The effects of road pricing - Feweb - Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam

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members of my promotion committee for their time and useful comments and suggestions. I also owe a lot to the people who always thought I was on holiday when I went to serious conferences and other project meetings abroad. The fun during the days-off has been very important to free my mind and think about completely other things. At last, it is possible to show them my ‘book’ which is actually the proof that I have been doing ‘something’. It also proves my point at the numerous discussions about congestion and road pricing: it can be effective. But indeed, my friends made me aware of the fact that acceptance is something else. Nevertheless, I would like to thank them for their friendship and support. Their encouragement was there in good and in bad times. I hope that my paranymphs Edwin and Olaf enjoy the official part of my defence, indeed it looks like carnaval but in this case it is somewhat more serious! Werner, sorry for all the squash lessons, but it was really a good way to forget the daily econometrics. Thanks also to Peter for his interest in my work, and the fun we had during our winter sports activities. For the rest of the long evenings and late nights, I would like to mention Johan, Mario, Richard, Frank, Marc, Peter and the rest of the (party) crew, their girlfriends, and the soccer teams of both Monnickendam and Volendam. Last, but not least, I would like to thank my parents for their love and continuous support over the last 31 years. They were always there when I needed them. They never complained about me writing a thesis, but I wouldn’t do so either when your son invites you to travel to destinations such as Santa Barbara and Porto. Hope you enjoyed the previous time as much as I did! Barry Monnickendam, June, 2006 ii
CHAPTER 1.....................................................................................................................1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................1 1.1 Transport...........................................................................................................1 1.2 Transport pricing ..............................................................................................2 1.3 Aims and scope of the study ..............................................................................3 1.4 Structure of the study.........................................................................................4 CHAPTER 2.....................................................................................................................9 THE ECONOMICS OF TRANSPORT PRICING.........................................................................9 2.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................9 2.2 Transport pricing ............................................................................................10 2.3 Economic efficiency and equity in pricing ......................................................11 2.4 Deviations from first-best pricing ...................................................................16 2.5 Second-best pricing issues...............................................................................25 2.6 Conclusions .....................................................................................................28 PART I: BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSES TO TRANSPORT PRICING ................31 CHAPTER 3...................................................................................................................33 BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSES TO ROAD PRICING ................................................................33 3.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................33 3.2 The price of car use and behavioural response ..............................................34 3.3 Behavioural responses in theoretical and empirical models ..........................35 3.3.1 Trip suppression............................................................................................................................. 36 3.3.2 Departure time choice .................................................................................................................... 36 3.3.3 Route choice behaviour.................................................................................................................. 37 3.3.4 Modal split choice.......................................................................................................................... 37 3.3.5 Vehicle occupancy ......................................................................................................................... 38 3.3.6 Location choices ............................................................................................................................ 38 3.3.7 Driving behaviour (speed choice) .................................................................................................. 39 3.3.8 Vehicle ownership.......................................................................................................................... 39 3.3.9 Technology choice ......................................................................................................................... 39 3.3.10 Variabilisation................................................................................................................................ 40 3.4 Behavioural responses: empirical findings.....................................................42 3.4.1 Elasticities...................................................................................................................................... 42 3.4.2 Results from some practical experiences worldwide...................................................................... 48 3.4.3 Overview........................................................................................................................................ 50 3.5 Behavioural responses to road pricing: comparison of psychological and economic perspectives.....................................................................................51 3.5.1 Results from psychology................................................................................................................ 51 3.5.2 Comparison with economic findings.............................................................................................. 54 3.6 Conclusions .....................................................................................................55 CHAPTER 4...................................................................................................................57 VALUING TIME, SCHEDULING, AND UNCERTAINTY: ESTIMATIONS FROM DISCRETE CHOICE MODELLING ...................................................................................................................57 4.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................57 4.2 Data sources and survey description ..............................................................58 4.2.1 Data collection ............................................................................................................................... 58 4.2.2 Survey ............................................................................................................................................ 58 4.3 Analysis of interval estimates..........................................................................61 4.3.1 How to derive interval estimates.................................................................................................... 61 4.3.2 Results and statistical analysis ....................................................................................................... 62 iii
Page 1 and 2: Road Pricing Effectiveness, Accepta
Page 3 and 4: VRIJE UNIVERSITEIT Road Pricing Eff
Page 5: Acknowledgements This dissertation
Page 9 and 10: CHAPTER 7..........................
