUding:
- Expanded Packaging Materials: Prohibited Expansion Agents. Specification
1041126
- Packaging Materials: Restricted Heavy Metals. Specification#
- Recyclable Packaging Materials: Selection and Modification. Specificationy1
999li41
Established Environmentally Conscious Products Center in Research Triangle
Park, NC.
Established IBM Corporate Practice C-P 1-3600-005, €nvironmentai Packaging
Requirements for Products, Parts and Supplies
Environmental Packaging Design Guide - introduction 7
4-99 !w

0 Envlronmental Packaging GuldellnES

2.0 Ozone Depleting Substances
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Abstract
2.1.2 Purpose
2.2 Ozone Depletion
Fully halogenated chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrogenated
chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are suspected of destroying the earth's protective
stratospheric ozone layer and must not be used in the manufacture of expanded
packaging materials (Le., foam). The use of packaging materials made with
CFCs is prohlblted by law in some areas (e.g., Ontario and Minnesota), and
beginning January 1, 1994, "Class 11" Hydrogenated Chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
will be prohibited by the U. S. Clean Air Act.
This guide discusses CFC and HCFC problems and recommends procedures that
will help IBM comply with existing, regional laws and totally eliminate the use of
packaging material made with CFCs or HCFCs.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) or hydrogenated chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are
synthetic or man-made chemical compounds that contain chlorine, fluorine, and
carbon atoms.
These materials may be used as plastic foam expansion agents, refrigerants,
solvents, and sterilants When these materials are used in open-air environ-
ments, they slowly migrate into the earth's upper atmosphere where they are
disbursed around the world. This means CFCs and HCFCs used in a single
region have a global or worldwide affect.
While in the upper atmosphere, the CFC molecules are exposed to intense ultra-
violet solar radiation. Energy from the sun is sufficient to break-down the CFC or
HCFC molecules releasing chlorine which chemically destroys ozone or 02 mol-
ecules that are naturally present in the upper atmosphere. Ozone in the upper
atmosphere acts as a protective shield and prevents harmful ultra-violet solar
radiation from penetrating to lower atmospheric levels. Too much ultra-violet
radiation can cause problems to people and plants. Potential harmful effects
include higher risks of skin cancer, eye cataracts, and agricultural crop damage.
2.3 CFC and HCFC Use in Packaging
CFCs and HCFCs are sometimes used as expansion or blowing agents for manu-
facturing foam cushioning materials. In addition, these compounds may be used
elsewhere in the foam manufacturing process as mold releases and as cleaning
solvents. All CFC uses have been eliminated from the foam cushions purchased
or made by ISM. Similarly, all uses of problem HCFCs are scheduled to be elim-
inated before January I, 1994.
Ozone De~letina Substances 9

The Montreal Protocol prohibits the use of any of the five "Class I" CFCs. Effec-
tive January 1, 1994, the U. S. Clean Air Act prohibits the sale or distribution of
any non-essential plastic foam product which contains or is manufactured with a
Class II substance. The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency has classified all
expanded foam cushioning material as non-essential. Having accomplished the
task of eliminating IBM use of CFCs, the current focus has shifted towards elimi-
nating IBM use of HCFC-made packaging materials by the end of 1993.
2.3.1 Elimination Specification
ISM Engineering Specification 1041126 was developed to ensure IBM would not
use or purchase CFC- or HCFC-manufactured foam material. The specification is
available through:
10 Environmental Packaalna Guidelines
Worldwide Distribution Engineering Services
Department W29
P.O. Box 12195
Research Triangle Park, NC, USA 27709
The specification should be used when specifying or purchasing foam cushioning
materials. It should be referenced on engineering drawings and on IBM pur-
chase orders for expanded foam packaging materials. The specification also can
be used as an additional technical reference for information about
chlorofluorocarbon problems and uses in packaging.

3.0 Toxic Material Reduction
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Dioxins
It is difficult for those in the packaging community to view packaging materials
as being life threatening. It is not too difficult, however, to see packaging cre-
ating a problem in landfills ... it fills them up. But that fact certainly doesn't
present a hazard. Besides. there is a lot of effort going on today to source
reduce, reuse and recycle. In addition and where permitted by law, there is
incineration which can transform a lot of solid waste into a little ash.
Packaging is very functional. It protects products. You can iabei it and print
information on it. Professional looking colors and graphics can convey a
message to the customer concerning the quality of the product inside. Pack-
aging during its useful life doesn't present much of an environmental hazard. In
fact, some packaging is designed to protect the environment from the contents of
the package.
Concern has been expressed over toxic threats presented to the environment by
packaging. These threats are most visible at a package's "front-end'' and its
"back-end." At the front-end, some of the chemicals used in the production and
processing of packaging materials are highly toxic, resulting in hazardous
wastes, toxic air emissions, and discharge of toxic effluents into waterways. At
the back-end, afler the useful life of a package is over, toxic elements can again
be introduced into the environment, even with "proper" disposal of the materials
in landfills or incinerators.
.
Much attention is centered today on environmental contamination by dioxins and
heavy metals. Dioxins do not occur naturally, they are created, and once
created, do not biodegrade readily. Heavy metals do exist naturally, they are
elements. Industrial processes convert them into particles which are much more
environmentally mobile than the natural form. Although packaging is not the
major contributor of these toxic agents to the solid waste stream, their removal
from packaging could make solid waste management safer and serve to alleviate
public concerns about solid waste management treatment facilities.
Packaging materials used by IBM do not represent any more and normally less
of an environmental hazard than do those of other industries. However, IBM has
in place a policy statement addressing its solid waste. It is in support of this
policy that this information on packaging related toxic wastes is presented.
3.2.1 Introduction
Since the early lQ8O's environmental dioxin has become an issue of increasing
concern to environmentalists, government agencies, and to various industries
within the United States. Dioxin, which is a carcinogen, a teratogen, and a
mutagen, is present in the environment at very low levels as a by-product of
combustion in municipal incinerators, forest fires, automobile exhausts, and
TOXIC Material Reducflon '11

12 Environmental Psckaalnn Guidelines
certain industrial processes. Krafl pulping mills produce two percent of the
yearly estimated production of dioxins from all sources.
Studies by the EPA, AFPA. and NCASl indicate that about 300 different
chlorinated compounds called organochlorines, which include dioxins and
furans, occur in pulp mill bleachery effluent. These studies further concluded
that the source of these toxic discharges is the bleaching plant, that portion of
the mill that converts brown pulp to white. Figure 1 on page 13 is a schematic
which illustrates the pulp and paper manufacturing process including waste
byproducts generated.
Chlorine gas used in the first stage of the bleaching process forms the
organochlorines. Once formed, the organochlorines are introduced into the
ecosystem through various channels which include:
Pulp mill effluent discharges into streams
Incineration of pulp mill sludge
Landfill of pulp mill sludge
Use of pulp mill sludge to improve crop soils (sludge farming)
Disposal (incineration and/or landfill) of the bleached paper product

dh
ure 1. The Pulp and Paper Process. Source: Environment Canada (Water Pollution Control Directorate), The
510 Technoboy of the Pulp and Paper industry and its Waste Reduction Activities, May, 1973.
Toxic Material Reductlon 13

3.2.2 Industry Activities
As a result of increasing concern over the ecological effects of organochlorines,
many paper companies are implementing site specific process modifications at
their mills, These modifications are responsible for significant reductions in the
generation of these organochlorines. These process alterations include:
Reduction of pulp lignin prior to bleaching through extended delignification
(cooking)
Elimination of non-chlorinated dioxin in pulp washing defoamers
Reduced use of chlorine gas in the bleaching process by,
a. The use of peroxide in early stages of multi-stage bleaching processes
b. The use of less chlorine gas through substitution of chlorine dioxide
Additionally, NCASl is undertaking studies to identify elements of the production
process which appear to be involved in the formation of dioxin.
3.2.3 LegislatlonlRegulation
Water discharge permits for pulp mills typically place limitation on only three
properties of the effluent: biological oxygen demand (BOD) which measures
organic and easily degradable compounds, total suspended solids (TSS) which
measures the amount of fibers and other wood particles discharged, and pH
which measures acidity. None of these items measure the presence of chemicals
in the effluent, and they ignore the persistent organochlorines that are a
by-product of bleaching.
Though many pulp mills employ biological treatment ponds or aerated lagoons
to treat effluent before discharge, these facilities are generally ineffective against
organochlorines because they resist biological breakdown. Dioxin-containing
sludge from the settling ponds is not regulated as a hazardous waste.
3.2.4 Recommendations
The linkage between the manufacture, use, and disposal of bleached paper pro-
ducts and the presence of some portion of the toxic organochlorines found in the
environment has been established by authoritative investigation. It follows that a
reduced demand for bleached paper products will correspondingly reduce the
potential for ecological contamination by these compounds.
14 Environmental Packaalna Guidelines
In addition to the concerns associated with organochlorine generation, it must
also be understood that bleached paper is manufactured from virgin fibre. This
circumstance creates further demand on our forest resources and reduces
opportunity for the use of recycled fibre.
When designing an environmentally-sound package, thorough consideration
should be given to eliminating or significantly reducing the requirement for
bleached corrugated liner and paperboard. Our environmental hierarchy is presented
below. Environmentally superior characteristics are identified first, less
desirable appear last:
1. Specify unbleached “natural” material, or
2. Specify color-coated unbleached material (See Table 2 on page 15 for a
partial listing of Corrugated coating manufacturers), or

3.3 Heavy Metals in Inks
3. Specify mottled white liner (which achieves an 80% reduction in bleached
flber), or
4. Specify bleached materials having a reduced "whiteness" requirement, or
5. Specify white coated mottled white or semi-bleached material
Table 2. Corrugated Coating Manufacturers
Menufacturer Location Phone
Michelman Inc. Cincinnatti, OH (51 3) 793-7766
international Coatinos Co. Cerritos. CA 12131 926-0747
Eastman Chemical Products Kingsport, TN (615) 229-2000
Note: The specification for the use of coated packaging should stipulate that the coating
material meet the requirements of 21 CFR, 176.170. This is the Fwd and Drug Adminis-
tration section of the Code of Federal Regulations.
3.3.1 Introduction
Inks have three component parts: pigments, which yield color, resins, which act
as carriers of the pigment and permit it to attach to an object; and solvents,
which dissolve resins and make the Ink workable.
Carbon black, the work-horse of the pigment series, is produced exclusively from
petrochemicals, as are the solvents and other organic pigments.
Nonsrganic based components include (heavy metal) pigments such as lead,
mercury, cadmium, cobalt, chromium and nickel (See Table 3 on page 16 for a
list of heavy metals which may be encountered in certain pigments.)
Toxicologists are finding growing evidence to substantiate their long-felt malaise
regarding the health effects of exposure to many of the pigments currently in
use. Some of the pigments identified to date that pose potential hazards include
carbon black, lead chromate, molybdate. cadmium, benzidenes, mercury sulfide,
phthalocyanide and toluidines. The task of systematically identifying potentially
hazardous pigments is enormous and stili in its incipient stages.
The problem being faced is in the generation and disposal of wastes associated
with ink borne heavy metals. These materials are often used in packaging; once
the packaging is Incinerated, the resulting inorganic ash contains heavy-metal
oxides or sulfates. Such incinerator ash requires special and costly disposal.
Toxic Material Reduction 15

Table 3. Heavy Metals in Pigments (partial list)
Where:
Element Use
Aluminum Metallics
Arsenic'
Barium Red
Cadmium'
Chromium' Yellow
Cobalt Blue
Copper' Blue, Green, Metallics
Lead' ODasue
Mercury'
Molybdenum Oranae
Titanium Whites, Opaque
Zinc' Metallics, Blue
1. Carcinogen and neurotoxin
2. Toxic to aquatic Life
3. Neurotoxin and toxic to aquatic life
4. CONEG identified heavy metal
5. Carcinogen. neurotoxin and CONEG identified heavy metal
6. Neurotoxin, toxic to aquatic life and CONEG identified heavy metal
3.3.2 industry Activities
Scientific research has linked serious health problems with select ink compo-
nents. In practice, ink formulators substitute constituents that are believed to be
non-hazardous. In the absence of a comprehensive screening process to iden-
tify all potential risks, it is probable that ink makers will have to accommodate
continual substitution of certain ink components as advances in toxicological
testing document new health problems.
16 Envlronmental Packaoino Guidelines
In September 1989, the Coalition of Northeastern Governors (CONEG) Source
Reduction Task Force issued their final report containing recommendations
related to the issue of source reduction of packaging. The following is an
excerpt from their Preferred Packaging Guidelines.
"The guidelines are also based on the overriding tenet that materials used
in packaging are not to include toxic agents, such as lead, cadmium and
mercury, that can create problems in disposal (land or incineration) or
recycling systems; and furthermore, that industry will strive to reduce any
remaining, incidental amounts of heavy metals from packaging by a date
certain to be recommended by the Northeast Source Reduction Council.
Although packaging is not the major contributor of these toxic agents in the
solid waste stream, removal of these toxic substances from packaging
could make solid waste management safer and serve to allay some of the
public's more significant concerns about solid waste treatment facilities.
While toxic materials In packaging (e.g., heavy metals such as cadmium
and lead) pose no inherent danger to the consumer when the package is
purchased or used, it does present a concern in the solid waste manage-
ment system. These materials frequently are used as plastics additives
and coloring agents. Packaging materials that come into contact with food,

for example, must be shown to be safe prior to their use and are strictly
regulated by the US. Fwd and Drug Administration and the U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture However, sometimes toxic constituents may be
formed or released by reactions of packaging materials when exposed to
certain conditions. As the discarded package is subjected to treatment in
the disposal system - incinerated in resource recovery facilities or buried
in landfills, for example -toxic components may be released into the air
(stack emissions) or onto the land and potentially into groundwater
(leachate from land disposal of package or incinerator ash. etc.)."
In December 1989, the CONEG Source Reduction Council drafted model state
legislation which addresses toxic agents such as lead, cadmium and mercury.
The thrust of this legislation is that the sum of the concentration of these ele-
ments be reduced to the maximum extent feasible. CONEG model legislation
mandates the levels of lead, cadmium, mercury or hexavalent chromium present
in any package or packaging component not exceed the following:
600 parts per million by weight (0.06%) effective two (2) years after
enactment of the statute,
250 parts per million by weight (0.025%) effective three (3) years after
enactment of the statute; and
100 parts per million by weight (0.01%) effective four (4) years affer
enactment of the statute.
3.3.3 LegislatIonlRegulation
To date, many states have passed legislation containing the heavy metal limitations
.
in packaging as recommended by CONEG. Many more state legislatures
and other countries are expected to pass simllar legislation
It is apparent that the continued use of metal-containing pigments for packaging
printing ink and other applications will come under close regulatory scrutiny in
the 1990s.
3.3.4 Recommendations
In view of expected federal and state regulation of heavy metals content in pack-
aging materials, IBM has taken steps in anticipation of these restrictions.
IBM has established an IBM Engineering Specification which requires that all
packaging materials and packaging components used in IBM product and sup-
plies packaging contain no more than I00 parts per million by weight (0.01%) as
the sum of concentration of incidental levels of lead, cadmium, mercury, and
hexavalent chromium. This document, assigned part number 5897660, is avail-
able through,
Worldwide Distribution Engineering Services
Department W29
P.O. Box 12195
Research Triangle Park, NC, USA 27709
Toxic Material Reduction 17

3.4 Toxins in Plastics
3.4.1 Introduction
The single largest use of plastics today, taking up a fourth of all plastics
produced or 12 billion pounds of plastics a year, is packaging. Packaging is a
huge industry. The $55.8 billion of packaging in 1985 amounted to 4 percent of
the value of all finished goods sold in the United States. Plastics are the third
largest segment of that industry, exceeded' only by paperboard and metals.
18 Environmental Packaolno Guidelines
Two potential areas of pollution in the plastics processing industry are air pol-
lution during processing, and solid plastic waste generated on-site. In general,
the plastics processing industry does not use large amounts of water, nor does it
generate large amounts of wastewater. Hence, water pollution problems are rel-
atively small.
Air pollution problems presented by the plastics processing industry consist pri-
marily of removing processing chemicals such as solvents, sofleners and
plasticizers from plant exhaust air streams. During molding and forming, most
plastics are relatively inert. But there are threats at this stage as well; from
toxic additives, from hazardous chemicals used in processing, and from heating
up the polymer (which may allow toxic elements to volatilize).
Ingredients in plastic production have dangerous properties for those who work
with them or live near plastic factories. In 1986, EPA ranked the 20 chemicals
whose production generates the most hazardous waste. Five of the top six were
chemicals commonly used by the plastics industry: Propylene (#I), phenol (#3),
ethylene (#4), polystyrene (#5) and benzene (#6). In 1980, 44 percent of
propylene, 73 percent of phenol, 61 percent of ethylene and 72 percent of styrene
produced were consumed by the plastics industry.
The plastics industry is a strong supporter of incineration, arguing that because
plastics are made from petrochemicals, they release much more energy than
other municipal wastes, thereby helping the entire waste stream to burn more
efficiently. Plastic wastes become a potential disposal problem when certain
plastics are incinerated.
Controversy exists regarding the effect of incineration of plastics on the environ-
ment. Although a significant portion of domestic waste contains relatively harm-
less plastics such as polyethylene, the incineration of other components of
garbage may contribute to air pollution and ash disposal problems.
When a high percentage of certain plastics is incinerated, the burning process
may yield potentially toxic gases. For example, the burning of PVC generates
hydrogen chloride gas. The incineration of urethanes produces hydrogen
cyanide. Imperfect burning of plastics produces soot. Specially designed
incinerators have to be used when the plastic content is high to protect the
equipment against corrosive damage from combustion products, such as
hydrogen chloride, ammonia, sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides.
Of particular concern is the fact that many additives used to process and color
plastics products contain toxic heavy metals such as lead, cadmium and nickel.
Because these heavy metals do not combust, they have been found in both air
emissions and ash from municipal solid waste incinerators.

Table 4 (Pam 1 of 2). Toxins in Plastics
Another concern with additives to plastics Is flame retardants. Polybrominated
Biphenyls and polybrominated biphenyl oxides (PBBs/PBBOs) are targeted for
total elimination from plastic packaging, specifically foam cushioning. This ban
was driven by a Dutch Law passed in 1993. The reason for banning PBBs and
PBBOs is that when the materials containing these compounds are disposed,
bromo-dioxins and/or bromo-furans can be generated which are toxic because
these compounds accumulate In the tissue of humans, animals and in plants.
Addltke Purposa Typlwl Compounds
Flame
retardants
Heat
Stabilizers
Lubricants
Plasticizers
Added to plastics to yield products that will ignite and burn
with greater difficulty than untreated plastics. Current
research efforts include minimizing the toxic smoke and
gas assodated with the burning of plastics, particularly as
it relates to unexpected fires in buildings.
Used to ensure product durability. Heat stabilizers are
Important additions to heat-sensitive polymers that
undergo relatively high temperatures to soften them during
fabricatino omratlons.
Function to decrease the viscosity of the resin melt and to
control resin-to-melt friction during plastics processing.
Thew additives also lower the die swell of extrudates and
promote surface gloss.
Added to Dolvmers such as PVC to make them soft and - Phthalates
flexible. Pla6ticizers are also used to improve melt
* Adipates
processlbllity and toughness of rigid plastics such as
* Phosphates
c~llulow esters and ethers, and in a variety of specialized
aDDlications.
* Epoxy
Polvesters
*Aluminum trihydrate (ATH)
* Organic phosphates
'Antimony oxides
* Organic halogen compounds
Boron compounds
Polybrominated byphenyl com-
pounds (PBBs and PBBOs)
* Liquid organotin compounds and
tin mercaptide6
Barium/cadmium concentrates
* Barium/zinc/lead additives
Metallic stearates
.Waxes, fatty acids and mineral oil
* Silicones . Molybdenum
* Polyfluorocarbons
Required in the stabilization of ABS, polypropylene,
* Primary antioxidants such as
butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)
polyethylene and polystyrene plastics. These additives Secondary antioxidants such as
Antioxidants may be free radical scavengers (primary oxidants) or dilauryl thiodipropionate and
peroxide decomposers (sewndary antioxidants). trisphosphite
PhosDhite/ohenolic blends
Ultravidet
(UV)
Stabilizers
Function to prevent degradation of plastics by UV radiation
such as occurs in sunlight. Many organic UV stabilizers
tend to migrate to the polymer surface.
Used in the production of cellular plastics such as foamed
Blowing insulation, and plastic film, sheet and pipe obtained by
Agents extrusion.
Colorants
Added to achieve the desired color of the final product.
Color may be compounded into the resin and sold as such.
In other instances, the end-user blends the appropriate
amount of dry wlor powder with resin and produces the
final wlorpart. Currently, color is frequently added as
pellet concentrates or direct-feed liquids to minimize occu-
pational exposure to colorants.
Hindered amine stabilizers
*Zinc oxide and nickel complexes
* Benzophenonesand
benzotriazoles
0 Carbon black
* Phosohite co-stabilizers
Fluorocarbons
Chemical blowing agents (CBA)
such as azodicarbonamlde and
sulfone hydrazide
* High temperature blowing agents
1HTBAI
*Titanium dioxide
*Carbon black
Inorganic colorants such as iron
oxides, cadmium, chromium, lead,
nickeland molybdate
Organic colorants such as
phthalocyanines, nigrosines and
others
TOXIC Material Reduction 19

Table 4 (Page 2 of 2). Toxins in Plastics
Additive Purpose Typical Compounds
Fillers and
Reinforce-
Organic
Peroxides
Impact
Modifiers
Antistatic
Agents
Fillers are added to plastics to reduce the quantity of high
cost plastics required in the final product. Reinforcing
filers such as fiberglass and graphite give additional
strength to the plastic product.
Used as curing and cross-linking agents for polymers such
as unsaturated polyesters and polyolefins. Their purpose
Is to Initiate cross-linking, and in doing so decompose.
These peroxides are not present as such in the finished
product unless in minor residual amounts.
Added to plastics to enable plastic products to withstand
stronger impacts and still remain intact. For example,
rubbery polymers are added to PVC and other
thermoplastics to produce products with improved impact
resistance.
The use of antistatic agents in plastics is a growing need in
electronics. computer and aerospace applications where
electrostatic damage can result in costly defects. The
increasing miniaturization of electronics components, for
example makes them even more susceptible to static eiec-
tric charges
Non-reinforcing fillers include
calcium carbonate, clay,
talc, carbon black and fly ash
Reinforcing fillers include
fiberglass, graphite and cellulose
Benzoyl peroxides
Methyl ethyl ketone peroxides
* Peresters and dialkyl
Peroxides
. Styrene-butadiene polymers
- Chlorinated polyethylenes
Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymers
. Calcium carbonate
.
antistats . Ethoxylated alkylamines
* Metal flakes such as aluminum
* Surface modifiers including
silanes and titanates
3.4.2 Industry Activities
In anticipation of proposed or impending legislation designed to regulate heavy
'metal content in packaging, several major plastics manufacturers as well as
certain of their prominent customers have already placed limitations on these
elements. These limitations primarily affect the pigments used in coloring plas-
tics, and go beyond the current limitation levels established by the Food and
Drug Administration for food packaging.
Inorganic pigments containing heavy metals are being replaced by organic
pigments. To achieve certain color and finish standards it is sometimes neces-
sary to use additional organic material, which can result in an increased cost.
However, the value of this step in reducing the heavy metal constituents of the
solid waste stream is significant and warranted.
3.4.3 LegislationlRegulation
Model legislation, developed by the Coalition of Northeastern Governors
(CONEG) restricts certain heavy metal content in all packaging and is directed at
minimizing these toxic elements introduced into the waste stream by packaging
disposal.
20 Environmental Packaging Guidellnes
The CONEG recommendations are outlined in detail in the section of this guide-
book discussing heavy metals in Inks.
PBBs and PBBOs in packaging materials are banned by Dutch Law and the
State of California.

