The 2nd International Olympic Games in Athens 1906.

THE 2 ND INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC GAMES
IN ATHENS 1906
By Karl Lennartz*
Preliminary Remarks
For some years now the question of “recognition” of the 2 nd
International Olympic Games in Athens, falsely named
“Intermediate Games”, has been discussed in circles of
Olympic historians. In terms of source critics, as is mentioned
below, it has been proved that at the time this event was
regarded as a regular Olympic Games by the IOC and its
president, Baron Pierre de COUBERTIN on the one hand and
on the other by the organisers, participants and the entire
public. COUBERTIN who argued against a second series of
international Olympic Games did everything later on to rob
the Games in Athens of their equality status and to discredit
them as Intermediate Games. The in general ensuing
Olympic historiography uncritically adopted his account.
When the IOC member, the Hungarian historian Ferenc
MEZÖ proposed a motion at the 41 st session 1948 in London
to recognise the event in Athens 1906 as ”IIIb Olympic Games”
the assembly transferred the appeal to the so-called Brundage
Commission. 1 The committee with its members BRUNDAGE,
Sidney DAWES (CAN) and Miguel Angel MOENCK (CUB)
met in January 1949 in New Orleans’ and came - without
examining the sources - to the conclusion that it would not
be advantageous to recognise the Games as Olympic ones.
Accordingly the item on the agenda concerning the
“Acceptance of the Intermediate Games 1906” was officially
“rejected” in the 42 nd session 1949 in Rome.’
Rejection by the Brundage Commission:
”The position of the 1906 Olympic Games.
It is not considered that any special recognition that the IOC might
give to participants in theses Games at this late date would add
any prestige, and the danger of establishing an embarrassing precedent
would more than offset any advantage.”
This opinion has not altered within the IOC or any of its
institutions. In official writings and publications these Games
are still ”overlooked” 4 . This leads to the question whether
an organisation like the IOC can reach a decision on whether
and when Olympic Games have been held. Must this not be
left to experts? If historians have clear proof and there are
not any serious objections should not the IOC be happy when
a problem is taken of its shoulders and it is not continuously
confronted with the question whether the event of 1906 was
not the Games of an Olympiad but Olympic Games within
an Olympiad respectively the Second International Olympic
Games in Athens. This is to be proved again in the following
with the help of the sources available.
Olympic Games only in Athens in
Future!
During the so successful First Olympic Games the Greek
hosts developed the plan to permanently hold the Games in
Athens. At a reception on April 12, 1896 King GEORGE I.
expressed the hope that his country would be nominated the
”permanent and continuous arena of the Olympic Games.” 5
* For the translation I owe a debt of gratitude to Gerard KING, to Tony BIJKERK for proofing the draft and Anne DÖRR for making
corrections.
1 »Dr. Mezö [...] propose en outre que les Jeux intermédiaires de 1906 soient considérés comme Jeux Officiels, et qu’ils soient numérotés par IIIb.»
(Minutes of the IOC session London 1948, p. 15).
2 MEZÖ and other members of the committee were not present.
3 «Reconnaissance des Jeux intermédiaires de 1906 à Athènes. - Rejeté» (Minutes of the IOC session Rome 1949, p. 1. Brundage Commission
Report, p. 2 [IOC Archive]).
4 The three-volume festschrift The International Olympic Committee – One Hundred Years published by the IOC member Raymond GAFNER
is an exception because the “International Olympic Games” in Athens were named in his statistical listing of all Games (Volume 2,
Lausanne 1995, p. 212). Yves-Pierre BOULONGNE proceeded similarly with his examination of the sessions and the Games 1906
in Athens (Volume 1, Lausanne 1995, p. 98-99, 125-127). The matter becomes embarrassing when the Olympic Museum continuously
shows photos of the Games 1906 and dates these with 1896 or when in the highly informative marathon-exhibition team medals of
1906 are presented as trophies from 1896. With the help of the author the photo collection has meanwhile been able to separate the
photos from 1896 and 1906. In the museum’s library the books on the 1906 Games take up the same amount of room as those of 1896.
5 Die Olympischen Spiele. 776 v. Chr. – 1896 n. Chr. - The Olympic Games. 777 B.C. – A. D. 1896, Vol. 2, POLITIS, N. G. / ANNINOS,
Charalambos, Die Olympischen Spiele im Jabre 1896 - The Olympic Games in 1896, Athens/London 1897, p. 107.
10 ◆ JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY ◆ VOLUME 10 ◆ DECEMBER 2001/JANUARY 2002

The speech of GEORGE I. At his reception of the participants
of the Games (excerpt):
“‘Greece, who has been the mother and nurse of the Olympic Games
in ancient times and who bad undertaken to celebrate them once
more today, can now hope, as their success has gone beyond all expectations,
that the foreigners, who have honoured her with their
presence, will remember Athens as the peaceful meeting place of all
nations, as the tranquil and permanent seat of the Olympic Games.‘
[...]
The King’s speech made a very favourable impression on the public
at large, particularly because he had brought forward in both his
toasts [in French and in Greece, remark of the author] the wish
that Athens might become the permanent seat of the Olympic
Games.”
conviction that these games should never be removed from their
native soil.
John Graham, W. Welles Hoyt, Ellery H. Clark, James B. Connolly
Gardner B. Williams, Thomas P. Curtis, Thomas E. Burke, Arthur
Blake, Robert Garrett, Jr., Albert C. Tyler, Francis A. Lane, H.
B. Jamison.
We, the undersigned, citizens of the United States, who have been
present at the Games, heartily concur in the foregoing.
Eben Alexander, Charles S. Fairchild, Gifford Dyer, Benj. Ide
Wheeler, George Dana Lloyd, T. W. Heeremance, Eugen P.
Andrews, Joseph Clark Hoppin, Corwin Knapp Linson.”
[The signatures of the brothers John and Sumner PAINE,
the coach Edward TURNER and Charles WALDSTEIN are
missing.]
These ambitions were supported by a draft law of the Greek
cabinet” and especially by the American team, which
approached the crown prince in form of a letter which was
also printed in the New York Times. 7
COUBERTIN’S judgement of the Greek draft law:
“Shortly after my departure from Athens the Prime Minister
Delyannis brought in a draft law in order to secure further development
of sport in Greece and to organise the event of the Olympic
Games in Athens’ stadium. This draft law did not consider at all
how the revival of the Games bad occurred and under which conditions
the Games bad been prepared.”
Declaration of the American participants:
“Athens, 14. April 1896
To His Royal Highness, Constantine, Crown Prince of Greece.
We, the American participants in the International Olympic Games
If Athens, wish to express to you, and through you to the Committee
and to the people of Greece, our heartfelt appreciation of the
great kindness and warm hospitality of which we have continually
been the recipients during our stay here.
We also desire to express our entire satisfaction with all the arrangements
for the conduct of the games.
The existence of the stadium as a structure so uniquely adapted to
its purpose; the proved ability of Greece to competently administer
the games; and above all, the fact that Greece is the original home
of the Olympic Games; all these considerations force upon us the
COUBERTIN had to argue against such a change since his idea
was based on the Olympic Games being held at different places
in the capitals and the cultural centres of the world: 1900 Paris,
1904 city in the new world, 1908 Rome etc. Meanwhile he had
in accordance with the expectations of the Congress of Paris
of 1894 their agreement being supported by the Session of
Athens representing the next host country, taken over the
presidency of the then called International Committee. This
ruling would have lost its right to exist with Olympic Games
only being held in Athens. For both – COUBERTIN and the
Greeks – and to save face COUBERTIN, and later some IOC
members of which some were present in Athens – Dimetrios
VIKELAS, Ferenc KEMÉNY, Willibald GEBHARDT – made some
new proposals: Games held every two years in Athens and in
the international capitals (see below). COUBERTIN - possibly
seemingly - accepted the king’s proposal partly, when he paid
parting visits to both Crown Prince Constantine and the King
respectively and wrote them a letter of appreciation. He
proposed to both parties to organise ”Panhellenic Games” in
Athens in between the international Olympiads. 8
RICHARDSON’S report on the Olympic Games 1896 (excerpt):
”In a semicircle conference with the Crown Prince he proposed what
he wished to have regarded as a compliance with the general desire:
that Athens should have its quadrennial games, and that foreign
athletes should be invited to take part in them; but that these games
should be called the ‘Athenaia’ as a more suitable name, and that
they should take place in 1898, 1902, and so on.”
6
»Peu après mon départ d’Athènes, un projet de loi avait été déposé par le premier ministre, M. Delyanni, dans le but d’assurer le développement de
l’athléisme en Grèce et de régler la célébration des Jeux Olympiques dans le stade athénien. Ce projet de loi ne tenait aucun compte de l’origine du
rétablissement des Jeux et des conditions dans lesquelles ce rétablissement s’était opéré« COUBERTIN, Pierre de, Une campagne de vingt-et-un
ans, Paris 1909, p. 129).
7
Later in the year also printed in: RICHARDSON, Rufus, ”The New Olympian Games”, in: Scribner’s Magazine 20(1896)3, p. 284.
Also in German: MALLON, Bill, ”Das erfolgreiche Team, die Amerikaner” in: LENNARTZ, Karl (ed.), Erläuterungen zum Neudruck
des Offiziellen Berichtes, Kassel 1996. p. 91.
8
»Enfin dans un long entretien avec son Altesse Royale le prince héritier, j’exposai mes raisons de persévérer et suggérai l’établissement de concours panhelléniques
qui s’intercaleraient entre la série des Olympiades internationales. Le prince avait déjà eu cette pensée et il se montra très partisan d’une
semblable solution.« (COUBERTIN, Campagne, p. 128. compare COUBERTIN, Pierre de, Mémoires Olympiques, Lausanne 1979, p. 24-25).
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY ◆ VOLUME 10 ◆ DECEMBER 2001/JANUARY 2002 ◆ 11

