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eceptor language; Y = donor language): (1) demonstrate change inducing contact between X and
Y; (2) demonstrate shared features between X and Y language systems (i.e., “look at the whole
language, for structural interference will not be isolated”); (3) demonstrate that these features did
not exist in pre-X, thus proving X as receptor; (4) demonstrate that these features did exist in pre-
Y, thus proving Y as donor. In the case of Hadoram-Joram, the Yahwistic element is
demonstrably intrusive. While our existing knowledge makes a presumed Yahweh cult in Hamat
speculative, Toi is influenced enough by the rising Israelite power on his southern border to
warrant sending a political envoy led by his son bearing gifts and a new name intended to please
the new monarch.
Nevertheless Hamat remained under Neo-Hittite control as evidenced by Toi’s
successors whose names appear in both Assyrian annals and in local hieroglyphic Luwian: Parita,
Urhilina, and Uratami, where Urhilina is Hurrian and his son’s name Uratami is Luwian. 29 After
the usurpation by Zakkur the remaining independent rulers of Hamat no longer bear Anatolian
names. Yau-bidi, either Aramean or Hebrew, represents the last and is given the appellation
“evil Hittite” by Sargon II (see Hawkins for source texts; 2000b, 401n55). The reference is likely
geographic, though it does not militate against the possibility of continued Neo-Hittite influence
under Aramean rule or the continued amalgamation of the two cultures.
By way of contrast, this linguistic mixing of personal names is also reflected in the
Aramean controlled Samal (Zinçirli). Kilamuwa and Panamuwa (I and II) are Luwian, and the
names of Panamuwa II’s father and son, Bar-ṣur and Bar-rākib respectively, are Aramaic. 30
Novák (2005, 253–254) observes that the material culture is consistent with this duality, for the
art closely follows the Hittite themes found at Karkamiš but Samalian Aramaic represents the
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29 See the discussion in Sader (1987, 214–216); for all known occurrences see the references in Savaş
(1998) and editions in Hawkins (2000a, 403–423).
30 The first element of Panamuwa is of uncertain meaning, and -muwa indicates “power” or “seed,
offspring.” QRL, the father of Panamuwa I, while of uncertain etymology is non-Semitic and likely Anatolian. For
discussion see Tropper (1993, 60).
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