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Gundel, Jeanette K., Kaja Borthen and Thorstein Fretheim. 1999. The role of context in pronominal reference to higher order entities in English and Norwegian. In P. Bouquet et al (eds.). Modeling and using context. Lecture notes in Artifical Intelligence. Berlin: Springer Verlag. Hegarty, Michael, Jeanette K. Gundel and Kaja Borthen. 2002. Information structure and the accessibility of clausally introduced referents. Theoretical Linguistics 27(2-3):163-186. Hegarty, Michael. 2003. Semantic types of abstract entities. To appear in Lingua. Lahiri, Utpal. 2002. Questions and Answers in Embedded Contexts. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Moltmann, Friederike. 1997. Parts and Wholes in Semantics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Winter, Yoad. 2001. Flexibility Principles in Boolean Semantics: The Interpretation of Coordination, Plurality, and Scope in Natural Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 6
MATCHING THE CONSTITUENCY OF QUANTIFICATION AND SENTENCE STRUCTURE: TWO CASE STUDIES FROM MANDARIN CHINESE Daniel Hole (hole@germanistik.uni-muenchen.de) Institut für Deutsche Philologie/Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München While it is no longer necessary to point out the fruitfulness of the tripartite structure approach to quantification, not all areas within the fence set by this theory have yet been populated. This presentation will colonize two of these unpopulated spots with hitherto underinvestigated phenomena from Mandarin Chinese. The first phenomenon concerns information-structure and, more accurately, obligatory background marking. The special thing about Chinese background marking is that, given certain structural conditions, it is (i) obligatory and (ii) paradigmatic. The sentences in (1) illustrate both of these properties. (1) a. Zhĭyŏu ZHÈ-zhŏng shū Lăo Wáng *(cái) măi-guo. only this-CL:kind book Old Wang CAI buy-ASP ‘Old Wang has bought only THIS kind of book before.’ b. Jiùshì NĬ LÁI, wŏ *(yĕ) bù huì qù. even.if you come I YE not will go ‘Even if YOU COME, I will not go.’/‘If YOU COME, I still won’t go.’ c. Lián TĀ *(dōu) huì lái. even (s)he DOU will come ‘Even (S)HE will come.’ d. Zhĭ-yào NĬ LÁI, wŏ *(jiù) qù. only-must you come I JIU go ≈ ‘If YOU COME, I’ll go.’ All sentences in (1) have focused constituents in small caps with specific focus quantificational meanings: (1a) precludes the truth of any relevant alternative sentence, (1b) presupposes the truth of at least one alternative sentence (the existential second translation is more accurate in this respect), (1c) makes a universal statement concerning alternatives, and (1d) presupposes that not all alternatives are true. Apart from the fact that negated universal quantification over alternatives, as postulated for (1d), has, to the best of my knowledge, never been proposed as a lexically encapsulated focus quantificational notion, the complete coverage of the relevant domain is special (albeit theoretically expected from the point of view of quantificational focus theories and Löbner’s 1990 findings concerning the design of quantificational lexical paradigms): Each of the four classic quantificational types is represented by (1a-e). The paradigm of focus-related expressions in (1) thus covers the complete semantic space that is relevant in this domain. The obligatoriness of cái, yĕ, dōu and jiù in (1) constitutes the second peculiarity of the discussed Mandarin system. The underlined focus markers zhĭyŏu, jiùshì, lián and zhĭyào precede and c-command their interacting foci, whereas obligatory cái, yĕ, dōu and jiù follow their interacting foci. Thus, while the obligatory particles covary with the quantificational type of focus, they do not seem to partake in the focus marking itself (otherwise we would expect them to c-command their foci). Instead, they occur in a fixed position probably immediately above AspP or some non-epistemic modal projection (Shyu 1996). The material following the particles invariably belongs in the presupposition of the focus-background structure, so I take the particles to constitute an agreement phenomenon: The quantificational type of the focus is reflected in the background. Since the focusbackground partition may be subsumed under a general notion of subject-predicate partitionings, and since syntactic subjects are typical agreement triggers, the postulated Mandarin agreement system is not fully unexpected. The only unexpected property of the system is that the agreement is not realized within morphology, but, at best, as a case of pro-cliticization. The four particles in (1) are the core members of the investigated paradigm of conventionalized background markers in Mandarin. Even though all four quantificational types are covered
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