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~-::lI~ International Council on Nanotechnology 351 it encourages development of pernicious technologies and inventions, even those likely to cause substantial harm to people and the environment. Second, it allows private ownership of basic resources that should belong to everyone. The activities in this field clearly target mainly the United States, but since the United States encourages other governments to adopt these policies and make them the global norm, international implications cannot be denied. Concerning nanotechnological applications beyond research, ICTA opts for a more thorough and profound evaluation of products containing nanoparticles, and seeks to shift the burden of proof onto the producers by halting commercialization of products containing nanoparticles until they have been proven safe. ICTA seeks to force federal regulatory agencies to adopt an accurate and standardized definition of nanotechnology, and to regulate emerging nanotechnologies as they would other materials whose safety has not been determined. NanoAction is a nanotechnology-focused advocacy project of the ICTA. Recent advocacy campaigns organized by the ICTA include two calls for further regulation of nanotechnology by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The first study, conducted in conjunction with the Center for Food Safety, concerns nanoparticle silver, which is used in many consumer products (often advertised using claims of its germ-killing ability). It is not yet known if nanosilver threatens human and aquatic health, and its germicidal properties are debatable. The second study called for the National Organic Standards Board of the U.S. Department of Agriculture to prohibit the use of nanotechnology in organic products. In their efforts targeting developments in human biotechnology, ICTA seeks to keep policy makers, activists, and the public informed about developments in human biotechnology. ICTA also encourages a strong regulatory framework to ensure that human genetics research proceeds only under strict ethical standards. The center's main actions in this field are set against all kinds of cloning, be it animal cloning or techniques that might enable cloning of humans. ICTA is also a founding member of the Center for Corporate Policy, an organization that advocates in the field of corporate responsibility and accountability. See Also: Anticipatory Governance; Codes of Conduct, Corporate; Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (Germany); Food; Genetically Modified Food; Governance; Nanoparticle Occupational Safety and Health Consortium; Nanosilver; NanoTrust Project (Austria); Nanotechnology Safety for Success Dialogue (Food Industry); National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme (Australia); Research and Innovation Assessment; Risk Assessment; Risk Governance; Technology Assessment. Further Readings International Center for Technology Assessment (lCTA). www.icta.org (cited July 2009). NanoAction. www.nanoaction.org (cited December 2009). Shatkin, Jo Anne. Nanotechnology: Health and Environmental Risks (Perspectives in Nanotechnology). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2008. Wilson, Mick, et al. Nanotechnology: Basic Science and Emerging Technologies. Boca Raton, FL: Chapman & Hall/ CRC,2002. International Council on Nanotechnology IIle C. Gebeshuber Vienna University of Technology Katharina Igenbergs Vienna University of Technology Justifications for nanotechnology research are often predicated on the importance of different kinds of diversity: diversity of disciplines contributing to the field; diversity of nations competing and cooperating in the commercialization of nanoscience; and diversity of stakeholders (i.e., corporate, academic, government, nongovernmental organizations, and the media). Diversity usually requires institutions to confer coherence, however-otherwise, participants are likely to fracture into their respective constituencies. Disciplinary diversity in nanotechnology has largely been fostered by government-funded academic interdisciplinary research centers, for which there is a long history of institutional models. International and stakeholder diversity, however, has required new kinds of institutions. One of the first and most important of these has been the International Council on Nanotechnology, a semiautonomous spin -off of the Center for Biological and Environmental Nanotechnology at Rice University.
356 International Dialogue )gy could still only benefit affluent nunities, the most powerful members ot a village, or men and not women in a household. Furthermore, from a critical perspective, risks cannot be so easily predicted and controlled. Technologies have unexpected consequences. Developing countries which often have less sophisticated regulatory systems may be more be susceptible to risks to environment and health caused by nanotechnologies. Overall, the critical view focuses on the contexts of nanotechnology creation and use. Poverty is seen as social. Nanotechnology is not seen as inevitable, and there is a focus on local technologies as alternatives and on local knowledge and participation in development interventions. Nanotechnology has clearly reinvigorated debates about the relationship between technology and international development. Despite some variation in positions, discussion remains highly polarized. All parties would benefit from more empirical evidence about how specific nanotechnologies in specific developing areas are actually being developed and used. See Also: Brazil; China; Equity; India; United Nations Millennium Goals. Further Readings Invernizzi, Noela, Guillermo Foladori, and Donald Macluran. "Nanotechnology's Controversial Role for the South." Science, Technology and Society, v.13fl (2008). The Meridian Institute. Nanotechnology and the Poor: Opportunities and Risks. Washington, DC: Meridian Institute, 2005. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The Ethics and Politics ofNanotechnology. New York: UNESCO, 2006. International Dialogue Matthew Harsh Arizona State University International Dialogue can be described as interactions with various institutions and agencies all over the world, which by their position in society and by the force of their ideas can unite many areas of interest. International dialogue in nanoscience aims toward a global cooperation in nanotechnology; it enables and maximizes the beneficial contributions of nanotechnology to society and natural systems, as well as addresses the concerns of the public to reduce risks that may be associated with nanotechnology. Nanoscience and nanotechnology are assumed to play an increasingly important role in technological and societal developments over the next decades, giving rise to a high level of expectation among the scientific community, the industry, and the general public at large. This means that communication between nonscientists is difficult because of the large number of parties involved in this topic. That is why proper access to knowledge, defining common databases, and Websites, as well as workshops, conferences, joint publications, and research activities are needed in different countries to achieve international dialogue in this topic. Education and training for research is also essential, and the need for new multidisciplinary skills is crucial. As history has shown, scientific discoveries can benefit humankind, but can also be used for evil purposes. At an international meeting with experts from 25 countries, organized by the U.S. American Meridian Institute and the u.s. National Science Foundation (NSF) in June 2004, the clear and urgent need for ongoing international dialogue, cooperation, and coordination in the area of responsible nanotechnology was stated. It was concluded to establish an informal preparatory group to proceed with four terms of reference: l. Continue and intensify an international dialogue and cooperation on responsible research and development of nanotechnology to respond to the expectations and concerns of citizens. 2. Constitution of a small preparatory group to explore possible actions, mechanisms, timing, institutional framework, and principles for this dialogue and cooperation. 3. Preparation of a draft plan of action and a joint declaration, along with the procedure for their adoption. 4. Composition of the preparatory group (North and South America, Europe and Africa, Asia and Oceania) and its functioning. The "Exploratory Meeting for Responsible Research and Development in Nanotechnology" in Brussels in 2005 declared the following points of global relevance:
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