3.4.4 Recommendations
It is recommended that all iBM locations utilize Engineering Specification
5897661 which defines acceptable limits for heavy metals content in IBM pack-
aging materials. This recommendation Is discussed further in the section of this
guidebook dealing with Heavy Metals in Inks.
3.5 Summary
Since PBBs and PBBOs had very limited use in IBM packaging, no engineering
specification was created to eliminate their use. However, the compounds listed
in Table 5 are banned from IBM foam packaging
Table 5. Banned PBBs and PBBOs
PBBlPBBO CAS 1y
polybrominatedbiphenyl 59536-65-1
nonabromobiDhenvl ether 63936-56-1
heptabromobiphenyl ether
hexabromobiohenvl .~ ether
68928-80-3
36483-60-0
tetrabromobiphenyl ether 4008847.9
tribromobiphenyl ether 49690-94.0
octabromobiphenyl ether 32536-52-0
pentabromobiphenyl ether 32534-81-9
dibromobiphenyl ether 205047-7
decabromobiphenyl ether 1 163-1 9-5
bromobiphenyl ether 101 -55-3
Because the material contained in this guidebook section treats the topic of
Toxic Materials Reduction in a rather abstract format, it is appropriate that the
conclusion to this section should relate this information to IBM packaging prac-
tice.
Figure 2 on page 22 shows a engineering drawing produced in 1986. Examina-
tion of this drawing indicates several Items which in view of what is presently
known about solid waste concerns, are not environmentally sound. For example,
refer to the notes included on this drawing and consider their potential affect on
the environment:
Note 1 - The use of bleached paper has generated dioxin during the manu-
facturing process.
Note I - The use of bleached paper requires virgin fiber and a corresponding
natural resource depletion.
Note I - Because of the use of clay coating and varnish finishes, the con.
tainer is not desirable for recycling.
* Notes 3 8, 6 -The FDA limits certain heavy metals content to 600 PPM.
Current assessments by government, industry, and the scientific community
indicate this limit must be lowered to 100 PPM.
Note 3 - The use of varnish will result in air pollution during the manufacture.
Varnishes contain such volatile solvents as methanol, toluene, ketones, etc.,
and often thinners such as naphtha.
TOXIC Materlal Reduction 21

- Note 12 - The glue used, if not organic, waterbased, may not be conducive to
repulping (recycling).
This container is a "pretty package", professional looking, and attractive to a
customer, but not particularly attractive to someone concerned with environ-
mental issues.
It is inevitable that packaging designers will need to give increased consider-
ation to the environmental consequences of their designs. The investigation of
the toxic aspect of packaging disposal is relatively new and is being expanded
through the use of more accurate testing equipment and dedicated scientific
research. The challenge to the IBM packaging community is to understand the
issues and to consider protection of the environment as an ongoing job respon-
sibility.
Figure 2. Engineering drawing for folding carton, circa 1986.
22 Environmental Packaging Guidelines

' 4.0 Recycling
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Abstract
4.1.2 Objective
4.1.3 Scope
IBM uses a comprehensive waste management system to reduce the impact of
our waste materials on the solid waste stream. This integrated system attacks
our solid waste problem with a multitude of solutions; It emphasizes reducing
and recycling before considering alternatives for waste disposal.
This section will focus upon the use of recyclable packaging materials (capable
of being processed for subsequent use) as well as applications for recycled
(already reclaimed from a waste product) material. It is designed to:
- provide tools that increase the likelihood of recycling packagings
provide information on secondary applications for (packaging) materials
which would otherwise be landfiiled or incinerated,
* establish goals for the content of recycled material to be included in the fin-
ished package.
A comprehensive environmental strategy finds applications for recycled mate-
rials including engineering specifications that reference recommended recycled
content and secondary applications for materials which have previously func-
tioned as a product package.
Used in proper quantities and/or strategic applications, recycled material can
offer the manufacturer several advantages over using virgin materials including:
Avoidance of disposal costs
- Little or no compromise in performance.
Economic advantage in material cost
Reduction in the unnecessary depletion of natural resources
Environmentally sound
Compliance with legislation
This chapter attempts to identify means by which contributions to municipal solid
waste can be reduced through recycling.
Recycling is more than re-processing of waste materials. It is a technology that
involves collection, separation, preparation (e.g. baling), sale to intermediate or
final users, processing and eventual reuse and resale of the material.
Recycling may reduce the volume of solid waste material in two ways
1. By redirecting materials otherwise sent to a landfill,
2. By reducing the amount of waste material generated from manufacturing
processes which utilize raw materials.
Recycling 23

4.1.4 Purpose
4.2 Legislation
24 Environmental Packaging Guidelines
Reasons for recycling include:
Limited landfiil space: The disposal of waste is becoming a major issue as
landfills become scarce and those that are not yet at capacity, limit the type and
amount of wastes which are accepted. Environmental concerns including
groundwater contamination, the generation of poisonous methane gas, and the
siting of future landfill locations further restrict the availability of this once-
common practice.
Cost savings: Landfilling of solid waste is becoming an increasingly-expensive
alternative for eliminating waste. As landfill costs climb, people search for ways
to reduce their volume of solid waste requiring disposal. Recycling has been
identified as a cost-efficient alternative to landfilling.
Generate Revenue: Though perhaps best viewed as a cost avoidance, an active
recycling program has the potential to generate revenue. Aluminum and steel
recycling programs serve as examples. A similar return may one day be attain-
able for some industrial packagings including those made of paper and plastic.
Energy Conservation: Natural Resources are limited. Recyclable packagings
are constructed of renewable resources. Not only does recycling allow us to
reclaim our original resource, it also limits the amount of energy required for
material reprocessing. Aluminum cans can be produced from recycled material
at a fraction of the cost (about 5%) of producing an identical one from ore.
Environmental concerns: Recycling is an environmentally-superior alternative to
landfill, incineration or litter. The recycling process redirects landfill material
and it reduces the production of undesirable by-products created during the
processing of virgin material.
Legislation: Recycling is mandated in legislation which has passed or is
pending at many national, state, or local levels. Many proposals identify specific
targets for percent of recycled material and dates at which these targets are to
be accomplished.
Environmental activists and legislators have proposed "solutions" to the solid
waste problems by imposing taxes, bans, deposit laws, mandated material alter-
natives, recycled contribution requirements, and surcharges on products whose
packaging is less-than desirable.
Proposals which could impact IBM's current business practice include those that
require our packaging materials to be:
I. manufactured from degradable materials (e.9. photodegradable,
biodegradable)
2. manufactured using a prespecified content of recycled material
3. constructed of a single (non-laminate) material
4. manufactured from materials which are recyclable (in some applications).
As more environmental legislation is proposed, compliance becomes increas-
ingly difficult. Some laws have objectives which are mutually exclusive and

4.3 Recycling and the Economy
others are based upon fundamentals experts cannot agree upon. Some of these
include:
the length of time required for materials to degrade (litter)
what degradable materials should ultimately yield (e.& oxygen and water),
what conditions must be present for degradation (versus the conditions that
are present in modern-day landfills)
the value of additives designed to speed or enhance material degradation if
the material will instead be incinerated or recycled.
The impact of these proposals is more easily understood by reviewing specific
proposals that regulate or restrict the use of packaging materials or methods.
The demand for recycled materials fluctuates with the economy. In periods of
economic growth. the demand for recycled products is much greater than the
readily available supply. The hOUSing industry, which is very sensitive to eco-
nomic trends, uses a signlficant portion of recycled paper in building compo-
nents including roofing Shingles, fiberboard or wallboard, siding, flooring, tar
paper, and insulation.
Another major purchaser of recycled papers is the foreign market, whose fluctu-
ations are subject to worldwide economic trends. In future years, it is believed
the demand for recycled paper will grow despite recession trends. This is pri-
marily due to the insufficient quantity and poor quality provided by overseas
markets where forest sources are limited.
Dealers diSCOUrage StOCkpiling during a period of oversupply. When the world
economy is in a period of recession, the consumption of waste material declines,
and additional collection is unwarranted. The growing popularity of mandatory
collection of recyclables may also result in the oversupply of waste material.
Germany, with its legislated compulsory recycling, is an excellent example of an
area which has collected an oversupply of recyclable materials
4.4 Outlets for Recycled Materials
Most packaging materials are recyclable. Their recyclability. however, is depen-
dant upon the existence of an outlet for the secondary material. An outlet for
recycled material can be estimated by reviewing costs associated with its:
collection
separation (from heterOgeneOUS mixtures or waste)
cleaning (if required)
reprocessing
transportation (300 miles is generally considered the outer limit)
administrative costs (including sales)
The resultant costs must be competitive with the cost to manufacture similar pro-
ducts from virgin material. This is most easily demonstrated using an example:
The costs involved in reclaiming aluminum from a previously used can may
compare quite favorably to costs associated with manufacturing aluminum from
ore as energy consumption is reduced by about 95%. The differential provides
the material recycler with the opportunity to build additional efficiencies into the
Recycling 25

eclamation channels. Efficient reclamation channels mean reduced collection
costs (the single greatest expense for material recyclers). Recyclables with a
high value provide ample margin to further optimize reclamation channels.
4.4.1 Intermediate Outlets
Intermediate outlets are represented by scrap dealers or brokers. They accumu-
late materials, process them to market specifications, and ship them to final
outlets.
4.4.2 Final Outlets
Final outlets are facilities where materials are converted into new products.
They are the final phase of the recycling process.
4.5 IBM Packaging Waste Profile
Collection systems for recyclables are largely dependant upon the material types
to be recycled. As shown in Table 6, most of IBM’s packaging is made of
corrugate or wood (primarily pallets and skids).
Table 6. Comoosition of IBMs Packaoina Materials
Material Percent by Volume Percent by Weight
Corruaated 63 % 45%
Wood 22% 43%
Plastic 1 1 % 9 Yo
Other 4 Yo 3 Yo
4.5.1 Collection Systems
IBM packaging materials enter two distinct wastestreams. The first is the com-
mercial or residential wastestream; It originates at a customer location where
new products, parts or supplies are unpacked and consumed. The second is the
industrial wastestream initiated at IBM manufacturing locations. This
wastestream Is comprised of the materials used to package fragile components
consumed during the manufacture of IBM products. Two distinct collection
methods are required for the reclamation of these materials.
26 Environmental Packaging Guidelines
4.5.1 .I Post-Consumer Collection Systems
Afler IBM products are shipped and installed, customers are oflen confronted
with the disposal of unwanted packaging materials. Some IBM industrial pack-
agings inClUding corrugated and expanded foam plastic materials may be col-
lected using the various reclamation channels which have been established for
consumer packaging.
A variety of methods are used to collect materials for recycling inClUding
curbside collection, drop-off, and buy-back collection centers.
Curbslde Collection: This method requires consumers to sort waste into two or
more separate containers-- one that contains waste, the other(s) to hold
recyclable material. Recycled container($ are commonly provided for news-
paper, glass, aluminum and bimetal cans, Corrugated cartons, and selected
plastic containers. If a single container is used for recyclables, an intermediate
processing facility will further separate materials by type.

4.6 Wooden materials
Muff/-Meterla/ Co//ect/on Centers: A multi-material collection center is a stationary
site where residents bring their recyclable material. in some instances,
residents are paid for materials they collect, in others they simply drop off materials,
and proceeds are used to cover program operating expense.
S/ng/e Meterla/ Buy-Back or Co//ect/on Centers: Single material buy-back or
collection centers resemble vending machines except that they operate In
reverse (In the Instance of buy-back). This method is most often used for alu-
minum can, glass bottleljar, or newsprint collection.
E8tabllsh Cohctlon Network: To be truly effective, it may be necessary to
develop a unique system for the collection of recyclable packagings from a widespread
customer base. IBM is currently investigating alternative collection
center proposals which focus upon:
1. IBM Branch offices (regional collection center)
2. IBM manufacturing locations (regional, product set or material-based) .
3. Central collection locations (by either product set or material type)
4. Vendored collection and recycling (currently being done in Germany)
Establishing an alternative collection system will require significant resources
and will be very costly to the consumer.
4.5.1.2 Post-Commercial Collection Systems
This wastestream originates at IBM manufacturing locations where work-in-
process packagings are discarded as part of the manufacturing of products or
shippable machine units. The composition of packaging materials shipped to
IBM manufacturing sites is comparable to that which exits the manufacturing
process. Recycling rates for IBM receipts of corrugated and wood materials are
approaching 80%. U. S. packaging recycling has been estimated at 27% for
I991 and is growing approximately 7% annually.
IBM Solid Waste Coordinators have been given the task of minimizing solid
waste disposal through a number of channels, including recycling. Information
provided in 4.7.5, "Paper Products Manufactured from Recycled Fiber" on
page 29, 43.8, "Products Made from Recycled Plastics" on page 38, and the
Appendixes may be used by Packaging and Solid Waste teams to establish new
outlets for their recyclables.
At this writing, wooden packagings including shipping pallets, are reused (or
refurbished and reused). Successful reuse operations minimize the need for
recycling programs. Pallet reuse programs are described in 8.0, "Pallet
Reutilization" on page 65.
Should pallets and other wooden materials be of such condition that reuse (or
refurbish and reuse) is not feasible, alternatives to landfill should be investi-
gated One such alternative is the shredding of these materials Shredded
wooden material has been successfully used as poultry litter, livestock bedding
or fuel. During the shredding process, powerful magnets are employed to
remove metallic materials.
Pallet grinding operations are commonly found by contacting major regional
waste haulers.

4.7 Cellulosic (Paper) Materials
4.7.1 History
The history of paper recycling is over 300 years old (1690) when cotton and linen
rags were used as the raw material for paper. Economic and technological
growth coupled with sparse supplies of source material brought about the intrc-
duction of paper produced from wood fiber.
Today, recycling is not only a part of papermaking's heritage, it is a vital compo-
nent to the industry's growth and prosperity. Currently, over 40% of all paper
and paperboard consumed in this country is collected and utilized as either raw
material to make recycled products or as an export to countries overseas. That
amount is projected to increase to 65% by the year 2ooO. in 1992, 87 million tons
of waste paper was available for recovery. Approximately 33 million tons were
recovered.
4.7.2 Outlets for Recycled Fiber
Domestlc Out/ets: Local corrugators or corrugated carton manufacturers may
be useful in providing potential outlets for your recycled paper and corrugated
products.
A useful reference is The Official Board Markets or "Yellow Sheet." The Yellow
Sheet is a newsletter that is published weekly and contains information such as
paper and paperboard prices and industry developments, news and events.
Subscription inquiries may be directed to Official Board Markets at (218)
723-9308.
Another reference is being developed by the papermaking industry, in conjunc-
tion with APFA. This national database called "Papermatcher," is designed to
match communities or businesses with constant wastepaper streams to waste
paper mills or brokers who are interested in purchasing these materials.
International Outlets: The U. S. provides the greatest supply of waste paper to
compensate overseas markets for inadequate supply or poor source quality
(short fiber length). U. S. exports of waste paper have been increasing dramat-
ically: In 1970, 406,000 tons of waste paper were exported. In 1992, that sum
increased to 6,400.000 tons. The U. S. has established a network of wastepaper
brokers to capitalize on the overseas market. Korea and Taiwan are currently
the two largest purchasers of U. S. waste paper.
4.7.3 Sources of Recycled Fiber
Paper Stock Standards and Practices Circular PS-86, published by the Paper
stock Institute of America lists 49 different grades of waste paper plus another 31
specialty grades.
28 Fnvirnnmrmtal Parkininn Ciiidalin~~
The most popular sources of recycled fiber are:
Newspaper: Old newspapers are the main source of waste paper collected from
homes. In 1988, about 33% of the newspapers produced were reclaimed for the
purpose of recycling. A large portion ofthis recycled fiber is used in the subse-
quent production newspaper. The average recycled fiber content of all U. S.
produced newspaper was estimated at 8% in 1988. That number is projected to
grow to 40% by the year 2000.

Mlxed Paper: Mixed papers are generally collected from office buildings and
industrial plants. The mixed paper classification includes paper known as high
grade waste paper.
Wgh Grade Waste Paper: High Grade Waste Paper is represented by folding
cartons, envelopes, bags. business forms, ledgers. printed materials, tabulating
cards (key punch), computer printouts. These materials will usually yield a
greater price since higher grade materials can be produced from the stock.
Old Corrugated Certons: Old Corrugated Cartons represent the largest single
source of waste paper collected for purpose of recycling. Nationwide about 42%
of old corrugated wntainers are being collected. In some metropolitan areas, it
Is estimated that over 60% of old COrrUgated containers are reclaimed.
Large supermarkets typically bale old Corrugated containers and sell it directly
to recycling mills. Smaller ones are usually not compensated for their waste,
but their participation provides them with a savings of expense otherwise
incurred by landfilling these materials.
4.7.4 Paper Recycling Process
Recyclable papers are mixed with water (about 80%) in a beater or hydrapulper
to separate the fibers via mechanical action and form a fiberlwater slurry. This
process is similar to that observed in a large kitchen blender. The slurry is
passed through a series of screens and centrifugal cleaners to remove non-
fibrous contaminants such as glass, metal or plastic.
Afler the waste paper is repulped, it is formed into paper or paperboard using
either Cylinder or Fourdrinier machinery. Either method dries the fiber (from
80% water to 20% water) in preparation for pressing and drying. Final drying is
dong using a series of steam-heated dryers where moisture content is typically
reduced to less than 5%. Paper is then wound into rolls for shipment to its user.
4.7.5 Paper Products Manufactured from Recycled Fiber
All cellulosic papers may be manufactured with some contribution of recycled
fiber. However, the performance requirements of the second (or next) gener-
ation product will dictate the quantity of recycled fiber used as an ingredient.
Products manufactured from waste paper include:
1. Paper, inClUding newsprint, printing and writing paper, tissue, and krafl
2. Paperboard such as unbleached kraft, semi-chemical. bleached paperboard
3. Other materials including building products, molded products (e.9. egg
cartons), or CUShiOning.
Corrugated: Most manufacturers of COrrUgated board utilize some recycled fiber
when combining papers to form Corrugated board. It is estimated that only two
or three manufacturers produce Corrugated from virgin materials exclusively.
The AFPA (American Forest Paper Association) defines virgin material as mate-
rial comprised of at least 80 percent new fiber (75% for hardwoods). Corrugated
enjoys a proven recycling infrastructure; It is estimated that as much as 60% of
all for old COrrUgated cartons are reclaimed for recycling in some metropolitan
areas.
Recycling 29

4.7.6 Performance of Recycled Paper Products
It is a popular misconception that the inclusion of recycled fiber is undesirable
for any cellulosic product. While it is true that recycling can reduce the perform-
ance of some paper products, that reduction can be minimized by adopting these
principles:
- use previously recycled fiber in moderation
the source of recycled fiber is of premium-grade (long fiber length)
the source of recycled fiber is free of contaminants
when designing paCkagingS that contain recycled fiber, use the recycled fiber
In strategic areas of multi-component material (e.g. corrugated mediums).
Properly done, well-engineered applications for recycled fiber can produce both
tangible and intangible advantages for its user.
Fiber Length: Recycling of paper products shortens the length of each paper
fiber. As fiber length is reduced, so too are the number of bonding points
between fibers; As the bonds are reduced, strength is reduced. However. with
the introduction of new pulp technology, paper products may be recycled an infi-
nite number of times. Shorter fibers may be extracted during papermaking and
used in less structural applications including the manufacture of office or tissue
papers.
Contaminants: The quality of recycled paper and paperboard depends substan-
tially upon the quality of the waste paper available to the recycling mill. The
most frequently found contaminants are water insoluble adhesives, plastic film,
plastic foam, rubber bands, metals, glass, asphalt, string and carbon paper.
Plastic coated, laminated, and wet-strength papers and paperboard also cause
production problems.
All discarded waste paper cannot be recycled. in 1092, approximately 12 million
of the 87 million tons of waste paper produced were unfit for recycling. The
waste paper that is commingled with food waste becomes contaminated with
odor and bacteria. In this instance, separation and collection are not econom-
ical.
Scrap or waste from container fabricating is a highly desirable source of recy-
cled fiber because of its long fiber length and minimized exposure to non-
cellulosic contaminants.
4.7.7 Recycling Aids for Cellulosic Materials
Incorporation of the following will assist in further developing an outlet for your
recyclable fiber:
30 Environmental Packaaina Guidelines
Use water-based inks or FDNUSDA approved,
Use plastic or paper tape and starch glues in place of staples and hot melt
adhesives
* Avoid plastic coatings or non-cellulosic materials; Design packages that are
constructed of components that may be removed or separated prior to paper
recycling (e.g. avoid free-rise foam-in-place),
Avoid coatings or impregnating of corrugated,
Avoid use of bleached kraWoyster white board
Avoid cartons with urea-formaldehyde

4.7.8 Guidelines for Recycled Fiber Content
Corrugated fiberboard packagings must be manufactured using postconsumer
recycled fiber in quantities specified in Table 7.
The total amount of recycled material required increases according to the date
of board manufacture. The implementation schedule is provided below:
Implementetlon Date Total Mlnlmum Recvcled Fiber I% welaht):
06/30/82 20%
06/30/93 30%
06/30/94 40 Yo
06/30/95 50 Yo
Table 7. Required Postconsumer Contribution of Material
Calculatlng Recycled Flber Content: Because corrugated mediums travel in the
vertical as well as horizontal direction, take-up factors must be used when calcu-
lating a materials combined basis weight to compensate for the additional mate-
rial.
Industry approximations for the take-up factors are shown below:
Flute: Take-up Factor:
A 1.55
B 1.35
C 1.43
Sample Calculatlon: The combination of 100% recycled mediums and interior
liners wlth near-virgin outside liners produces a high-performance, corrugated
product with a proportionately large amount of recycled fiber. An example of a
high-performance board wlth a similarly high contribution from reclaimed mate-
rial is illustrated in Table 8.
Board Type: Doublewall
Flute: B/C
Test: 350 psi
Liner Combination: 42/26/44/26/42
Combined Basis Weight: 200 lbs/msf
Racy- Recy. Total
Compo-
Bade
cled clad Take-up
Recycled
Quantity
nent Weight Content Content Factor Content
Wrl" ,%) flbdmsfl llbdmsfl
Liner 42 25% 10.5 __ 2 21.0
Liner 44 100 Yo 44.0 - 1 44.0
Medium 26 100% 26.0 1.43 1 37.2
Medium 26 100% 26.0 1.35 1 35.1
Total 200 137
Table 8. Recycled Content Calculation
Recycling 31

32 Environmental I Packaging Guidellnes
Recycled 137 lbs/msf
Content ('a) = _______________ = 68.5%
200 lbs/msf
4.7.8.1 Selective Placement of Recycled Flber
In general. high performance COrrUgated board can be produced with a high
content of recycled fiber provided that fiber is used in strategic locations Recy-
cled materials are best placed in the Corrugated mediums and the inside liners
of multiwall board (e.9. doublewall or triplewall). These non-critical components
may be manufactured from up to 100% recycled fiber without seriously affecting
performance. Recycled content of the corrugated's facings, however, will have a
more dramatic impact on the performance of the combined board. Performance
can best be achieved by using fiber with a recycled content of less than 40% on
the outside facings or liners of Corrugated board.
The inclusion of recycled fiber may serve to reduce the combined board's
bursting Strength, but it has little impact on container compressive Strength
4.7.8.2 The 100% Recycled Symbol
The American Forest Paper Association (AFPA) promotes the use of the 100%
recycled symbol on all paper products that are manufactured with 100% recovered
paper fiber. Containers that are free of contaminants (e.g., corrugated
coatings) should be marked with a symbol. The 100% recycled symbol is shown
in Figure 3.
If part-specific artwork has not been included with the purchase order, the 100%
recycled symbol should be printed near the boxmaker's certificate in approxi-
mately the same size. Markings should appear on bottom major flaps of RSC- or
HSC-type containers, and the width panels of tubes (eg, double-cover pack-
agings).
Figure 3. The 100% Recycled Symbol
4.7.8.3 The Recycled Content Symbol
The AFPA recycled content symbol may be used to identify any paper or
paperboard packaging that is manufactured from less than 100% recycled paper
fibers. It is shown in Figure 4 on page 33. The term "total recycled fiber" or
"total recycled paper" may be used in place of "total recovered fiber". This
symbol must state recycled content within 5% (by Weight).

If part-specific artwork has not been included with the purchase order, the less
than 100% recycled symbol should be printed near the boxmaker's certificate in
approximately the same size.
Figure 4. The Recycled Content Symbol
4.7.8.4 Subsidiary Content Mark
A statement of subsidiary content information may be included directly below the
primary claim. The subsidiary claim should be used to clarify the percentage of
recovered paper fibers obtained from post-consumer sources. Example: Substi-
tute 40% POST CONSUMER for YY% SUBSIDIARY CLAIM.
4.7.8.5 The RESY SymbollSystem
Thls symbol is only used in Europe specifically for the German market. It obli-
gates German corrugated manufacturers to collect and recycle paper or corru-
gated material bearing the symbol shown in Figure 5. Use of the synbol must be
qpplied for and a fee assessed. Application can be made through local
European paper or corrugated manufacturers or directly through RESY GmbH,
Hilperstrasse 22, W-6100, Darmstadt, Germany.
Note: Depending upon the country of manufacture, the appropriate recycling
symbol should be used. Multiple symbols are permissible but not recom-
mended.
Figure 5. The RESY Symbol. In this figure, 10330 represents a unique identifier assigned
to a specific corrugated manufacturer or user.
Recycling 33

4.7.9 Recycling Specification
IBM Engineering Specification 5897661 should be used to promote the use of materials which are
recyclable and/or recycled. In addition to environmental concerns, consideration is given to material
and container performance. The specification is available by contacting:
Worldwide Distribution Engineering Services
Department W29
P.O. BOX 12195
Research Triangle Park, NC, USA 27709
The specification should be referenced on engineering drawings and on IBM purchase orders for
cellulosic packaging materials which do not require specialized materials or certain performance
requirements (Le. Cobb Test ratings). The document can also be used as an additional technical refer-
ence for information about recycling and considerations affecting performance.
4.8 Polymeric (Plastic) Materials
4.8.1 Reclamation
The recycling of post-consumer plastics is complicated by the great number of resin types and their
incompatibility with one another. Most polymers do not mix, bond or adhere well to one another.
MiXing of resin types can result in a product that has inferior physical properties including strength and
durability.
Scrap (Pre-Consumer) Reclamation: Plastic processors are in the best position to recycle plastics
because they are assured of a source that is relatively clean, homogeneous and continuous.
Post Consumer Reclamation: Postconsumer recycling of plastic materials is just beginning to occur in
most countries. It is inhibited by:
the need to separate plastics by resin type,
- contamination,
high collection costs due to low material density,
insufficient and variable volume source for recyclable material.
the use of heterogeneous resins in a single package
4.8.2 Commingled Plastics
Plastic material that have not been separated by resin type is referred to as "C0n"ngled." Plastic
recyclers receive the greatest amount for their waste material when it has been separated into its
various plastic components (resins). When separation is deemed too costly, the mixture can be proc-
essed in its commingled state in one of two ways:
I. cm"ngled plastics may be used for incineration.
The most popular market for commingled plastics is waste-to-energy incineration as plastic mate-
rials contain a large BTU or fuel value.
2. Commingled plastics may be further processed in rudimentary applications where the second generation
product is noncritical in nature.
For molding applications, commingling between plastics is permitted only amongst specific
polymers. For example, polyethylene and polypropylene can safely be substituted for one another
in amounts as great as 15%. Polystyrene, conversely, is a very sensitive polymer and almost no
commingling can be permitted.
34 Environmental Packaoino Guidelines

Secondary applications for C0n"ngled plastics are discussed in 4.9.8, "Products Made from Recy-
cled Plastics" on page 38.
4.8.3 Plastics Separated by Resin Type
In comparison to the C0r"ngled variety, plastic materials that have been separated by resin type
(e.g. Polyethylene) represent a much greater resource; One which can be recovered through recycling.
With proper quality controls, recycled post-consumer plastics perform as well as virgin plastics in most
applications.
4.9 Plastic Recycling Process
Plastic recycling typically combines fwd service and industrial materials of the same resin type and
mechanically reduces material size into small pieces called fluff. These are then heated, and
extruded, forming solid pellets. The recycled plastic resin is typically shipped to a molder who manu-
factures durable products. These secondary produds are discussed in 4.9.8, "Products Made from
Recycled Plastics" on page 38.
4.9.1 Plastic Recycling Aids
Currently, there is not an established market for most post consumer plastics; Especially for industrial-
type packagings. Post consumer reclamation is plagued by inefficient collection and distribution
methods (primarily poor density) and contamination and separation of resins.
4.9.2 Plastic Coding System
The Society of Plastics Industry (SPi) has developed a Coding system that identifies the commonly used
plastic resins for the purpdse of recycling. Although originally designed to assist plastic bottle man-
ufacturers, some industrial plastic manufacturers and users of plastic packaging have adopted use of
the system to assist them with resin sortation for recycling.
Following is a list of the codes. Popular plastic cushion packaging types are printed in boldtype
M8tOrl.l
Code
IS0 1043-1 Acronym SPI Resln Number SPI Acronvm
Polyethylene terephthalate PET 1 PFTE
Highdensity polyethylene PE-HD 2 HDPE
Vinyllpolyvinyl chloride PVC 3 V
Lowdenstiy polyethylene PE-LD 4 LDPE
Poluoronvlene PP 5 PP
Polystyrene PS 6 PS
Polyurethane (ester) PURS 7
. ... . . . . . . . .
Polyurethane (ether) PEUR 7
Table 8. Plastic Resin Codes
IBM has adopted a resin Coding system which has been derived from SPl's bottie Coding system. It is
shown in Figure 6 on page 36 and is described in the paragraphs that follow.
Recycling 35

