SG-Ch 7 Learning.pdf - Edmond Public Schools

Learning 1
How Do We Learn?
Objective 7-1:Define learning, and identify some basic
forms of learning.
1. The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring
information or behaviors is called
_______________________ .
2. More than 200years ago, philosophers such as
John Locke and David Hume argued that an important
factor in learning is our tendency to
_______________________ events that occur in sequence.
Even simple animals, such as the sea slug Aplysia, can learn
simple _______________________ between stimuli. This
type of learning is called _______________________
_______________________ .
3. The type of learning in which the organism learns to
associate two stimuli is _______________________
conditioning. A situation or event that evokes a response is
a _______________________ .
4. The tendency of organisms to associate a response and its
consequence forms the basis of _______________________
conditioning.
5. We acquire mental information that guides our behavior
through ____________________ ____________________ .
Complex animals often learn behaviors merely by
_______________________ others perform them. This is
called _______________________
_______________________ .
Classical Conditioning
Objective 7-2:Define classical conditioning and
behaviorism, and describe the basic components of classical
conditioning.
6. Classical conditioning was first explored by the Russian
physiologist _______________________ . Early in the
twentieth century, psychologist _______________________
urged psychologists to discard references to mental
concepts in favor of studying observable behavior. This
view, called _______________________ , influenced
American psychology during the first half of that century.
7. In Pavlov's classic experiment, a tone, or
_______________________ _______________________
is sounded just before food, the
_______________________ _______________________
is placed in the animal's mouth.
8. An animal will salivate when food is placed in its mouth.
This salivation is called the _______________________
_______________________ .
9. Eventually, the dogs in Pavlov's experiment would
salivate on hearing the tone, now called the
_______________________ _______________________
.This salivation is called the _______________________
_______________________ .
STUDY TIP: Students often confuse stimulus with response
and conditioned with unconditioned. The stimulus is the event
that causes something else, the response, to happen.
Unconditioned means "unlearned"; conditioned means
"learned." Thus, an unconditioned response (UR) is an event
that occurs naturally in response to some stimulus. An
unconditioned stimulus (US) is something that naturally and
automatically triggers the unlearned response.
A conditioned stimulus (CS) is an originally neutral stimulus
(NS) that, through learning, comes to be associated with some
unlearned response. A conditioned response (CR) is the
learned response to the originally neutral but now conditioned
stimulus.
Stimulus (event or other trigger) -> Response
Unconditioned = unlearned
Conditioned = learned
So, unconditioned stimulus + conditioned stimulus
unconditioned response conditioned response

2
Learning
at
its
_
rs
APPLICATIONS:
Classical conditioning is all around us. It is especially common
in the realm of emotional behavior. Test your understanding of
the basic elements of classical conditioning in the following
example. Then, consider whether there are emotions of your
own that might have developed as the product of classical
conditioning.
As a child, you were playing in the yard one day when a
neighbor's cat wandered over. Your mother (who has a
terrible fear of animals) screamed and snatched you into her
arms. Her behavior caused you to cry. You now have a fear of
As a child, you were playing in the yard one day
when cats. a neighbor's cat wandered over. Your mother
(who 10. The has NS, a then terrible CS is fear ______________________________
of animals) screamed and
snatched you into her arms. Her behavior caused you
to11. cry. The You US is now ______________________________________
have a fear of cats.
10.
12.
The
The CR
NS,
is
then
______________________________________
CS is
13. The UR is ______________________________________
-----------
11. The US is
---------------
14. You always rattle the box of dog biscuits before giving
12. The CR is
---------------
your dog a treat. As you do so, your dog salivates. At first,
13. The UR is
rattling the ---------------
box is a _ which eventually becomes a __ .
14. Your always dog's salivation rattle the is a box . _ of dog biscuits before
givinga. your NS; CS; dogCR
a treat. As you do so, your dog
salivates. At first, rattling the box is a _
b. CS; NS; UR
which eventually becomes a __
. Your
dog'sc. salivation NS; US; CR is a .
_
a. NS; d. US; CS; NS; CRUR
b. CS; NS; UR
c. NS; US; CR
d. US; NS; UR
Objective 7-3: Summarize the processes of acquisition,
Objective 7-3:Summarize the processes of acquisition,
extinction, extinction, spontaneous spontaneous recovery, recovery, generalization, generalization,
and
and discrimination. discrimination.
Use the following graph as a reference for the
Use answers the following to 15(a), 19(b),and graph as 20(c). a reference for the
answers to 15(a), 19(b),and 20(c).
Strong TI a. CS+ us b. CSalone c.
Strength
ofCR
Weak I , ~ n_ .. __
::::::000..""
Time
15. The initial learning of a conditioned response is called
15. The initial learning of a conditioned response is
(a) _______________________ . For many conditioning
called (a)
. For many conditioning
situations, the optimal interval between a
situations, the optimal interval between a neutral stimulus
and the US is _______________________
neutral stimulus and the US is
_______________________ .
16. When the US is presented prior to a neutral stimulus,
conditioning (does/does not) occur.
17. Sexual conditioning studies with quail demonstrate that
classical conditioning is highly adaptive because it helps
animals _______________________ and
_______________________ .
18. The procedure in which an established conditioned
stimulus is paired with a different
_______________________ stimulus, thereby establishing
the latter as a _______________________ stimulus, is called
_______________________-_______________________
_______________________ ,
19. If a CS is repeatedly presented without the US,
(b) _______________________ soon occurs; that is, the
CR diminishes.
20. Following a pause, however, the CR reappears in
response to the CS; this phenomenon is called
(c) _______________________
_______________________ .
21. Subjects often respond to a similar stimulus as they
would to the original CS. This phenomenon is called
_______________________ .
22. Humans and other animals can also be trained not to
respond to _______________________ stimuli. This
learned ability is called _______________________
23. Being able to recognize differences among stimuli has
_______________________ value because it lets us limit
our learned responses to appropriate stimuli.
STUDY TIP: Some students find the terms discrimination and
generalization confusing because of their negative social
connotations. In the context of classical conditioning,
discrimination is a healthy sign that the subject of conditioning
has learned the difference between two stimuli, much as a
"discriminating coffee lover" can taste subtle variations
between two coffee blends. Generalization is apparent when
discrimination does not occur.
16. When the US is presented prior to a neutral stim-