Rufus B. RICHARDSON, the head of the American School of
Classical Studies near Athens already mentions – quasi as the
first historian – this process in the April issue of Scribner’s
Magazine. For him ”the air was full” of the idea of the
permanent hosting formulated by the king. RICHARDSON who
also printed the letter of the Americans reports on
COUBERTIN’S proposal to the crown prince according to which
foreign athletes were to be invited to these Games that
RICHARDSON interestingly named ”Athenaia”. 9
COUBERTIN’S letter to the editor from May 28, 1896 printed
in the London Times (excerpt):
”An article printed in Athens and doubtlessly written by an enthusiastic
Philhellenic has informed the European press of the news
that the Olympic Games are to be held solely in Athens in future.
This is not true. [...] It is very natural that the important victory
we have just gained with our enterprise has inspired the Hellenic
world to monopolise the Games in their favour.”
On April 14, 1896 COUBERTIN bitterly complained in a letter
to VIKELAS about that he as the true renewer of the Olympic
Games had not been honoured sufficiently and even been
criticised. On April 23, he sent a letter to the editor of the
London Times 10 deftly arguing against Olympic Games
permanently held in Athens, which letter was published on
April 30. 11
VIKELAs to COUBERTIN on May 19, 1896 (excerpt):
”The Games which were called into life at the Congress of Paris
distinguish themselves from the Games of Athens in being called
international and taking place in different cities. And yet it seems
to me that both sides would gain by uniting the two series in order
to make one and also give the Games of Athens the name of
international Olympic Games. Thus Olympic Games could be
celebrated every two years alternately in Athens and in an
important European and American city.”
Due to this letter the article in the Times and the attacks in the
Greek press which insulted VIKELAS as cosmopolitan who had
done too little for Greek national feeling VIKELAS formulated a
detailed writing of justification to the new IOC president
COUBERTIN. He stated that he first sent this letter to COUBERTIN
and then also as a circular to all IOC members thus saving
COUBERTIN some work. This was tactically clever since VIKELAS
could be sure that all his colleagues in the IOC would be
informed. VIKELAS reported on the draft law of the Greek
government to hold Olympic Games in between the
International Olympic Games, which the Congress of Paris
had decided upon. He compared them to the ancient Pythian
Games which were also organised in the middle of an
Olympiad. He then proposed two series of international
Olympic Games alternately every two years in Athens and in
European or American capitals. The IOC members were to
inform COUBERTIN on their views on this issue. The according
decisions could be reached at a Second Olympic Congress.”
VIKELAS to COUBERTIN on May 19, 1896 (excerpt):
”The Games ,which were called into life at the Congress of Paris
distinguish themselves from the Games of Athens in being called
international and taking place in different cities. And yet it seems
to me that both sides would gain by uniting the two series in order
to make one and also give the Games of Athens the name of
international Olympic Games. Thus Olympic Games could be
celebrated every two years alternately in Athens and in an
important European and American city.”
KEMÉNY joined VIKELAS proposal. In his report on the Games
he pointed out that he had already expressed this proposal at
the IOC session during the Games in Athens.”
KEMÉNY report on the Olympic Games 1896 (excerpt):
“An impartial, acceptable and for both parties advantageous solution
bus to be in accordance with the modern needs thus enforcing a
classical Olympics with the years 1898, 1902 etc. next to the alternately
hosted international Olympics for 1900, 1904 etc.; the former
in Athens and the latter for in the other world capitals. With the
interval of four years being enough in ancient times the two-year
breaks will not be to many.*
* This idea originally proposed by the abstractor and occasionally
at the Comité sessions in Athens was retroactively worked out meritoriously
by the former president D. Bikelus and recommended to
the Comité to be accepted.”
9 RICHARDSON, ”Games”, p. 282-286.
10 Similar letters were sent to the New York Times and the Messager d’Athènes, compare YOUNG, David, The Modern Olympics. A Struggle
for Revival, Baltimore 1996, p. 223.
11 »Une dépêche lancée d’Athènes et rédigée sans doute par un philhellène enthousiaste a porté à la connaisssance de la presse Européenne la nouvelle que les
Jeux Olympiques étaient désormais fixés en Grère. Il n’en est rien. [...] Il est tout naturel que l’éclatant sucées que notre entreprise vient de remporter
ait inspiré aux Hellènes le désir de la monopoliser à leur profit» (IOC Archive).
12 »Ils seront distingués de ceux relevant du Congrès de Paris, par le fait que ces derniers seront intitulés Internationaux et que leur série restera distincte.
Cependant, il me semble qu’il y aurait, des deux côtés, avantage à réunir les deux séries, pour n’en faire qu’une seule, en accordant aux concours
d’Athènes le nom de ‘Jeux Olympiques Internationaux’. Les Jeux pouraient ainsi être célébrés tous les deux ans : une fois à Athènes et l’autre fois,
alternativement, dans une des principales villes d’Europe ou d’Amérique» (underlinings by VIKELAS, from: MORBACH, Andreas, Dimítrios
Vikélas. Patriotischer Literat und Kosmopolit. Wüzburg 1998, p. 240-241). Printed as facsimile and by translation into German (by
Mirjam GASSE) in: HÖFER, Andreas, ”Der Hellas-Plan. Die ldee einer ständigen Ausrichtung der Olympischen Spiele in Griechenland”,
in: LENNARTZ, Erläuterungen, p. 68. Also compare COUBERTIN, Campagne, p. 129-130.
13 KEMENY, Franz. “Die Bedeutung der olympischen Spiele für die körperliche Erziehung der Jugend”, in: Zeitschrift für das Realschulwesen
12( 1896) 3/4, p.20.
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On the other hand according to Jiri GUTH, VIKELAS was the
sole initiator of the motion in the committee to ”found new
Games in Athens taking place every four years from 1896 onwards
next to the Jeux Olympiques internationaux des Congresses. These
would not bear the name but would have an international character
and nature.” Then a reference to the various local ancient
Games follows. 14
VIKELAS’ offer was now taken up by GEBHARDT. On June 9 he
wrote to COUBERTIN and asked for the holding of this Olympic
congress in Berlin in the first half of September of the following
year. GEBHARDT also claims that he proposed two series of
Olympic Games during the session as would be confirmed by
the protocol which apparently had not yet been sent out. 15
GEBHAARDT to COUBERTIN on June 9, 1896 (excerpt):
”The protocol will show that I made the proposal for the Games to
be held after each two Olympics in Athens and to intermediately
host the same in a capital of a different country. Of course I am
pleased that this motion proposed then is to be given new life even if
in a slightly different form. This change to shorten the Olympic
period into two series was also not proposed as a formal motion and
accepted.”
The minutes of the session in Athens were published for the
first time in 1996 as a facsimile of COUBERTIN’S handwriting,
which he had formulated as secretary-general of the IOC and
which were transferred into printed letters and translated into
German. The topic of permanent hosting of the Games in
Athens was addressed in the last session on April 14. 1 6
Minutes of the session, April l4, 1896 (excerpt):
”After the exchanging of opinions between Mr. Gebhardt, Mr.
Coubertin and Jiri Guth it is unanimously declared that it is not
desirable for the Games to belong to just one country; furthermore
the committee has the task of enforcing the decision reached by the
Congress of Paris on this topic; it also does not have the power to
question this motion.”
COUBERTIN expresses himself very unclearly. For instance, he
does not report on what GEBHARDT and GUTH stated. While
the protocols of the previous sessions were each read out and
accepted the following day this ”control” was dispensed with
in the last session. This protocol was as GEBHARDT points out
not yet sent to the members. Was it ever sent?
Gebhardt requested Coubertin in his aforementioned letter
to supply him with a time indication for the Second Olympic
Congress. GEBHARDT wanted to combine this Second Olympic
Congress with German sport conference, which was already
being planned by him for some time. On June 22 COUBERTIN
assented to this proposal. This letter though has not been
preserved for posterity. The date and content can however be
deduced from GEBHARDT’S reply from August 18. 17 Following
COUBERTIN’S apparent promise GEBHARDT called for a German
sports day and a sport celebration and sent out invitations to
an assembly on June 29, which was to elect an organising
committee. 18 COUBERTIN himself saw the whole matter
completely different afterwards. ”Berlin, Stockholm and Paris”
19 were considered for hosting the congress but he could not
have dared to alone call together the International Committee
in ”the bright light of a large capital” 20 . That is why he opted for
the small harbour Le Havre in Normandy. He only
incidentally mentions GEBHARDT'S wish, which would also
have had the approval of VIKELAS, KEMÉNY and GUTH. 21 But
this can only mean that GEBHARDT had also contacted these
colleagues. In the letter mentioned above from August 18
GEBHARDT asked whether COUBERTIN had already invited the
IOC members and stated that the sport celebrations had been
scheduled from September 19-27. During this time the
congress could also take place. He then states slightly surprised
that he had received a telegram (from whom?), that COUBERTIN
had ”informed the town administration of Le Havre of holding the
congress there. What does this mean.?” 22 Actually COUBERTIN had
already asked the mayor of Le Havre on June 25 for using the
town hall for the congress.” The council of the town formally
accepted this request. 24 This obviously means that COUBERTIN
never seriously considered holding a congress in Berlin. The
argument of the ”bright light” was only a pretext because 1894
the founding congress also took place in a large city. Why did
COUBERTIN not want to go to Berlin? For one in Berlin there
was a real danger of the decision being reached to hold the
Games alternately in Athens and other cities. And secondly
he might have received the support of German sport leaders
but on the other hand difficulties might have arisen concerning
the Olympic Games 1900 in Paris. Plans had long been made
14 GUTH, Jiri, ”Die olympischen Spiele in Athen 1896”, in: Zeitschrift für das österreichische Gymnasium 11(1896). p. 974.
15 Carl-Diem-Institut (ed.), Dokumente zur Frügeschichte der Olympischen Spiele, treated by KOEBSEL, Volker, Köln 1971, p. 88.
16 »Après un échange de vues entre Messieurs Gebhardt, de Coubertin, Jiri Guth, il est reconnu unanimement qu’il n’est pas désirable que les Jeux
appartiennent exclusivement à un pays et que d’ailleurs, le Comité a pour mission d’exécuter sur ce point, la décision du Congrès de Paris et n’est point
libre d’y porter atteinte. En conséquence, il n’y a pas lieu de revenir sur le protocole adopté l’avant-veille » (GASSE, Mirjam, ”Die IOC-Session
1896 in Athen”, in: LENNARTZ, Erläuterungen, p. 53).
17 Carl-Diem-Institut, Dokumente, p. 89-90.
18 Sport im Bild 2(1896)26, p. 413.
19 COUBERTIN, Campagne, p. 133.
20 COUBERTIN, Mémoires, p. 27.
21
COUBERTIN, Mémoires, p. 27.
22 Carl-Diem-Institut, Dokumente, p. 89.
2 3 MÜLLER, Norbert, Von Paris bis Baden-Baden, Niedernhausen 1983, p. 35.
2 4
COUBERTIN, Campagne, p. 133-134.
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY ◆ VOLUME 10 ◆ DECEMBER 2001/JANUARY 2002 ◆ 13