Figure 6. Plastic Resin Identifier
If the plastic pari is not manufactured from 100% postconsumer recycled materials, a qualification
must be made which clearly identifies the minimum percentage of recycled plastic in the package
This qualifier must state recycled content within 5% (by Weight). IBM has adopted Symbology in
Figure 6,
In Figure 6. "A" and "B" indicate the percent of recycled content of the material in the form: post
consumer/total recycled material. This presents a straightforward means of identifying the recycled
content of the material, yet eliminates the potential for misleading marketing claims. The recycled
composition of a packaging part may be described as follows:
(4
25% Post consumer recycled content
15% Industrial recycled content
(B) 40% Total recycled content
60% Virgin Material
100%Total
"C" is the figure outllne; an isosceles triangle comprised of chasing arrows.
"D" is the numerical identification for the material and has been taken from the SPI standard. Refer to
Table 9 on page 35 for a list of selectable SPI resin numbers. Do not utilize the SPI resin number "7"
without the appropriate IS0 1043 acronym (E). If the plastic is not a pure resin, it should bear the mark
"Other;' in place of the IS0 1043 acronym.
"E" is the acronym identifying the material. The IS0 1043 acr0nym.s are identified in Table 9 on
page 35. It is essential that the SPI resin number "7" be accompanied by the The IS0 1043 acronym, if
appropriate.
Application of a resin identifier requires that resins be 99% pure and not C0n"ngled to avoid contam-
ination during subsequent recycling.
Suppliers of plastic packagings having knowledge that their materials contain or have been in contact
with contaminants, inClUding hazardous materials, must consider the effects of these elements and
may best serve the recycling effort by intentionally omitting the resin identifier.
4.9.3 Marking of the Resin Identifier
Molded Parts: When marking a molded plastic piece with the resin identifier, it is recommended that
the identifier be embossed on the part ejection pins. Because the pins are not an integral part of the
mold, the molder selects the appropriately marked pin whenever new parts are molded. This method
36 Environmental PackaQlna Guidelines

of imprinting is preferred as this process allows flexibility in resin recycled content identification. It
also adds little expense to tool development or the piece price of molded cushion parts. Each time a
cushion is molded, the resin identifier (eg, six for EPS) and recycled content will be permanently dis-
played on the molded part.
Fabrlcsted Parts: It is recommended that fabricated parts including those made of polyurethane or
polyethylene similarly apply the resin identifier using either hot wire imprintlng or a stamp which prints
the appropriate mark using permanent ink. Caution must be used when selecting the ink and location
to ensure it does not smear or transfer to the machine covers. Each individual component must be
marked.
4.9.4 Guidelines for Recycled Resin Content
Plastic packagings must be manufactured using postconsumer recycled resin in quantities specified in
Table 10. This requirement is contingent upon the existence of processes that produce equivalent per-
forming materials. For example, polyurethane foams are produced using a process that does not
permit recycled resin to supplement virgin material. Polystyrene and polyethylene packaging foams
are currently produced using a process which allows recycled and virgin resins to be mixed during
manufacturing. With proper cushion design, virgin resin can currently be supplemented by as much as
25% recycled resin with no degradation in performance.
The total amount of recycled resin required increases according to the date of manufacture. The
implementation schedule is provided below:
Implementetlon Date
Total Minlmum Recycled Resin
(% weight):
12/31/92 5%
12/31/93 10%
12/31/94 15%
12/31 /95 20%
Table 10. Required Posrconsumer Contribution of Material
4.9.5 Engineering Specifications for Plastics
Recommendations:
1. Include the recycling symbol on molded and fabricated parts.
2. Modify Engineering or purchase specifications so as to encourage the use of recycled materials in
packaging.
3. Virgin resin should be supplemented with recycled material to produce a greater yield of molded
part.
Note: A cushion's physical properties may be adversely affected by inclusion of too much
regrind material especially when molding smaller or complicated forms. When molding
these shapes, the virgin resin and recycled component do not always properly fuse to
one another.
iBM Engineering Specification 5897661 should be used to promote the recycling of plastic packaging
materials. The specification is available by contacting:
Worldwide Distribution Engineering Services
Department W29
P.O. Box 12195
Research Triangle Park, NC. USA 27709
Recycling 31

The specification should be referenced on engineering drawings and on IBM purchase orders for
plastic packaging materials which have not been in contact with contaminants including hazardous
materials. The specification includes an overview of IBM's resin coding system and makes recommen-
dations on the methods used to encode plastics with the resin identifier.
4.9.6 Expanded Plastic (Foam) Materials
Historically, plastic foam manufacturers have utilized defective parts, trimmings and other in-house
scrap to supplement virgin resin when manufacturing foamed materials. Because there are no con-
taminants and minimal collection costs associated with this source, manufacturers are eager to sup-
plement their virgin resin with the recycled foam. The cost to add the recycled material is small due to
the reduced requirement for resources, energy, and the cost avoidance of landfill.
While plant scrap materials have been processed for many years, the recycling of plastic products
afler they have been used by consumers is a relatively new process.
4.9.7 Reclamation of Expanded Plastics
In comparison to structural foam or plastic, packaging waste suffers from one additional reclamation
burden in that it is blown or expanded to perform it useful function. This process reduces the density
of the plastic; A process that must be reversed for efficient material collection. Packagings may be
densified by either using heat or grinding dependent upon the particular resin.
4.9.8 Products Made from Recycled Plastics
The excellent value and versatile use of the recycled resin material produced from post-consumer or
scrap material has sp.urred the rapid development in recycling technology and creative end-uses for
the recycled material.
The suitability of a recycled resin for a particular application will depend upon the technical demands
of the application and the nature of any contamination resulting from the prior material use.
Typical secondary applications for popular foam types are listed below:
Polystyrene: Expanded polystyrene foam may find secondary applications in either its original, but
shredded form, or in a reprocessed variety.
1. Soil aeration (Plants)
2. Inexpensive toy stuffing or filling
3. Bean bag chair stuffing
4. Regrind for subsequent molding in EPS cushions
5. Semi-rigid Styrene Products, including:
Trash containers,
Children's toys
Office Products or equipment,
Videotape Housings
- Plastic lumber
Polyurethane: Urethanes of ether or ester can be used for rebond applications. All colors of material
are processable as are densities of up to 2.2 psi. Higher ILDs (between 20 and 150). are preferred for
rebond applications. Polyurethane rebond may be used for:
I. Carpet Rebonding
38 Environmental Packaging Guidelines

2. Seat cushions
3. Tractor seats
Urethanes may also be ground and used without additional processing in furniture CUShiOnlng. One
common application is encountered in patio furniture cushions.
Polyethyfene: Popular secondary applications for polyethylene resin are:
I. base cups for PET bottles,
2. refuse cans,
3. flower pots,
4. piping,
5. traffic cones,
6. plastic lumber.
Mlxed Pfartlcs: Should you experience difficulty locating an application for your particular resin, most
resins may be Wmmingled and used in one of the fOllOWing ways:
I. Treated lumber (which is estimated to be a 3 billion pound market)
2. Landscape timbers (which is estimated to be a 1/2 billion pound market)
3. Shipping Pallets (which is estimated to be a 30 billion pound market)
4. Horse fencing
5. Farm pens for poultry, pigs and calves
6. Roadside posts,
4.9.6.1 Packaging Products Manufactured from Recycled Plastics: Several states are in
the process of establishing laws which govern the disposal of solid waste including packaging mate-
rials. Most of these laws are similar in that they provide for exemptions from proposed taxes or
restrictions provided materials used in products (or packages) are made from recycled materials in
whole or in part (usually 30-50%).
Some packaging manufacturers have developed methods and sources and purchased and built equip-
ment, to utilize recycled materials to qualify for the legislated exemptions. Current offerings include:
1. Rigid and semi rigid plastic packaging (including conductive)
2. Strapping (PET)
3. Pallets (PE-HD/mixed)
4. Drums (PE-HD)
5. Pails (PE-HD)
6. Structural urethane foam (PET)
. . . . . .- . . . - .
4.10 Degradability in Packaging
Critics and researchers have argued whether degradable or non-degradable properties are best for a
truly environmental packaging material. While degradable materials decay and decompose under
proper conditions, some toxic components may be released with their decomposition. Such toxins
include leachate which can infiltrate and contaminate our ground water, and poisonous methane gas
which is released into the atmosphere. In addition, landfills that have a significant portion of
degradable ingredients would require permanent classification as a hazardous dumping area due to
Recvclm 39

formance. and inhibit future recycling efforts. Degradable-type polymers which are recovered for recy-
cling and commingled with similar untreated resin may cause the resultant mixture to perform
unexpectedly or fall prematurely. Biodegradable materials that are incinerated simply represent a
misuse of financial resources as no benefit Is derived from the extra-cost additive.
4.10.2 Photodegradable Packaging
Photodegradable materials use the sun's ultraviolet rays to assist degradation. Carbonyol ingredients
are typically added to a material to introduce this property, Like biodegradibility. however,
photodegradability reduces the size of the inert particle, but increases the number of particles by dis-
solving the binding agent between the polymer chains.
Photodegradability is a more specialized approach to solid waster reduction which has several serious
drawbacks. First, the necessary additives increase resin or material cost. Second, legislators, man-
ufacturers and users have not reached consensus on the level of sunlight exposure required to initiate
the degradation process. Photodegradable packagings which degrade too rapidly prevent containers
from performing their intended purpose as packages fail prematurely before reaching their ultimate
destination. Conversely, the packagings which degrade too slowly cause those who want to see it
disappear great dissatisfaction. Photodegradabiiity is dependant not only upon the time materials are
exposed to the sun, but also upon the intensity of the sun at a specific geographic region. This causes
potential legislation to vary by region and complicate material development..
photodegradable materials must be used in conjunction with the proper disposal methodology to be a
logical choice for waste minimization. Since the two most common methods of disposal, landfill and
incineration, neverlseldom encounter a sufficient quantity of daylight for the photodegradable mech-
anisms to operate, usefulness of this technology is severely limited.
4.10.3 Compostability
Another Increasingly popular means of handling select solid waste materials is composting
Composting converts certain natural material types into a usable secondary product that may be used
to enhance agricultural efforts. Biodegradation and photodegradation may be used in tandem on
natural products to produce a reduced volume and weight of waste material which may be used as a
soil supplement to reutilize its positive constituents.
Composting technology is not new, but is being enhanced to expedite the degradation process. Unfor-
tunately, the results of composing are hinged to the slowest decaying ingredients. Composting may be
applied to only naturally degradable materials and there are still some concerns about undesirable
residues within the compost that may have a detrimental effect upon soil or harvest, and thus, on
mankind.
4.10.4 Conclusions
Degradable additives provide benefit which is limited to the societal problem of ''litter.'' These addi-
tives are of little value to industrial packaging materials and normally serve to .increase material cost.
Most packaging materials are better candidates for reuse or recycling waste minimization practices,
Recvclinn dl

4.10.5 Recommendations
Degradable additives should not be used in packaging materials unless they are expected to become
litter rather than recyclable, reusable, or normal solid waste. In the future, degradable additives may
be found to be of value in materials that are effective contributors to the composting process. If forced
to choose between a photodegradable or biodegradable additive for a packaging material, the
biodegradable additive normally encounters fewer serious obstacles and will degrade more effectively
than materials manufactured with photodegradable additives.
42 Environmental Packaninn Giiidelines

5.0 Truth in Advertising
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Abstract
Environmental advertising and labeling has become very complex. Many organizations and legislative
bodies have tried to influence and/or control the use by industry of "green" environmental advertising
and labeling. Numerous companies have been forced to change their labeling and/or advertising
because their environmental claims were unsubstantiated.
5.1.2 Purpose
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of current legislation and to provide guidelines
for environmental labeling of IBM product packaging.
5.2 Environmental Marketing Guideline Application
5.2.1 Environmental Marketing Guidance
Generally all regulations to influence industries use of environmental claims are voluntary. These reg-
ulations and guidelines apply to:
environmental claims that appear in labeling, advertising, promotional materials and other mar-
keting formats;
direct assertions of environmental benefits and implied environmental claims;
claims made in words, symbols, emblems, logos, pictures, product brand names and by any other
means;
claims made about products, packages or both; and
claims for items advertised and sold for personal, commercial, institutional and industry use.
The above guidelines apply to both general advertising and specific terms frequently used in environ-
mental advertising.
5.2.2 Environmental Marketing Claims
General Envlronmental Baneffts: It is deceptive to make broad, unqualified claims of environmental
benefit. All general assertions of environmental benefit, whether direct or implied, must be fully sub-
stantiated or avoided altogether. Examples of general claims are "environmentally friendly" and "envi-
ronmentally safe".
DegradablelBiodegradablelPhotodegradable: It is deceptive to make unqualified claims that packages
are degradable unless the claims can be scientifically substantiated. This claim should be made only
about packaging that can degrade in its customary place of disposal. For example, if an item is
usually disposed of in a sanitary landfill, and will degrade only when exposed to light and water or if
buried in soil, it should not be advertised as being degradable.

Compostabla: Unqualified claims of compostability are deceptive. Claims should be made only if all
the materials in a package will break down into safe, usable compost. A distinction should be made as
to whether an item is appropriate only for composing in municipal facilities and not in the home
compost heap. All compostability claims should be scientifically substantiated.
Recyclable: It is deceptive to misrepresent that a package is recyclable. Many materials are techni-
cally recyclable. However, only packages that can be collected, separated and recovered from the
waste stream and used in the manufacture of a new product or package should be described as
recyclable. Where recycling of certain materials is limited or not available, or if a non-recyclable com-
ponent “significantly limits” recyclability of an item that is made primarily of recyclable material, the
claim should be avoided. Also, if the shape or size of a recyclable item makes it difficult or impossible
to recycle, the claim should not be used.
Recycled Content: It is deceptive to misrepresent that a package is made of recycled material. Pack-
ages made only partly of recycled content, claims should be qualified by amount or weight. Recycled
content claims should be used only for materials that have been recovered from the waste stream
during manufacturing (pre-consumer) or afler consumer (post-consumer). If the recycled material used
is pre-consumer, it must be substantiated that the pre-consumer material would have entered the solid
waste stream had it not been recycled. That means if spills and scrap of a virgin material are typically
collected and used for production, they do not qualify as recycled materials. If items contain both pre-
and post-consumer recycled content, those differences may be noted, but only if the claimed differ-
ences can be substantiated.
Source Reduction: It is deceptive to misrepresent that a package is lower in weight, volume or toxicity
than another package. Source reduction claims should be qualified. Comparisons with previous ver-
Sions of the same package should be fully explained.
Reflllabla: It is deceptive to misrepresent that a package is refillable. Unqualified refill claims may be
made only if a collection and return system fro refills exists.
SPI Symbol: The Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI) resin identification symbol (RIS), when used
alone and placed inconspicuously on a package, does not constitute environmental advertising.
5.2.3 Conclusions
Making environmental packaging claims is a complex issue that should only be done If the claims can
be substantiated. In the electronic industty there is little benefit to making environmental packaging
claims and therefore they should be avoided.
5.2.4 Recommendation
It is IBM’s position not to use environmental packaging claims, such as the recyclable symbol, as a
marketing tool, but rather to provide information by displaying the appropriate symbology to the con-
sumer so that the best disposal decision can be made. The preferred location on IBM packages for all
symbology is on the bottom of the container or similar inconspicuous spot.
44 Environmental Packaaina Guidelines

6.0 Material Reduction and Reusable Packaging Guidelines
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Abstract
Source reduction is pari of an integrated approach to reduce solid waste disposal problems. Two
important source reduction techniques include;
material reduction. and
material reuse
In addition to reducing solid waste problems, material reduction and reuse are oRen very cost effec-
tive. The cost effectiveness of material reduction and material reuse programs is often the result of
signiflcant savings in material purchase costs.
6.1.2 Purpose
The purpose of this chapter is to establish references and guidelines for evaluating and deVelOplng
material reduction and reusable packaging programs. The information may be used when alternatives
to disposable containers and materials are needed. These alternatives may be needed when;
packaging material solid waste needs lo be reduced,
packaging material costs need to be reduced,
materials handling or automation improvements are needed, or
Continuous Flow Manufacturing (CFM) programs are required.
The guidelines and references in this chapter should be used as part of packaging and container eval-
uations for new and existing programs. The guidelines and references may help in evaluating
reduction and reuse programs as alternatives to the most environmentally sound and cost effective
packaging for IBM product and pari manufacturing and shipping.
6.2 Material Reduction
6.2.1 Objectives
Besides reducing solid waste problems, material reduction can reduce our depletion of natural
resources and oflen results in a less expensive package. The following are objectives of packaging
material reduction:
. . . . .. .
Use less packaging materials, but still provide the required packaging features and functions, such
as product protection.
Use-les-s packaging materials, but use materials that have been recycled or will be recyclable,
reusable, or have no environmental impacts when disposed in landfills or incinerated.
Use less packaging materials, but use materials that require minimal natural resources and non-
toxic materials lo manufacture.
6.2.2 Material Reduction Techniques
Some material reduction techniques include the following:
Material Reduction and Reusable Packaging Guidelines 45

Material light-Weightlng: Material light-weighting is a simple concept that involves using less mate-
rial in a design. The objective is to use only enough material to provide the required level of perform-
ance (e.@, shock protection, stacking strength, durability, etc.). Some examples of light-weighting are
included in the following list:
Reduced thickness or bursting test on COrrUgated fiberboards. For example, when Stacking
Strength. durability. for repeated uses, or puncture resistance is not needed in a container, lower
Strength boards may be selected. This may mean reducing triple-wall boards to high-performance
double-wall materials, or it may mean reducing the bUrSting Strength of a board (e& 350 Ib test to
275 Ib test).
Reduced wall thickness on plastic containers. When impact Strength. precise dimensions, or dura-
bility is not significant, wall thickness‘s of plastic containers can be reduced. In the case of
vacuum-formed containers, a thinner wall may be accomplished with no tooling Changes.
Changing wall thickness’s of injection-molded parts may be more difficult and costly.
Reduced wall thickness on molded cushions. Reduced wall thickness’s may also be used on
molded cushions (e& molded expanded polystyrene or EPS end caps and cushloned trays). If
material is not needed for structural integrity or for shock protection (foam will only provide shock
protection, if it can deflect during impact), material is probably not needed and can be removed.
Modified corner cushions. Protective foam cushions, designed to fit on the corners of a part or
product, often have unneeded or extra material that can be removed, without affecting the shock
protection ability. Protective cushioning material is usually needed only on the flat surfaces or
faces of the product. Material directly in the corner (Le.. the area formed by the intersection of
three adjacent product sides) is often not needed and may be removed.
Alternate Materlal Selection: Sometimes the use of an alternate material and design can result in the
reduction of material used. For example, shock protection requirements for a design can be met by
using several different types of foam cushioning material. Because of chemical composition and physical
structure differences, the volume and mass of foam needed will vary, depending on the material
selected. In general. the stiffer foam materials will require less volume in a design. Polystyrene materials
offer the highest stiffness, polyethylenes and polypropylenes offer medium stiffness, and
polyurethanes offer the lowest stiffness’s; however, certain polyurethane esters are available in moderately
high stiffness‘s.
Since the cost of the foam materials varies significantly. the package design using the lowest volume
of foam may not have the lowest package cost. When this is the case, savings from lower transporta-
tion costs (due to better density) or lower container costs may offset the higher foam costs. Lower
transportation costs are more likely to occur when smaller cushion thickness’s (rather than less
cushion bearing area) are used to reduce the volume of CUShiOning material needed in a package. For
example, if one inch of cushion thickness is removed from all sides of a 5.0 cubic feet packaged
product (Weighing 30 pounds), the package volume will be reduced to about 3.7 cubic feet. This
smaller package will cost about $8 less to ship by air within the US. and about $15 less to ship by air
from the U.S. to an international location.
Bulk versus Unit Packages: A material reduction technique often used with supplier and Interplant
packaging programs is bulk packaging. Quite often the use of bulk packaging requires less packaging
material, per part, than individually packaged parts. In addition to material advantages of more parts
per package, bulk packages Often require less material for shock protection. Bulk packages, especially
when palletized, are less likely to be dropped from high drop heights. Unit and manually handled
packages are more likely to dropped from higher heights and require more shock protection (e.g.,
more dunnage and CUShiOning).
Reduced Product Protection: Quite oflen packaging materials can be reduced and sometimes elimi-
nated when the product requires minimal protection. Minimal protection may be the result of;
increased product ruggedness,
46 Environmental Packaging Guidelines
,

the use of material handling equipment (ea., carts), and/or
well controlled or minimal handling, shipping, and storing environments (e.g., close or nearby
vendors).
Remable Packaging: One of the most cost effective and environmentally-sound material reduction
tecnniques is reuse of materials. Because of its significance, a separate and expanded section is
included In this guide.
6.3 Reusable Packaging
8.3.1 Elements of Cost
The following are some of the cost elements in packaging material and container programs. Although
it !s not an all-inclusive list, it does list some of the more common and significant items that should be
cons!dered.
MaterSals: The material costs generally are the costs to purchase the container or packaging item.
The purchase or material costs of a reusable item should be compared to the cost of the disposable
Item. This comparison should be made on a total program life basis. The total number of disposable
items required, times tho disposable Item's material cost, should be compared to the total number of
reusable items required, times the material cost of the reusable Item.
Example:
(# dlsposable items) x (disposable item purchase cost)
versus
(# reusable items) x (reusable item purchase cost)
in addition to the purchase costs, any material cost required to maintain or repair reusable items
should also be estimated.
Reuse Me: Although not an element of cost, the reuse life is used to help define the number of reus-
able items needed to support a program. Reuse life should be considered a major cost lever or item
that greatly influences material costs of reusable items. As reuse life increases, fewer reusable Items
are needed. which then lowers the material costs.
Plpellne: Like reuse life, inventory pipeline effects material costs. The inventory pipeline defines the
number of reusable items needed at any given time. Inventory pipeline should also be considered a
major cost lever. Reusable programs are often most cost effective when pipelines are small.
Return: Return costs include the handling and shipping costs to return an item from the end of one
use. back to the starting point of the next use. This may include both transportation and labor costs
required to return an item.
SMpplog: In addition to return shipping costs. the cost to ship packaged items in reusable containers
.and disposable containers should be estimated. in many situations, container characteristics such as
size and mass wlil effect transportation costs.
Le& Labor costs not included in other cost elements should be uniquely identifled and estimated.
Labor costs may Include
Administration: Thls may include the labor to manage, control, and analyze requirements of an on-
wing reusable program. Thls should be compared to administrative costs (if any) for a disposable
program.
MaterIaI ReductIan and Reusable Packaging Guldellnes 41

PackinglUse: This is the labor involved in actually using a package or container. This should be
compared to the labor of using disposable containers and packaging. This should include labor to
both pack and unpack.
RepairlCleanhg: This is the labor required to repair, refurbish or clean a reusable item, so that it
may be reused.
Disposal: This is the cost to dispose of containers and packaging. A comparison of disposal costs for
reusable items versus disposable items should be made. Included in the comparison should be;
labor costs to sort and place items in appropriate waste containers, compactors or bailers,
lease or purchase costs for special equipment (e.& compactors and bailers), and
costs of waste material pick-up andlor disposal.
EquipmentlTooling: Capital and expense costs for equipment and tools needed to use or make dis-
posable and reusable items should be estimated. In many cases, out-of-pocket cost analyses are used
to compare reusable and disposable programs. If out-of-pocket analyses are used, all tools and equip-
ment can be treated as expenses or out-of-pocket cash flows.
6.3.2 Technical & Business Considerations
The following are some items that should be considered when evaluating, deVelOping or implementing
reusable programs:
Transportation Distance: Physical shipping distance and time greatly effect the inventory pipeline and
the total number of reusable items needed. When shipping distances are short, pipelines usually are
small, and the total number of reusable items is usually small. In addition, short distances result in
lower transportation costs, especially for returning reusable items. Pipeline and return costs are often
the largest costs in a reusable container program.
Example: Local Vendors
Reusable programs often work best when transportation distance is very short. For example, with
packaging programs for supplier parts, it may be easier to implement reusable programs with nearby
or 1 oca1 vendors.
. The pipeline will be short, so there will be fewer reusable items to buy.
Return shipping costs will usually be low.
.
.
.
.
Many suppliers may have their own trucks, so return shipping may be free. This is especially
true when a local supplier has a truck coming back empty, after making a delivery.
With vendors very close, inventory on parts packed in reusable containers is likely to be very
low, because the vendor can make frequent deliveries. The low parts inventory requires fewer
reusable containers. There will be fewer or no containers holding parts in an IBM warehouse.
When the pipeline is small and easy to control, a reusable item is more likely to be used as an
integral part of material handling systems at both the supplier and IBM. This is especially true
with local vendors who make frequent deliveries to IEM. In addition, the vendor is more likely
to accept management responsibility for much of
repairing, scrapping reusable items).
the reusable program (e.g., purchasing,
Part Size: With supplier parts. larger parts are often better candidates for reusable programs, than
smaller sized parts.
There are fewer parts per container, so the containers make more round trips. This is a cost
benefit, if the container is Well designed, very durable, and has a high reuse life. When the life of a
program is close to or shorter than the reuse life of a container or reusable item, a higher number
of reuses makes a reuse program more easily justified.

