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12 JPS 17:1&2 fathomed in human history (Ast dasi chahu bhedu na paia, M1, GG, 355; Bed katabi bhedu na jata, M1, GG, 1021), and what human beings are left with is to accept this limitation and make the best of the situation (Tu dariao dana bina mai machhuli kaise antu laha, Jah jah dekha taha taha tu hai tujh te nikasi phuti mara, M1, GG, 25). Given this context of understanding, the primary responsibility of human beings is to grasp the values that underline the divine creation of (rachna) and caring for (samal) the world, apply them to use in their daily routine, and in the process become an active part of the universal harmony as well as contribute toward it (Gagan mahi thal ravi chand dipak bane, M1, GG, 13). 41 For Guru Nanak, there are two stages of spiritual development: acquiring the knowledge of truth, which seems to be easily accessible from Guru Nanak himself (Bade bhag guru savahi apuna bhed nahi gurdev murar, M1, GG, 504) and translating this acquisition into one’s life (Guri kahia so kar kamavahu, M1, GG, 933; Sachahu urai sabhu ko upar sachu achar, M1, GG, 62) through labor and perseverance (Jah karnhi tah puri mat, karni bajhahu ghate ghat, M1, GG, 25). The goal of life is not to be reached in the possession of truth but in its application in one’s day-to-day activities (Jehe karam kamie teha hoisi, M1, GG, 730; Jete jia likhi siri kar, karanhi upari hovagi sar, M1, GG, 1169; Sa jati sa pati hai jehe karam kamai, M1, GG, 1330). McLeod’s elaborate exposition of Guru Nanak’s teachings remained centered on his “theology” and allows no room for ethics. There is no reference to the Guru’s crucial stress on a life centered on core values such as personal purity (ishnan), social involvement with charity (dan), forgiveness (khima), honor (pati), humility (halimi), rightful share (haq halal), and service (Vichi dunia sev kamiai ta dargahi basanhi paiai, M1, GG, 26; Ghari rahu re man mughadh iane, M1, GG, 1030; Ghali khai kichhu hathahu de, M1, GG, 1245). Nor is McLeod able to take note of the Guru’s overarching belief that liberation is to be attained collectively (Api tarai sangati kul tarahi, M1, GG, 353, 662, 877, 944, and 1039), emphasizing the need for communal living and social productivity. Unlike other medieval poet saints, the Guru also spoke emphatically of collective liberation (Api tarahi sangati kul tarahi tin safal janamu jagi aia, M1, GG, 1039), and went beyond singing about human equality to actually challenging the Hindu caste hierarchy (Sabhana jia ika chhau, M1, GG, 83) by starting the langar (communal meal), which represented rejection of any social, age, or gender-related distinctions. McLeod’s categorization of Guru Nanak’s teachings brings to the forefront issues pertaining to the most effective way to interpret Guru Nanak’s beliefs. As for traditional Sikh scholarship, there have been two distinct ways to expound on his compositions. 42 The primary method has been to focus on Guru Nanak’s compositions. The author would introduce the context in which the Guru is believed to have written the
G.S. Mann: Guru Nanak’s Life and Legacy 13 composition under discussion, would then quote its text, and explain its message in the medium of prose. These commentaries, as well as anthologies of the compositions used for the purpose of exegesis in devotional sessions, are extant beginning with the late sixteenth century. 43 This method of analysis of the Guru’s compositions continues till the present day and can be seen working in the writings of scholars trained in the taksals (“mints,” Sikh seminaries). 44 The second type of analysis of Guru Nanak’s and his successors’ teachings begins with Bhai Gurdas, who selected a set of themes that he wanted to share with his audience, and then elaborated upon them by paraphrasing the Guru’s writings in his own poetry. Beginning with the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the writers working along these lines began to use prose as their medium of expression, and from this point on these writings emerged as an important genre. 45 This approach achieved a high degree of expansion in the works of Jodh Singh (1930s), Sher Singh (1940s), and McLeod (1960s). 46 Whereas the commentators of the former version aimed to contextualize the composition under discussion within Guru Nanak’s life and deal with its total contents, the latter option involved an exercise in formal analysis, with the presentation of a particular theme without having to clarify its precise position in the larger context of Guru Nanak’s beliefs, let alone situating it in the activity of his life. While the first had some sense of episodic completeness in its devotion to Guru Nanak’s thinking, the second in all likelihood began as answers to questions from the audience by those who had an overall understanding of the message of the Gurus. As it developed, however, it involved the author’s mechanical selection of themes, and the resulting imposition of a system on the Guru’s ideas may have its strengths but also has the potential to become a problem, as in the case of McLeod. In my view, the aforementioned approaches that analyze Guru Nanak’s teaching by focusing on his compositions need to be refined as well as expanded to include the details of his life, the nature of his activity particularly at Kartarpur, and the information about the context in which these unfolded. The effort in the past years to take up a theme, catalogue its appearances in the writings of the Gurus, and essentially summarize these quotations remains limited. In other words, a computer search of, say, the term seva (service) in the verses of Guru Nanak can only provide the basic data, which needs to be situated within the larger context of his writings and those of his successors to arrive at its significance in the Sikh thinking. The Founding of Kartarpur When constructing Guru Nanak’s life, McLeod focused on the early sources such as the Janam Sakhis, and for the exposition of his teaching
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122 JPS 17:1&2 In 1975, McLeod look
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124 JPS 17:1&2 in Sikh history’.
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126 JPS 17:1&2 use of these sources
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128 JPS 17:1&2 In his essay on the
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130 JPS 17:1&2 publication of his w
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132 JPS 17:1&2 In ‘Sikhism and Ge
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134 JPS 17:1&2 external appearance
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136 JPS 17:1&2 one side in this con
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138 JPS 17:1&2 (1991), and Historic
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140 JPS 17:1&2 teachings: it keeps
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142 JPS 17:1&2 or their ritual prac
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144 JPS 17:1&2 Mann, Albany: State
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Reviews 147 William J. Glover, Maki
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Reviews 149 residents constructed a
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Reviews 151 material dimension is f
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Reviews 153 that for many structure
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Reviews 155 anywhere else, but offe
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Reviews 157 popularity of Punjabi a
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Reviews 159 since the late nineteen
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Reviews 161 Gobind Singh. Nicely tu
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166 JPS 17:1&2 The one is thematic,
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168 JPS 17:1&2 Rahuldeep Singh Gill
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170 JPS 17:1&2 as to produce a more
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172 JPS 17:1&2 action. The question
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174 JPS 17:1&2 identity. Being a co
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176 JPS 17:1&2 Ami Praful Shah In P
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178 JPS 17:1&2 katha - that did not
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In Remembrance 181 In Remembrance _
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In Remembrance 183 Barrier lists 12
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In Remembrance 185 issue for Sikh l
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In Remembrance 187 recent disputes
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In Remembrance 189 *I am happy to a
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In Remembrance 191 Dholi and Bhangr
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In Remembrance 193 especially adept
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In Remembrance 195 Ajeet Singh Math
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In Remembrance 197 movement. The co
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NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS 1. Articles
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