there to hold sport events within the framework of the world
exhibition. The secretary-general of the world exhibition
Alfred PICARD knew of COUBERTIN’S intentions but did not
believe in his Olympic plans and had already been active in a
different direction. Therefore COUBERTIN tried to convince
the leaders of his government about his aims. This appeared
possible to him in Le Havre. Felix FAURE, the president of the
republic since 1895, lived there. COUBERTIN managed that the
congress was held under FAURE’S patronage and that he
received the participants in his house.
The uprising of the Christian population in Crete against the
ottoman troops in autumn 1896 and the ensuing war between
Greece and Turkey for the island resulting in a victory of
Turkey forced the Greek state to concentrate on other things
than the Olympic Games in Athens.
The 4 th IOC Session 1901 in Paris
However the “Greek plans” were again part of the agenda at
the IOC Session 1901. The three German IOC members
Prince Eduard zu SALM-HORSTMAR, Count Archambauld de
TALLEYRAND-PÉRIGORD and Willibald GEBHARDT had
proposed a written motion 25 to alternately hold the Olympic
Games every two years in Athens and other cities of the
civilised nations. 26
Motion proposed by the German IOC members:
”In 1902 a congress of our committee shall take place in Athens, at
which a precise program on the future Olympic Games – under special
consideration of the future Games in Athens – is to be determined.
Every two years international competitions take place alternately
in Athens and other large cities of the civilised countries so that the
Games will be held every 4 years in the Greek capital. In 1906 the
Second Olympic Games are to be held in Athens; the Third in 1910
etc. In 1904 the Games will be held in USA; Germany reserves the
right to host the Olympic Games in Berlin in 1908.”
In the handwritten protocol of the session by Godefroy de
BLONAY the motion and the decision are summarised only
incompletely and unclearly. 27
Minutes of the 4 th IOC session 1901 in Paris (excerpt):
”The German members propose via letter that a committee is to be
formed in 1902 in Athens, which shall decide that the international
Olympic Games in Athens will take place in between the Games
already in existence, and that secondly the Olympic Games 1908
shall be in Berlin. The president has the view that the Olympiads,
which are pure Hellenic, should be a national affair, which will not
be under the responsibility of the international committee. After
thorough deliberation and discussion the committee unanimously
formulated its decision.”
In COUBERTIN’S report on the IOC session in the Revue
Olympique the motion of the German members is also abridged
and furthermore the account is not quite correct. 28
COUBERTIN’S version of the German motion in the Revue
Olympique:
”The German representatives Prince Eduard von Salm-Horstmar,
Count Talleyrand-Périgord and Dr. W. Gebhardt proposed a motion
in three parts: 1) 1902 a congress be organised with the task to establish
final and compulsory regulations for the Olympic competitions; 2) the
Olympic Games 1908 be awarded to Berlin; 3) the creation of a second
series of Olympiads, to be held in Athens every four years, in between
the already established Olympiads, which will continue to be celebrated
in the principal cities all over the world.”
The parts describing that the program shall be established
according to the conditions in Athens, and that the Games
were planned there in 1906 and 1910 are missing. It becomes
clear by the manner of COUBERTIN’S account of the course of
the discussion 29 how little he favoured the motion. Already
five years earlier objections had been made concerning these
plans. He does not mention which these might have been.
The fact that the plan could not be accomplished for five
25 In the minutes it cannot clearly be seen whether or not the three German members did take part in the session.
26 The letter must have been handwritten by GEBHARDT. KOEBSEL is said to have examined it in the IOC archive in Lausanne (Carl-
Diem-Institut, Dokumente, p. 120). The author could not find it there however. The letter did exist though for it is mentioned in the
minutes of the session. Compare Revue Olympique l(July 1901)3, p.34-35.
27 «Les délégués d’Allemagne proposent par lettre qu’en 1902 un comité se réunira à Athènes, où il sera décidé que des Jeux olympiques internationaux
auront lieu à Athènes entre les Jeux jusqu’ici [illegible], et que en 1908 les Jeux olympiques aient lieu à Berlin.
Le Président fait observer que les olympiades purement Helléniques sont une chose nationale qui n’est pas du ressort du comité internationale.
Après réflexion et discussion, le comité formule sa décision de la façon suivante qui réunit tous les suffrages» (Minutes of the 4. IOC session, p. 8-
9 [IOC Archive]).
28 »Les délégués Allemands, le Prince Edouard de Salm-Horstmar, le comte de Talleyrand-Périgord et le D. W. Gebhardt ont présenté un triple vœu
tendant: 1° à l’organisation en 1902 d’un congrés chargé de rédiger un code définitif et obligatoire pour les concours olympiques. 2° à la désignation de
Berlin comme siège des Jeux olympique de 1908. 3° à la création d’une seconde série d’Olympiades qui auraient lieu à Athènes tous les quatre ans dans
l’intervalle des Olympiades précédemment créées, lesquelles continueraient d’être célébrées dans les principales villes du monde» (Revue Olympique
1[July 1901]3, p. 34-35).
29
Apparently he printed his entire reply:
«Appuyé, au nom de la Suède, par le lieutenant Bergh, le choix de Berlin est envisagé avec sympathie par le Comité qui décide d’en prendre acte, sans
toutefois juger possible de le rendre définitif si longtemps à l’avance. [...]
14 ◆ JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY ◆ VOLUME 10 ◆ DECEMBER 2001/JANUARY 2002

years shows that it would not be sensible for the IOC to take
the initiative. Games in Athens would have a national
character and therefore were not the responsibility of the
IOC. The Greek IOC member, Count Alexander MERKATI
thought that Games in Athens would have to be welcomed
by the IOC; the IOC was to support the Athens’ endeavours.
COUBERTIN cloaked MERKATIS’ words in a lot of ifs and
maybes: ”should the plan be realised”, ”if it came to pass” 30 .
In his report the sentence follows: ”All these decisions were reached
unanimously”. The impartial reader could refer this sentence to
the pleas made by MERKATI. In reality, the part concerning Athens
and proposed by the German IOC members, must have received
a negative voting. Changing the motion was never considered.
Considering the knowledge about the original of the motion, the
way in which the rendering of the motion was played down, the
discussion and the vote, and adding a statement in the book 21
Years of Sport Campaigning – ”then in 1901 the German members had
proposed [...]an identical motion 31 - [...] wben we accepted this motion” 32
- we should come to the conclusion: At the session 1901 in Paris
the IOC decided that the Olympic Games should take place every
two years, alternately in Athens and other cities.
COUBERTIN’S report on the discussion of the German
motion:
“Lieutenant Bergh supported the candidature of Berlin in the name
of Sweden and the committee was sympathetic towards this motion.
It decided to take notice of it. However, it expressed itself incapable of
committing itself definitely for such a long period in advance. [...]
The idea of the Olympic Games in Athens is not new. It was already
proposed by his royal highness the Duke of Sparta, later by the Greek
government and also within the iuternational committee by Mr. D.
Bikelas and always the same objections were raised. The fact that
circumstances over the past five years have already prevented Greece
in realising a plan, which was always near to their hearts, shows that
it would be a great imprudence of the committee, when would take
the initiative without being able to guarantee its continuation. Furthermore
such Games have rather a national than an international
character, and therefore cannot fall under the responsibility of the committee.
Since the committee has taken up the view that the Games of
Athens are in fact desirable, it decided, in accordance with the wish
expressed by Count Mercati (Greece) to offer its help to the Greek
authorities, thus securing the success of the Athens’ Olympiads should
they be realised. All these decisions were made unanimously.”
COUBERTIN’S reserved view concerning the regular Games in
Athens lead to harsh attacks against him in 1901 in the Greek
press. He tried to ”put the things right in a letter to the Messager
d’Athènes.” 33
He printed the letter in the 1902 January edition of the Revue
Olympique. 34 COUBERTIN described the decisions of the IOC
to organize the Games in Athens 1896, in Paris 1900, in
Chicago 1904 and also mentioned the Greek intentions from
1896 to hold Games in Athens on a regular basis. With not a
single word did he go into the decisions of the IOC from
1901 mentioned above and only vaguely mentioned of a
plan 35 , which could not be realised because of the war with
Turkey. In the leading article of this magazine in which he
dealt with the planned Congress of Brussels in 1903 he
correctly said that in order to realise the three decisions of
the Paris session the event would be taking place in Belgium.
But he was of the opinion that the IOC had no responsibility
whatsoever of realising the Games. This was the task of the
respective organisers of the Games. 36
COUBERTIN’S explanation for the Congress of Brussels (excerpt):
”The perception of this inevitable necessity resulted in the three
motions, formulated by America, Sweden and Germany. In order
to implement these motions, we had to decide organising the Congress
of Brussels. Immediately it must be made clear that we will not
take any responsibility for the implementation of the decisions.
Concerning this question as well as the organisation of the respective
Olympic Games our committee does not want to interfere with the
autonomy of the individual partners.”
Quant à l’idée de créer une seconde série de Jeux Olympiques à Athènes, elle n’est pas récente. Successivement émise par S.A.R. Mgr le duc de Sparte, par le
gouvernement Hellène et au sein du Comité international par M. D. Bikelas, elle soulève toujours les mêmes objections. Le fait que les circonstances ont, depuis cinq
ans, empêché la Grèce de mettre à exécution un projet qui lui tenait à cœur indique l’imprudence que commettrait le Comité en assumant une initiative dont il ne
serait pas en mesure d’assurer ensuite la réalisation; de plus, les Jeux ainsi créés revêtiraient le caractère d’une institution nationale plutôt qu’internationale et, par
conséquent, ne seraient pas du resort du Comité. Admettant, toutefois, l’intérêt d’une semblable fondation, le Comité décide, conformément au désir exprimé par le
comte Mercati (Grèce) de prêter, le cas échéant, aux autorités hellènes, son concours le plus chaleureux pour assurer le succès des Olympia&s athéniennes du jour où
elles viendraient à être fondées. Ces diverses décisions sont prises à l’unanimité des voix» (Revue Olympique 1[July 1901]3, p. 35).
30 Revue Olympique 1(July 1901)3, p. 35.
31
The same as VIKELAS, see above.
32 «L’année suivante, M. Bikelas avait repris et développé l’idée d’une entente à ce sujet; puis, en 1901, les membres allemands du Comité International
avaient émis en vœu analogue. Il ne nous avait pas été possible de paraître, en l’accueillant, empiéter sur les prérogatives du comité d’Athènes mais dès
lors le Comité International s’était engagé par un vote unanime « à prêter; le cas échéant, son concours le plus chaleureux pour assurer le succès des
olympiades athéniennes, du jour où elles viendraient à être fondées» (COUBERTIN, Campagne, p. 170-171).
33
COUBERTIN, Campagne, p. 170.
34
COUBERTIN, Pierre de, ”Une rectification nécessaire,” in: Revue Olympique 2(January 1902) 1, p. 10-12.
35
Probably COUBERTIN’S proposal concerning Panhellenic Games.
36 «C’est le sentiment de cette impérieuse nécessité qui a dicté le triple vœu, formulé en Amérique, en Suède et en Allemagne, que nous a vons résolu de
convoquer le Congrès de Bruxelles. Il importe de dire tout de suite que nous n’entendons nullement prendre la responsabilité de rendre ses décisions
exécutoires» (COUBERTIN, Pierre de, ”Le congrès de Bruxelles”, in: Revue Olympique 2[January 1902]1, p. 4).
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY ◆ VOLUME 10 ◆ DECEMBER 2001/JANUARY 2002 ◆ 15

He managed not to let the question of the Athens’ Games
become a topic within the IOC until the Congress of Brussels,
which had been postponed and could only be held as late as
1905. There however he had to take notice of the statement
made by the member MERKATI that an organising committee
had formed in Greece that would hold international Olympic
Games in Athens in 1906 and every four years from then.
COUBERTIN admits this the existence of this statement in his
report on the Congress of Brussels in his Olympique Memoirs. 37
COUBERTIN on the announcement of the Olympic Games
1906:
“For the year 1906 Games have been announced in Greece which do
not belong in the proper order. It was agreed that the I.O.C. would
lend its support, as well as the already existing organisations in
various countries [!].”
The Preparations of the Second International
Olympic Games in Athens
1906
After the termination of the Greek/Turkish war, the press often
published plans to organise Olympic Games, respectively
sport events named Olympic Games. The magazine Spiel und
Sport reported on February 17, 1900 38 that the stadium in
Athens would be renovated. At Easter 1900 the schools wanted
to hold Olympic Games there, in the same way as in the
ancient Games.
At Easter 1901, Der Turner reported on the Games held by
pupils in the stadium of Athens. The pupils of Pyrgos wanted
to organise a similar event in the stadium of Olympia and the
pupils of Nauplia wanted to do the same in the stadium of
Epidauros. Physical exercises of pupils in the Olympic stadium
of Athens were followed by ”Panhellenic Games” which lasted
four days. The king and his family were present every day
and distributed the prizes. ”Also, the problem of holding new
‘Olympic Games’ shall be solved by the chairman of the Comité the
Crown Prince Constantine.” 39
In the middle of 1901 Der Turner published a note disclosing
that German, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, and American
athletic associations had agreed upon holding Olympic Games
in Athens every four years. The next Games were to be held
in 1903, to commemorate the 40-year celebrations of GEORGE
I’s accession to the throne. A representative of these
associations wanted to inform the king on this. Nothing apart
from this became known of this decision and from the German
side in particular no further data were given. 40
The Greeks though had in fact planned Olympic Games for
1903 or 1904. In connection with the international archaeology
congress in Athens in the spring of 1903, or in the spring of
1904, Olympic Games were supposed to be held. This had
already been ordained by a royal decree in 1901. Under the
chairmanship of the crown prince a committee of ten
convened. 41 Most members of this committee had already
prepared the Games in 1896. 42 Two years were still to pass
until it could finally be realised.
In spring 1905 the marble construction of the Panathenaic
Stadium in Athens was completed. 43 The Panhellenic Games
took place there as a final test. Now the IOC decision for 1906
could be realised. Already prior to the IOC session in Brussels
invitations were sent to Olympic respectively sport
associations in many countries. The Greek envoy Kleon
37
»Des Jeux hors série étaient annoncés en Grèce pour 1906. Il fut entendu que le CIO y préterait son appui ainsi que celui des rouages constitués déjà en
différents pays par ses membres» (COUBERTIN, Mémoires, p. 48).
38
Spiel und Sport 10(17.02.1900)7, p. 124.
39
Der Turner 16(1901)6, p. 136; 11, p. 248-249.
40
Der Turner 16(1901)16, p. 374.
41
Deutsche Turn-Zeitung 46(1901)27, p. 571.
42
SZYMICZEK, Otto, ”The First Decade of Modern Olympic Games”, in: Report XV. Session IOA 1975, Athens 1976, p. 158.
43
Sport im Bild (11[21.07.1905]29) published a photograph of the completed stadium on the front page; see also Sport im Bild
11(29.09.1905)39, p. 938.
16 ◆ JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY ◆ VOLUME 10 ◆ DECEMBER 2001/JANUARY 2002

