Educational Psychology Third Edition Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary ...

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This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License or who belongs to a cultural community that uses patterns of conversation that are unfamiliar to the teacher, or who has a disability that limits the student’s general language skill. In these cases discerning the student’s inner motivations may take more time and effort. It is important to invest the extra time and effort for such students, but while a teacher is doing so, it is also important for her to guide and influence the students’ behavior in constructive directions. That is where behaviorist approaches to motivation can help. Operant conditioning as a way of motivating The most common version of the behavioral perspective on motivation is the theory of operant conditioning associated with B. F. Skinner (1938, 1957), which we discussed in Chapter 1 (“Learning process”). The description in that chapter focused on behavioral learning, but the same operant model can be transformed into an account of motivation. In the operant model, you may recall, a behavior being learned (the “operant”) increases in frequency or likelihood because performing it makes a reinforcement available. To understand this model in terms of motivation, think of the likelihood of response as the motivation and the reinforcement as the motivator. Imagine, for example, that a student learns by operant conditioning to answer questions during class discussions: each time the student answers a question (the operant), the teacher praises (reinforces) this behavior. In addition to thinking of this situation as behavioral learning, however, you can also think of it in terms of motivation: the likelihood of the student answering questions (the motivation) is increasing because of the teacher’s praise (the motivator). Many concepts from operant conditioning, in fact, can be understood in motivational terms. Another one, for example, is the concept of extinction, which we defined in Chapter 1 as the tendency for learned behaviors to become less likely when reinforcement no longer occurs—a sort of “unlearning”, or at least a decrease in performance of previously learned. The decrease in performance frequency can be thought of as a loss of motivation, and removal of the reinforcement can be thought of as removal of the motivator. Table 13 summarizes this way of reframing operant conditioning in terms of motivation, both for the concepts discussed in Chapter 1 and for other additional concepts. Table 13: Operant conditioning as learning and as motivation Concept Definition phrased in terms of learning Operant Behavior that becomes more likely because of reinforcement Reinforcement Stimulus that increases likelihood of a behavior Positive reinforcement Stimulus that increases likelihood of a behavior by being introduced or added to a situation Negative reinforcement Stimulus that increases the likelihood of a behavior Definition phrased in terms of motivation Behavior that suggests an increase in motivation Classroom example Student listens to teacher’s comments during lecture or discussion Stimulus that motivates Teacher praises student Stimulus that motivates by its presence; an “incentive” Stimulus that motivates by its absence or for listening Teacher makes encouraging remarks about student’s homework Teacher stops nagging student about late Style Guidelines 108 A Global Text
6. Student motivation by being removed or taken away from a situation Punishment Stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a behavior by being introduced or added to a situation Extinction Removal of Shaping successive approximations Continuous reinforcement Intermittent reinforcement reinforcement for a behavior Reinforcements for behaviors that gradually resemble (approximate) a final goal behavior Reinforcement that occurs each time that an operant behavior occurs Reinforcement that sometimes occurs following an operant behavior, but not on every occasion avoidance homework Stimulus that decreases motivation by its presence Removal of motivating stimulus that leads to decrease in motivation Stimuli that gradually shift motivation toward a final goal motivation Motivator that occurs each time that a behavioral sign of motivation occurs Motivator that occurs sometimes when a behavioral sign of motivation occurs, but not on every occasion Cautions about behavioral perspectives on motivation Teacher deducts points for late homework Teacher stops commenting altogether about student’s homework Teacher praises student for returning homework a bit closer to the deadline; gradually she praises for actually being on time Teacher praises highly active student for every time he works for five minutes without interruption Teacher praises highly active student sometimes when he works without interruption, but not every As we mentioned, behaviorist perspectives about motivation do reflect a classroom reality: that teachers sometimes lack time and therefore must focus simply on students’ appropriate outward behavior. But there are nonetheless cautions about adopting this view. An obvious one is the ambiguity of students’ specific behaviors; what looks like a sign of one motive to the teacher may in fact be a sign of some other motive to the student (DeGrandpre, 2000). If a student looks at the teacher intently while she is speaking, does it mean the student is motivated to learn, or only that the student is daydreaming? If a student invariably looks away while the teacher is speaking, does it mean that the student is disrespectful of the teacher, or that student comes from a family or cultural group where avoiding eye contact actually shows more respect for a speaker than direct eye contact? Another concern about behaviorist perspectives, including operant conditioning, is that it leads teachers to ignore students’ choices and preferences, and to “play God” by making choices on their behalf (Kohn, 1996). 109 time
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Educational Psychology
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Preface Contents of the book Chapte
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1. The changing teaching profession
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Independent practice This book is l
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Cultural and individual differences
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