The cost differential between disposable and reusable containers is often smaller with large parts,
than with small parts. With a high number of reuses, this makes the total materials cost very low.
Large parts are often good candidates for warehouse on wheels (WOW) or kanban on wheels
(KOW) inventory management programs. When parts suppliers are not close, just in time (JIT)
dellvery programs are more easily justified with larger parts. The larger parts often are the more
expensive and require the most amount of storage space. So, eliminating these parts from ware-
house storage, usually results in significant inventory savings. Frequent delivery and no ware-
house storage also reduces the number of reusable containers needed and results in low or free
return Shipping costs, especially when the vendor's trucks are returning empty.
lnventwy Control: Consider inventory management practices, when evaluating and designing reus-
able containers.
Be sure reusable containers hold the right number of parts to match inventory disbursement or
manufacturing kanban quantities.
Where inventory control is poor or when inventory levels (or part demands) are likely to vary signif-
icantly, keep the reusable container or packaging cost very low, to minimize costs to replace lost
items or to buy new ones. Also, keep the design of the reusable item very simple, so procurement
lead-times will be very short. Durability and high reuse may have to be sacrificed, so replacement
or new items will be inexpensive and easy to get.
Bulk n. Unlt Packs: Bulk packaging applications are gWd candidates for reusable containers. Look
for single unit packages that currently use several different materials in the package design. For
example, ESD sensitive and fragile components and assemblies (e.@, small disk drives, cards and
boards) shipped by suppliers and component plants are often individually packed with conductive bags,
foam WShiOning, and fiberboard cartons. These individual and disposable packages can sometimes
be replaced with bulk (holding many parts) containers made of conductive COrrUgated fiberboard with
anti-static foam inserts.
Other Pasign Facton: In addition to the design factors listed above, the following design consider-
ations should be made:
Design Style B Reuse: Select container and packaging styles that lend themselves to high reuse.
For example, HSC 8 cap style containers are better suited to multiple openings and closings, than
RSC style containers. They also can use closures other than tapes that may damage the con-
tainer (e.g., tape removal may peel away liner board).
Easy Use: Design reusable containers and packaging to allow easy packing, Unpacking and
repacking. This will help to ensure parts are properly protected and packaging Items are not
misused or misplaced. Avoid jig-saw puzzle complexity. If a reusable package is used only occa-
sionally by individuals (e.9.. IBM Customer Engineers using field replacement part packages for
park return) minimize complexity so the package can be easily reassembled and reused, without a
high degree of packing expertise. Where possible, the packing process should be no more than
three steps -open, place (the part), and closelseal.
Cushioning Materials: Avoid foam cushions made with low density materials, especially foam-in-
place urethanes and expanded polystyrenes. These materials will easily break apart and com-
-press with high reuse. The shock protection ability will then be seriously degraded. CUShiOning
materials selected should be able to provide adequate shock protection, after many drops and
reuses. As a general guide, for each reuse, a reusable cushion should be able to pass the test
requirements of IBM Corporate Specification, C-H 1-9711-005, Packaged Product Tests. For
example, the test specification requires eight (8) drops - one on each package face, one edge and
one corner. If ten reuses are planned for a cushion, the cushion should be tested with a total of
eighty (80) drops from the required drop height.
Component Replacement: Design reusable containers so worn or damaged components can be
easily replaced, without having to throw away the entire container. Also keep component designs
Material Redudion and Reusable Packaging Guidelines 49

simple, to facilitate easy and fast replacement and procurement. For example, complex designs,
sophisticated materials, and special tooling may cause high replacement cost and long replace-
ment times.
- Cleaning: For reusable items that need to be cleaned, be sure to include adequate liquid flow and
drain holes. Or include materials that do not require special solvents needed for. cleaning or
removing labels and markings.
Disposal: Consider end-of-life disposal. When the container can no longer be used, can its mate-
rials be recycled for other uses, or will the container material and design dictate landfill or
incineration only? Select materials that can be easily recycled and design packages to make recy-
cling easy (e& all one material or several materials that are easy to separate and sort). Quite
oflen, the container or package manufacturer can suggest alternatives to make your container or
material recyclable.
Other Uses: When possible, design containers and packaging to be used for other programs (both
current and future). With slight design changes. a reusable item designed and cost justified for one
program may be applied to other programs that may not be able to justify unique rsusable con-
tainer or packaging designs. Also, very durable designs, with minor modifications, may be cost
effectively applied to future programs, thus extending a reusable item's reuse life beyond the life of
one program.
Shipping: Consider shipping weight and size to minimize shipping costs. These should be consid-
ered for both full and empty containers or outgoing and returning reusable packaging materials. In
addition to size and weight, the container style may affect shipping costs. For return shipping. it
may be possible to design reusable containers to nest together or collapse when empty. However,
these features often add more cost and are sometimes less conducive to automation.
Protection and Handling: Be sure reusable packaging provides the same level of protection (e&,
shock, vibration, abrasion, ESD. humidity, etc.) as the disposable packaging. In addition, be sure
the reusable containers can be handled as easily as a disposable containers; avoid the need for
additional handling labor or additional handling devices. This should be considered for all phases
of container handling (e.g., packing, storing, shipping, unpacking, return shipping).
Material Selectlon: The following is an overview of some materials typically used for reusable pack-
aging and containers. Also included is an overview of some manufacturing techniques used to manu-
facture reusable containers. The materials and manufacturing techniques includsd are not
all-inclusive. Those materials included are only some of the more commonly used and in most cases,
the most commonly recycled materials.
High Density Polyethylene: Some of the most widely used reusable container materials are high
density polyethylenes (PE-HD). PE-HD's offer good to excellent stiffness thru an excellent temperature
range (-40 degrees F to +I50 degrees F). PE-HD is also a commodity material readily available and
easily recycled.
High Impact Polypropylene: This material is more durable than polyethylene, but not as stiff. Nor does
it have the low temperature range usefulness that polyethylene has; it has a tendency to crack at
impacts below 0 degrees F. Although recyclable, polypropylene recycling is not as widespread as
.HDPE and some other materials.
High Impact Polystyrene: High impact poylstyrene is another extremely stiff material that has excellent
compressive load strength and good temperature range usefulness. However, polystyrene is more
brittle than polyethylene and polypropylene and has a tendency to crack under high impact. It is also
readily attacked by solvents. Polystyrene is used most often for shelf storage boxes, container inserts,
and trays, rather than for shipping containers. It also holds it original shape after molding better than
polyethylene and polypropylene. Polystyrene is easily recycled.

Plastic Container Manufacturing: The above plastics are some of the more commonly used plastics for
reusable containers. in many applications, these materials can be designed and manufactured into
very rugged and durable containers. Although this guide does give general descriptions of manufac-
turino techniques, the package designer should work with plastic container suppliers to identify and
select the most environmentally-sound, cost effective and durable container design and manufacturing
technique. The following are general descriptions of some of the more common manufacturing tech-
niques:
Injection molding: This is the most common method or process for manufacturing plastic con-
tainers. It provides design flexibility and can produce fine details and uniform wall thickness's
Injection molding tooling is often very expensive. A variation of injection molding, structural foam
molding, requires less expensive tooling. The process involves blowing nitrogen gas through
plastic In a mold. This produces a container wall that has bubbles or voids, but still very stiff. This
technique offers stiffness with less material.
Rotational molding: In this process, liquid (melted) plastic is formed into a container within a
female mold, while the mold is rotated around two axes and heat is applied. Rotational molding is
often used for larger containers that require lots of material. Tooling is moderately to very ekpen-
slve.
Vacuum forming. There are three types of vacuum forming: straight, pressure molding and stretch
forming. Vacuum forming is generally used for containers that have simple configurations and for
lower container volumes (number of units), where higher priced tooling and techniques can not be
justified. Vacuum forming is also generally limited to smaller containers and containers where
dimensional tolerance and consistency is not critical. Tooling for vacuum forming is relatively
inexpensive.
Blow molding. This process is used to form bottles or containers from plastic by expanding a
blank in a hollow mold. The blank is ordinarily a tube. The molds for this process are generally
inexpensive. The most common application of this process is the manufacture of cases for tools.
High Density Cushions: To provide durability and adequate shock protection over a long reuse life,
reusable cushions are usually made of high density foams. The most common high density foam
material used is expanded-polyethylene. Densities of 32 kPa (4 Ibs/cubic R) or greater are often used.
This materlal can be molded and hand or machine fabricated. It is also commonly available and
recyclable. Other high density foams sometimes used are polypropylenes and some polyurethanes.
Corrugated Fiberboards: One of the biggest concerns with reusing Corrugated flberboard containers is
with top-to-bottom compression strength. The compression strength, after repeated uses and exposure
to changing temperature and humidity conditions, quickly weakens. A few alternatives to maintaining
or increasing compression strength include:
adding more flber thru thicker linerboards and mediums or by using a multi-wall construction (Le.,
double or triple wall) ... this adds to material cost and increases the container weight and size,
adding to transportation costs:
using cross-linked fibers ... this paper production technique redirects some wood fibers to run 90
degrees to the paper's machine direction, resulting in more fibers running vertically up and down
on the linerboard of containers;
using high-pressure forming ... this paper production technique involves extending the point of pres-
sure on paper fibers. to more tightly compress them, resulting in a denser sheet of material:
using multiple or bonded mediums ... this paper making technique is based on laminating (usually
with corn-starch adhesives) two or more layers of medium together and then sandwiching the
material between cross-linked or pressure formed liner boards; and
using chemically treated fibers ... this paper making process involves the bonding of fibers with corn
starch, glues, adhesives, PCB's, heavy-metals, and plastic or urea-formaldehyde resins: the use of

chemically treated fibers is NOT RECOMMENDED, because many of these additives may make
recycling difficult or may contaminate pulping systems during recycling.
6.3.3 Evaluation Process for Reusable Programs
The following is a guide for evaluating reusable programs. It includes some suggested steps or a
process to use. Also included is a guide for general cost analyses that can be used for comparing
costs of reusable and disposable packaging programs.
6.3.4 Process Checklist
Physical Characterlstlcs: Determine the physical characteristics of the item to be packaged and the
packaging and handling requirements.
Is there a reusable or disposable package on a similar product or part? If so, gather all applicable
information and determine if the package design or actual packages can be reused for the pro-
posed or new product or part program.
What are the dimensions and weight of the part or product?
What is the handling or shipping environment for the part or product?
- Determine the physical logistics and number of handlings.
- Identify special shock, compression or environmental hazards
- Identify special handling or access requirements for the part or product, during packing, use
and/or unpacking.
- What is the planned shipping, disbursing, and/or manufacturing kanban sizes or quantities?
What level of shock and vibration protection is required (Le., what is the fragility level of the part or
product)?
Are there other protection requirements (e.g., ESD, humidity, cleanliness, etc.)?
Prellmlnary Deslgns: Design disposable and reusable packaging alternatives, based on the above
requirements. In addition, consider the following:
disposabilitylrecyclability
easy use,
cushion and material durability,
container cleaning,
component replacement,
other uses, and
shipping mass, size and density
6.3.5 Cost Analysis Guide
Estimate Unlt Material Costs: Estimate unit costs or the per piece purchase cost of the proposed
designs. Several supplier quotations may be appropriate for getting a good estimate.
Obtain Product Volumes: Obtain plans or estimates of manufacturing or shipping volumes (Le., quan-
tity vs. time, or manufacturing/shipplng schedules) for the part or product to be packaged.

Estlmate the Plpellne: Estimate the number of reusable items in the pipeline. Analyze all portions of
the pipeline, inClUding frequency of deliveries, transit times, process times, inventory buffers, kanban
sizes, return Shipping times, return Shipping frequency, and any contingency buffers. The number of
reusable items in the pipeline will change if the product volumes Change. The cost calculation below
assumes the pipeline quantity remains the same. A more complex cost calculation is needed, if
product volumes and pipeline quantities Change significantly over time.
Determine Reuse LHe.: From design or prototype testing information, estimate the reuse life of the
reusable Item. How many reuses will the item have?
Estlmate Packaging Quantlty: From the above information, estimate the total number of disposable or
reusable items needed for the life of the part or product program.
Estlmate Materlal Costs: Multiply the unit cost estimate times the quantity estimate. This wiil be your
packaging material costs. Add to this number any material or component replacement costs needed to
repair or refurbish the reusable item.
Example:
Disposable = ($/unit) (part volume)/(parts/unit)
Reusable - ($/unit)(# units in pipeline)(# reuse lives)
# reuse lives (part volume)/(parts/unit)
____ __
(# units/pipeline or cycle)(cycle life)
(integer value) = -- ---- ----- -__- --1--_1-
Assumptions: 1) Volume increments (e.g., weeks, months, etc.)
are constant thru the life ofthe program;
2)
3)
Pipeline quantities or times are constant;
# of reuse lives calculated must be rounded
up to the next whole number; this reflects total
units purchased or the effect of using some units
less than their total expected life.
Estlmate Return Costs: Estimate handling and Shipping costs to return reusable items.
Estlmate Shlpplng Costs: Estimate the cost to ship packaged items in reusable and disposable pack-
ages. If there is no Weight or size difference between the reusable and disposable designs. Shipping
costs may be ignored.
Estlmate Labor Costs: Estimate labor to use the disposable and reusable designs. Oflen there will be
no difference, if the package designs are similar. Also estimate administrative and repair or cleaning
costs associated with the reusable package.
Estlmate Disposal Costs: Estimate disposal costs associated with both the reusable and disposable
containers or packaging items.
Estlmate EqulpmentlToollng Costs: If not included somewhere else, estimate special equipment and
tooling costs associated with both the reusable and disposable designs.
Estlmate Other Costs: Identify and estimate any other costs associated with the disposable or reus-
able designs. These may include things such as implementation costs, inventory carrying costs, part
or product quality-related costs (e.g., scrap B rework), and tax impacts or benefits.

Cost Comparlson: Compare the estimated costs for both the reusable and disposable designs. Select
the reusable design, if its total costs are lower than the disposable design costs. The reusable design
may also be selected, if its costs are higher than the disposable, yet provides an environmentally-
sound solution to a significant disposal issue. Before a higher cost reusable design is implemented,
other design alternatives should be investigated, to ensure there is not a more cost and environ-
mentally effective design.
The cost comparison should be made across the entire life of the product or part program. The com-
parison should be structured as an out-of-pocket cost comparison and should include net present value
and internal rate of return analyses. Any local business case requirements should also be included in
the analysis and comparison.
54 Environmental Packantno m~cl~ines

7.0 Life Cycle Assessment
7.1 Scope
This section addresses the complicated issues in understanding the impacts of packaging materials on
the environment through Life-Cycle Analysis. LCA is a method of evaluating the environmental attri-
butes of a product and/or package by listing and measuring its energy and resource use and then
quantifying its environmental impact of emissions, effluents and solid wastes throughout the course of
its life cycle.
7.2 Purpose
To add an environmental component to decision making when designing a package is to add a mind-
boggling array of topics to the decision. These topics vary from global ozone depletion to ancient
forests to endangered species to landfilling. This section will not provide all the answers for making
the best environmental decision. The purpose of this section is to show the complexity associated with
trying to determine all the environmental impacts of various materials, and the problems with com-
paring one material to another.
I 7.3 The Three "1"s of Life Cycle Assessment
1 What LCAs cannot do Is determine the ultimate environmental impact of a product or package on the
I environment. Identification of all impacts is a lengthy and arduous process. But even more difficult is
I evaluating and comparing different types of impacts--those affecting air quality compared to those
I affecting ground water, for example. So far, there is no consistent practice or agreement on how such
I arbitrary "apples to oranges" comparisons may reasonably be made.
Life cycle assessment consists of three main components sometimes called the three "1"s: inventory
analysis, impact analysis and improvement analysis. In a study conducted for the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) by Battelle and Franklin Associates Ltd., the three "1"s are described as
follows:
Inventory analysis is an "objective, data-based process of quantifying energy and raw material requlre-
ments. atmospheric emissions, waterborne emissions and solid wastes for the entire life cycle of a
product, process or activity. In the broadest sense, inventory analysis begins with the raw material
extraction and continues through the final product consumption and disposal. This component of life
cycle assessment is currently the most well developed with a methodology that has-been evolving over
a 20-year period".
Impact analysls is "a technical, quantitative, and/or qualitative process to characterize and assess the
effects of the resource requirements and environmental loadings (atmospheric and waterborne emissions.a~nd
sol~id wastes) identified in the inventory stage. The assessment should address both ecological
and human health risks, as well as such other effects as habitat modification and heat and noise
pollutlon."
Improvement analysis is a "systematic evaluation of the needs and opportunities to reduce the environ-
mental burden associated with energy and raw material use and waste emissions through the life
cycle of a product, process or activity. This analysis may include both quantitative and qualitative
measures of improvements".
Llfe Cvcle Assessment 55

7.4 Life-Cycle Inventory
7.4.1 Overview
Industry and government are beginning to develop Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) as a tool for guiding envi-
ronmental decisions. This method of inventory assesses every step in a product or package life cycle
from sourcing of materials through manufacturing, transportation, use, and disposal. The LCI attempts
to qualify and quantify the environmental impacts of all phases of the life cycle of a product or
package, from “cradle-to-grave.” These impacts may include the following:
a. Resources
I) Raw Materials
renewable vs. nonrenewable
recycled content vs. virgin
- ecosystem impacts of extraction
energylwater impacts of extraction
b. Manufacturing
1) Energy requirement
2) Water Effluent
3) Air Emissions
4) Hazardous Waste
5) Solid Waste (from manufacturing)
c. Packaging Material Usage
1) Transportation impacts
energy requirements
- pollution effects
2) Impacts - energylwater requirements
toxic exposures
pollution generation
3) Disposition
re-use
recycling - incineration
landfiiling
7.4.2 Problems and Challenges of Life-Cycle Inventory
7.4.2.1 Manufacturlng Process: There are many ways to manufacture the same material, some
manufacturers practice environmental stewardship and take steps to minimize their Impact to the envi-
ronment, while others do not. A specific material may have a wide range of data depending on the
manufacturing process, which makes it very difficult to compare the data to other materials.
7.4.2.2 Making Data Avallable: Current manufacturing data used in LCls is offen proprietary
and access to it is limited. Proprietary treatment of this information is likely to hinder the development
of common databases for use in future LCI.
56 Environmental Packaaina Guidelines

7.4.2.3 Establlshlng Standards and Guidelines: Until guidelines for Life-Cycle Inventory are
drawn, packaging professionals will have to cope with data disparities cited above. The €PA IS
working to define life-cycle impacts, and expects to publish its guidelines by 1993. Other trade groups,
corporations. and consulting firms are also working toward setting parameters for LCI. In any case.
most experts agree that Life-Cycle Inventory must be viewed as only one of many tools for environ-
mental decision making and will not provide the only information required to make material selection
decisions.
7.4.2.4 Resources For Llfe-Cycle Inventory Asslstance: The following groups can provide
specific Life-Cycle Inventories for the materials you plan on using and/or offer help in decision making
and alternatives:
Battelle Columbus Division SETAC
505 Klng Ave.
I010 North 12th Ave.
Columbus, OH 43201
Pensacola, FL 32501
614-424-6424 904-469-1 500
Environmental Defense Fund
257 Park Avenue South
New York. N.Y. 10010
212-505-2100 510-832-1415
Franklin Associates, Ltd
4121 West 83rd St, Suite 108
Prarle Village, Kansas 66208
913-649-2225
Blue Angel
c/o RAL. Deutsches
lnstitut fur Gutesicherung
und Kennzelchnung
Bornheimer Strasse
D-5300 Bonn 1, GERMANY
(49) 228-726-140
Green Cross Certification
1611 Telegraph Ave., Suite Ill1
Oakland, California 94612-2113
Green Seal
1075 Connecticut Ave., NW
Suite 300A
Washington, DC 20009
Roy F. Weston, Inc.
Building 5-2
I Weston Way
Westchester, PA 19380
215-344-3636
7.5 Examples of Environmental Impact Analysis
This section presents general overviews of environmental impacts of three of the industry's commonly
used materials: corrugated fiber board, polystyrene and polyethylene foam. We present this general
information in a life-cycle framework, but with no claims to comprehensive formal life-cycle invento-
rying and analysis. This information is offered only to show the complexity and problems with trying to
compare one material with another (i.e. inconsistent units of measure).
7.5.1 Environmental Impact of Corrugated Fiberboard
Corrugated fiber board is the primary material commonly used in electronics package designs. The
U.S. produced 40,332,000 tons of corrugated material in 1991, a 3% increase over the previous year.
Paper mills use wood chips from fast growing, 25-45 years, soflwood trees (sofl pines and firs).
Lite Cycle Assessment 57

7.5.1 .I Resources: Corrugated containers are normally bought by an end user from a local sheet
plant supplier. The sheet plant obtains its corrugated sheets from a corrugation plant, which gets its
liners from a paper mill. There are approximately 21 major paper mills in the US. and approximately
2,000 sheet plants. Depending on the vendor used, the intermediary steps can be all one company (i.e.
trees to paper liners to corrugated sheet to die cut containers) or they can all be dlfferent companies.
The resource for US. corrugated fiber board (soft pines and firs) is considered a renewable resource,
although there is some controversy over this issue. Many large mills harvest trees from private tree
farms. Although clear cutting is a controversial subject, it is the preferred method by paper mills when
harvesting tree farms, due to,the type of trees they replant, which need a large amount of light to grow
fast. Old growth forests and hardwoods are not commonly harvested for use in the paper industry. No
trees are imported from other countries for the paper industry therefore there is no impact to the
depleting rain forests in South America.
7.5.1.2 Manufacturing: Corrugated fiber board is manufactured in several steps. Chemicals,
glues and inks are used to produce the final container. There is a wide range in practices from
company to company on environmental impacts.
Energy Use: 13-26 million Btu’s are used to produce a ton of paper, and there is additional energy
used in the conversion to corrugated and die cutting plus the transportation between plants, but this is
difficult to quantify.
Wetter Use: Approximately 84 liters of water are used per Kg of paper produced. ( It is common prac-
tice to return the water after treatment to the water source . , , the type of treatment and effective-
ness varies from company to company.)
Air Emiss!ons: The quantities of air emissions vary, with some companies claiming up to 100%
capture before release (which is questionable) to the other end of the spectrum. Air releases include
dust, CO, C02, SOX, NOx, Hydrogen Sulfide and Chloroform. Water Discharges: The quantities vary
due to the same reasons as above and include Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD’S) or organic matter,
suspended solids and trace amounts of dioxin.
Hazardous Waste: The following chemicals are associated with the paper industry.
Acetone
Chlorine
Chloroform
Methanol
Formaldehyde
Catechol
Ammonia
Chromium
Hydrochloric Acid
Quantities vary greatly from company to company and actual data on waste sent to hazardous mate-
rials facilities is not available. As a generalization, however, natural kraft utilizes less chemicals than
bleached corrugated
7.5.1.3 Packaging Material Usage
lransportatlon: Although the local sheet plant may deliver the finished containers, the corrugated
sheet stock may have been shipped from another state and the liner board may travel 1,000 miles or
more by rail or truck.
Reusability: Corrugated containers when designed for reuse can last for years, but the normal con-
tainer is used one time.
58 Environmental Packaging Guidelines

Recyc/eb///ty: Corrugated fiber board is a highly desirable material for recycling. There are extensive
systems set up throughout the country for collecting and recycling corrugate board. 9.098,oOO tons of
corrugated was recycled in 1991, an increase of 4.2% from the previous year. The trend IS for greater
increases in 1992.
/nc/n.rstlon: Corrugated can be incinerated, prodUChg 7080 Btu/pound. but is not as efficient as fossil
fuel energy generation. Refer to Table 11 on page 63 for energy content of other materials.
Com~~~//ltylBlodegmd~b///~~: COrrUgated fiber board is generally biodegradable (except for
chemically treated and/or waxed board). However, like other "degradable" materials in a landfill,
Corrugated may take many years to break down due to lack of oxygen and light. When shredded,
corrugated fiberboard is a very good compost material.
7.5.1.4 Recommendations: Companies purchasing Corrugated containers can request informa-
tion on environmental stewardship practice from their suppliers. Many large milis have wildlife pro-
tection practices, pollution control practices, high recycled content and policies on harvesting old
growth forests. By requesting this information and using this as a basis for deciding a vendor, the
electronics packaging professional can have a positive impact on improving policies for companies
that do not have an environmental stewardship policy and rewarding companies that do.
Recycled content is commonly available with minimal effect on strength and appearance. For many
uses like pads, partitions and void fillers, virgin material is not necessary and lM)% recycled board
would work weii. Even outer shipping containers can utilize the 100% recycled material with little
degradation in performance. By specifying recycled content (a mixture of post-consumer and industrial
scrap) the packaging professional can have a positive impact on the market for collecting corrugated
fiber board and reducing the amount of trees needed for the industry.
The printing inks for some containers have used heavy metals. Current legislation in the Northeast
United States will require a combined maximum of 100 parts per miiiion (ppm) by weight of lead,
cadmium, mercury, and hekavaient chromium for any packaging material. A good practice would be to
requesting that the inks be FDA approved or contain no more than 100 ppm of heavy metals.
7.5.2 Environmental lmpad of Polystyrene
Polystyrene is the oldest commercial thermoplastic polymer resin, having been commercially produced
at the beginning of World War II. It is stable, lightweight. an excellent thermal insulator, water
reslstant, and ideal for cushioning when expanded (foamed). Polystyrene has multiple uses.
Expanded, it is used in the food service industry as container materials and in the electronics industry
as cushioning for delicate instrumentation. It is also used in toys, housewares, and office supplies
Polystyrene resins sales in the U.S. in 1990 were 5.1 billion pounds of which approximately 250 mlilion
pounds was EPS from packaging.
7.5.2.1 Resources: Polystyrene Is a derivative of benzene and ethylene; both by- products of the
production of oil and gas, which are non-renewable resources. It is estimated that approximately 3%
of oil and natural gas volume is used by the plastics industry. A specific percentage for polystyrene IS
not available. Environmental impacts of oil and gas drilling for energy would be similar to those for the
plastic industry, and include the extractive operations on sensitive habitats and general depletion of
the fossil fuel base.
7.5.2.2 Manufacturing
Energy Use: Because it involves high temperature processes, some of which exceed 600' C, the man-
ufacture of styrene and polystyrene requires high energy inputs. This is somewhat offset by the
recovery of steam and other process byproducts which are reconverted to energy for the processes.
Life Cycle Assessment 59