RANGAVIS presented Germany “the official invitation of the
Comité des Jeux Olympiques à Athènes” on May 5, 1905. 44 The
Greek IOC member MERKATI declared at the Congress of
Brussels that an organising committee for the Olympic Games
1906 had been formed in Athens, and that these would be
repeated every four years (see above).
In autumn 1905 the Greek organising committee sent the first
the information to foreign sport associations and scheduled the
Games for spring 1906. 45 That autumn the president of the
Association of Greek Gymnast Coaches, Ioannis CHRYSSAFIS travelled
to Stockholm, Copenhagen, Paris and Berlin in order to collect
information on the competition rules of the most important sport
disciplines. In December 1905 the official program containing
dates 46 , amateur rulings and registration rules was sent out.
As IOC President, COUBERTIN stuck to the rules, in spite of the
misgivings he had towards the Olympic Games in Athens 1906.
He had the program 47 of these games printed in the January
edition of the Revue Olympique 48 . But he described the period of
the Games only vaguely from “April – May 1906” 49 ; although
the Greeks had given the exact dates – April 22 to May 2 - in
their invitation, which had been attached to the program.
COUBERTIN also did not neglect to mention at the end of the
program that applications for participation were to be forwarded
to P. LAMBROS. Secretary-general, Athens, University Street 3, until
one month prior the commencement of the Games” 50 P. LAMBROS’ first
name was Spyridon P., and COUBERTIN had known him as the
secretary-general of the literature society Parnaß and one of the
main persons responsible for the Games 1896. The statement
”a month prior to commencement” was practically useless because
of not mentioning any date indicating the actual beginning of
the Games. Furthermore the Greeks had asked that nations from
overseas should confirm their registration 40 days in advance.
COUBERTIN simply left out the general regulations (amateur
definition) that were named in the Greek circular. It does seem
strange that he (Coubertin) ”concealed” the ”program of the
Olympique Games in Athens” in the ”unofficial part” of the magazine
(Revue Olympique) in the last article. At the beginning of the
magazine there is an ”official part” with the subtitle ”Bulletin of
the International Olympique Committee”. In a foreword COUBERTIN
explains what should be mentioned in the ”official part”: ”It will
deal with public relations and all other activities of the International
Committee” 51 . Did the Games of 1906 not belong to these ”other
activities” ? In the official part of the January edition it could be
read that:
– the IOC had accepted two new members,
– BAILLET-LATOUR had received a French medal at the
instigation of COUBERTIN,
– COUBERTIN had provided an Olympic Cup,
– in accordance with a proposal made by Count Egbert of
ASSEBURG the planned Berlin IOC session had been
rescheduled for 1907 in order to enable the IOC members
to go to Athens.
So the Games in Athens could not entirely be overlooked.
That also became clear towards the end of the official part.
COUBERTIN could not simply leave out the IOC decision in
which the IOC requested all countries and associations with
which it cooperated to take part in the Games in Athens. He
had, in accordance with the IOC’s mandate, written a letter
to the countries and associations, pointing out the Games in
Athens. The program of the Games in Athens should have
been connected precisely to this part of the IOC bulletins.
The February edition merely dealt with the Olympique
diploma. 52 The March edition reported on the meanwhile
officially executed forming of the British Olympique Association
and the reference to a conference of the IOC with the topic of
art and sport, to be held at the end of May in the Comédie
Française, as well as the mention of a challenge cup which the
IOC had offered for the Games in Athens. The prize was
handed over to the Greek envoy in Paris who was to forward
it to Athens 53 . It is very probable that COUBERTIN himself
provided this cup, which was awarded to the winner of the
pentathlon, Hjalmar MELLANDER. Why does he sing the praise
of this challenge cup, which was awarded during the Olympic
Games – unwanted by him – for the first time? He possibly
saw himself forced to act on behalf of the IOC because the
Greek king had offered a challenge cup for the winner of the
marathon race.
At first sight it seems surprising that the April edition of the
Revue Olympique was published as a special edition with the
title ”published at the occasion of the Olympique Games in Athens” 54 .
But whoever reads this edition will also be surprised for
another reason. COUBERTIN managed to name the Olympique
Games in Athens only once in 14 pages of text. 55
44
Bericht des DRAfOS, o. O. and o. J [Berlin 1906], p. 1, reprint in: Jahrbuch der Leibesübungen 34(1927), p. 65.
45
Sport im Bild 11(1905)39, p. 938. Deutsche Turn-Zeitung 50(1905)41, p. 727.
46
22.04.-02.05.1906, originally the 16.-26.04. was scheduled (Deutsche Turn-Zeitung 50[1905]48, p. 847).
47
Revue Olympique 6(1906)1, p. 14-16.
48
The Revue Olympique was published every month from 1906 on.
49
»Avril – Mai 1906» (Revue Olympique 6[(1906]1, p. 14). The exact date had already been determined in autumn 1905.
50
»Les demandes de participation aux Jeux Olympiques doivent être adressées à M. P. Lambros, secrétaire général, rue de l’Université, 3, à Athènes, un
mois avant le commencement des Jeux» (Revue Olympique 6[1906]1, p. 16).
51
«[...] contenant la relation officielle de tout ce qui concerne le fonctionnement et l’action du Comité International [...]» (Revue Olympique 6[1906]1, p. 3).
52
Revue Olympique 6(1906)2, p. 19-20.
53
Revue Olympique 6(1906)3, p. 47-48.
54
»NUMÉRO SPÉCIAL. Publié à l’occasion des Jeux Olympiques d‘Athènes» (Revue Olympique 6[1906]4, p. 49).
55
»Nous voudrions grouper ici celles qui aideront les visiteurs des Jeux Olympiques de 1906, à mieux comprendre et à mieux apprécier le spectacle dont
ils vont être les témoins et le cadre au centre duquel ce spectacle se déroulera à leurs yeux» (Revue Olympique 6[1906]4, p. 51).
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY ◆ VOLUME 10 ◆ DECEMBER 2001/JANUARY 2002 ◆ 17

COUBERTIN‘S introduction to the special edition of the Revue
Olympique:
”Here we would like to give room to reflections which are to help
the visitor of the Olympic Games of 1906 to better understand and
cherish the spectacle and its setting, they are about to witness.”
COUBERTIN had also written a guide for people travelling to
Greece. But such a visit could also have already taken place in
1904, or not until 1908. He wrote a history on Greece from
the Doric migration until the last Greek-Turkish war, tries to
define the term ”Greekness”, deals with Greek art, titles a
paragraph ”on sport” but only writes there about the ancient
Olympic Games, and then names books which ”one should carry
with him” 56 . He ends his treatise with a description of the sights
in Athens (excluding the Olympic stadium), Eleusis, Aegina,
Delos, Argolis, Delphi, Patras, Olympia 57 and Euboea etc.
The Second International Olympic
Games in Athens 1906
The ”Second international Olympic Games in Athens 1906”
(“Β. ‘ ΔΙΕΘΝΕΙΣ ΟΛΥΜΠΙΑΚΟΙ ΑΓΩΝΕΣ ΑΘΗΝΗΣΙ ”),
as they were described in all official documents of the
organising committee, were opened on Sunday 22nd. April 58
1906. By the early afternoon, the stadium was already filled
with 50.000 spectators. 59 Shortly after 15.00, King GEORGE
accompanied by his sister, the English Queen ALEXANDRA,
King EDWARD VII. of England with his sister-in-law, the
Greek queen OLGA, followed by the Prince of Wales” 60 with
his wife, the princess MARY, and the Greek retinue arrived at
the stadium. 61 Following this, the competitors marched into
the stadium in rows of four, in order of nations, every country
with its national flag in front, taking up positions opposite
the king’s box. 62 Already as early as 1906, the March Past of
the Nations had taken place (for the first time). Olympic
historical literature almost always describes this part of the
opening ceremony as originating at the Olympic Games in
London in 1908.
COUBERTIN’S statement was uncritically accepted that: “for
the first time a wish of the Comédie Française 63 was fulfilled: fifteen
hundred athletes paraded behind their nineteen national flags.“ 64
The German team entered the stadium first. As host nation
the Greeks came in last, a custom maintained by the
organisers up to the present day.
After the athletes hat taken up position, crown prince
KONSTANTIN, as chairman of the organising committee, came
forward and gave a short speech 65 , in which he referred to
the ancient tradition of the games and the Greek Law, which
prescribed regular Games in Athens. The king declared the
Games open and the Samaras-Hymn 66 was played, as had
been the case in 1896. This part of the ceremony also has
been retained up to today. The athletes then vacated the arena.
The sporting competitions then began with the gymnasts.
The closing ceremony took place in the stadium during the
afternoon of the 2 nd of May. After gymnastic exercises by
pupils from schools in Athens, the king and crown prince
distributed the prizes to the winners. As in St Louis there
were gold, silver and bronze medals for the individual
winners 67 , silver and bronze medals of a different type for
the team events, honorary prizes, diplomas 68 and olive
56 Among others VIKELAS, Dimitrios, La Gréce Byzantine et moderne, Paris 1893. COUBERTIN, Pierre de, Les Souvenirs d’Amerique et de
Gréce, Paris 1897.
57 Strangely COUBERTIN claims, Olympia had been excavated “at the expense of Emperor Frederic III. – at that time still crown prince -.” (p. 62)
He must have known that these excavations had been undertaken by the German Reich. As early as 1889 he had intensively studied
the excavations of Olympia and during the World Fair in Paris he had visited an exhibition and a lecture on this topic.
58 According to the Greek calendar 09. April 1906.
59 Eduard GIET, who reported from Athens for the ,,Turner” (21[1906]13, p. 241), mentions ”46000 numbered seats”, 3.000 soldiers and
four music choirs. Thousands of Athens’ inhabitants stood on risings around the stadium. The ancient stadium had room for over
47.000 people.
60 Later King GEORGE V.
61 Very nice photographies of the atmosphere in the stadium and the entry of the honorary guests still exist, printed among others in:
Athletik-Jahrbuch 3(1907), p. 47, 51. Kraft und Schönheit 6(1906)6, p. 163.
62 Report of the DRAfOS, p. 4. Athletik-Jahrbuch 3(1907), p. 16. Der Turner 21(1906)13, p. 242.
63 Baron de COUBERTIN meant the Olympic Congress of Arts, Science and Sport called by him in May 1906 in Paris.
64 »Pour la première fois, le défilé des quinze cents athlètes marchant derrière leurs dix-neuf drapeaux réalisa un des vœux de la Conférence de la Comédie-
Française» (COUBERTIN, Mémoires, p. 56).
65 Text in: Der Turner 21(1906)13, p. 242.
66 The hymn composed for the Games of 1986 by Spiridon SAMARAS, being the permanent official Qlympic hymn today.
67 The medal designed by Jules Clément CHAPLAIN for the Games of 1896 was reissued. This time gold, silver and bronze medals were
handed out instead of silver and copper ones. Instead of ”IN ATHENS 1896” (” EN ΑθΗΝΑΙΣ 1896”) this time “IN ATHENS 1906” (”EN
ΑΘΗΝΑΙΣ 1906 ”) was written on the back.
68 This diploma created by Nikolaos GYZIS had already been handed out in 1896. Only the inscription – ”Second International Olympic
Games in Athens 1906” – had to be updated.
18 ◆ JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY ◆ VOLUME 10 ◆ DECEMBER 2001/JANUARY 2002

