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Emerging Technologies 185 Electron-Beam Lithography (EBL) EBL is used for creating the ultrafine patterns required by modern nanotechnology. It is a direct write nanostructuring method using an electron beam for patterning a material sensitive to electron exposure (resist). The electron beam is scanned in a controlled manner, leaving a pattern in the resist. The electron impact locally alters the material solubility by either crosslinking (negative resist) or radiation degradation (positive resist). Subsequent development removes the exposed regions (positive resist) or the unexposed regions (negative resist). EBL does not suffer from the diffraction limit known from photolithography and therefore nanometer-small features can be fabricated. Subsequent to the development, the pattern is transferred to the substrate material by etching. The main limitation of EBL is throughput, since it is a sequential single beam writing process. Key benefits include resolution and flexibility (maskless method). Nanoimprint Lithography (NIL) NIL is an advanced method for creating patterns from the micrometer down to the nanometer range at a low cost by means of replicating a master structure (NILstamp) in a suitable material. The material exhibits the inverse relief of the master structure (thickness contrast). The pattern transfer is conducted either by thermoplastic molding at high pressure/high temperature (hot embossing or thermal NIL) or by molding of a liquid resin at low pressure/low temperature and hardening by ultraviolet (UV) exposure (UV-NIL). Thermal NIL requires hard stamps (e.g., Si-wafers) and temperatures above the glass transition temperature of the thermoplastic imprint resist for pattern replication and demolding at a temperature below the glass transition temperature. UV-NIL requires a transparent stamp (hard or soft) or a transparent substrate. Both methods allow either structuring of a resist polymer (acting as an etching mask as in conventional photolithography) or direct patterning of a polymer with specific optical and electrical properties. Due to the absence of heating/cooling cycles, UV-NIL is a faster process than thermal NIL. The residuum remaining after imprinting must be removed by, for example, etching. High quality master stamps are fabricated by an alternative method (EBL, MPLL) and are usually expensive. Key benefits are resolution (as detailed as 2 to 5 nm) and fast replication. Costs can be moderate when using cheaper working stamps made from the master stamp. See Also: Electronics and Information Technology; Emerging Technologies; Nanoelectronics; Nanoscale Science and Engineering. Further Readings Sun, H.B. and S. Kawata. "Two-Photon Photopolymerization and 3-D Lithographic Microfabrication." Advances in Polymer Science, v.170 (2004). Gates, B.D. "Nanofabrication With Molds and Stamps." Materials Today, v.2 (2005). Guo, 1. Jay. "Nanoimprint Lithography: Methods and Material Requirements." Advanced Materials, v.19 (2007). Hohenau, A., et al. "Electron Beam Lithography: A Helpful Tool for Nanooptics." Microelectronic Engineering, v.83 (2006). IIle C. Gebeshuber Vienna University of Technology Maria R. Belegratis Volker Schmidt Institute of Nanostructured Materials and Photonics, Austria Emerging Technologies Nanotechnology is frequently identified as one of several powerful "emerging technologies," a category that is generally taken to also include biotechnology, robotics, information and communication technologies ("ICT;' a category that includes equipment as well as services such as social networking and virtual reality offerings), and applied cognitive science, as well as the many hybrid technologies that arise from integration of these core technologies. Understanding the implications of these technologies is important in part because of the increasingly powerful role they play in helping to structure human institutions and behaviors, as well as regional and global natural systems. Core Technologies and Innovation Waves One useful concept for appreciating the implications of emerging technologies is provided by economic historians, who have identified and studied "long waves" of
Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (Germany) 237 In summer 2009, EPA announced the possibility of regulating nanosilver as a pesticide, because of its fre c.uent use as an antimicrobial-often incorporated into 2 covering, such as for a computer keyboard or mouse, or in Samsung's Silvercare washing machines, which are cesigned to eliminate any bacteria in laundry. The de -ision to regulate nanosilver will require a number of other decisions-whether to establish new protocols for .; etermining the hazards and efficacy of nanopesticides, ',-hich existing products (if any) will be required to be re-registered (for which there is precedent in the 1988 :egislation), and how to evaluate whether a nanopesti -:ide should be general use or restricted use. A large number of products in recent years have re ',·orded their claims and marketing copy in order to 2yoid language that specifically refers to antimicrobial ?roperties, in an attempt to avoid an accidental violation of FIFRA; the new regulations mentioned by EPA are :-neant in part to clarify matters. In the last few years, it ~a s been somewhat unclear which nanopesticide prod :lcts require registration, and while erring on the side of -:aution may make sense from a legal standpoint, it represents a significant expense on the part of the company, as well as a delay in bringing the product to market. See Also: Consumer Reports; Department of Agriculture C.S.); Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.); Nanosilver; Regulation, U.S.; Samsung. Further Readings Reitman, Edward A. Molecular Engineering of Nanosystems. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2000. -argent, Ted. The Dance of the Molecules: How Nanotechnology Is Changing Our Lives. New York: Basic Books, 2006. Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (Germany) Bill Kte'pi Independent Scholar The Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (FIOSH) in Germany acts as a center of competence and knowledge regarding matters of safety and health at work. FlOSH has its main office in Dortmund and offers advice and practical assistance to companies, the government, social partners (i.e., trade unions and employers, or their representative organizations engaged in social dialogue), and the general public. The main task of FlOSH is to research, analyze, inform, publish, coordinate, develop, train, and advise in providing humane work environments with safe, healthy, and competitive workplaces. The aims and activities are reflected in the tasks assigned to FlOSH: they are oriented toward the basic concern of maintaining and improving safety and health at work. The approaches adopted to achieve this goal are the safe design of technology and humane designs of working conditions. An essential element is the maintenance and promotion of health and work ability on the basis of the notion of health and health -based behavior. The Institute is committed to the safety and health of people in their working and living environments. FlOSH helps to ensure a high quality of work and competitive companies. It advises and supports the German Federal Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, as well as other ministries, and implements sovereign tasks, conducts research, and develops practical solutions. As an important future technology, nanotechnology presents an opportunity for positively influencing economic development in the long-term through intensive research, and for the effective translation of research results into innovative products. In many areas, it is not currently possible to assess the toxicological and ecotoxicological risks associated with this emerging technology. It is expected that the prevalence of nanotechnology will continue to increase and that workers, consumers, and the environment will increasingly be exposed to it. Hence, an important goal of FlOSH is to monitor the development of this new technology, to assess the opportunities and risks in a transparent process, and to compare them with established technologies. According to present knowledge, insoluble and poorly soluble nanomaterials are of particular toxicological relevance. Current German chemical legislation does not provide for a specific procedure for testing and assessing nanomaterials, such as titanium dioxide, zinc oxide, iron oxide, silicon dioxide, or carbon black, which represent a nanoscale modification of an existing high production volume (HPV) substance with the same chemical abstract service (CAS) number. Regulations have not yet been created for nanomaterials
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Page 13 and 14: - Governance 291 to the creation of
Page 15 and 16: 316 Human Enhancement This is espec
Page 17 and 18: 338 InnovationSpace program is loca
Page 19 and 20: 350 International Center for Techno
Page 21 and 22: 356 International Dialogue )gy coul
Page 23 and 24: 360 International SPM Image Competi
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Page 27 and 28: Kroto, Sir Harry 385 KOSHA's major
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Page 33 and 34: 436 Monash Centre for Regulatory St
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Page 41 and 42: 456 Nanobioconvergence Examples and
Page 43 and 44: Nanoelectronics 467 nanometer (nm)
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