...
Again, industry figures are unavailable, but one study on polystyrene manufacturing lists energy
requirements at 120-180 kWh of electricity and approximately 5.000 kg of steam in producing one ton of
product .
Water Use: Water is used primarily for flushing and cooling purposes during the manufacture of
styrene and polystyrene. Industry figures on this process were not available. However, one study
cited 154 cubic meters of cooling water used per metric ton of material, a figure which does not include
flushing and cleaning uses. Styrene production accounts for the discharge into "receiving waters" of
1.7 Ibs. of water per 1,OOO Ibs of product. The industry reports that these discharges may include
biological oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, suspended solids, dissolved solids, oil and
grease, sulfides, and various metals including lead, mercury, iron, and aluminum.
Air Emissions: There are large differences in air emissions between the manufacture of
styrene/polystyrene resin and the polystyrene expansion process. While production of styrene resin
emits .2 Ibs of emissions per 1,000 Ibs of product, foam sheet polystyrene production emits 25 Ibs of
emissions per 1,ooO Ibs of product, and post-consumer polystyrene recycling is even higher at 27 Ibs of
emissions per 1,ooO Ibs of product. The culprits are the blowing agents used in both virgin and recy-
cled polystyrene foaming (expansion) processes. These blowing agents cannot be easily captured and
recycled, and most are discharged to the air. While the industry has significantly reduced its contrib-
utions to stratospheric ozone depletion by reducing and eliminating CFCs as blowing agents, substitute
agents continue to generate environmental impacts. HCFCs, which have frequently replaced CFCs in
the process, generate approximately 5% to 10% of the ozone depleting effect as their predecessors.
Pentane, another popular CFC substitute, is not a stratospheric ozone depleter, but is a contributor to
atmospheric ozone and thus to smog and global warming.
Hazardous Waste: Hazardous waste generated from styrene/polystyrene production include cleaning
and flushing solutions, solvents, lubrications, and inks. The 1991 industry "White Paper" on Styrene
and Polystyrene Manufacture and Use did not release its figures for hazardous waste generation as it
did for air and waterborne emissions and solid waste. However, that same paper indicated that indi-
vidual plant facilities have in the past generated several hundred thousand tons of hazardous waste
annually, pointing to a major impact industry-wide. Efforts in recycling and source reduction for these
materials has generated significant decreases in many cases, but hazardous chemical waste gener-
ation, transportation, and disposal remain a major environmental impact of the styrene/polystyrene
manufacturing process.
7.5.2.3 Packaging Material Usage
Reusability: Most polystyrene used in electronics packaging is used once. Attempts to establish
reuse systems for polystyrene caps and other electronics industry packaging are described in other
sections of the Guide.
Recyciabllity: Uncontaminated polystyrene is technologically recyclable into new plastic products. In
response to recent demand for recycling systems, the polystyrene industry has set a goal to recycle
25% of the polystyrene used in food service and packaging applications by 1995, and several regional
recycling facilities have been opened. Recycling is becoming widely implemented and is expected to
eventually reduce the use of virgin materials in the manufacture of polystyrene.
Inclneratlon: Polystyrene is well suited for incineration, if this process represents the best choice for
municipal solid waste handling. Polystyrene has an energy value of 18,400 Btu/pound, nearly as effi-
cient as fossil fuels. Because most of the energy is released as heat, ash is minimal with very little
toxicity. Refer to Table 11 on page 63 for energy content of other materials.
CompostabilitylDegradabiiity: Polystyrene is unsuitable for composting purposes as it does not
degrade organically and is inert in landfills.
60 Environmental Packaaina Guidelines

Landf////ng: Currently plastics account for 7% by Weight and 20% by volume of our municipal landfill.
Since, 15.9% of these plastics are polystyrene, 1.1% by weight and 3.2% by volume of landfill mate-
rials is thought to be polystyrene. Recycling efforts stand to reduce these figures even further.
7.5.2.4 Recommendations: Polystyrene is a material whose packaging properties offer many
values Including stability, cushioning effects, and little Weight. While it has been dubbed a villain In our
landfills, Its envlronmental Impacts appear to be in the areas of hazardous waste and air emissions
rather than in solid waste disposal.
Post consumer recycling efforts could reduce demand for virgin styrene and thus source reduce some
of the hazardous wastes involved in styrenetpolystyrene manufacturing.
Polystyrene recycling processes, especially those involving re- expansion of the material, have low tol-
erance for contamination. Therefore, packaging professionals can facilitate polystyrene recycling with
packaging designs that ensure its integrity as a post-consumer recycling material.
Continued efforts by the chemical industry to reduce hazardous waste should be encouraged, partic-
ularly by key customers such as electronics industry packaging professionals who specify polystyrene
packaging components.
7.5.3 Environmental Impact of Polyethylene Foam
Polyethylene is a commonly used material In a large percentage of electronic packaging designs. PE
is used in several forms inClUding bags, sheeting, rigid trays and expanded foams. These foams may
include roll stock in thin grades and semi rigid plank products. This report will deal specifically with
expanded PE foams. Most issues and recommendations apply equally to polypropylene foam as well.
PE foam is normally bought by the end users from a local distributor or fabricator. These companies in
turn purchase the product from one of the manufacturers who provide the product in bundles, plank or
bun form. The fabricators and distributors add value by converting or supplying the material in smaller
quantities or in a form such as custom shaped cushions, die cut pieces, pouches or in combination
with other materials.
7.5.3.1 Resources: Ethylene is a by-product of the petroleum industry, and like all petroleumbased
materials, is derived from non-renewable resources. Nearly all PE foam is manufactured from
virgin resin today. Most manufacturers are developing products with recycled content. Blowing agents
used in the expansion process for the PE foam are typically either HCFCs or hydrocarbons. Other
materlals are used in small quantities as coloring agents or aids in the manufacturing process.
7.5.3.2 Manufacturing issues: PE foam is manufactured in one process which takes PE resin,
blends it with a blowing agent under heat and pressure, extrudes the mlxture through a die. The result
after extrusion is escape of the blowing agent and the final product of PE foam with millions of small
air cells which provide the CUShiOning, Insulation and surface protection. The escaped blowing agent
may be released to the outside atmosphere or captured and reused through a closed manufacturing
system. This recapture system is expensive to implement and maintain. Its installation should be
encouraged to reduce harmful air emissions and preserve natural resources.
Energy Use: This varies depending on the manufacturing system used and is generally from running
the extruder. Very little energy is used in the converting process which consists of cutting, perforating
andtor laminating.
Weter Use: Some water is used for cooling on some extruders. It is generally unpolluted and can be
easily reused or returned to the municipal water system.
ufe cycle Assessment 61

Alr Emlsslons: The industry ranges in the amount of blowing agents released into the air. Some man-
ufacturers claim up to 90% capture and reuse, other may have up to 100% released Into the air.
Hydrocarbons are heavier than air and easier to capture and reuse than HCFC, but have more harmful
effects if not captured. Hydrocarbons, if not reused, can be captured and burned which reduces the
by-product of creating ground level ozone. Ground level ozone Is thought to be a major contributor to
global warming. Unlike hydrocarbons, HCFC creates little ground level ozone but does have a harmful
effect on stratospheric ozone (approx 5% to 10% of the harmful effect of CFCs). HCFCs and CFCs
are known to be responsible for the ozone depletion in the stratosphere. The depletion of ozone in the
stratosphere allows more harmful radiation from the sun to penetrate the stratosphere and come in
contact with the surface of the earth.
Hazardous Waste: The following chemicals are commonly used in the production of PE foam:
Polyethylene resin
Hydrocarbons
Hydrochloroflourocarbon
Color additives
7.5.3.3 Packaging Material Usage
Transportatlot? Issues: PE foam although light Weight requires significant space to transport and
should be bought from a local distributor or fabricator.
Reuseblllty: PE foam products when designed properly can be reused many times. The reuse of PE
foam should be encouraged.
Recyclablllty: PE foam if uncontaminated can be recycled although in reality several obstacles exist.
The chief obstacle to recycling is the collection process. PE foam, although produced in large
volumes, ends its life in small quantities over a large geographic area. The logistics of collecting and
getting the material to a manufacturer are very difficult and unrealistic. PE can be and often is recycled
from the convertor level. This is generally post- industrial trim and plant scrap and represents a
small percentage of US. 'PE foam production.
Inclneratlon: PE foam provides 21,407 Btulpound when burned in the modern incinerator. Refer to
Table 11 on page 63 for energy content of other materials.
CompostabIllty/8/odegradablIlt~: PE foam is biostable and will not decompose effectively. Any
attempt to enhance its degradability through starch or photodegrading agents should be avoided. This
would only discourage its reuse and recycling, as these additives cause problems in recycling, and
make a less durable material which would limit its reuse.
7.5.3.4 Recommendations: Companies purchasing PE foam can require several things from
their vendors. PE foam should contain some post consumer andlor post industrial PE content. This will
increase over time with a 25% amount being a practical goal. Equally important is the manufacturers
use of blowing agents While the question of HCFC vs. Hydrocarbons is open to debate, the question of
recapture is not. Hydrocarbon users should capture and reuse or at least burn their off-gasing product
after extrusion.
By using PE foam properly in designs (efficient use, reusable, etc.) and encouraging accountability
from manufacturers the packaging engineer can have a positive impact through conservation of
resources and reduction of air emissions.
62 Environmental Packaging Guidelines

Table 11. Energy Content of Materials. Various Packaging Materials as compared to Common Combustibles
Matarlal BTUllb.
Polyethylene 21,407
Polvwowlene 21.350
Polystyrene 18,400
Coal 9.600
Newspaper 8,000
Corrugate 7.080
Wood 6,700
Miscellaneous Solid Waste 4.500
Life Cycle Assessment 63

4 Environmental Packaging Guldellnes

8.0 Pallet Reutilization
8.1 Abstrad
A significant portion of IBM's solid waste stream is represented by wooden shipping pallets (refer to
Table E on page 26). Finding alternatives which reduce the quantity of pallet waste material is the
focus of this chapter.
8.2 Purpose
This chapter provides suggestions which are designed to enhance shipping pallet reuse. As reuse
increases, dkposai is avoided or prolonged. Pallet revitalization and means of pallet disposal other
than landfiiiing are also discussed.
8.3 Scope
Reutilization consists of reuse, refurbishment, and/or finding secondary, non-waste disposal applica-
tions for materials which have completed their intended purpose. Pallet reutilization will impact IBM,
it's suppliers. it's customers, and some third-patty service organizations. IBM's pallet reutilization phi-
losophy is based upon the exclusive use of standard sizes and construction methodoioOies for its ship-
ping paiiets.
------
8.4 Pallet Standardization
Whenever materials are transported, they are normally palietized on a wooden shipping pallet to form
r single handling unit for convenience in shipping and stowage. The shipping pallet functions as the
interface between materials and automated handling systems in use by materials manufacturers,
including IBM. Because of the time and/or expense involved in tailoring handling equipment to a
variety of pallet sizes or designs, a standardized shipping pallet is of great importance. As pallet size
and construction become standardized, the likelihood of pallet reuse increases significantly- A pallet
which is completely compatible with existing materials handling configurations is highly desirable,
while those which differ from an established standard are frequently discarded as waste.
One of the simpiast means of reducing the number shipping pallets and thus, potential waste material,
is to adopt a standard pallet. A standard pallet should be of a predefined size and construction, but
also rugged and compatible with IBM. supplier, customer, and carrier handling equipment.
A pallet standardization program begins with the supplier. As suppliers ship materials to IBM. they
are required to utilize IBM standard pallets. Their use of IBM standard pallets will help to ensure a
high quality shipment which will aid manufacturing efficiencies as incoming unit loads:
Need not be double-handled for repalietizing to correct for:
- damaged or inferior quality shipping pallets
- odd size or manner of construction which hinders subsequent processing,
are palietized on the same pallet that is used for outbound shipments reducing demand for the
purchase of new standard pallets.
setve to increase demand (volume) for the IBM standard pallets thereby reducing the unit price.

The introduction of a non-standard shipping pallet costs its recipient in materials. labor and space for
subsequent repalletization. It also introduces added waste material into the solid waste stream.
Standard pallets used by IBM are described in IBM’s Packaging and Materials Handling Requirements
Manual, GA21-9261.
Pallet reutilization programs consist of the collection, sortation. and repair of shipping pallets. They
serve to refurbish standardized shipping pallets which have become damaged and no longer conform
to original specifications. Historically, when shipping pallets have become worn, damaged or of ques-
tionable quality, they have been discarded as waste. By establishing a reutilization program, the fol-
lowing benefits may be realized in:
conserving natural resources,
extending the useful lives of landfills,
reducing current and future landfill costs,
additional workload provided for underprivileged or handicapped vendors,
eliminating or reducing new pallet costs.
Key elements of a reutilization program include:
pickup of pallets
inspection and sorting,
repair, if possible,
environmental disposal of unusable pallets or components, if necessary,
delivery of revitalized pallets.
Successful pallet reutilization programs have been be established with the following types of organiza-
tions:
local or regional new pallet manufacturers,
pallet repair companies,
handicapped or minority suppliers,
trash or recycling companies.
The financial aspects of a reutilization program will vary from manufacturer-to-manufacturer, and from
location-to-location. Typically, revitalized pallets can typically be purchased for between 30 to 50% of
the cost of new.
8.6 Pallet Disposal Options
For pallets and pallet components that cannot be reused as part of a reutilization program, multiple
disposal options exist Most of these focus upon pallet or component shredding where processed
material is used as:
industrial fuel and charcoal furnish,
animal bedding andlor poultry litter,
- soil amendment and or mulch.
.

pulp and particleboard furnish,
potential use In recycled paper.
The National Association of Wooden Pallets and Containers identifies companies involved in pallet
manufacturing, repairing, and disposal. Their address is included in A.2, "Organizations" on page 77.
8.7 Recommendations for Pallet Reuse and Reutilization
Because wooden shipping pallets are a significance portion of IBM's solid waste stream, solutions
which reduce the quantity of this waste are vital. One of the simplest solutions to remove pallets from
the wastestream is the adoption of a pallet reuse and reutilization program. To be successful, this
program should incorporate:
1. pallet standardization and enforcement for shipments from all incoming suppliers,
2. pallet reutilization programs for standard pallets which become damaged or no longer conform to
specifications,
3. pallet disposal alternatives which minimize detrimental impact to the environment,
4. the investigation of pallet pool or leasing alternatives,
5. the investigation of return and/or refurbishing programs for non-standard or specialty machine
shipping pallets.
Pallet Reutilization 67

68 Environmental Packanino liiiidolines

9.0 Other Guidelines for Environmental Packaging
9.1 Introduction
Because of the increased awareness of solid waste disposal issues, the delivery and installation of
IBM products can cause a concern with iBM's customers. That Is. what should be done with the dis-
carded packaging material? The boxes, CUShiOning, film, pallets, strapping, etc., which allowed the
products to arrive damage-free, once unpacked, can be perceived as a contribution to the solid waste
problem.
This perception Is, of course, related to the amount of post-consumer packaging material. Small
systems, resulting in a few boxes and some cushioning are not usually seen as a problem. In fact,
many customers retain these materials for later use (e.@, relocation of the system).
Regardless of the size of any particular system, the overall volume of products IBM delivers worlawide
does produce a considerable amount of post-consumer packaging material which becomes part of the
solid waste stream. Understanding this, the IBM packaging community has an obligation to minimize
the concerns our customers may have with packaging material disposal to the extent possible.
9.2 Package Design
The obvious place to begin an assessment of packaging as a disposal concern is in the area of design.
Several trade associations (IoPP, etc.) and environmental task groups have developed guidelines for
packaging design which they consider effective as a means to solid waste minimization. While none of
the guidelines available provide product specific or "cook-book" detail for package design, they do
present a well considered approach to packaging requirements development, which a packaging
designer can translate into more environmentally friendly products.
The Coalition of Northeastern Governors (CONEG) Source Reduction Task Force has developed and
published a manual for preferred packaging practices. The manual is viewed as a first step in an
awareness approach to packaging source reduction. The following is an excerpt from the final report
of the Source Reduction Task Force.
An Overriding barrier to source reduction identified by the Task Force Is the inadequate consideration
given by Industry, government and consumers to the solid waste management impacts of packaging.
Package design and production decisions by industry, regulatory and procurement policies of govern-
ment and PUrChaSing decisions of consumers -- all have contributed to the mounting garbage crisis
confronting the Northeast region. Yet if each of these players better understood the relationship of
their actions to the management of solid waste, the generation and environmental impact of packaging
could be reduced.
To obtain a copy of the Preferred Packaging Manual write
The CONEG Policy Research Center, Inc
400 North Capital Street NW Suite 382
Washington D. C. 20001
To be most effective, source reduction initiatives must be based upon a system of quantifiable goals
and standards. Developing such a system will require considerable thought and a thorough examina-
tion of the many issues involved in assigning measurable, numerical goals and timeframes to achieve
reductions in the generation of packaging waste
Gther Guldellnes for Environmental Packaglng 69

In the meantime. until these quantifiable goals can be established with some level of confidence,
actions by industry, government and consumers must at the very least be guided by some basic, com-
monly shared notions as to what does and what does not constitute preferred packaging practices from
the standpoint of source reduction.
Preferred packaging guidelines are an essential first step to focusing the attention -- of the product
designer, the packaging professional, the government regulator and the consumer -- on the opportu-
nities to reduce packaging-related waste. In addition. preferred packaging guidelines should serve as
a foundation for the development of quantifiable goals and standards "
As implied in this excerpt, the next step in packaging source reduction will be quantifiable standards to
which Industry must perform. Knowing this, the IBM packaging community must continue its efforts to
produce packaging designs which include packaging disposal as an important consideration.
9.3 CONEG Preferred Packaging Guidelines
OVERVIEW
ASSESSMENT OF PACKAGING PRACTICES
Packaging provides certain functions in the distribution system. These include:
1. Product Protection
in the transportation system
against tampering and pilferage
through maintenance of product integrity, quality and safety
2. Consumer Information
visual inspection
product information, directions, ingredients
product brand identification
labeling requirements by regulation or statute
3. Consumer Convenience or Acceptance
retailer convenience in warehouse storage or stocking shelves
consumer needs or acceptance of product
storage, handling, opening and dispensing convenience and compatibility with consumers'
habits and lifestyles.
4. Attractiveness
positioning in marketplace
- physical attractiveness of package related to product differentiation and marketing techniques
The health, safety, product integrity and regulatory requirements addressed by functions of product
protection and consumer information are considered to be priority needs. However, efforts should be
made to fulfill these functions through preferred packaging practices. Regulatory and statutory requirements
that increase the volume of packaging should be reviewed through the Northeast Source
Reduction Council to determine present day applicability and the need for amendment or repeal. The
objective of consumer conveniencelacceptance and attractiveness are considered less compelling for
packaging and therefore, present the greatest opportunity for source reduction. The packaging associated
with consumer convenience or acceptance may be minimized additionally through an aggressive
education program.
70 Environmental Packaging Guidelines

To assist the Northeast states in managing solid waste, industry should begin to assess its packaging
practices. The following packaging practices are listed in order preference:
I. No Packaging
The need for any packaging of a product should be evaluated in the research and development
stages and prior to introduction in the marketplace.
2. Minimal Packaging
Alternative methods of product and packaging design should be pursued to minimize packaging
material required.
3. Consumable, Returnable or RefillablelReusable Packaging
4.
* Consumable packaging is eliminated in the process of using the product so that no packaging
remains.
Returnable packaging is a container returned to a business or industry for reuse and redistrib-
ution.
* RefillablelReusable packaging is a container or package that may be refilled by a customer or
consumer from bulk or larger size containers.
Recyclable PackaginglRecycled Material in Packaging
A package is considered to be recyclable if there is an economically viable and widely avail-
able collection, processing and marketing system for the material.
Recyclability of a package is maximized when that package is made of a homogenous material
or of materials that do not need to be further separated prior to introduction into the recycling
process. Labels, closures and seals should be made of a like or similar material to the
primary package.
Recycled content should be made up, to the greatest extent possible from post-consumer
waste material - a,waste product or material generated by a business or consumer which has
sewed its intended end use and which is discarded for disposal or recycling. The use of in-
plant or mill scrap alone is not sufficient to be considered a recycled content package.
GUIDE QUESTIONS
This guide can be used by industry to evaluate packaging choices. Without compromising health,
safety or product integrity standards or violating statutory or regulatory requirements, can the following
preferred packaging practices be implemented?
Toxics in Packaging
I. Are there toxic materials or agents in the content of the package?
If toxic materials or agents are present:
2. Can non-toxic agents or materials be substituted?
3. Can the toxic agents or materials be eliminated otherwise?
~... . . .
Packaging Elimination, Reduction and Reuse
I. Can the package be eliminated?
If the package cannot be eliminated:
2. Can the packaging be minimized through:
product design changes?
packaging design changes?
Other Guidelines for Environmental Packaging 71

use of new or different types of lower volume packaging?
lightweighting with a reduction in volume?
elimination of secondary packaging or wrapping material?
decreasing size of packaging to product ratio?
other volume reduction?
3. Can the package be made so that it is eliminated in using the product?
4. Can the package be made returnable for reuse and redistribution?
5. Can the package be made to be refilled by a customer or consumer either from bulk or larger
containers?
6. Can the package be made to have an identifiable and valuable consumer reuse for another
purpose?
Packaging Recyclability
1. Is the packaging recyclable? (Packaging is recyclable if there is a widely available, economically
viable collection, processing and marketing system for the material.)
If the packaging is not presently recyclable:
2. Can the packaging be made easier to recycle by composing it predominantly of a single material
for which an economically viable collection, processing and marketing system could be developed?
3. If the packaging is made of more than one material, can the non-homogeneous material be eliminated?
4. If non-homogeneous materials cannot be eliminated, can they be made to be removed easily so as
not to prevent, interfere with or add cost to the recycling process?
Recycled Content of Packaging
1. Does the package contain the maximum feasible amount of post-consumer material (i.e., waste
product or material generated by a business or consumer which has served its intended end use
and is discarded for disposal or recycling)?
If additional post-consumer material cannot be added to the packaging:
2. Can additional in-plant or mill scrap be added to the packaging?
3. Do purchasing specifications hinder the use of recycled materials in the packaging?
4. Can purchasing specifications be modified so as to encourage the use of recycled materials in
packaging?
9.4 Environmentally Responsible Packaging--
loPP Handbook for the Electronics Industry
The loPP handbook for the electronics industry is intended to promote excellence In packaging as
defined by two fundamental and equally important principles. Packaging must fully preserve the lnteg-
rity of the products it contains while having a minimum negative impact on the environment.
The Reduction, Reuse, and Recycling of Protective Packaging (R3P2) Task Group has designed the
handbook to aid Packaging Professionals in the electronics industry. to develop packaging and distrib-
ution alternatives. The purpose is to ensure that environmental factors are addressed for the entire
life cycle of their package designs and processes (Product Stewardship).
72 Environmental Packaging Guidelines

The concept of Product Stewardship, in which industry assumes responsibility for their products and
packaging from conception to disposal and in which consumers support these initiatives, should be
accepted as a basic principle, vital for the achievement of an environmentally responsible packaging
strategy. Recognizing that all sectors of society have a responsibility to participate in this strategy, the
manufacturers or brand owners must ensure that everything possible has been done to design their
packaging according to the 3R's principle: Reduce, Reuse, & Recycle. Product Stewardship also
applies to imported. subcontracted, or OEM products and packaging.
The handbook does not guarantee that all environmental topics, issues, and options will be presented.
As products and packaging move throughout the global marketplace, they will encounter differing laws
and regulations. The acceptance and endorsement of this informational document by industry and
government can be a starting point in the development of common and harmonized strategies and
decisions worldwide.
To obtain a copy of the handbook for Environmentally Responsible Packaging in the Electronics
Industry, write to:
Institute of Packaging Professionals
481 Carlisle Drive
Herndon, VA 22070
Other Guldellnes for Envlronmental Packaging 73

74 Envlronmantal Packaging Guidelines

Appendix A. Publications and Organizations
A.l Publications
Business 8 The Environment
(617) 648-8700
Buy Recycled Guide
National Recycled Coalition, Inc
1101 30th Street NW Suite 305
Washington D. C. 20007
(202) 625-6406
California Materials Exchange (CALMAX)
(916) 255-2369 or (800) 553-2962
Directory of U. S. and Canadian Scrap
Processors and Buyers
Post Office Box 30540
Portland, Oregon 97210
(503) 227-1319
Directory of Waste Recycling Companies,
Services and Equipment
Waste Recyclers Council
Washington D. C. 20036
(202) 659-4613
Eco Opportunities
(415) 4969301
Environmental Business Journal
(619) 295-7685
' "~'Envlronmental Packaging
U. S. Guide to Green Labeling
Packaging and Recycling
Thompson Publishing Group
1725 K Street NW Suite 200
Washington D. C. 2W6
(800) 424-2959
EPA Reusable News
(202) 260-9350
European Packaging Newsletter & World Report
(703) 519-3907
Food & Drug
Packaging and the Environment Resource Handbook
(800) 225-4569 ext.839
Garbage
2 Main Street
Gloucestor, MA 01930
(508) 283-3200
Green 2000 Newsletter
Packaging Strategies Newsletter
122 South Church Street
West Chester, PA 19382
(215) 436-4220
Green Labeling
"What You Can and Can't Say About Your Packaging"
Minnesota Office of Waste Management
Directory of Users of Reusable Transport Packaging
1350 Energy Lane
St. Paul, MN 55108
(612) 649-5743
Northeast Industrial Waste Exchange
90 Presidential Plaza, Suite 122
Syracuse, NY 13202
(315) 422-9051
Packaging
Reader Service Dept., Computer Center
P.O. Box 5661
Denver, CO 80217-9935
Appendix A. Publications and organizations 75

Packaging
Packaging Digest
650 S. Clark St.. 6th Floor
Chicago, IL 60605-9936
PaperMatcher
Directory of Paper Recycling Resources
American Paper Institute, Inc.
1250 Connecticut Ave NW Suite 360
Washington D. C. 20006
(800) 878-8878
Phoenix Quarterly
Institute of Scrap Recycling Industries
1527 K St. N.W. Suite 700
Washington, DC 20006
(202) 466-4050
Plastic Waste Strategies
(800) 426-0416
Plastics News
965 E. Jefferson Ave
Detroit, MI 48207
Plastics World
A Cahner's Publication
Yellow Pages Issue
44 Cook Street
Denver, CO 80206-5800
Recycled Plastics Product Source Book
American Plastics Council
1275 K Street NW
Washington, DC 20005
(800) 2-help-90
Recycled Products Guide
RecyclLine
Box 577
Ogdensburg, NY 13699
(800) 267-0707
76 Environmental Packaaina GUldelineS
Resource Recycling Magazine
National Recycling Coalition
1101 30th St. N.W.Suite 305
Washington, DC 20007
(202) 625-6406
State Recycling Laws Update
Raymond Communications
6429 Auburn Ave.
Riverdale, MD 20737
(301) 345-4237
TechPak
McGraw-Hill, Inc.
1221 Avenue of Americas143
New York, NY 10124-0189
(800) 537-9213
Warmer Report
World Resource Foundation
63 Mount Ephraim
Tunbridge Wells
Kent TN4 8BS
England
Waste Age
Fulfillment Department
5615 W. Cermak Road
Cicero, IL 60650
Wastelines
Environmental Action
1525 New Hamshire Ave. N.W
Washington, DC 20036
(202) 745-4870
Who's Who in Packaging
Institute of Packaging Professionals
481 Carlisle Drive
Herdon, VA 22070
(703) 318-8970