anches for numerous winners. Every participant received
a commemorative medal 69 . In contrast to the events in Paris
in 1900 and in St Louis in 1904, these fourth Olympic Games
were a success, and are worthy – without resorting again to
the above-described resolutions – of the name Olympic
Games and they are to be compared with the first event in
Athens in 1896. There was a stadium with spectators, games
which were organised “in one block”, and a capital city, which
for the duration of the games was a genuine Olympian City. 70
This had also been the case in 1896. This time the Games
were also genuine “international” games with many foreign
teams, in which world-class athletes took part in at least a
few sport categories – above all in the track and field events.
Even during 1896, 1900 and 1904, national Olympic
committees, national sport organisations and sport
associations sent athletes, while even athletes under their own
initiative could make the journey to take part. Here for the
first time only representatives of the Olympic Organisations
attended, i.e. NOC, which had been founded in many
countries. Since then this is an integral part of the Olympic
Movement.
The organising committee published the ”Bulletin du Comité
des Jeux Olympiques à Athènes” in Greek and French during the
year 1906. In the first edition from February 7, 1906, all royal
decrees governing the Pan Hellenic Games, the Olympic
Games for Schools, the International Olympic Games and
the Committee of the Olympic Games, are to be found. In
addition, the personal composition of all Olympic
Committees abroad was printed. 71 The 4 th issue of June 2,
1906 contains the ”Résultats Officiel” of the ”Jeux Olympiques
Internationaux 1906”. The names of 903 athletes are listed and
the complete results of the competitions. 72 These also must
be seen as setting the trend for the subsequent Official
Reports.
Many athletes lived in the Zappeion, i.e. in an Olympic
Village. 73 Nevertheless there were enormous problems,
because of the lack of space, the noise and the typical Greek
food, which at that time was ”strange”, encouraging athletes
to find quarters elsewhere.
Two shortcomings must however be mentioned: The lack of
rules for the individual Olympic disciplines and the lack of
impartiality of many judges as well as the spectators. The
first was clearly the fault of the IOC. The German Reich’s
Committee for Olympic Games (Deutscher Reichsausschuß für
Olympische Spiele) had deliberately required international
competitive judging.
69
There were two different souvenir medals. Since many of the 20.000 medals of the Games of 1896 were still left the ”1896” on the
hack was stuck over with a vignette bearing ”1906”. The second souvenir medal bears ”OLYMPIC GAMES INTERNATIONAL IN
ATHENS” stamped in on its back in Greek.
70
Of course the Athens of 1906 cannot be compared with the today four-million city of Athens. In 1906 Athens had 150.000 inhabitants
at the most.
71
Corrections in the 3 rd edition of March 28, 1906.
72
Both lists contain numerous errors and mistakes. But these are still to be found in the official reports today.
73
Therefore the Olympic village of 1921 in Paris was not the first as often claimed in Olympic literature.
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY ◆ VOLUME 10 ◆ DECEMBER 2001/JANUARY 2002 ◆ 19

The 9 th IOC Session in Athens in 1906
When the Games in Athens in 1906 came to an end in May,
COUBERTIN began to debate these directly and indirectly in
the Revue Olympique. ”At the suggestion of several readers”, he
allowed an article to be printed, which he had written for the
L’Indépendance Belge 74 newspaper. He then provided the reason
for printing this article in the Revue Olympique 75 , ,,because it
seems necessary to repudiate many false assertions, which had
appeared in Greece.“ 76
What had been maintained in Athens? What had to be
repudiated? With his insinuations he could only have meant
the IOC Session in Athens. But this should be discussed later
in the suitable context. Firstly it seems necessary to take a
closer look at the article in the Belgian newspaper, respectively
in the Revue Olympique. COUBERTIN wrote his view on the
history on the Olympic Games of the modern age. Why this
history of the Games just now in 1906? In many passages it
sounds like a justification. Above all he praises the importance
of the IOC. He virtually flatters its members whom he calls
independent ambassadors and guardians of the Olympic idea.
He describes the problems which he encountered in Athens
in 1896 in detail. He only very briefly touches upon the
problems of the event in 1900 in Paris. The Games of 1904 in
St. Louis were “a glamorous event” 77 , only the Germans had
complained that the American athletes had been better. Also
surprising is the then following assertion that the world
exhibition had been a disturbance and that this would not
happen to the IOC again, ,,the experience that one time would be
enough” 78 . Had there not been an world exhibition in Paris
1900 as well? Was there not an exhibition planned in Rome in
1908?
Inevitably, in a history of the Olympic Games the organisation
of the event in Athens in 1906 must be mentioned. COUBERTIN
compares the Olympic Games 1906 with the Pythian and
Nemeic Games of ancient times respectively the Nordic
Games which he calls the “Nordic Olympic” 79 . With all criticism
of COUBERTIN – the 1906 Games had been named “real”
Olympic Games by the IOC– his tactical talent has to be
admired. This comparison was hardly open to attack. He must
be given credit for having named the Nordic Games in 1901
“Nordic Olympia” at its first celebration. 80 The Nordic Games
had his unrestricted support, which can hardly be said of the
Games in 1906. COUBERTIN then dealt with the program of
the Games in 1906. Much was supposed to be incomplete, a
lot was missing, and the same applies “again to the Games in
Athens. But in 1900 most sport disciplines were represented and
interesting competitions were carried out.” 8 1
Here the question remains: Where did COUBERTIN take this
nonchalance from? A little later he mockingly said that anyone
could hold the Olympic Games: A newspaper, municipal
authorities, a tourist association 82 . He compared these
Olympic Games to ,,real international Olympics“. Where the false
Olympics were to be found is not difficult to guess. COUBERTIN
ends his article with the statement: ,,I myself could not regard
my work as being complete if I left the Olympic waggon standing
where it is now that is half way.“ 83
This conclusive remark and the article itself strongly indicate
that COUBERTIN had something specific in mind in expressing
himself in this manner: But more about this below!
His article is followed by what his text possibly was to prepare
the grounds for: a short paper on the Olympic Games in 1906,
bearing the title ”Winner’s list of the Games of Athens” and a report
on the IOC Session in Athens with the title ”Official Part” 84 .
Bulletin of the IOC“. Even the president of the IOC cannot
comment on the reports from Athens other than that the event
was ”so glamorous as could be wished for“. He briefly describes
the magnificent opening ceremony and then adds that Count
Eugenio BRUNETTA d’USSEAUX had represented him. He
himself had been held up by the preparations for the Olympic
Conference of Sport and Art in Paris. But this conference was
actually a “private event” of the president. The Conference
commenced on May 26, 1906, this was 24 days after the closing
ceremony in Athens. COUBERTIN could have also organised it
in autumn 1906. To begin with COUBERTIN overestimates its
importance in calling the idea of including art competitions
in the Olympic program as the second stage of the Olympic
Games of the modern age. The IOC was not represented.
After having used a not quite understandable excuse in 1904
74
COUBERTIN, Pierre de, ”La renaissance olympique”, in: L’Indépendance Belge 77(23. 04.1906) p. 3.
75 Revue Olympique 6(1906)5, p. 68-75.
76 »[...]et aussi parce qu’un démenti est nécessaire à certaines assertions mensongères qui ont éte’ émises en Grèce dernièrement» (Revue Olympique
6[1906]5, p. 68).
77 »Elle fut brillamment cèlébrée (Revue Olympique 6[1906]5, p. 73).
78 »L’expérience à cet égard est suffisante» (Revue Olympique 6[1906]5, p. 73).
79 »olympiades boréales» (Revue Olympique 6[1906]5, p. 73).
80 In: Revue Olympique l(April 1901), p. 8. In this edition there is a very detailed description of the 1 st Nordic Games in Stockholm (p. 1-9).
The Nordic Games were supposed to have been modelled on the Olympic Games. On the Nordic Games compare KÖHNE, Kerstin,
Geschichte der Nordischen Spiele, Diploma thesis, Köln 1996. HÜTTENEGGER, Theodor, ”Zwei Vorgänger der Olympischen Winterspiele”,
in: Der Winter 43(1955/56), p. 468-469.
81 »[...] et manquent à nouveau aux Jeux d’Athènes. En 1900, au contraire, la plupart ont donné lieu à d’intéressants concours» (Revue Olympique
6[May 1906], p. 74.
82 Revue Olympique 6(May 1906), p. 75.
83 »Pour ma part, en tous les cas, je ne jugerais pas mon œuvre achevée, si je laissais le char de l’olympiade moderne là où il se trouve actuellement, c’està-dire
à mi-côte» (Revue Olympique 6[May 1906], p. 75.
84 The ,,Winner’s list“ of the Games 1906 belongs to the ,,unofficial“ part.
20 ◆ JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY ◆ VOLUME 10 ◆ DECEMBER 2001/JANUARY 2002

