SALAH SALEM OBAID GURBEL - ePrints@USM

completely penetrated through all treatment thickness of Indoxacarb–treated soil at all
concentrations (Hu, 2005).
2.3.2: The other methods for termite control
Due to the long residual activity for some termiticides, or the impact of
active material of termiticides on the soil vertebrate, some researchers investigated new
methods that avoid using chemicals. Other methods of control are physical barriers and
biological control.
2.3.3.1: Physical barriers
Some studies were carried out to investigate the use of sand particles as
physical barriers to prevent subterranean termite from penetrating structures (Su and
Scheffrahn, 1992; Ebeling and Pence, 1957; Tamashiro et al., 1991; Mauldin and Kard,
1996; Lewis and Haverty, 1996). Other materials that has been used as physical barriers
were graded stones, glass splinters and stainless steel (Lewis, 1997; Peters, 1996; Ngee,
2003; Grace et al., 1996b; Cornelius, 2005)
2.3.2.2: Biological control
The biological control of termite includes nematodes, fungi and viruses
(Pearce, 1997).
2.3.4.1: Nematode
Poinar et al. (1989) reported that high mortality (≥ 80%) of Reticulitermes
spp have been generated under laboratory conditions when high concentration of
nematodes were applied (Yu ,et al 2006). Some studies which used nematodes such as
Steinernema carpocapsae (Breton), S. riobrave Cabanillas, Poinar and Raulston (TX),
Heterorhabditis indica Poinr, Kanunakar and David and H. bacteriophora Poinar
(HP88) against subterranean termites Coptotermes formosanus and R. favipes showed
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