Xerox Corporation Center for Development of Recycling
Business Guide to Waste Reduction and Recycling San Jose State University
Part Number 720P30338 One Washington Square
Post Office Box 10034 San Jose, CA 95192-0204
Palo Alto, CA 94303-0818 (408) 924-5453 or (800) 533-8414
(415) 813-7839
Coalition of Northeastern Governors (COFIEG)
A.2 Organizations Policy Research Center Inc.
400 N. Capitol Street, NW
American Forest Paper Association (AFPA)
Suite 382
260 Madison Ave.
Washington, DC 20001
New York, NY 10016 (202) 624-8452
(212) 340-0800
American Plastics Council
1275 K Street NW
Washington, DC 2Mx)5
Association of Foam Packaging Recyclers
1025 Connecticut Ave NW Suite 515
Washington D. C. 20036
(800) 944-8448.
Blue Angel
c/o RAL. Deutsches lnstitut'fur
Gutesicherung und Kennzeichnung
Bornheimer Strasse
D-5300 Bonn 1
Germany
(49) 228-726-140
Bundesverband Holzpackmittel, Paletten,
Exportverpackung e.V (HPE)
Postfach 13 70
Ausoniusstr. 15
5500 Trier
Germany(0) 651-443-66
California Resource Recovery Association
13223 Black Mountain Road
Commission of European Communities
DG XI
200 rue de la Loi
6-1049 Brussels
Belgium
(32) 2.2357180
FAX (32) 2.2351735
Council on Plastics and Packaging in
the Environment
1275 K Street, NW Suite 300
Washington, DC 20005
(202) 789-1310
DAVR GmbH (Aluminum)
Heerdter Sandberg 30
4000 Duesseldorf 11
Germany
(0) 221 556 04 55
FAX (0) 221 556 04 35
Dow ChemicaVSealed Air Recycle Program
(201) 703-5500
DSD - Duales System Deutschland und Grune Punkt
Rochusstrasse 2-6
5300 Bonn 1
BOX 1-300 Germany
San Diego, CA 92129 (49) 226.97.92.0
FAX (49) 228.97.92.190
Appendix A. PubllWtlOnS and Organizations 77

Earthworm (recycling programs)
186 South St.
Boston, MA 02111
(617) 426-7344
Environment Canada
Solid Waste Management Division
Office of Waste Management
Ottawa, Ontario
Canada
KIA OH3
(819) 953-1100
FAX (819) 997-3068
Environmental Defense Fund
257 Park Ave. South
New York, NY 10010
(212) 505-2100
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
401 M. Street, SW (OS-301)
Washington, DC 20460
(202) 260-4489
Expanded Polystyrene System (EPSY)
Fellnerstrasse 5
6000 Frankfurt-am-Main
Germany
(211) 890-3245
(211) 890-3251 FAX
Fibre Box Association (FBA)
2850 Golf Road
Rolling Meadows, IL 60008
(312) 364-9600
Flexible Packaging Association
1090 Vermont Ave NW Suite 500
Washington D. C. 20005
202-842-3880
Franklin Associates, Ltd
4121 West 83rd St. Suite 108
Prarie Village, Kansas 66208
913-649-2225
78 Environmental Packaging Guidelines
Glass Packaging Institute
1801 K Street
Washington, D.C. 20006
(202) 887-4850
Green Cross Certification Company
1611 Telegraph Ave., Suite Ill1
Oakland, California 94612-2113
510-832-1415
Green Seal
1875 Connecticut Ave., NW
Suite 300A
Washington, DC 20009
Institute for Local Self Reliance
2425 18th St. N.W.
Washington, DC 20009
(202) 232-4108
International Chamber of Commerce
The world business organization
Environmental Affairs
38, Cows Albert ler
75008 Paris
France
(33)(1) 49-53-28-28
FAX (33)(1) 42-25-86-63
INTERSEROH AG (Corrugated)
Postfach 900 640
Industriestr. 11
5000 Koeln 90
Germany
(0) 22 03 17 04 0
FAX (0) 22 03 17 04 17
Keep America Beautiful
9 West Broad Street
Stamford, CT 06902
203-323-8987

NASPO
Council of State Governments
Iron Works Pike
Lexington, KY 40578
National Association for Plastic Container Recovery
4828 Parkway Plaza Boulevard
Suite 260
Charlotte, NC 28217
(704) 357-3250
National Polystyrene Recycling Company
Hayward, CA - (510) 429-1076
Corona, CA - (714) 736-7040
Chicago, IL - (312) 568-1221
Bridgeport, NJ - (609) 467-9377
National Recycling Coalition, Inc.
1101 30th Street NW Suite 305
Washington, D.C. 20337
(202) 625-6406
National Solid Waste Management Association
1730 Rhode island Ave. M.W.
Suite loo0
Washington, D.C. 20036
(202) 861-0708
National Wooden Pallet and Container
Association (NWPCA)
1800 North Kent St. Suite 911
Arlington, VA 22209-2109
(703) 527-7667
Northern California Recycling Association
P.O. Box 5581
Berkeley, CA 94705
(415) 547-1074
Partnership for Plastics Progress (PPP)
(202) 371-5319
Plastics Recycling Foundation
1275 K St. N.W. Suite 400
Washington, DC 20005
(202) 371-5212
Polymer Recovery Services
(408) 748-9715
Polystyrene Packaging Council
1025 Connecticut Avenue, NW Suite 515
Washington, DC 20036
(em) 944-8448
FAX (202) 331-0250.
Pro-Environmental Packaging Council
(212) 371-2200
Re-Source America
507 Lakeside Drive
Southhamton, PA 18966
(800) 542-8282.
Recycling Council of Ontario489 College Street
Suite 504
Toronto, Ontario
Canada
M6G lA5
(416) 960-1025 or 1-800-263-2849
Renew America
1400 16th St. M.W.
Suite 700
Washington, D.C. 20036
(202) 232-2252
Northeast Industrial Waste Exchange
90 Presidential Plaza Suite 122
RESY GmbH
Hilperstrasse 22
Syracuse, NY 13202 W-6100, Darmstadt
(315) 422-6572 Germany
Appendix A. Publications and Organizations 79

Semicycle (IC tubes, etc. recycling)
(512) 339-4229
(512) 339-8121 FAX
Society of Plastics Institute
1275 K. Street, NW Suite 400
Washington, DC 20005
(202) 371-5200
The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc.
Council for Solid Waste Solution
1275 K Street, NW Suite 400
Washington, DC 20005
(202) 371-5319
FAX (202) 371-5679
Southeast Waste Exchange
Urban Institute
University of North Carolina
Charlotte, NC 28223
(704) 547-2307
The Vinyl Institute
Wayne Interchange Plaza II
155 Route 46 West
Wayne, NJ 07470
(201) 890-9299
(201) 890-7029 FAX
80 Environmental Packaglng Guidelines
TNO Centre for Packaging Research
Schoemakerstraat 97
P.O. Box 6034
2600 JA Delft
The Netherlands
(31) 15-69-62-80
FAX (31) 15-69-64-87
US. Council for International Business
Environmental Affairs
1212 Avenue of the Americas
New York, NY 10036
(212) 354-4858
FAX (212) 575-0327
VGK (Plastics Packaging)Kaiser-Friedrich-Promenade
6380 Bad Homburg
Germany
(0) 6172 250 01
FAX (0) 6172 251 02
Waste Fibre Recovery
1900 West Winton Avenue
Hayward, CA 94545
(510) 732-9663
Waste Recyclers Council
Suite 1000
Washington D. C. 20036
(202) 659-4613

Appendix 6. Glossary of Terms
The following glossary of terms has been compiled from a number of sources. The source from which
a term was derived is referenced with parentheses, ( ), and is identified in Table 12 on page 105.
AERATION associated with nutrient-rich run-off from
the process of exposing a bulk material,
composting facilities or landfills. (7)
such as compost, to air, or of charging a
liquid with a gas or a mixture of gases. (2)
forced aeration refers to the use of
blowers in compost piles. (7)
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
the breakdown of organic components by
microbial components in the absence of
oxwen. ._ (1) ..
AEROBIC DIGESTION
the breakdown of organic components by
microbial action in the presence of oxygen.
See Anaerobic Digestion (I)
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
a type of respiration among some bacteria
in which an inorganic oxidant (N03, 504)
other than oxygen is used. (1)
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
the oxidation of organic compounds by
oxygen. (1)
ANAEROBIC
a biochemical process or condition occurring
in the absence of oxygen. (7)
AEROBIC
a biochemical process or condition occurring
in the presence of oxygen. (7)
AQUIFER
a water-bearing formation that provides a
ground water reservoir. (1)
AFPA
American Forest Paper Association formerly
American Paper Institute (API).
ASH inorganic residue remaining after ignition
of combustible substances. Quantity determined
by definite prescribed methods. Ash
may not be identical, in composition or
quantlty, with the inorganic substances
present in the material before ignition.(l)
AIR CLASSIFICATION
a process in which a stream of air is used
to separate mixed material according to
the size, density, and aerodynamic drag of
the pieces. (7)
AIR POLLUTANT
a substance that, when present in the
atmosphere in large enough concentrations,
adversely affects the environment.
(2)
AIR POLLUTION
an impaired condition of the atmosphere
that results because certain substances
present in it are too numerous or are of a
noxious character. (2)
AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
---laualshalow which a specific substance or
combination of substances must be kept in
the atmosphere as established by legis-
lation. (2)
ALGAL BLOOM
population explosion of algae (simple one-
celled or many-celled, usually aquatic,
plants) in surface waters. Algal blooms are
AUDIT
the inspection of ail or portions of a
process to assure conformance to the
specified requirements involved.
BACK-END-RECOVERY
an engineered system that provides for collection
of discrete reusable materials from
mixed wastes which have been burned or
treated. (1)
BACK-END-SYSTEM
a combination of system components that
changes the chemical properties of the
waste and/or converts its components into
energy or compost. See front end-system
(1)
BAGHOUSE
an municipal waste combustion facility air
emission control device consisting of a
series of fabric filters through which MWC
flue gases are passed to remove
particulates prior to atmospheric
dispersion. (7)
Appendix B. Glossary of Terms 81

BALER
a machine used to compress recyclables
into bundles to reduce volume. Balers are
often used on newspaper, plastics, and
corrugated cardboard. (7)
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD)
a measure of the amount of oxygen used
by micro-organisms to break down organic
waste materials in water. (1)
BIODEGRADABILITY
the ability of the physical and/or chemical
structure of a compound to be substantially
broken-down by microorganisms
within a specified period of time under
defined environmental exposure conditions.
BIODEGRADABLE MATERIAL
waste material which is capable of being
broken down by microorganisms into
simple, stable compounds such as carbon
dioxide and water. Most organic wastes,
such as food wastes and paper, are
biodegradable. (7)
BIODEGRADABLE
That which is able to be decomposed by
bacterial action. 2. A physical and/or
chemical structure of a material capable of
being Incorporated into the environmental
processes through the action of
microorganisms. (1)
BlOGASlFlCATlON
a resource recovery process for the
extraction of methane resulting from
anaerobic decomposition of organic material.
(1)
BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD)
the quantity of dissolved oxygen needed to
satisfy the metabolic requirements of
microorganisms living in water where there
is a lot of organic material. Industrial
effluents high in organic substances create
a high BOD in the receiving water, thereby
reducing oxygen levels in that water.
BOllLE BILL
a law requiring deposits on beverage containers
(see Container Deposit Legislation).
(7)
BROKER
an individual or group of individuals that
act as an agent or intermediary between
the sellers and buyers of recyclable materials.
(7)
82 Envlronmental Packaging Guidelines
BTU (Brltlsh Thermal Unit)
used as a unit of measure for the amount
of energy a given material contains (e&
energy released as heat during combustion
is measured in Btu's. Technically, one Btu
Is the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water one
degree Fahrenheit. (7)
BUFFER ZONE
neutral area which acts as a protective
barrier separating two conflicting forces.
An area which acts to minimize the impact
of pollutants on the environment or public
welfare. For example, a buffer zone is
established between a composting facility
and neighboring residents to minimize
odor problems. (7)
BULKING AGENT
a material used to add volume to another
material to make it more porous to air flow.
For example, municipal solid waste may
act as'a bulking agent when mixed with
water treatment sludge. (7)
BULKY WASTE
large items of refuse including, but not
limited to, appliances, furniture, large auto
parts, non-hazardous construction and
demolition materials, trees, branches and
stumps which cannot be handled by normal
solid waste processing, collection and disposal
methods. (7)
BURNING RATE
the quantity of material per unit time
charged to a furnace, or the amount of heat
released during combustion. A rate usually
expressed in pounds of material per
square foot of burning area per hour or in
B.T.U. per square foot of burning area per
hour. (I)
BUY-BACK CENTER
a facility where individuals bring
recyclables in exchange for payment. (7)
CARCINOGEN
any agent- biological, chemical, radioactive,
that causes cancer.
CARDBOARD
term erroneously used by some of the
public as a synonym for paperboard or
corrugated. Not a recognized term in container
materials.

CELLULOSIC
a substance made of plant parts including
Wood.
CENTRALIZED YARD WASTE COMPOSTING
system utilizing a central facility within a
politically defined area with the purpose of
composting yard wastes. (7)
CLASS I SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL AREA
a disposal facility which receives an
average of 20 tons or more per day, if
scales are available, or 50 cubic yards or
more per day of solid waste, as measured
in-place, afIer covering, and which receives
an initial cover daily. (4)
CLASS II SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL AREA
a disposal facility which receives an
average of less than 50 cubic yards per
day of solid waste, as measured in-place,
after covering, and which receives an initial
mer at least once every 4 days. (4)
CLEAN AIR ACT
Ad passed by Congress to have the air
"safe enough to protect the public's health"
by May 31, 1975. Required the setting of
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) for major primary air pollutants.
(7)
CLEAN WATER ACT
Ad passed by congress to protect the
nation's water resources. Requires €PA to
establlsh a system of national effluent
standards for major water pollutants,
requires all municipalities to use secondary
sewage treatment by 1988, sets
interim goals of making all US. waters safe
for fishing and swimming. allows point
source discharges of pollutants into
waterways only with a permit from EPA,
requires all industries to use the best practicable
technology (BPT) for control of conventional
and non-conventional pollutants
and to use the best available teChnOlOgy
(BAT) that is reasonable or affordable. (7)
CLEANED .STEEL CANS
tin coated or tin free, hydraulically or
mechanically compressed to the size,
Weight and shape requirements of the customer.
May include aluminum tops of
beverage cans, but must be free of aluminum
cans, loose tin or terne plate, dirt,
garbage, non-ferrous metals (except for
.
those used in can construction), and non-
metallics of any kind. (1)
COCOMPOSTING
simultaneous composting of two or more
diverse waste streams. (7)
COAL EQUIVALENT OF FUEL
the quantity of coal of stated which would
be required to supply the B.T.U. equivalent
to the comparative fuel(s). The B.T.U.
content of fuels is generally divided by the
representative heating value of coal (I)
COATED PAPER
paper with a surface that has been treated
with clay or other materials.
COATING
a paint, varnish, lacquer or other finish
used to create a protective and/or
decorative layer.
COLLECTION
the Organized removal of accumulated
containerized solid waste from the generating
source.
Types:
CONTRACT COLLECTION
Collection of solid waste carried out in
accordance with a written agreement in
which the rights and duties of the contractual
parties are set forth.
CURB COLLECTION
Collection of solid waste from containers
placed adjacent to a thoroughfare.
FRANCHISE COLLECTION
Collection made by a private firm that is
given exclusive right to collect for a fee
paid by customers in a specific territory
or from specific types of customers.
MUNICIPAL COLLECTION
Collection of solid waste by public
employees and equipment under the
supervision and direction of municipal
authorities.
PRIVATE COLLECTION
Collection of solid waste by individuals
or companies from residential, commercial,
or industrial premises; the arrangements
for the service are made directly
between the owner or occupier of the
premises and the collector. (1)
Appendix E. Glossary of Terms 83

COLLECTOR PARTICULATE
Types:
BAG-FILTER
a filter in which the medium is a fabric
cylindrical bag.
CYCLONE
an inlet gas stream is made to move
vortically; centrifugal forces tend to drive
suspended particles to the wall of the
cyclone.
DUST
any device used to remove particulate
from a gas stream.
FLY ASH
removes fly ash from combustion gases.
MECHANICAL
inertial and gravitational forces separate
dry dust from gas.
MULTICYCLONE
an assembly of cyclone tubes operating
in parallel. (1)
COLLECTOR
handles the collection of post-consumer
recyclables in any of several ways-
curbside collection, operation of community
drop-off sites, or management of commu-
nity, municipal or regional recycling
centers.
COMBUSTIBLE WASTE
discarded material capable of combustion
includes paper, COrrUgated fiberboard,
cartons, wood, boxes, excelsior, plastic,
rags, bedding, leather, trimmings, household
waste. (1)
COMBUSTION GASES
the mixture of gases and vapors produced
by combustion. (2)
COMBUSTION
the rapid chemical reaction of oxygen with
a substance which results in the evolution
of heat and usually light. (1)
COMMERCIAL WASTE,
waste materials originating in wholesale,
retail, institutional, or service establishments
such as office buildings, stores,
markets, theaters, hotels and warehouses.
(7)
04 Environmental Packaging Guidelines
COMMINGLED PLASTIC
a mixture of plastics, the components of
which may have widely differing properties.
(5)
COMMINGLED RECYCLABLES
A mixture of several recyclable materials
into one containers. (7)
COMPACT
to reduce size or dimensions or increase
density without adding or Subtracting
matter. (I)
COMPACTION RATIO
the volume a package occupies after
undergoing a standardized test which is
representative of conditions in municipal
landfills divided by its original volume as
manufactured.
COMPACTOR
power-driven device used to compress
materials to a smaller volume. (7)
COMPOST
the relatively stable decomposed organic
material resulting from the composting
process. Also referred to as humus. (7)
COMPOSTABLE
capable of undergoing physical. chemical,
thermal, and biOlOgiCal decomposition in a
compost facility such that the finished
compost ultimately mineralizes into carbon
dioxide, water, and biomass, leaving no
distinguishable, persistent, synthetic, or
toxic residues.
COMPOSTING
Types:
MECHANICAL
the material is continuously mechanically
mixed and aerated.
VENTILATED CELL
the material is mixed and aerated by
being dropped through a vertical series
of ventilated cells.
WINDROW
the material is placed in open-air
windrows, piles, or ventilated bins or pits
and is occasionally turned or mixed. The
process may be anaerobic or aerobic. (I)
COMPOSTING
1. The process of deCOmpOSing organic
matter by microorganisms. 2. The con-

. ~
trolled biOlOgiCal decomposition of organic
solid waste under aerobic conditions. (7)
COMPUTER PRINTOUT PAPER
consists of white sulphite or sulfate papers
in forms manufacture for use in data processing
machines. This grade may contain
colored stripes andlor computer printing,
and may contain not more than 5% of
groundwood in the packing. All stock must
be untreated and uncoated. (1)
CONEG
Coalition of Northeastern Governors,
representing: Connecticut. Maine,
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New
Jersey, New York. Pennsylvania, Rhode
Island, and Vermont.
CONFORMANCE METHODS
approaches used to obtain the stipulated or
specified requirements.
CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTES
waste building materials and rubble
resulting from construction, remodeling,
repair and demolition operations on
houses, commercial buildings. pavements
and other structures. (1)
CONSUMER WASTE
materials which have been used and discarded
by the buyer, or consumer, as
opposed to wastes or scrap created in the
manufacturing process.
CONTAINER DEPOSIT LEGISLATION
laws that require monetary deposits to be
levied on beverage containers. The money
is returned to the consumer when the containers
are returned to the retailer. Also
called "Bottle Bills." (7)
CONTAMINANT
that which contaminates or makes impure
by contact or mixture and effects a material's
properties. Non-homogeneous materials
which corrupts the recycling or
reprocessing of another material (Le.,
paper and adhesives are contaminants of
jiki5E foam'fecycli n g process).
CORRUGATED
the structure formed by one corrugated
inner member glued between two flat
facings (singlewall corrugated).
CRADLE TO GRAVE
an expression to indicate consideration
from the point of initial conception of a
packaging material or design through its
entire useful life and eventual disposal.
This disposal may be after many successful
reuses and then hopefully by being put into
an effective recycling channel.
CURBSIDE COLLECTION
programs where recyclable materials are
collected at the curb, offen from special
containers, to be brought to various processing
facilities. (7)
CUlTlNGS
consists of baled new cuttings of
paperboard such as are used in the manufacture
of folding paper cartons, set-up
boxes and similar boxboard products.
DECOMPOSITION
1. The reduction ofthe net energy level and
Change in chemical composition of organic
matter, as by microorganisms (2). 2.
Breaking down into component parts or
basic elements. (7)
DEGLASSER
a separator used to remove small particles
of glass, metal and other products from
compost. In addition, it utilizes a pulsed,
rising column of air to separate heavy
items contained in compost. (1)
DEGRADABLE
capable of undergoing a Change in chemical
structure under specific environmental
conditions that result in loss of properties
that may vary as measured by standard
test methods appropriate to a material and
its application in a period of time that
determines its classification.
DEINK
to remove ink, flller and other extraneous
materials from reusable paper by mechanical,
hydraulic and chemical treatment. (1)
DENSE MEDIA SEPARATION
a separation process of non-ferrous metals
from other large particles such as rubber,
plastic, bone or leather, using a fluid solution
with a specific gravity about twice
that of water. The metal fraction sinks in
the solution while other materials float. (1)
DENSIFIED REFUSE-DERIVED FUEL (d-RDF)
a refuse-derived fuel that has been processed
to produce briquettes, pellets, or
cubes. (7)
Appendlx 6. Glossary of Terms 85

DIOXIN
I. General term applied to any of 75 struc-
turally related chlorinated compounds, the
most toxic of which is 2,3,7,8 -
tetrachlorodi benzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). 2.
Heterocyclic hydrocarbons that occur as
toxic Impurities, especially in herbicides.
(7)
DISPOSABLE
a disposable package is one that will be
discarded afler one use.
DISPOSAL
Types:
OCEAN
deposition of waste into an ocean or
estuarine body of water.
ON-SITE
utilization of methods or processes to
eliminate or reduce volume of solid
waste on the property of the generator.
WASTE
an orderly process of discarding useless
or unwanted material. (1)
DISPOSAL
the discharge, deposit, injection, dumping,
spilling, leaking. or placing of any solid
waste or hazardous waste into or upon any
land or water so that such solid waste or
hazardous waste or any constituent thereof
may enter other lands or be emitted into
the air or discharged into any waters
InClUding ground waters, or otherwise
enter the environment. (4)
DIVERSION RATE
a measure of the amount of waste material
being diverted for recycling compared with
the total amount that was previously
thrown away. (7)
DOMESTIC REFUSE
solid wastes which normally originate in
residential household or multifamily units.
See Solid Waste (I)
DROP-OFF CENTER
a method of collecting recyclable or
compostable materials in which the materials
are taken by individuals to collection
SlteS and deposited in to designated containers.
(7)
86 Environmental Packaging Guidelines
DUMP
an unmonitored land area where unre-
stricted unloading of refuse is done without
requiring cover material to be spread. (As
opposed to Landfill) (1)
DUMPING FEE
the charge for processing trash or solid
waste at an incinerator or sanitary landfill.
This Is usually done on a Weight basis but
can also be on a volume or worst case
basis.
DUMPING
an indiscriminate method of disposing of
solid waste. (2)
DUMPSTER
a large metal movable container for the
collection and transportation of trash for
disposal usually to incinerators or sanitary
landfills.
ECOLOGY
the science that deals with the interrelationships
of organisms and their living
and nonliving SUrrOUndingS. (1)
ECOSYSTEM
the interdependence of organisms and
their surroundings. (1)
EDDY CURRENT SEPARATOR
a device which passes a varying magnetic
field through feed material, thereby
inducing eddy currents in the nonferrous
metals present In the feed. The eddy currents
counteract the magnetic field and
exert a repelling force on the metals, separating
them from the field and the
remainder of the feed. (1)
EFFLUENT SEEPAGE
diffuse discharge onto the ground of liquids
that have percolated through a mass: may
contain dissolved or suspended materials.
(1)
EFFLUENT
1. Any solid, liquid or gas which enters the
environment as a by-product of a manoriented
process. The substances that flow
out of a designated source (1). 2. The
liquid waste of sewage and industrial processing.
Also known as discharge liquor.
ELECTRODYNAMIC SEPARATOR
utilizes a rotating drum or other moving
pole in place of one or more fixed charged
plates (poles). Can be used to separate