for not going to St. Louis, this behaviour now must be
regarded as an insult to the IOC and the Olympic Games in
Athens. This time he did not listen to WAGNER in Bayreuth,
but prepared a conference in the Comédie Française. 85
During the Olympic Games in Athens the eight IOC members
present came together several times 86 for the 8 th Session:
BRUNETTA d’USSEAUX (Italy), Count MERKATI (Greece), Count
von der ASSEBURG and GEBARDT (Germany), Viktor BALCK
and Count Clarence von ROSEN (Sweden), Baron Frederick
W. van TUYLL van SEROOSKERKEN (The Netherlands) and
GUTH (Bohemia). The representative of the British Olympic
Association, Lord William Henry DESBOROUGH 87 , also took part
in the consultations. Unfortunately there is no protocol of the
sessions. The secretary-general BRUNETTA d’USSEAUX would
have been responsible. He died in 1918. His inheritance has
vanished. Thus, we depend on COUBERTIN’S report in the Revue
Olympique, according to which the IOC members discussed
,,standardised rules for the future Olympic Games”. A commission
was already to meet on this in January 1907 in The Hague 88 .
The question of the rules was nothing new and unusual.
COUBERTIN would not have had to write a résumé of his life’s
work or a justification for his activities for this? Was nothing
else talked about in Athens? He remains silent in the Twentyone
Years of Sport Campaign. The time between 1905 (Brussels)
and 1908 (London) is not mentioned, apart from the art
congress in Paris. In the Olympic Memories there are at least
hints to be found: The members were supposed to have lost
the direction, had decided on a reorganisation of the IOC and
offered the Greek crown prince honorary chairmanship. 89
COUBERTIN on the IOC Session 1906 in Athens
“The nine or ten colleagues who had come to Athens had temporarily
lost the direction in the meeting and Brunetta d’Usseaux felt
incapable of bringing them back on to the right track. They had
come to a sort of decision of reorganising the IOC and even offering
the crown prince honorary chairmanship.”
So that was it! The IOC wanted to separate itself from
COUBERTIN. To vote him directly out of office though had
obviously appeared too risky to the few IOC members at the
session in Athens. COUBERTIN had been elected president for
ten years. So there were two possibilities: to found a new
committee or to negotiate with COUBERTIN. They opted for
the second, perhaps because the eight IOC members
constituted only a part of the committee. 90 It is also possible
that not all agreed. BRUNETTA d’USSEAUX being COUBERTIN’S
representative was surely on his side. He also had been the
only IOC member present in Athens as well as in the Comédie
Française a few weeks later. Was COUBERTIN not open for
negotiations? Was this the reason why BRUNETTA d’USSEAUX
had been in Paris? At any rate COUBERTIN wrote 25 years later:
,,Apart from the last decision [?] all had to be approved by the president.
He rejected all, including the honorary chairmanship of the crown
prince.“ 9 1 As to how far COUBERTIN had to make concessions
towards the IOC he himself does not indicate. The Greek
crown prince met COUBERTIN in Paris and had “a long
conversation on this topic. It was neither pleasant for him nor for me
but the whole matter was so grotesque that in the end we both had to
laugb about it.” 92
Apart from BRUNETTA d’USSEAUX, COUBERTIN was informed
on the results of the session in Athens in letters by two further
IOC members: TUYLL van SEROOSKERKEN 93 and MERKATI 94 .
But they both refer to data already provided by BRUNETTA
d’USSEAUX. Apparently he had sent out a form of protocol, so
that they only go into two individual areas of the session while
describing their personal evaluation. They both confirm that
questions concerning rules were intensively discussed. Both
mention the person of James SULLIVAN, the organiser of the
Games 1904 in St. Louis and main critic of COUBERTIN.
Apparently he took part in the sessions. TUYLL van
SEROOSKERKEN and MERKATI consider integrating him by
granting him membership in the IOC. 95 They do not comment
on the intention of removing COUBERTIN from office.
According to MERKATI though a reorganisation of the IOC
85
In his Mémoires Olympiques (p. 50) he also openly admits that he had needed an excuse.
86
In the previous sessions the participation was comparable: 1896 in Athens seven of 15, 1897 in Le Havre nine of 16, 1901 in Paris nine
of 25, 1904 in London 14 of 31, 1905 in Brussels 15 of 29, 1906 in Athens eight of 31 members.
87
Lord William Hippolyte DESBOROUGH of TAPLOW, born GRENFELL (1855-1945) was from listed as IOC member in the Revue Olympique from July
1906. Shortly beforehand he came in second in fencing (team rating) in Athens. C OUBERTIN knew him since the London IOC Session of 1904.
88
Revue Olympique 6(1906)5, p. 80. The 10 th IOC Session 1907 in The Hague discussed the planned program of the Olympic Games
1908 in London in detail.
89
»Assemblés, les neuf ou dix collègues venus à Athènes y avaient un moment perdu le nord et Brunetta d’Usseaux s’était trouvé impuissant à les
maintenir. Ils avaient voté une sorte de résolution impliquant le réorganisation prochaine du CIO et en avaient même offert la présidence d’honneur
au prince royal» (COUBERTIN, Mémoires, p. 53).
90
COUBERTIN also indicates that: »Aussi bien la ‘session’ d’Athènes à laquelle ne participaient ni Laffan, ni Baillet-Latour, ni Blonay, ni Sloane, ne pouvait passer
pour représenter la doctrine olympique de façon intégrale» (Mémoires, p. 53). Had these perhaps protested against the decisions made in Athens?
91
»Tout cela d’ailleurs, sauf le dernière résolution, demeurait soumis à l’approbation du président. Or, le président désavoua le tout, y compris l’honorariat
décerné au prime royal» (COUBERTIN, Mémoires, p. 53).
92
»Le prince et moi nous eûmes, à Paris, peu après, un long entretien à ce sujet. Ce n’étends agréable ni pour lui, ni pour moi, mais la situation était si
grotesque que nous finîmes par en rire» (COUbertin, Mémoires, p. 53. Also in: Revue Olympique 7[1907]8, p. 319).
93
On 30.04. and 20.05.l906 (IOC Archive).
94
On 21.05. (IOC Archive). On the writing of DESBOROUGH to COUBERTIN see below.
95
But COUBERTIN did not accept him.
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY ◆ VOLUME 10 ◆ DECEMBER 2001/JANUARY 2002 ◆ 21

was discussed. It was supposed to be grounded on a broader
basis. Was a single large committee to be formed or were the
national committees to gain more freedom and influence?
MERKATI remarks that especially BALCK and GEBHARDT were
completely dissatisfied with the work done by the IOC. That
they had taken part in Olympic Games is not in the least
questioned by both. A permanent holding of the Games in
Athens has been discussed. MERKATI especially names
SULLIVAN and BALCK as advocates as well as the royal family
and the foreign (!) press. As long as we lack the protocol made
by BRUNETTA d’USSEAUX we will probably never know what
was really discussed in Athens.
MERKATIS letter to COUBERTIN from May 21, 1906 (excerpt)
“Dearest friend,
Brunetta of [?] must be back from Paris and told us all what happened
during his stay there. I am sure that he did not neglect to
give you a detailed concept of the [?] and the ideas of our colleagues
as well as the various questions which we have treated.
I deemed it necessary to speak a little openly, apart from the interests
of our institution, in order to avoid misunderstandings among
our comrades. I even thought - for motives known just as well to
you as to me -, to request the Germans and Swedes, for among our
colleagues Balck and Gebhardt were those who were not too welldisposed
towards the international committee [? The rest is illegible].
We considered (to ask [?]) Lord Desborough to take part in all
meetings of the committee since he formulated the idea of taking up
negotiations with the king of England and other persons in order
to see whether London could host the Olympiad in 1908 after Rome’s
refusal. I think it would also be in the interest of our international
committee if also Lord Desborough were a representative of Great
Britain. I think he is a persona grata with the king [?].
Thanks to Brunetta and Tuyll whose speech was very valuable we
have managed to flatter Sullivan a little who appeared to be very
dissatisfied with [?]. Balck seems to be neutral the same as Rosen
who is very nice by the way.
I would not be surprised to see Gebhardt withdraw from the committee,
my impression is that he feels a little downgraded or [?] by
the presence of the general von der Asseburg who is always very
proud and with whom [one, be?] cannot march.
The foreign press I do not speak of our own prefers the idea of holding
the Games in Athens on a permanent basis. That is the almost
unanimous view of the people who [?]. Sullivan and Balck are the
first to proclaim that no city was more capable of holding these
festivities every four years and that nowhere a [?] and a such interested
crowd performing these tasks every day could be found. This
year was truly a real success.
The king as well as the princes are thrilled by the success of the
Olympic Games. Brunetta must have told them that Tuyll and I
are of the opinion that our committee should work on the standardisation
of the rules of all sport disciplines. A further topic was
the reorganisation of our committee on a more solid and broader
basis. I do not exactly know what they think of that.
Not a few ideas have been exchanged on this topic and various
solutions have been examined closely. Should a large, single committee
be formed or full freedom be granted to the local committees,
which have already been formed in various countries e.g. England,
Germany or Greece? All this should be discussed in the near future.
I deeply regret having not being able to take part in the Sorbonne
meeting. [...] Tuyll bus proposed a friendly meeting of the committee
in The Hague in January. I think that is a very good idea
because it is necessary to exchange ideas among the members of the
committee.
Should the royal prince arrive in Paris try to see him.
[...]
I have not seen the prince yet, so I cannot write to you which ideas
and views he has.
[...]”
The Intentional International Olympic
Games in Athens 1910 and 1914
In the summer of 1910, the 3 rd International Olympic Games
should have been held in Athens. In Crete, Elefterios
VENIZELOS proclaimed the unification with Greece in 1908,
although Crete had received an autonomous administration
under Turkish supremacy after the Greeks lost the war of
1896/97 against the Turks. The same year the upraise of the
so-called ”Young Turks” commenced in Saloniki in
Macedonia occupied by troups of European countries, which
after many political and military entanglements eventually
lead to the first Balkans war in 1912. In October 1908 Bulgaria
declared its independence. Austria annexed Bosnia and
Herzegovina. When the government and the royal dynasty
hesitated to recognise the affiliation of Crete a putsch by the
army followed in 1909 and the ”Military Alliance” appointed
VENIZELOS head of the government. He also won a clear
majority at the elections 1910 and 1912 with his new liberal
party. The reputation of the royal dynasty and the old parties
had reached an all-time low. In autumn 1912 the first Balkans
war commenced when Montenegro, then Bulgaria, Serbia and
Greece attacked Turkey in order to win the largest possible
parts of Turkish ground in Europe. The Greeks occupied
Saloniki. On March 18, 1913 the Greek King GEORGE I. was
assassinated in Saloniki. His oldest son CONSTANTINE I. took
his place. On May 30, 1913 a short peace period was arranged
after mediation of the great powers, before the Second Balkans
War broke out on June 26, 1913 in which Bulgaria attacked
its former Greek and Serbian allies. Romania and Turkey took
part in the fighting until the war could be terminated with
96
COUBERTIN, Pierre de, Annuaire, Paris 1908, p. 10. Also in the Annuaire of 1911, p. 11.
22 ◆ JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY ◆ VOLUME 10 ◆ DECEMBER 2001/JANUARY 2002