Page 11 and 12: Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Transpor
Page 13 and 14: pricing regimes. But it is also rel
Page 15 and 16: analyses the welfare consequences o
Page 19 and 20: Chapter 2 The economics of transpor
Page 21 and 22: (distortive) taxes. This, in turn,
Page 23 and 24: Figure 2.1: Welfare maximisation in
Page 25 and 26: The public finance and tax literatu
Page 27 and 28: set the other prices exactly equal
Page 29 and 30: It should be emphasised that optima
Page 31 and 32: Figure 2.3: The economics of road p
Page 33 and 34: contribute to the cost of that faci
Page 35 and 36: equals QM (PM- CM). Under perfect c
Page 37 and 38: which various costs or constraints
Page 39: addresses a range of complexities t
Page 43 and 44: Chapter 3 Behavioural responses to
Page 45 and 46: • changes in modal split; • cha
Page 47 and 48: greater efficiency gains than unifo
Page 49 and 50: pricing are quite small when compar
Page 51 and 52: charges in this latter scenario ind
Page 53 and 54: • Recent studies; • Both long-t
Page 55 and 56: Geurs and van Wee (1997) report the
Page 57 and 58:
Parking price elasticities Parking
Page 59 and 60:
day choices of commuters as well as
Page 61 and 62:
clear description of the dependent
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considered). Even if (dis)advantage
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the extent to which the important v
Page 67 and 68:
Chapter 4 Valuing time, scheduling,
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attracts younger people and respond
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4.3 Analysis of interval estimates
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later, 0.75 versus 0.25. These prob
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maximisation theory assumes that an
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defined two utility expressions: on
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standard deviation of travel time i
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Table 4.10: Monetary values implied
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the previously mentioned 2004 value
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Appendix 4B Example of one screen (
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Appendix 4D Estimation results of s
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Appendix 4F Explanation and populat
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focus is first on the short-term re
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− Travel at other times (only whe
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Table 5.3: Effectiveness related to
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Table 5.6: Aggregated outcomes of b
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There are considerable differences
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5.4.2 Results for measure 1: a kilo
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egularly experience congestion more
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1.3% (MRB only) to 4.6% (MRB and BP
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differentiated according to weight.
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Table 5.14: Results of ordered prob
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younger people and households ownin
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Appendix 5B Explanation and populat
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Measure Measure 3A Measure 3B Measu
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Chapter 6 Auctioning concessions fo
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Financial regulation can take sever
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various circumstances (such as a mi
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Total welfare (W) is now equal to t
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Figure 6.1: Combination of toll and
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emains performing well. The declini
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Omega 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -3.5 -3 -
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subsidies, which would punish or re
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Appendix 6A List of Symbols N Total
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Appendix 6C Description of the Lagr
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Appendix 6D Derivation of first-ord
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Rewriting (14) we find an expressio
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and presents the simulation results
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These side effects are often ignore
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centre of a city. It is assumed tha
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epresent a realistic situation. Bef
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various iso-surplus functions. Fina
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Cap1 (city) 1100 1075 1050 1025 100
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difference between both second-best
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consideration. Therefore, we simply
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Appendix 7A List of Symbols N Total
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∂L ∂λ R1 ∂L ∂λ R2 = c 1 =
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∂D ⎛ ⎞ C ∂D ⎜ R1 ∂DR 2
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Appendix 7C Numerical results The f
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Chapter 8 Acceptance of road pricin
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a technology that would, in princip
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8.3.1 Acceptability and the impleme
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price measures. The authors find no
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implementation, and an already adeq
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are likely to play a role in enlarg
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ecovery. This may make it very diff
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The second dividend results from th
Page 185:
common, but nevertheless sometimes
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include the value of schedule delay
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(lower fuel taxes) have higher acce
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Table 9.2: Results of ordered probi
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Page 196 and 197:
Page 198 and 199:
e expected, respondents who are not
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The mean level of acceptance for al
Page 202 and 203:
Page 204 and 205:
abolition of purchase taxation (inc
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and 2A, both time-differentiated me
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Most of our findings for the import
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Appendix 9B Description of first se
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Appendix 9D Ordered probit analysis
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Appendix 9E Explanation and populat
Page 217 and 218:
Chapter 10 Synthesis 10.1 Overview
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The second institutional issue of i
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tolling scheme to be applied. Aucti
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References Aarts, H., 1996. Habits
Page 225 and 226:
CUPID, 2000, State of the Art - Fre
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Guiliano, G., 1993, An Assessment o
Page 229 and 230:
MC-ICAM, 2002, Relevant Optima and
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Schade, J., 2003, European Research
Page 233 and 234:
Tsai, J-F, and C-P Chu, 2003, The A
Page 235 and 236:
Yang, H. and X. Zhang, 2002, Determ
Page 237 and 238:
analyseert de mate van acceptatie v
Page 239 and 240:
Institutionele aspecten Efficiënte
Page 241 and 242:
niet zozeer op het gebruik (afgezie
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