electrical conductive material (e.g., non-
ferrous metal) from nonconductive material
(e.g.. organics). (1)
ELECTRONICOPTICAL SORTER
separates glass from stones and pieces of
ceramics: sorts the glass according to
color. Photoelectric detector determines
the color or opacity of the material and
blasts of air deflect the pieces into the
proper containers. (1)
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
device for removing particulate matter from
MWC facility air emissions. It works by
causing the particles to become
electrostatically charged and then
attracting them to an oppositely charged
plate, where they are precipitated out of
the air. (7)
ELECTROSTATIC SEPARATOR
a device utilizing the principle that electrical
conductors lose an induced static
charge faster than insulators. In this way,
an electrostatic sorter can separate conducting
materials (e.g., aluminum) from
non-conducting ones (e.g.. glass) afler the
particles are charged in a high voltage
direct current electrical field. (I)
ELUlRlATlON
a process wherein materials are separated
according to differences in their densities
andlor shapes in a counter- current stream
of a fluid, usually water, gas or air. (1)
EMISSION STANDARD
a rule or measurement established to regulate
or control the amount of a given constituent
that may be discharged into the
outdoor atmosphere. (I)
EMISSION
1. Discharge of a gas into atmospheric circulation
(7). 2. Material released into the
air either by a discrete source (primary
emission) or as a result of a photochemical
reaction or chain of reactions (secondary
~- emissinn)--The.total of substances
exhausted into the atmosphere. (I)
EMULSION
a liquid that is a mixture of liquids that do
not dissolve in each other. in an emulsion,
one of the liquids contains minute droplets
of the other, which are evenly distributed
throughout.
END PRODUCT
any finished item which is not modified
prior to serving its intended end use. (5)
END-PRODUCT MANUFACTURER
produces from recycled material either a
finished product or a component for a finished
product.
ENERGY RECOVERY PROCESSES
I. Processes that recover the energy
content of combustible wastes directly by
burning, or indirectly by being converted to
another fuel form such as gas or oil (1). 2.
Conversion of waste energy. generally
through the combustion of processed or
raw refuse to produce steam. See also
Incineration (7).
ENERGY RECOVERY
energy resource recovery where a part, or
all, of the waste stream is processed to
utilize its heat content to produce hot air,
hot water, steam, electricity, synthetic fuel
or other useful energy forms. (1)
ENTERPRISE FUND
a fund for a specific purpose that is selfsupporting
from the revenue it generates.
(7)
ENVIRONMENT
the conditions, circumstances, and influ-
ences SUrrOUnding and affecting the devet-
opment of an organism(s). (I)
ENVIRONMENTALLY RESPONSleLE
the conscious act of choosing options
which do not have a negative impact on
the environment.
ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEM
the interaction of an organism or group of
organisms with its natural and manmade
surroundings. (1)
EPA United States Environmental Protection
Agency
EXTRACTION
the separation of specific constituents from
a matrix of solids or a solution, employing
mechanical andlor chemical methods. Also
see recovery (t)
EXTRANEOUS ASH
after combustion, that portion of the
residue (ash 8, non-combustible) which is
derived from entrained materials which
Appendlx 8. Glossary of Terms 8'1

were mixed with the combustible material.
Also see inherent ash (1)
EXTRUDER
a machine producing a densified product
by forcing the material under pressure,
through a die, into the desired shapes or
form. (1)
FACULTATIVE
able to live and grow with or without free
oxygen. (1)
FERROUS METALS
metals that are derived from iron. They can
be removed using large magnets at separation
facilities. (7)
FERROUS
pertaining to or derived from iron. (I)
FILL deposits made by man of natural soils
and/or waste materials. See Sanitary
Landfill. (1)
FILTER BAG
a device designed to remove particles from
a carrier gas or air by passage of the gas
through a porous (fabric) medium. (I)
FLINT GLASS CULLET
a particulate glass material that contains
no more than 0.1 weight YO Fe03 or
0.0015 weight % Cr203 as determined by
chemical analysis. (1)
FLINT GLASS
a lead-containing colorless glass. (1)
FLOW CONTROL
a legal or economic means by which waste
is directed to particular destinations. For
example, an ordinance requiring that
certain wastes be sent to a combustion
facility is waste flow control. (7)
FLUE DUST
solid particles carried in the products of
combustion. (1)
FLUE GAS WASHER OR SCRUBBER
equipment for removing objectionable constituents
from the products of combustion
by means of spray, wet baffles, etc. (1)
FLUE GAS
exhaust gas from a combustion process.
(1)
FLY ASH (flyash)
small, solid particles of ash and soot generated
when coal, oil, or waste materials
88 Environmental Packaging Guidelines
are burned. Fly ash is suspended in the
flue gas afler combustion and is removed
by the pollution control equipment. (7)
FLY ASH COLLECTOR
equipment for removing fly ash
(particulates) from the combustion gases
prior to their discharge to the atmosphere.
(1)
FOOD WASTE
animal and vegetable waste resulting from
the handling, storage, preparation, cooking
and serving of foods; commonly called
garbage. (1)
FRONT-END RECOVERY
mechanical processing of as-discarded
solid wastes into separate constituents.
See back-end system (1)
FRONT-END SYSTEM OR PROCESS
size reduction, separation and/or physical
modification of solid wastes to afford practical
use or reuse. (1)
FURAN
general term applied to any of over 200
structurally related chlorinated compounds,
the most toxic of which is 2,3.7,8 -
tetrachlorodibenzo - furan (TCDF), thought
to be one- tenth as toxic as (TCDD)
FURNISH
A form or collection of raw material or
components for use in the manufacture of
subsequent products.
GARBAGE
spoiled or waste food that is thrown away,
generally defined as wet food waste. It is
used as a general term for all products discarded.
(7)
GASES. COMBUSTION
gases resulting from combustion which
may contain water vapor and excess or
dilution air in addition to CO2, and soot particles.
(I)
GASIFICATION
the process whereby carbonaceous solid
or liquid matter is converted to gases, e.g.,
carbon dioxide, methane, or ammonia. (I)
GENERATION, refuse
the act or process of producing solid
waste. (I)

7
GLASS CONTAINER
general term applied to glass bottles and
jars. Also includes beverage containers
such as food, Ilquor, wine, beer, son drinks,
medical, toiletries, and chemicals.
GLASS, FLAT
category Including sheet or window glass,
plate glass, and laminated glass.
GLASS
an inorganic product of fusion that has
cooled to a rigid condition without Crystallizing.
Typically hard and brittle, and
having a conchoidal fracture. It may be
colorless or colored, and transparent to
opaque. Masses or bodies of glass may be
made colored, translucent or opaque by
the presence of dissolved, amorphous, or
crystalline materials. When a specific kind
of glass Is Indicated, descriptive terms as
flint glass, barium glass. and window glass
should be used following the basic definition,
but the qualifying term is to be used
as understood by trade custom. Objects
made of glass are loosely and popularly
referred to as glass; such as glass for a
tumbler, a barometer, a window, a magnifier,
or a mirror. (1)
GLASS, PRESSED AND BLQWN
glass category including a broad classi-
fication of kitchen and tableware, art
objects, noveity items and the like, lighting
and electronic glassware, and insulation
glassware, insulation and manufactured
products using glass fibre. (1)
GRAVITY SEPARATION
concentration or separation of a mix of
materials based on differences in specific
gravity and sizes of materials. (1)
GRINDING
particle-size reduction by attrition andlor
high-speed impact. (1)
GROUND WATER
water beneath the earth’s surface that 611s
.. -~ ~- - ---tl&~taund.~pockets (known 8s aquifers)
and moves between soil particles and rock,
supplying wells and springs. (7)
GROUNDWATER FLOW
flow of water in an aquifer or soil. That
portion of the discharge of a stream which
is derived from QrOUndWater. (1)
GROUNDWATER RUNOFF
that part of the groundwater which is dis-
charged into a stream channel as spring or
seepage water. (1)
GROUNDWATER, FREE
groundwater in aquifers not bounded or
confined by impervious strata. (1)
HAMMERMILL
1. A broad category of high-speed rotating
equipment that uses pivoted or fixed
hammers or cutters on a horizontal or vertical
shaft to crush, grind, chip or shred
materials (1). 2. A type of crusher or
shredder used to break up waste materials
into smaller pieces. (7)
HAUL DISTANCE
the distance a collection vehicle travels
from its last pickup stop to the solid waste
transfer station, processing facility, or sanitary
landfill. The distance a vehicle travels
from a solid waste transfer station or processing
facility to a point of final disposal.
The distance that cover materials must be
transported from an excavation or stockpile
to the working face of a sanitary landfill. (I)
HAZARDOUS WASTE
1. Waste material that may pose a threat to
human health or the environment, the disposal
and handling of which is regulated by
federal law (7). 2. Waste that requires
special precaution in its storage, coilection,
transportation, treatment or disposal
to prevent damage to persons or
property. there are no universally
accepted definitions for the term hazardous
waste, and each country defines the term
with its own criteria. In a general sense,
however, hazardous wastes include
explosive, flammable, volatile, radioactive,
toxic and pathological wastes.
HEAW METALS
hazardous elements inClUding cadmium,
chromium, mercury, and lead which may
be found in the waste stream as part of
discarded items such as batteries, lighting
fixtures, colorants and inks. (7)
HEAW-MEDIA SEPARATION
separation of solids into heavy and light
fractions in a fluid medium whose density
lies between the fractions. (1)
Appendix E. Glossary Of Terms 89

HEAVY-MEDIA SEPARATOR
a unit process used to separate materials
of differing density by "floaUsink" in a
colloidal suspension of a finely ground
dense mineral. This suspension, or media,
usually consists of a water suspension of
magnatite. galena or ferrosiiicon. (I)
HIGH GRADE PAPER
relatively valuable types of paper such as
computer printout, white ledger, and tab
cards. Also used to refer to industrial trimmings
at paper milis that are recycled. (7)
HUMUS
organic materials resulting from decay of
plant or animal matter. Also referred to as
compost. (7)
HYDROGEOLOGY
the study of surface and subsurface water.
(7)
IMPERMEABLE
resistant to the flow of water or other fluid.
(1)
IN-VESSEL COMPOSTING
a composting method in which the compost
is continuously and mechanically mixed
and aerated in a.large, contained area. (7)
INCINERATION
1. A waste disposal technology of the
thermal destruction type. In incineration,
combustion of wastes in the presence of
excess oxygen produces water, carbon
dioxide and ash, as well as noncombustible
residuals. If combustion is
incomplete, other organic by-products may
occur. 2. The controlled process by which
solid, liquid, or gaseous combustible
wastes are burned and changed into
gases; with the residue produced containing
little or no combustible materials.
(2)
INCINERATOR ASH
the remnants of solid waste after com-
bustion, including non-combustibles (e.g..
metals) and soot. (7)
INCINERATOR GASES
combustion gases which may contain water
vapor and excess or dilution air added
afler the combustion chamber. (1)
INCINERATOR
types:
90 Envlronmental Packaging Guidelines
CENTRAL
a conveniently located facility that burns
solid waste collected from many different
sources.
CHUTE FED
charged through a chute that extends
one or more floors above the furnace
grate.
COMMERCIAL
a predeslgned, shop-fabricated unit possibly
shipped assembled as a package,
for consuming general refuse.
INDUSTRIAL
an incinerator specifically designed to
burn a particular industrial waste,
usually under 2 tons per hour (50tpd).
MUNICIPAL
privately or publicly-owned, primarily
designed and used to burn household
and commercial solid wastes, usually
over 2 tons per hour (+50tpd).
ON-SITE
burns waste on the property of the generator
of the waste.
RESIDENTIAL
a predesigned, shop-fabricated and
assembled unit, shipped as a package
for individual dwellings.
INCINERATOR
1. An engineered apparatus used to burn
waste substances and in which all the
factors of combustion (temperature,
retention time, turbulence, and com-
bustion air) can be controlled (I). 2. A
facility in which the combustion of solid
waste takes place. (7)
INDUSTRIAL PLASTIC SCRAP
material originating from a variety of inpiant
operations and which may consist of
a single material or a blend of known composition.
(5)
INDUSTRIAL WASTE
materials discarded from industrial operations
or derived from manufacturing processes.
(7)
INERT MATERIAL
materials lacking active thermal, chemical
or geological properties. (1)

. . ~ .
INFECTIOUS WASTE
wastes such as those from a hospital or
laboratory which may contain concentrated
amounts of pathogens. (1)
INHERENT ASH
the portion of the ash of a material found
affer combustion which is chemically
bound to the molecules of the combustible,
as distinguished from extraneous noncombustible
materials from other sources
or which may be mechanically entrained
with the combustible. (I)
INORGANIC WASTE
waste composed of matter other than plant
or animal (i.e., contains no carbon). (7)
INSTITUTIONAL WASTE
waste materials originating in schools, hospitals.
prisons, research institutions and
other public buildings. (7)
INTEGRATED, SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
a practice of using several alternative
waste management techniques to manage
and dispose of specific components of the
municipal solid waste stream. Waste man-
agement alternatives include source
reduction, recycling, composting, energy
recovery and 'landfilling. (7)
INTEGRATED WASTE MANAGEMENT
a system of handling wastes, within a hier-
archy of disposal options in which the
order of preference is often listed (i.e., in
descending priorities) such as, for MSW: 1.
Source reduction 2. Recovery. reuse,
recycle 3. Incineration 4. Secure landfill
IPC - Intermediate Plocerslng Center
usually refers to the type of materials
recovery facility (MRF) that processes
residentially collected mixed recyclables
into new products available for market;
Offen used interchangeably with MRF. (7)
JUNK
old or scrap copper. brass, rope, rags, bat-
teries, paper, rubber, junked, dismantled or
w"hutomobiles or parts thereof: iron,
steel and other old or scrap ferrous mate-
riais which are not held for sale or
remelting purposes. Unprocessed materials
suitable for reuse or recycling, commonly
referred to as secondary materials. ( I )
KANBAN
used to communicate a demand to produce
a manufactured item and to literally pull
materials to an operation in the process
without scheduling.
KRAFT PAPER
a paper made predominantly from wood
pulp produced by a modified sulfate
pulping process. It is a comparatively
coarse paper particularly noted for its
Strength, and in unbleached grades is used
primarily as a wrapper or packaging material.
(1)
KRAFT PULP
Wood pulp resulting from a pulping process
in which sodium sulfate is used in the
caustic soda pUlp-digeStiOn liquor. Also
known as sulfate pulp.
LANDFILL DISPOSAL SITE
Classification:
CLASS I
Complete protection is provided for all
time for the quality of ground and surface
waters from ail wastes deposited therein
and against hazard to public health and
wildlife resources.
CLASS II
Protection is provided to water quality
from Group 2 and Group 3 wastes. The
types of physical features and the extent
of protection of groundwater quality can
divide Class iI sites into several categories.
Mixed municipal refuse is usually in
Class li.
CLASS 111
Protection is provided to water quality
from Group 3 wastes (essentially the
inert wastes) by location, construction,
and operation which prevent erosion of
deposited materials. (I)
LEACHATE
liquid that has percolated through solid
waste or another medium and has
extracted, dissolved, or suspended mate-
rials from it, which may include potentially
harmful materials. Leachate collection and
treatment is of primary concern at munic-
ipal waste landfills. (7)
LIGNIN
an amorphous structure comprising
1740% of wood. it is so cioseiy associated
Appendix E. Glossary of Terms 91

with the holocellulose which makes up the
balance of woody material that it can be
separated from it only by chemical reaction
at high temperature. It is believed to func-
tion as a plastic binder for the
holocellulose fibers.
LITTER
solid wastes that are scattered about in a
wanton or careless manner.
MAGNETIC SEPARATION
a system to remove ferrous metals from
other materials in a mixed municipal waste
stream. Magnets are used to attract the
ferrous metals. (7)
MAGNETIC SEPARATOR
a device used to remove iron and steel
from a stream of materials.
MANDATORY RECYCLING
programs which by law require consumers
to separate trash so that some or all
recyclable materials are not burned or
dumped In landfills. (7)
MANUAL SEPARATION
the separation of recyclable or
compostable materials from waste by
hand sorting. (7)
MAGNETIC FRACTION
that portion of municipal ferrous scrap
remaining after the non-magnetic contaminants
have been manually removed and
the magnetic fraction washed with water
and dried at ambient temperature or as
required by ASTM C29. (1)
MASS BURN
a municipal waste combustion technology
in which solid waste is burned in a controlled
system without prior sorting or processing.
(7)
MATERIALS RECOVERY
where in the concept of resource recovery,
emphasis is on placed on separating and
processing waste materials for beneficial
use, or reuse. The materials usually
referred to include paper, glass, metals,
rubber, plastics or textiles.
mechanical collector
A device that separates entrained dust
from gas through the application of inertial
and gravitational forces. (1)
92 Environmental Packaging Guidelines
MATERIAL RECOVERY FACILITY (MRF)
a permitted solid waste facility which sorts
or separates, by hand or by use of
machinery, solid wastes or materials for
the purposes of recycling, composting, or
transformation.
MECHANICAL SEPARATION
the separation of waste into various components
using mechanical means, such as
cyclones, trommels, and screens. (7)
METHANE
an odorless, colorless, asphyxiating,
flammable and explosive gas (CH4) which
can be formed by the anaerobic decomposition
of organic waste matter. The major
wmponent of natural gas, it can be used
as fuel. Found in landfill and pyrolysis
gases.
MICROORGANISMS
1. Microscopically small living organisms
that digest decomposable materials
through metabolic activity.
Microorganisms are active in the
composting process (7). 2. Generally any
living things microscopic in size, including
bacteria, actinomycetes, yeasts, simple
fungi, some algae, rickettsiae, spirochetes,
slime molds, protozoans, and some of the
simpler multicellular organisms (1).
MILLED REFUSE
solid waste that has been mechanically
reduced in size. (1)
MIXED KRAFT BAGS
consists of baled used kraft bags free from
twisted or woven stock and other similar
objectionable materials. (1)
MODULAR INCINERATOR
smaller-scale waste combustion units prefabricated
at a manufacturing facility and
transported to the MWC facility site. (7)
MSW COMPOSTING - Municipal Solid Waste
ComposUng
the controlled degradation of municipal
solid waste including after some form of
preprocessing to remove non-wmpostable
inorganic materials. (7)
MULCH
ground or mixed yard wastes placed
around plants to prevent evaporation of
moisture and freezing of roots and to
nourish the soil. (7)

~.
~ .
3
MUNICIPAL ALUMINUM SCRAP
aluminum alloy product originating from
municipal solid waste, not source sepa-
rated, that is recovered from industrial,
commercial or household wastes destined
for disposal facilities. (1)
MUNICIPAL LOOSE COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL
(or munlclpal loose combustible organics -
LCO'S)
materials that consist of, but are not limited
to, nonmetallic materials such as paper,
rags. plastic, rubber, wood, food wastes,
and yard or lawn wastes, etc.. which are
not permanently attached to
noncombustible objects. LCO's are defined
as materials larger than 12 mesh (US.
Standard Sieve). A determination of
LCOs is best done by sampling, handpicking,
hand cleaning and visually identifying
the materials described previously.
MUNICIPAL RECOVERY (Alumlnum)
the percent material recovered afler an
assay using the procedures prescribed in
ASTM E-36 Specification. (1)
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW)
essentially household waste, and street
refuse. Can include wastes from commer-
cial establishments and institutions; but
excludes industrial process wastes, demo-
lition wastes, agricultural wastes, mining
wastes, abandoned automobiles, ashes,
and sewage sludge. In practice, specific
definitions vary across jurisdictions (7).
See Solid Waste.
MUTAGENIC
causing a change (mutation) in the DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid, the genetic "information")
of a cell's chromosomes. A
mutagen may also be a carcinogen.
NCASI
National Council of the Paper Industry for
Air and Stream Improvement.
NEWSPRINT
to describe paper of
the type generally used in the publication
of newspapers. The furnish is largely
mechanical wood pulp, along with some
chemical wood pulp. (1)
-. ..~ --o-%engFlc tecm~used
NIMBY
acronym for "Not In My Back Yard"
expression of resident opposition to the
siting of a solid waste facility based on the
particular location proposed. (7)
NON-COMBUSTIBLE WASTE
discarded materials incapable of combustion
including metals, tin cans, foils,
dirt, gravel, bricks, ceramics, glass.
crockery, ashes.
NONCOMBUSTIBLES
the components of a material which remain
afler combustion of all combustible matter
including inert materials such as glass, dirt
and sand and wholly oxidized metals. (1)
NON-SALVAGEABLE
no longer usable in current or modifiable
form.
OFF-GAS
gaseous products from chemical decomposition
of a material. (1)
OFF-SPEC OR OFF-GRADE VIRGIN PLASTICS
resins that do not meet manufacturer's
specifications. (5)
OPEN BURNING
uncontrolled burning of wastes in the open.
(1)
OPEN-PILE METHOD
open-air composting, either anaerobic or
aerobic, accomplished by placing
compostable materials in windrows, piles,
ventilated bins or pits and turning it occasionally.
Also called windrow method. (1)
OPTICAL SORTING
the use of photo cells to individually
measure the reflectance of passing particles.
(1)
ORGANIC WASTE
Waste material containing carbon. The
organic fraction of municipal solid waste
includes paper, wood, food wastes, plastics,
and yard wastes. (7)
ORGANIC
1. Materials, containing carbon, which
oxidize or burn easily; contain nitrogen,
sulfur or both and usually give off odorous
by-products (I). 2. Any compound that
contains carbon and hydrogen (or other
elements substituted for hydrogen). An
organic compound can also be called a
hydrocarbon. They include both naturally
occurring and synthetic compounds.
Appendix 6. Glossary of Terms 93

ORGANOCHLORINES
term for over 300 chlorinated compounds
(TCDD. TCDF, chloroform, carbon
tetrachloride, etc.) formed in processes
Involving chlorine, wood lignin, and heat.
OSBORNE SEPARATOR
a device that utilizes a pulsed, rising
column of air to separate small particles of
glass. metal, and other dense Items from
compost. Also called a deglasser. (1)
OVER-ISSUE NEWS
consists of unused over-run regular newspapers
printed on newsprint, baled or
securely tied in bundles, containing not
more than the normal percentage of
rotogravure and colored sections. (1)
OXIDATION
the combination of a reactant with oxygen.
(1)
PALLET POOL
a cooperative system for use and reuse on
a lease basis for pallets of a common or
established design that is managed by a
National or International pallet company.
PALLET REUTILIZATION
the effective use of pallet resources to
maximize their potential life through
designs, Inspection, repair and reuse.
PALLET STANDARDIZATION
the establishment of a limited number of
specified designs and sizes required for all
use within this company.
PAPERBOARD
general term descriptive of a sheet made
of fibrous material (woodpulp, straw, paper
stock or any combination thereof) on a
paper machine.
PARTICIPATION RATE
a measure of the number of people participating
in a recycling program compared to
the total number that could be participating.
(7)
PARTICULATE MATTER (PM)
tiny pieces of matter resulting from the
combustion process that can have harmful
health effects on those who breath them.
Pollution control at MWC facilities is
designed to limit particulate emissions. (7)
94 Environmental Packaging Guidelines
PATHOGEN
an organism capable of causing disease.
(7)
PERCOLATE
1. To ooze or trickle through a permeable
substance. Ground water may percolate
into the bottom of an unlined landfill (7). 2.
A qualitative term that refers to the down-
ward movement of water through soil, solid
waste, or other porous medium. (1)
PERMEABILITY
the capacity of a porous medium to
conduct or transmit fluids.
PERMEABLE
having pores or openings that permit
liquids or gasses to pass through. (7)
PHOTODEGRADABILITY
the primary attribute of a photodegradable
material. Can be inherent in the material or
imparted to the material by formulation,
construction, or additive combinations.
PHOTODEGRADABLE
1. A physical or chemical structure of a
material capable of being broken down in
reactions precipitated, Initiated or driven by
light, solely or in combination with other
causative environmental factors within a
specified time, under specific exposure
conditions. 2. A process whereby the sun's
ultraviolet radiation attacks the link in the
polymer chain of plastic. The breaking of
this link causes the plastic chain to fragment
into smaller pieces, losing its
strength and ability to flex and stretch. As
the photodegradable plastic is subjected to
the effects of the natural environment, the
material is flexed, stretched and disintegrated
into plastic dust.
PIGMENT
a solid substance which is used to give
color to other materials.
PIPELINE
pipeline (sometimes called inventory pipeline)
is often expressed In units of time
(usually days). It defines the number of
days of worth of reusable items, at a given
point in time. Pipeline describes the
number of items needed to support all
parts of a reusable program (e.@, work-inprocess,
out and return shipping. inventory,
and repairs).