defeat of Bulgaria and the peace treaty of Bukarest on August
10, 1913. After the assassination of the Austrian crown prince
in Sarajevo in the summer of 1914 the First World War broke
out.
The political situation outlined above made the holding of
Olympic Games in 1910, 1914, or even 1918 impossible. The
organising committee however prevailed and was active in
preparing the Games 1910 and 1914. This is proved by
numerous reports, which were printed, in the German
gymnastic- and sport press. Similar findings were probably
also available in other European countries and the USA.
As early as February 1907 the Deutsche Turn-Zeitung reported
that the Greek crown prince had asked all NOCs via letter to
come back to Athens in 1910. The Americans were supposed
to have already accepted the invitation and president Theodore
ROOSEVELT would receive an honorary presidency. 97
On February 18, 1907 the Greek parliament decided to
combine the Olympic Games 1910 with a 2400-yearcelebration
of the battle at Marathon. 98
In March 1909 the German Reich’s Committee for Olympic Games
met in Berlin and unanimously decided on sending a team
with representatives from all sport associations to Athens in
1910. Within the framework of the preparations a great
summer sport festivity was to take place in June. 99
On May 29, 1909 the organising committee had a meeting in
Athens under chairmanship of Crown Prince CONSTANTINE
and decided on the ”definitive” holding of the Games. The
event had been jeopardised by the costs amounting to “about
700000 German Marks”. The Greek government however had
been granted a loan of 250.000 DM by the national bank. As
in 1906 ”Olympic stamps were to be issued”. 100
For the first time, the possibility of cancellation was discussed
in the autumn of 1909, after referring to the unrest in the army.
However, the Greek legation in Berlin stated that ”‘nothing
was known of postponing the Games, or that Athens would cancel
them altogether.‘” 101 Secretary-general LAMBROS also tried to
appease by letter and named as a possibility the time of Easter,
“the days around May 1 st ”. 102
By autumn 1909, the dates should have been determined all
along, and the invitations sent out. Around the turn of the
year the organising committee sent telegrams to the foreign
NOCs ”that because of political disturbances the Olympic Games
could not take place.” 103 However, the Panhellenic Games were
organised in Athens from April 22-25, 1910. 104
In the autumn of 1910, the Greek newspapers reported that
the Olympic Games from 1914 would take place in Athens. 105
Towards the middle of the year 1911, the Greek crown prince
declared ”that the political circumstances bad been settled and that
nothing would prevent the future holding of the Games”. They would
”definitely take place in 1914.” 106 Crown Prince CONSTANTINE.
talked to COUBERTIN in Paris and emphasised again what is
mention above. 107 In autumn 1912 the Greek government
informed the IOC that, ”Athens would carry out the Games in
1914”. 108
But in Europe the NOCs became sceptical because of the
continuously flaring up of trouble spots. The British Olympic
Association already decided in autumn 1912 not to participate.
In Germany this was ”not even considered”. The USA, France
and Sweden would probably support that view. It would be
better to restrict the event to the allies of Greece in the
Balkans. 109 In the autumn of 1913 there was again talk that
the crown prince and the king absolutely wanted to organise
the Games and that COUBERTIN supported them. The Greek
government was supposed to have ”provided a considerable
amount of money”. 110 The Games were to be held in April 1914
”and this shortly after the coronation of the king” 111 . New in the
program were to be ”“balloon and aeroplane competitions”. 112
However, in November complains were heard that up to that
moment no concrete preparations had been made and that
the event would have to be postponed. 113 In January 1914 the
Games were cancelled. 114
97
“Die olympischen Spiele des Jahres 1910”, in: Deutsche Turn-Zeitung 52(1907)8, p. 139. Also in: Illustrierte Athletik-Sportzeitung 16(1907)13,
p. 198.
98
”Olympischen Spiele in Athen 1910”, in: Der Turner 22(1907)4, p. 75-76. Also ”Neue olympische Spiele in Athen”, in: Illustrierte
Athletik-Sportzeitung 16(1907)10, p. 151-152.
99
Deutsche Turn-Zeitung 54(1909)13, p. 221.
100
”Olympische Spiele 1910 in Athen”, in: Deutsche Turn-Zeitung 54(1909)29, p. 513. Also in: Der Turner 24(1909)11, p. 208-209.
101
”Olympische Spiele 1910 in Athen”, in: Deutsche Turn-Zeitung 54(1909)41, p. 741.
102
”Die Olympischen Spiele 1910 in Athen”, in: Körperkultur 4(1909)11, p. 337. Also in: Schwimmer-Zeitung 17(1909)78, p. 1044-1045.
Also in: Der Deutsche Schwimmer 5(1909)48, p. 93-94.
103
”Keine olympischen Spiele in Athen”, in: Deutsche Turn-Zeitung 55(1910)1, p. 16.
104
”Panhellenische Spiele in Athen”, in: Körperkultur 5(1910)5, p. 147.
105
Sport im Bild 16(1910)32, p. 924-925.
106
”Olympische Spiele zu Athen 1914”, in: Sport im Bild 17(1911)31, p. 912.
107
”Olympische Spiele in Athen 1914”, in: Körperkultur 6(1911)10, p. 285.
108
”Die Olympischen Spiele in Athen 1914”, in: Deutsche Turn-Zeitung 57(1912)46, p. 868. Also compare 58(1913)6, p. 98.
109
”Die Olympischen Spiele zu Athen 1914”, in: Der Turner 27(1912/13)21, p. 417-418.
110
”Olympische Spiele in Athen 1914”, in: Fußball und Olympischer Sport (17.09.1913)75, p. 4.
111
After the assassination of GEORGE I. in Saloniki CONSTANTINE I. succeeded him.
112
”Eine Olympiade in Athen”, in: Deutsche Turn-Zeitung 587(1913)40, p. 772.
113
”Die Unklarheit über die Athener Olympiade 1914”, in: Fußball und Olympischer Sport (10.11.1913)90, p. 3.
114
”Olympische Spiele Athen l914”, in: Deutsche Fechter-Zeitung 2(1914)1, p. 21.
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY ◆ VOLUME 10 ◆ DECEMBER 2001/JANUARY 2002 ◆ 23

The Deutsche Fechter-Zeitung reports in January 1914 on the
postponement of the Games:
”In Athens one got the impression that the foreign participation
would be missing in general since the nations are too occupied with
the preparations for the Berlin Olympics 1916 and therefore it was
decided to postpone the Games in Athens to 1918.”
After the First World War there apparently were not any
attempts of reviving the idea of Olympic Games. At any rate
no information is known to exist on this. The Games
introduced by COUBERTIN became more and more important.
An additional series would also have not stood a chance any
more. But COUBERTIN took up his proposal of Panhellenic
Games again with his article “The new Panathenaic Games” 115
which he had written in December 1927 for the IOC bulletin
encouraged by the mayor of Athens who had received him
on July 4 th in the town hall. After pointing out that he had
already presented this idea 1896 when the Greeks had claimed
the right of permanently hosting after the success of the first
Olympic Games, he developed a program with sport – but
only with ancient disciplines e.g. running, jumping, throwing
and wrestling – as well as artistic competitions. The
celebrations were supposed to take place for the first time in
1930 and then every four years in the stadium of Athens
respectively in the theatre of Herodes ATTICUS. But it only
remained a plan even if its organisation had been considered
twice for 1934 and 1938.
But with the Balkan Games a different project was realised.
Since the Olympic Games of 1924 in Paris, and of 1928 in
Amsterdam where the athletes of southwest Europe had been
pretty unsuccessful, these Games had been developed by the
sport associations in southwest Europe in order to better
prepare their athletes for the Olympic Games. After they had
for the first time taken place in September 1929, in the stadium
of Athens, as some sort of curtain-raiser for the 1 st Balkans
Sport Conference, which then also formally decided on their
establishment, the IOC declared a patronage of these Games.
Until the Second World War, they only included athletics
competitions for men. Although changing of the hosting cities
had been agreed upon, the I. to IV Games (1930-1933) were
held in Athens, and while the IOC could enforce a ban on the
term “Balkaniad” or “Balkan-Olympics” the Balkan Games were
Seventy years after the 2 nd International Olympic Games 1906
in Athens the idea of permanent Games in Athens underwent
a relatively short but strong renaissance. In connection with
problems which can be regarded as aftereffects of the Cold
War, which put a continuous strain on the Olympic movement
and appeared to make an undisturbed organising of the Games
more and more difficult. Because of decreasing interest in the
event, the Greek president Constantine KARAMANLIS again
raised the topic of Athens after the Games of 1976 had been
devaluated for the first time by a major, politically motivated
boycott.
In a letter dated July 31, 1976, to IOC president Lord Michael
Morris KILLANIN he presented the “Revival of the Olympic Games
at their original location”, and referring to ancient times held
out the prospect of saving the Olympic idea, which could in
this way be given “new weight as well as a new value”. 118
But only after repeating his offer on January 7, respectively
February 2, 1980 119 any response was provoked. In regard to
the events of the approaching Games in Moscow, which were
coming to a head – a boycott call made by the American
president Jimmy CARTER on the grounds of the Sowjet
invasion of Afghanistan – the so-called “Hellas plan” became
an intensely and heatedly discussed topic in the public arena,
in Olympic circles and in political organisations. 120
Special weight was given to the votes of the European council
and the European parliament which each passed
The ”Hellas Plan” 117
corresponding resolutions. 121
of the 84 th
always organised in the same years of the Olympic Games. 116
To begin with the IOC took a
waiting, then a sceptic, and eventually a disapproving stance.
Based on a well-founded opinion - forming a commission and
questioning members - the IOC passed within the framework
IOC Session a ,,Resolution concerning the Greek
proposal”. 122 In this the IOC did certify the Greek proposal as
,,loyal“ and of an ,,extreme importance“ but also states that Los
Angeles and Seoul had already been nominated as the next
Olympic cities and for 1992 there were also already various
candidates in waiting. Thus at the moment there was no need
of the well meant offer.
With all sympathy for the Greeks, for their commitment, and
for the continuously disappointing endeavours, the aim of
giving the Olympic Games a permanent home must be
critically analysed from a distance. Here a position developed
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
COUBERTIN, Pierre de, ”Les nouvelles Panathénées”, in: Bulletin Officiel du C.I.O. 2(1927)5, p. 5-6.
Compare LENNARTZ, Karl, ”Der olympische Kindergarten. Zur Frühgeschichte der Regionalspiele”, in: Stadion 25(1999), p. 139-152.
Closely following HÖFER, Andreas, ”Hellas-Plan”, in: LENNARTZ, Erläuterungen, p. 64-68.
The Olympic writing can be found in a translation by MALAMAS, Dimitrios, Die Idee der ständigen Austragung der Olympischen Spiele
in Griechenland aus griechischer Sicht, Diploma thesis, Köln 1981, p. 31-33, printed.
Compare MALAMAS, Idee, p. 59-61.
The history of the so-called ,,Hellas plan” is well described by FRICKE, Klaus, Die Idee der ständigen Austragung der Olympischen Spiele
in Griechenland. Diploma thesis, Köln 1982, and MALAMAS, Idee.
A selection of corresponding documents can be found in FRICKE, Idee, p. 115-137.
The text is printed in: Olympic Review 12(1981)169, p. 641.
24 ◆ JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY ◆ VOLUME 10 ◆ DECEMBER 2001/JANUARY 2002

y Manfred LÄMMER should be followed that a realisation of
the Hellas plan would have meant more a flight from the
problems rather than solving them. 123 Furthermore the
rotation of the Games today is not a randomly selected and
arbitrarily changeable aspect. with more speaking for it’s
upholding, than for a romantic traditionalism. It is a guiding
principle in relation to a world-surrounding peace-promoting
character.
The Second International Olympic
Games in Athens Become ”Intermediate
Games”
Another problem should be focussed on in this context, which
the IOC had to deal with in Athens and that was the location
of the Games in 1908. Since the Olympic Congress of Brussels
in 1905 it became more and more apparent that no preparations
were being made in Rome for the Games 1908. In the Revue
Olympique COUBERTIN remarks explicitly that Lord
DESBOROUGH – not yet an IOC member – had taken part in
the IOC Session in Athens in 1906, as the president of the
British O!ympic Association. 124 However, COUBERTIN did not give
the reason for DESBOROUGH’S presence. In Twenty-one Years of
Sport Campaign he expressed himself more clearly. The IOC
,,transferred the 4 th Olympics to London.“ 125 The British Olympic
Committee was prepared to host the Games. 126 But those
responsible in London were still very careful and first of all
wished to reconsider the feasibility of the plan in England
before announcing it publicly. The agreement reached by the
IOC and the BOA was initially kept secret.. That is why it
was not published in the Revue Olympique 127 nor was any
,,newspaper officially informed“ 128 . COUBERTIN complied with this
procedure. His “roman disgrace” was not discussed in public
and his fondness of English sport was enhanced by the location
of London: ,,Quietly the curtain fell on the settings of the Tiber and
lifted again over those of the Thames.“ 129
On his way back from Athens to London DESBOROUGH
stopped of in Paris to talk with COUBERTIN but he did not
meet him. He wrote a letter to him from the Grand Hotel on
May 14 telling Coubertin that after his return to London his
committee would deal with the question of organising the
Games in London in 1908. He wrote that he had already
spoken to his king in Athens who had promised his support,
Lord DESBOROUGH expressed his anxiety of being able to
organise the Games as good as the Greeks had done 1906 in
Athens. These had been marvellous. 130
The IOC members stuck to the agreement of secrecy. In the
reports on Athens in the press of the following months nothing
was to be found on the location of the Olympic Games in
1908. On November 24, 1906 the British committee informed
the public in a detailed press release that London would host
the Games. 131 Lord DESBOROUGH informed the IOC president
in various letters on the details of the planning. In a letter
from December 30 he mentioned that at a reception of the
court, the queen – Queen ALEXANDRA was a sister of the Greek
king – had expressed herself critically that the Games did not
remain in Greece forever. 132
On November 26, 1906 the commencement of the
preparations to the Franco British Exhibition in 1908 were
ceremoniously opened. Lord DESBOROUGH held a speech that
was already printed by COUBERTIN in the December edition
of the Revue Olympique. 133 DESBOROUGH praised the ideas and
merits COUBERTIN and listed the Olympic Games organised
until then: Athens, Paris, St, Louis. Athens 1906 was missing!
The events taking place in London were to be the 4 th Olympic
Games. The Games in Athens started to become no more
than an episode, and became Intermediate Games. 134 The
British NOC had not been represented in Athens by one IOC
member; so it was not part of the ”rebellion” against
COUBERTIN. London was prepared to organise the Games in
1908. COUBERTIN needed a host for 1908 if he wanted to save
his model of hosting the Games at different locations and if
he wanted to remain as the president of the IOC. He came to
an agreement and an arrangement. 135
The author found the German term “Zwischenspiele”
mentioned for the first time a few years later in the table of
123
Compare LÄMMER, Manfred, ,,Die Zukunft der Olympischen Spiele liegt nicht in ihrer Vergangenheit“, in: NOK für Deutschland
(Hg.), II. Olympischer Kongreß. Baden-Baden 1981. Bulletin (Baden-Baden 1981)6, p. 12-17, 42-48.
124
Revue Olympique 6(1906)5, p. 80.
125 COUBERTIN, Campagne, p. 179.
126
King EDUARD VII. possibly also played a part. He was honorary guest at the Olympic Games in Athens together with his wife
ALEXANDRA and a definitely knew of the problems in Rome and had contact with Lord DESBOROUGH respectively he could speak with
him on a carrying out in London.
127 COUBERTIN, Mémoires, p. 53.
128
COUBERTIN, Mémoires, p. 53. His Campagne de vingt-et-un ans was not published until after 1908. There Baron de COUBERTIN could
report on this decision.
129
COUBERTIN, Mémoires, p. 53.
134
This was already prepared by a small article by Theodore A. COOK, in the IOC from 1909 until 1915, journalist and writer (sport history). COOK
was captain of the British team in Athens. He now criticised the lanes of the stadium in Athens, they did not meet up to international standards
anymore. The sun was blinding in the marble stadium. The English could offer a modern stadium for over 100.000 spectators. This is followed
by a praise of COUBERTIN and French sport. COUBERTIN printed this article - of course (!) - in the Revue Olympique (6[1906]11, p. 175-176).
135 He had already accepted Lord DESBOROUGH into the IOC in July 1906 (Revue Olympique 6[1906]7, p. 111), instead of Charles HERBERT
who had retired for health reasons.
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY ◆ VOLUME 10 ◆ DECEMBER 2001/JANUARY 2002 ◆ 25

contents from a book by Carl DIEM on the Games of 1917 in “copying” from older Olympic histories was the normal rule.
Stockholm. 136
Three very important publications adopted the results
Many times it has been claimed later, that the Olympic Games respectively reached the same conclusions by critical study of
1906 had been organised as the 10-year-celebration of the event the sources. These were the ”Golden Book of the Olympic Games”
in 1896 137 and also as the salvation of the Olympic movement by Erich KAMPER and Bill MALLON 144 , the ”Chronik” by Volker
in relation to the problems of the events of 1900 in Paris and KLUGE 145 and the ”1906 Olympic Games” by MALLON 146 . It is
1901 in St. Louis. 138 also clear to many authors, who indulge in the study of the
history of the participation of one nation in the Games that
these, or any other teams, took part in the Olympic Games in
Athens in 1906. 147
Will the ”Intermediate Games” Become
Olympic Games again?
It has taken a long time to critically examine the history, the
preparation and the organisation of the Second International
Games in Athens 1906, using the most reliable sources. While
MEZÖ gave in to the rejection by the Brundage Commission and
the IOC and decided to “overlook” the Olympic Games of
1906 in his book ”Sechzig Jahre Olympische Spiele” 139 , the wellknown
Olympic historian Erich KAMPER was the first one not
bothering about the known views of the IOC. In his statistical
works: ”Enzyklopädie der Olympischen Spiele” 140 and the ”Lexikon
der 14.000 Olympioniken” 141 , he prints the full results of the
Olympic Games 1906 in Athens; respectively lists all medal
winners and their personal data.
The first critical study was published in 1985 by the author
in his book: ”Die Beteiligung Deutschlands an den Olympischen
Spielen 1906 in Athen und 1908 in London” 142 . Numerous works
followed on this topic. 143 It was not criticised negatively or
rejected anywhere. In most popular scientific or journalistic
writings - mainly works which were published as preparation
for the next coming Games or in the field of the 100-year
jubilee of the Olympic movement (1994), respectively the
Olympic Games (1996) and often under commercial contracts,
the results mentioned above were not repeated, since
Abstract
After the so successful progression of the Olympic Games in
1896 in Athens the Greek government and the American team
proposed to permanently hold the Olympic Games in Athens.
COUBERTIN rejected these plans. Various IOC members
proposed a compromise: Alternately holding the Games in
Athens and in the capital cities of the world. The German
IOC members formulated a motion from this, which the IOC
agreed to at the session in 1901. COUBERTIN wasn’t agreeable
to this. After the final completion of the stadium in Athens a
new organising committee was formed which sent out
invitations to the ”Second International Olympic Games in 1906”.
The International Games took place for all athletes, officials.
journalists, spectators and for COUBERTIN in the spring of 1906
in Athens. Coubertin announced this event several times in
the Revue Olympique and also called them ”brilliantly executed”
Games. For the first time there was a march past of the nations,
for the first time only the NOCs sent the athletes and at the
presentation ceremony gold, silver and bronze medals were
awarded. The scheduled third and fourth Olympic Games in
1910 and in 1911 in Athens were prepared for, but could not
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
DIEM, Carl, Die Olympischen Spiele 1912, Berlin 1912, p. 4.
E. g. KAISER, Rupert, Olympia Almanach, Kassel 1996, p. 57
E. g. ZENTNER, Christian, Das große Buch der Olympischen Spiele, Munich 1995, p. 13.
MEZÖ, Ferenc, Sechzig Jahre Olympische Spiele, Berlin/Budapest 1956, 2 nd edition 1959.
KAMPER, Erich, Enzyklopädie der Olympischen Spiele. Daten, Fakten, Namen, Stuttgart 1972.
KAMPER, Erich, Lexikon der 14.000 Olympioniken, Who’s who at the Olympics, 3 rd edition, Graz 1983 (1 st edition 1975).
LENNARTZ, Karl, Die Geschichte des Deutschen Reichsausschusses für Olympische Spiele, Heft 3, Die Beteiligung Deutschlands an den Olympischen
Spielen 1906 in Athen und 1908 in London, Bonn 1985.
LENNARTZ, Karl/TEUTENBERG, Walter, Die Olympischen Spiele 1906 in Athen, Kassel 1992. LENNARTZ, Karl, ,,Athens 1906. The
Intercalated Games“, in: FINDLING, John E./PELLE, Kimberly D., Historical Dictionary of the Modern Olympic Movement, Westport
(Connecticut)/London 1996, p. 26-34. Although the contents appeared slightly different the publisher chose without knowing the term
”Intercalated”. LENNARTZ, Karl, ,,Die Olympischen Spiele 1906 in Athen“, in: DECKER, Wolfgang/DOLIANITIS. Georgios/
LENNARTZ, Karl (ed.), 100 Jahre Olympische Spiele. Der neugriechische Ursprung, Würzburg 1996, p. 118-125. Latest LENNARTZ, Karl, in
cooperation with Ian Buchanan, Volker Kluge, Bill Mallon and Walter Teutenberg, Olympische Spiele 1908 in London, Kassel 1998.
KAMPER, Erich/MALLON, Bill, The Golden Book of the Olympic Games, Mayland 1992.
KLUGE, Volker, Olympische Sommerspiele. Die Cbronik I. Athen 1896 - Berlin 1936, Berlin 1997.
MALLON, Bill, The 1906 Olympic Games. Results for all Competitors in All Events with Commentary, Jefferson and London 1999. MALLON had
already published the athletics results in 1984 (The Olympic Games 1896, 1900, 1904 and 1906. Part I: Track and Field Athletic, Durham 1984).
To be mentioned representatively: BUCHANAN, Ian, British Olympians, Bath 1991. BIJKERK, Ton/PAAUW, Ruud, Gouden Boek
van de Nederlandsche Olympiers, Haarlem 1996.
26 ◆ JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY ◆ VOLUME 10 ◆ DECEMBER 2001/JANUARY 2002

e carried out due to political problems in the Balkans. Soon
the Olympic Games 1906 in Athens were dismissed as an
episode and degraded with the title of Interim or Intermediate
Games. But for the true Olympic historian these were equal
Olympic Games, like all the original ones from 1896 to 2000.
Motion
At the IOC Session in 1948 the IOC member MEZÖ proposed
to include the event of 1906 in Athens as ”IIIb Olympic Games”
in the list of the Olympic Games. The motion was rejected in
1949 without any historical analysis. The Executive
Committee of the International Society of Olympic Historians
founded in 1991 decided in 1999 and again in 2001 to
recommend, like Ferenc MEZÖ did in 1948 to include the Second
International Olympic Games 1906 in Athens in their list of
Olympic Games and to assess the event as what it had been:
real Olympic Games.
Should this not happen it does not change anything about the
fact that these real Olympic Games did take place.
NEW ISOH WORKING
GROUP ,,ANCIENT
OLYMPIC GAMES“
By Manfred Lämmer
There can be no doubt that the Olympic Games are the most
intensively researched area in the history of sport. Thousands of
books and special studies fill the libraries around the world. However,
a closer look clearly shows that authors who come from the
fields of sport and sports science largely examine the origin and
development of the modern Olympic Games, while the contests
held in ancient Olympia are almost exclusively the domain of ancient
historians, classical philologists and archaeologists. There are
but few exceptions.
The main reason for this situation is to be found in the fact
that only few representatives of the modern history of sport or
Olympic Historians have the necessary language skills and specialist
knowledge with which to examine and evaluate original
sources. On the other hand, the representatives of ancient history
who, over the years, have compiled an admirable wealth of results,
research findings and knowledge are, in most cases, only
insufficiently acquainted with the technical aspects, the structures
and the philosophy of modern sport. Pierre de Coubertin once
emphatically stated: Celebrating the Olympic Games means referring
to history. And there can indeed be no doubt about the fact
that the essential foundations of the modern Olympic Games go
back to their model in antiquity. Greater consideration for the
ancient Olympic Games within the scope of our research work
would therefore result in a decisive improvement in our understanding
of what the motives of the founder of Olympism were
and the goals of the Olympic Movement are.
Based on this conviction, the ISOH Executive Committee
decided at its session held in Lausanne on 3 May 2001 to establish
a working group called “Ancient Olympic Games”, which will
encourage research in this field and carry out projects.
The timing for such an initiative seems to be particularly favourable
since the coming Olympic Games in Athens will increasingly
focus the attention of the international public on this topic.
The working group will convene for its first meeting in Spring
2002 to exchange information and ideas and to discuss possible
activities. ISOH members interested in taking part are kindly requested
to contact: Dr. Karl Lennartz, ISOH Vice President,
Sperlingsweg 16, D-53757 Sankt Augustin, Germany, Tel.: ++49-
2241-333487, Fax: ++49-2241-342749, E-Mail: lennartz@culda.de
JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY ◆ VOLUME 10 ◆ DECEMBER 2001/JANUARY 2002 ◆ 27