"1
. I
~
PLANT WASTE
dunnage, shipping, packaging, storage, and
general office waste. Not production or
process wastes. ( I )
PLASTIC RECYCLING
a process by which plastic materiais which
would otherwise become solid waste are
collected. separated, or processed and
retumed to the economic mainstream in
the form of useful raw materials or products.
(5)
POLLUTION
the condition caused by the presence in
the environment of substances of such
character and in such quantities that the
quality of the environment is impaired or
rendered offensive to life. (2)
POLYMERIC
a substance made of plastic.
POST CONSUMER RECYCLED MATERIALS
materials produced from products generated
by a business or consumer which
have served their intended end uses, and
which have been separated or diverted
from solid waste for the purpose of coilection.
recycling and disposition.
POSTCONSUMER RECYC4lNG
the reuse of materials generated from residential
and commercial waste, excluding
recycling of material from industrial processes
that has not reached the consumer,
such as glass broken in the manufacturing
process. (7)
POSTCONSUMER WASTE, (PCW)
any waste product that has gone through
its useful life, served the purpose for which
It was Intended and has been discarded by
the user. This is in contrast to preconsumer
waste or scrap from manufacturing.
PRECONSUMER RECYCLED MATERIALS
those materials that cannot be reused in
the manufacturing process and would otherwise
bedEFosea.~ofas solid waste.
These materiais do not include virgin materials,
nor does it include the virgin content
of scrap or by-products generated and
reused within the original product manufacturing
process.
PRE-CONSUMER WASTE
materials discarded .from industrial oper-
ations or derived from manufacturing proc-
esses.
PRIMARY MANUFACTURING RESIDUES
sawdust, chips, slabs and the like created
from the basic conversion of roundwood
into a lumber product. Sawmills and
plywood and veneer milis are the principal
operations creating primary manufacturing
residues from their processing operations.
(1)
PRIMARY MATERIALS
virgin or new materiais used for manufacturing
basic products. Examples include
wood pulp, iron ore and silica sand. (1)
PRIMARY PACKAGE
the first layer of packaging that comes in
direct contact with the part.
PRIMARY RECYCLING
the return of a secondary material to the
same industry from which it came and
processing that material so that it will yield
the same or similar product which it was
originally as a secondary material. Examples
are the return of broken glass containers
to glass container manufacturing
plants for making new containers and the
recycling of sheet steel scrap to steel furnaces
for the manufacture of new sheet
steel.
PROCESS WASTE
the waste material from an industrial
process. Examples of process wastes are
flue gas scrubber sludges, cement kiln
dusts, sawmill dust and powder, spent so!-
vents, contaminated oils, etc. (I)
PROCESSING WASTES
any method, system, or other treatment
designed to beneficially change the physical,
chemical, form or content of waste
material. (1)
PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION
the gases, vapors, and solids that result
from the combustion of a material. (1)
PRODUCT STEWARDSHIP
assuming responsibility for a product and
it's packaging from conception to disposal.
PULVERIZATION
the crushing or grinding of material into
very fine particle size. (1)
Appendix 6. Glossary of Terms 95

PUTRESCIBLE
organic matter capable of being decom-
posed by microorganisms. (2)
PYROLYSIS
the chemical decomposition of an organic
material by heat in an oxygen deficient
controlled environment. Results in destructive
distillation and formation of
combustible (hydrocarbon) gases, oils,
char, and mineral matter. (1)
RATES AND DATES
refers to legislation requiring specific consumer
recycling percentages at a specific
point in time.
RECLAMATION
1. The restoration to a better or more
useful state (such as land reclamation by
sanitary landfilling), or the Obtaining of
useful materials from solid waste (1). 2.
The recovery of a usable product from a
waste following extensive pre-treatment.
RECOVERABLE RESOURCES
materials that still have useful physical or
chemical properties after serving their original
purpose and can be reused or recycled
for the same.or other purposes. (1)
RECOVERED MATERIALS, PRE-CONSUMER
those materials generated during any step
in the production of a product and that
have been recovered from or otherwise
diverted from the solid waste stream, but
does not include those materials generated
from and commonly reused within an original
manufacturing process.
RECOVERED MATERIALS, POST-CONSUMER
Types:
I.
Paper, paperboard, and flbrous wastes
from retail stores, offfce buildings,
homes, and so forth, after they have
passed through their end uses as con-
sumer items, inClUding: Used Corrugated
boxes, old newspapers, old magazines,
mixed waste paper, tabulating cards, and
used Cordage.
11.
All paper, paperboard, and fibrous
wastes that enter and are collected from
municipal solid waste. (3)
96 Environmental Packaging Guidelines
RECOVERED MATERIALS
those materials which have known recycling
potential, can be feasibly recycled,
and have been diverted or removed from
the solid waste stream for sale, use, or
reuse, by separation, collection or processing.
(4)
RECOVERY
the process of retrieving materials or
energy resources from wastes. Also
referred to as extraction, reclamation, recycling,
salvage. (1)
RECYCLABLE MATERIALS
packaging materials which otherwise would
be processed or disposed of as solid waste
which are capable of being collected, separated,
or processed and reused or returned
to use in the form of raw materials or products.
Implies the existence of an
infrastructure to accomplish the above
objectives.
RECYCLABLE
waste material which is capable of being
processed for subsequent use. Materials
are only recyclable if there is a widely
available economically viable collection,
processing and marketing system for the
material.
RECYCLABLES
materials that still have useful physical or
chemical properties after serving their original
purpose.and that can, therefore, be
reused or remanufactured into additional
products. (7)
RECYCLED CONTENT
the portion of a package's Weight that is
composed of recycled materials. (6)
RECYCLED MATERIAL
material that has been collected, dropped
off or brought back from post consumer
sources that would otherwise be destined
for the solid waste stream including but not
limited to post consumer material, industrial
scrap material and overstock or obsolete
inventories from distribution,
wholesalers, and other companies, but not
InClUding those materials and by-products
generated from, and commonly reused
within an original manufacturing process,
that are collected, dropped off or brought
back and are refabricated into marketable
end products. (6)

RECYCLED MATERIALS BROKER
negotiates contracts for the purchase of
processed material for resale to those who
manufacture new products.
RECYCLED PLASTIC
I) plastic products or parts of a product
that have been reground for sale or use to
a second party. 2) plastics composed of
postwnsumer material or recovered material
only, which may or may not have been
processed (reground, reprocessed). (5)
RECYCLED
material which has already been reclaimed
from a waste product and processed in
order to regain material.
RECYCLING RATE
the percentage by weight of a given
package or packaging distributed for sale
in a state that would otherwise be destined
for the solid waste stream including but not
limited to, post consumer material, industrial
scrap material and overstock or obsolete
inventories from distributors,
wholesalers, and other companies, but not
including those materials and by- products
generated from, and wmmonly reused
within an original manufacturing process,
that are collected, dropped off or brought
back and are refabricated into marketable
products. (6)
RECYCLING
any process by which solid waste, or materials
which would otherwise become solid
waste, are collected, separated, or processed
and reused or returned to use in the
form of raw materials or products.
REFRACTORY
a material that can withstand dramatic heat
variations. Used to construct conventional
combustion chambers in incinerators. Currently.
waterwall systems are becoming
more common. (7)
REFUSE DERIVED FUEL (RDF)
fuel extracted from solid waste to be used
for combustion processes or as feedstock
to other process systems. (I)
REFUSED DERIVED FUEL (RDF)
Types:
RDF-I Wastes used as fuel in as-discarded
form with only bulky wastes
removed.
RDF-2
Wastes processed to coarse particle
size with or without ferrous metal
separation.
RDF-3
Combustlble waste fraction processed
to particle sizes -
95 percent passing 2 inch square
screening.
RDF-4
Combustible waste fraction processed
into powder form - 95 percent
passing 10 mesh screening.
RDF-5
Combustible waste fraction densified
(compressed) into the form of
pellets, slugs, cubettes or briquettes.
RDF-6
Combustible waste fraction processed
into liquid fuel.
RDF-7
Combustible waste fraction processed
into gaseous fuel. (1)
REFUSE HANDLING
the preparation of refuse for disposal or for
conversion into something.
REFUSE
putrescible and nonputrescible solid
wastes, except body wastes and including
kitchen discards, rubbish, ashes,
incinerator ash, incinerator residue, street
cleanings. and market, commercial. office,
and industrial wastes. (1)
REFUSE, RESIDENTIAL
all types of solid wastes that normally originate
in the private home or apartment
house. Also called domestic or household
refuse. (1)
REFUSE DERIVED FUEL (RDF)
product of a mixed waste processing
system in which certain recyclable and
non-combustible materials are removed,
and the remalning combustible material is
converted for use as a fuel to create
energy. (7)
REGRIND, PLASTIC
plastic products or parts of a product that
have been reclaimed by shredding and
granulating for use in-house. (5)
Appendix B. Glossary of Terms 97

..
REPALLETIZATION
the transfer of materials from a pallet
deemed to be unacceptable for further use
because of damage, inferiority, or unusable
size or design for the distribution system to
a pallet of an acceptable design and condi-
tion.
REPROCESSED, PLASTIC
regrind or recycled-regrind material which
has been re-pelletized by extruding and
chopped or formed into pellets for reuse
(often called 'repro'). (5)
REPROCESSING
changing the character of secondary materials
(i.e., minor, such as crushing or
shredding; major. such as biochemical conversion
of cellulose into yeast). (1)
RESIDENTIAL WASTE
waste materials generated in single and
multiple-family homes. (7)
RESIDUAL WASTES
those materials (solid or liquid) which still
require disposal after the completion of a
resource recovery activity (e.g., slag and
liquid effluents following a pyrolysis operation),
plus the discards from front-end separation.
(I)
RESINS
usually polymers which are of a high
molecular Weight. Resins.can'be solid or
semi-solid and can be either natural or
synthetic in origin. In Ink, a resin is the
main ingredient which binds the various
other ingredients together. It also aids
adhesion to the surface.
RESOURCE RECOVERY
a term describing the extraction and utilization
of materials and energy from the
waste stream. The term is sometimes used
synonymously with energy recovery. (7)
RETENTION BASIN
an area designed to retain runoff and
prevent erosion and pollution. (7)
RETURN, REFILLABLE
containers that can be returned to the economic
stream unchanged (except for minor
processes such as cleaning and sanitizing)
after having served their packaging
purpose to the consumer. Examples
include drums, barrels and several types of
glass beverage bottles.
98 Environmental Packaging Guidelines
RETURNABLE
the terms returnable and reusable are
often used synonymously. In this guide
they will be used interchangeably and have
similar meanings.
REUSABLE
when applied to packaging, reusable
means a container, package, or component
of the container or package (e.@. a foam
cushion, plastic bag, etc.) is capable of
being used more than one time, without
being significantly changed (i.e., used in
its same physical form, requiring only
minor repair or cleaning).
REUSE LIFE
is the life of a reusable item. The life may
be expressed in time (e& months or
years) or in n,umber of reuses, before the
item can no longer be reused.
REUSE
1. The use of a product more than once in
its same form for the same purpose; e.g.,
a softdrink bottle is reused when It is
refined to the bottling company for refilling
(7). 2. The reintroduction of a package into
the economic stream without any Change.
RISING CURRENT SEPARATOR
a unit housing a flowing current of water to
carry off or wash away organic materials
such as food wastes, heavy plastics, and
wood from a heavy fraction. The water is
pumped upwards causing many materials,
which normally would sink, to float and be
removed. (1)
ROLL-OFF CONTAINER
a large waste container that fits onto a
tractor trailer that can be dropped off and
picked up hydraulically. (7)
RUBBISH
a general term for solid waste (eXClUding
food waste and ashes) taken from residences,
commercial establishments, and
institutions.
SALVAGE AND RECLAMATION
a refuse disposal process in which discarded
materials are separated mechanically
or by hand into various categories
such as ferrous and nonferrous metals,
rags, COrrUgated fiberboard. plastics,
paper, glass. etc. for reuse or recycling as
secondary raw materials.

7
SALVAGE
a quantity of materials, sometimes of
mixed composition, no longer useful in its
present condition or at Its present location,
but capable of being recycled, reused, or
used in other applications. Salvage also
refers io materials recovered after a
calamity, such as materials obtained from
a ship wrecked at sea or a building
destroyed by flre.
SALVAGE
the act of saving or obtaining a secondary
material, be it by pickup, sorting, disassembly,
or some other activity.
SANITARY LANDFILL
a controlled method of disposing of refuse
on land without creating nuisances or
hazards to public health or safety, by utilizing
the principles of engineering to
confine the refuse to the smallest practical
area, to reduce it to the smallest practical
volume and to cover it with a layer of earth
at the conclusion of each day's operation
or at more frequent intervals. The technique
includes careful preparation of the fill
area, control of leachate and a specifled
volume of dirt to be spread over each
volume of trash. (I)
SANITATION
the control of all the factors in man's physical
environment that exercise or can exercise
a deleterious effect on his physical
development, health, and survival. (I)
SCAVENGER
one who illegaliy removes materials at any
point In the solid waste management
system. (7)
SCRAP
I. Any solid trim, cutting or reject material
which may be suitable as feedstock to the
primary operation. lnplant or preconsumer
waste. 2. Discarded or rejected industrial
~. .. . ~--_~_-1?L.~
~ .....
waste material often suitable for recycling.
SCREEN
Types:
. ~
ROTARY
an inclined, meshed cylinder that rotates
on its axis and sifts materials placed in
its upper end.
VIBRATING
an inclined screen that is vibrated
mechanically and sifts materials placed
on it.
SCREEN
a surface provided with apertures of
uniform size. A machine provided with one
or more screening surfaces to separate
materials by size.
SCRUBBER
common anti-pollution device that uses a
liquid or slurry spray to remove acid gases
and particulates from municipal waste
combustion facility flue gases. (7)
SECATOR
a separating device that throws mixed
materials onto a rotating shaff heavy and
resilient materials bounce off one side of
the shaft, while light and inelastic materials
land on the other and are cast in the opposite
direction. (2)
SECONDARY MATERIAL
a material that is utilized in place of a
primary, virgin or raw material in manufacturing
a product. Materials which might go
to waste if not collected and processed for
reuse. (I)
SECONDARY PACKAGE
the second layer which contains one or
more primary packages.
SECONDARY PROCESS
where components separated from solid
waste may be further processed to allow
reuse in their original form or used in an
entirely different form. (1)
SECONDARY RECYCLING
the use of a secondary material in an
industrial application other than that in
which the material originated. An example
is the reprocessing of newspapers and old
corrugated boxes into container board for
packaging or into construction paper. (1)
SECONDARY USE
the use of a material in an application
other than that in which it originated;
however, the material is not changed significantly
by processing and retains its
identity. Examples are cotton clothing articles
that are converted into wiping rags by
being washed and cut to size; the use of
steel cans in copper precipitation; and the
Appendix 8. Glossary of Terms 99

~
use of rubber tires as dock bumpers.
Materials used in this mode may end up as
waste after their secondary use is com-
pleted. (1)
SECURE LANDFILL
a landfill designed to receive treated industrial
wastes. It differs from a conventional
sanitary landfill in the degree to which the
site is engineered to diminish the migration
of pollutants.
SEGREGATION
separation or sorting into common groups.
SEPARABLE COMPONENTS
capable of being separated.
SEPARATION
the systematic division of solid waste into
designated categories. (2)
SHREDDED REFUSE
solid waste that has been physically
reduced to smaller particles by shredding.
SHREDDER
a size reduction machine which tears or
grinds materials to a smaller and more
uniform particle size. Shredding process is
also referred to as size reduction, grinding,
milling, pulverization, hogging, granuiating,
breaking, maserating, chipping, crushing,
cutting and rasping:(l)
SHREDDING
a method of grindlng or breaking down of a
material to desired sized particles or
fibers.
SLIPSHEET
a material handling device usually made of
solid fiber or plastic variable thickness on
which the product or materials are loaded
and usually stretch wrapped for movement.
This unit load is best handled with special
handling equipment such as squeeze
trucks or pushlpull devices for loading,
stacking and unloading.
SLUDGE FARMING
a process whereby waste sludges are
spread onto land and ploughed into the
soil. Nutrients are added and the deposited
sludges are turned at frequent intervals
to ensure continuing bacterial
decomposition of the biodegradable
wastes.
100 Environmental Packaging Guidelines
SLUDGE
1. A mixture of liquids and solids which
flows under normal conditions and can be
pumped using standard pumping equip-
ment or vacuum equipment. 2. A semi-
liquid residue remaining from the treatment
of municipal and industrial water and
wastewater. (7)
SOIL AMENDMENT
an additive placed in the ground to
enhance its performance or stabilize it to
enhance crop growth or control.
SOIL LINER
landfill liner composed of compacted soil
used for the containment of leachate. (7)
SOIL
sediments or other unconsolidated accumulations
of solid particles produced by
the physical and chemical disintegration of
rocks, and which may or may not contain
organic matter.
SOLID WASTE DERIVED FUEL
fuel that is produced from solid waste that
can be used as a primary or supplementary
fuel in conjunction with or in place of
fossil fuels. It can be in the form of raw
(unprocessed) solid waste, shredded (or
pulped) and classified solid waste, gas or
oil derived from pyrolyzed solid waste, or
gas derived from the biodegradation of
solid waste. Also referred to as refuse
derived fuel (RDF). (1)
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
disposal of all solid wastes through landfilling,
incineration, composting, chemical
treatment, and any other method which
prepares solid wastes for final disposition.
(1)
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
the purposeful, systematic control of the
generation, storage, collection, transport,
separation, processing, recycling. recovery
and disposal of solid wastes. (2) See also;
integrated waste management.
SOLID WASTE STREAM
the flow of trash and scrap materials from
industry, and consumers for disposal
usually through burning in incinerators or
burial in sanitary landfills or dumping at
sea.

.
SOLID WASTES
useless, unwanted or discarded solid mate.
rials with insufficient liquid content to be
free flowing.(l) See also; trash, garbage,
rubbish. Note: For specific forms of solid
waste@). refer to the following commonly
used categories:
ASH
Residue from burning of combustible
materials, may include extraneous noncombustibles,
unburned carbon, as well
as mineral matter inherent in the
combustible material.
BULKY WASTE
Large discarded materials: appliances,
furniture, junked automobile parts. diseased
trees, large branches, stumps, etc
COMMERCIAL WASTE
From businesses, office buildings, apartment
houses, stores, markets, theaters,
hospitals and other institutional facilities.
COMBUSTIBLE WASTE
the organic content of solid waste,
including paper, plastics. corrugated
fiberboard, cartons, wood, boxes, textlies.
bedding, leather, rubber, paints,
yard trimmings, leaves, and household
wastes: all of which will burn.
DOMESTIC REFUSE
putrescible and nonputrescible waste
originating from a residential unit, and
consisting of paper, cans, bottles, food
wastes. May include yard and garden
waste, also referred to as residential or
household refuse.
FOOD WASTE
animal and vegetable discards from handling,
storage, sale, preparation, cooking
and sewing of foods. Sometimes
referred to as garbage; the putrescible
constituent of refuse.
HAZARDOUS WASTE
Any waste materials or combination
thereat, wliiEl7 pose a substantial present
or potential hazard to human health or
living organisms because such wastes
are non- degradable or persistent in
nature, because they can be biologically
magnified, because they can be lethal, or
because they may cause or tend to
cause detrimental cumulative effects.
Includes, but IS not limited to, explosives,
pathological wastes, radioactive mate-
rials and chemicals which may be
harmful to the public during normal
storage, collection or disposal cycle.
Sometimes referred to as special or
unconventional waste. (Refer to DOT
NCFR, Part 261).
INDUSTRIAL WASTE
discarded waste materials from industrial
processes and/or manufacturing
operations.
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE (MSW)
domestic refuse and some commercial
waste. Also referred to as mixed municipal
refuse (MMR).
RESIDENTIAL WASTE
discarded materials originating from residences.
Also called domestic or household
refuse.
SPECIAL WASTE
requires special care and consideration
in the storage, collection.
handling/transportation and disposal
cycle by reason of pathological,
explosive, or toxic/hazardous properties.
Sometimes referred to as unconventional
waste.
TRASH
larger (non-putrescible) residential solid
wastes unsuitable for routine pick-up by
refuse collector.
SOLVENT
the liquid part of a solution existing in a
larger amount than the solute (the substance
being dissolved). A solvent can dissolve
or disperse other substances. in inks,
a solvent is the volatile part of a ink composition
that evaporates during drying. In
industrial usage, solvent usually refers to
organic solvent, and as such refers to the
class of volatile hydrocarbons used as dissolvers,
viscosity reducers and cleaning
agents.
SOURCE REDUCTION
1. The design and manufacture of products
and packaging with minimum toxic content,
minimum volume of material, and/or a
longer useful life 2. The elimination of
packaging or reduction of the weight,
volume and/or the toxicity of packaging (6)
Appendix 8. Glossary oi Terms 101

~~ (7)
SOURCE SEPARATED RECYCLABLES
describes a process in which solid waste
materials are produced as an autonomous
waste product which are stored separately
at the site of generation, or physically sep-
arated from all other solid wastes into
recyclable, compostable, or other fractions
at the site of generation.
SOURCE SEPARATION
sorting at the point of generation, specific
discarded materials such as newspapers,
glass, metal cans, plastics, vegetative
matter, etc.. into specific containers for
separate collection.
SPECIAL WASTES
solid wastes that can require special handling
and management, including, but not
limited to, white goods. whole tires, used
oil, mattresses, furniture, lead-acid batteries,
and biological wastes. (4)
STACK EMISSIONS
air emissions from a combustion facility
stacks. (7)
STREET REFUSE
material picked up by manual and mechanical
sweeping of streets and sidewalks,
litter from public litter receptacles and dirt
removed from catch basins. (1)
SUBTITLE C
the hazardous waste section of the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA). (7)
SUBTITLE D
the solid, non-hazardous waste section of
the Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act (RCRA). (7)
SUBTITLE F
section of the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA) requiring the federal
government to actively participate in procurement
programs fostering the recovery
and use of recycled materials and energy.
SUPERFUND
common name for the Comprehensive
Environmental Response, Compensation
and Liability Act (CERCLA) to clean up
abandoned or inactive hazardous waste
dump sites. (7)
102 Envlronmental Packaging Guidelines
SUPPLIERS
organizations who provide parts, products
and components to a manufacturer.
TERATOGEN
an agent or substance that may cause
physical defects in the developing embryo
or fetus when a pregnant female is
exposed to that substance.
TERTIARY PACKAGE
this includes the shipping container and all
additional internal dunnage materials if
any.
TERTIARY RECYCLING
where packaging material is recycled into
a product other than a package or a packaging
material.
THERMAL DESTRUCTION
a group of waste disposal technOlogieS
using heat to break down hazardous
organic wastes into less toxic constituents,
ideally carbon dioxide and water. The two
broad categories of thermal destruction
teChn0lOgieS are incineration and pyrolysis.
THERMOPLASTIC
plastic that can be repeatedly softened by
heating and hardened by cooling through a
temperature range characteristic of the
plastic. and that in the softened state can
be shaped by flow into articles by molding
or extrusion. (5)
THERMOSET
plastic that, after having been cured by
heat or other means, is substantially
infusible and insoluble. (5)
TIPPING FEE
1. A fee, usually dollars per ton, for the
unloading or dumping of waste at a landfill,
transfer station, recycling center, or waste-
to-energy facility (7). 2. The charge for
processing trash or solid waste at an
incinerator or sanitary landfill. This is
usually done on a weight basis but can
also be on a volume or worst case basis.
TIPPING FLOOR
unloading area for vehicles that are delivering
municipal solid waste to a transfer
station or municipal waste combustion
facility. (7)

TOPSOIL
the topmost layer of soii; usually refers to
soil that contains humus and is capable of
supporting plant growth. (1)
TPD abbreviation for "Tons Per Day", usually
referring to the capacity of a paper mill,
refuse processing plant, landfill. etc. See
also; 'Tons Per Week" (TPW) and "Tons
Per Year (TPY). (1)
TRACE QUANTITIES
usually, parts per million (PPM). One PPM
is equivalent to one milligram per liter.
TRANSFER STATION
a permanent place where waste materials
are taken from smaller collection vehicles
and placed in larger vehicles for transport,
including truck trailers, rallroad cars, or
barges. Recycling and some processing
may also take place at transfer stations. (7)
TRASH
generic term encompassing waste in
general. Material considered worthless,
unnecessary or offensive that is usually
thrown away. Generally defined as dry
waste material, but in common usage it Is
a synonym for .garbage, rubbish, or refuse.
(7)
TUB GRINDER
machine to grind or chip wood wastes for
mulching, composting or size reduction. (7)
USABLES
secondary materials trade term meaning
those items recovered from discards that
are saiabie in their existing form as
second-hand goods. (I) Examples are reusable
boxes, wood crates, pallets, etc.
VARIABLE CONTAINER RATE
a charge for solid waste services based on
the volume of waste generated measured
by the number of containers set out for collection.
(7)
VIOLATION
~-daviation from or noncompliance to speci-
fled requirements .
VIRGIN MATERIALS
materials derived from substances mined,
grown, or extracted from water or the
atmosphere. (Virgin materials as juxtaposed
to secondary materials.) (?)
VOLUME REDUCTION PLANT
includes, but is not limited to, incinerators,
pulverizers. compactors. shredding and
baling plants, transfer stations, composting
plants, and other plants which accept and
process solid waste for recycling or dls-
posal. (4)
VOLUME REDUCTION
the processing of waste materials so as to
decrease the amount of space the mate-
rials occupy, usually by compacting or
shredding (mechanical), incineration
(thermal), or composting (biological). (7)
WASTE EXCHANGE
a computer and catalog network that redirects
waste materials back into the manufacturing
or reuse process by matching
companies generating specific wastes with
companies that use those wastes as manufacturing
inputs. (7)
WASTE PROCESSING
an operation such as shredding, compaction,
composting or incineration, in
which the physical or chemical properties
of wastes are changed. (1)
WASTE REDUCTION
reducing the amount or type of waste generated.
Sometimes used synonymously
with Source Reduction. (7)
WASTE STREAM
a term describing the total flow of solid
waste from homes, businesses, institutions
and manufacturing plants that must be
recycled, burned, or disposed of in landfills:
or any segment thereof, such as the
"residential waste stream" or the
"recyclable waste stream." (7)
WASTES
useless, unwanted or discarded materials
resulting from natural community activities.
Wastes include solids, liquids, and gases
Solid wastes are classed as refuse. (ALT -
The term in the secondary materials
industry is used to differentiate between
virgin materials and secondary materials,
as in the phrase "waste paper" The word
IS used in this sense as a substitute for
words like: secondary, scrap or junk. Some
apply the term to materials in the process
of being made acceptable for industrial
consumption. Thus, paper may be waste
paper as recovered, but becomes paper
Appendix B. Glossary of Terms 103

stock when it has been graded and baled
for shipment to a paper mill.) (1) Note: see
also specific types of waste such as: bulky
waste, construction and demolition waste,
hazardous waste, special waste, and yard
waste.
WATER TABLE
level below the earth's surface at which the
ground becomes saturated with water.
Landfills and composting facilities are
designed with respect to the water table in
order to minimize potential contamination.
(7)
WATER-BORNE INKS, COATINGS
coatings which contain substantial amounts
of water with up to 80 percent of the volatiles
being water. The polymers used to
make the solids component can be dissolved,
dispersed or emulsified. In industrial
water-borne coatings, the formulations
commonly contain 40 to 50 percent water,
10 percent organic solvents and 40 to 50
percent solids.
WATERWALL INCINERATOR
Waste combustion facility utilizing lined
steel tubes filled with circulating water to
cool the combustion chamber. Heat from
the combustion gases is transferred to the
water. The resultant steam is sold or used
to generate electricity. (7)
104 Environmental Packaaina Guidelines
WET SCRUBBER
anti-pollution device in which a lime slurry
(dry lime mixed with water) is injected into
the flue gas stream to remove acid gases
and particulates. (7)
WETLAND
area that is regularly wet or flooded and
has a water table that stands at or above
the land surface for at least part of the
year. Coastal wetlands extend back from
estuaries and include salt marshes, tidal
basins, marshes, and mangrove swamps.
Inland freshwater wetlands consist of
swamps, marshes, and bogs. Federal regulations
apply to landfills sited at or near
wetlands. (7)
WHITE GOODS
inoperative and discarded refrigerators,
ranges, water heaters, freezers, and other
similar domestic and commercial large
appliances. (4)
WINDROW
a large, elongated pile of cornposting material.
(7)
YARD WASTE
leaves, grass clippings, prunings. and other
natural organic matter discarded from
yards and gardens. Yard wastes may also
include stumps and brush, but these materials
are not normally handled at
cornposting facilities (7)

Table 12. Lislina of Resources bw Reference Number
Reference
Number'
1
2
3
4
5
Reference Document
Thesaurus on Resource Recovery
Terminology
H.I. Hollander, Editor
ASTM STP 832
Militaly Handbook 742
Waste Disposal Methods For Miiitary
Packaging Materials
United States Government Printing Office
"Specifications for Furnishing
Corrugated Containers and Mailing
Boards for the Government Printing
Ofnce for the Six Months Beginning
July I. 1989"
Chapter 88-130, Committee Substitute
for Senate Bill No. 1192
State of Florida
ASTM X-95-1-3 (Committee D-20 on Piastics)
"Guide for the Development of
Standards Relating to the Proper Use
of Recycled Piastics."
CONEG Source Reduction Task Force;
6 Packaging Standards Committee;
Quantification Sub-Committee
7
Footnotes:
United States Environmental Protection Agency
"Decisions-Makers Guide To Solid Waste Management"
EPA/S30SW-89-072
I. Where no reference number is listed, the definition has been modified to
meet the requirements of specific packaging references.
Appendix E. Glossary 01 Terms to5