Learning 3
APPLICATION:
Bill had an American-made car that was in the shop more
than it was out. Since then he will not even consider owning
an American-made car.
24. Bill's attitude is an example of
_______________________ . Bill's friend Andy also had
an American-made car with similar problems. Deciding
that it was just that brand, Andy decided to try another
brand. Rather than bunch all American-made cars
together, he was a _______________________ buyer of
cars.
Objective 7-4:Explain why Pavlov's work remains so
important, and describe some applications of his work to
human health and well-being.
25. Classical conditioning is one way that virtually all
organisms learn to _______________________ to their
environment.
26. Another aspect of Pavlov's legacy is that he showed
how a process such as learning could be studied
_______________________ .
Explain why the study of classical conditioning is
important.
27. Through classical conditioning, former drug users often
feel a _______________________ when they are in the
_______________________ associated with previous highs.
28. Research studies demonstrate that the body's immune
system (can/cannot) be classically conditioned.
Describe the Watson and Rayner experiment.
Objective 7-5: Describe how operant behavior is
reinforced and shaped.
29. B. F. Skinner used Thorndike's
_______________________ _______________________
_______________________ as a starting point in
developing a behavioral technology. This principle states
that _______________________ behavior is likely to
_______________________ .
30. In operant conditioning, organisms associate their own
actions with _______________________ . Actions followed
by _______________________ increase; actions followed
by _______________________ decrease.
31. Skinner designed an apparatus, called the
_______________________ _______________________ to
investigate learning in
animals. This design
creates a stage on
which organisms act
out Skinner's concept
of ________________
any event that
increases the
frequency of a preceding response.
32. The procedure in which a person teaches an animal to
perform an intricate behavior by building up to it in small
steps is called _______________________ . This method
involves reinforcing successive of the desired behavior.
33. In experiments to determine what an animal can
perceive, researchers have found that animals are capable of
forming and _______________________ between stimuli.
Similar experiments have been conducted with babies, who
also can't verbalize their responses.
34. A situation, event, or signal that a certain response will
be reinforced is a _______________________
_______________________ .

4
Learning
APPLICATION:
35. Which of the following is an example of shaping?
a. A dog learns to salivate at the sight of a box of dog
biscuits.
b. A new driver learns to stop at an intersection when the
light changes to red.
c. A parrot is rewarded first for making any sound, then
for making a sound similar to "Laura," and then for
"speaking" its owner's name.
Objective 7-6: Discuss the differences between positive and
negative reinforcement, and identify the basic types of
reinforcers.
36. A stimulus that strengthens a response by presenting a
typically pleasurable stimulus after a response is a
_______________________ _______________________ .
37. A stimulus that strengthens a response by reducing or
removing an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is a
_______________________ _______________________ .
38. Reinforcers, such as food and shock, that are related to
basic needs and therefore do not rely on learning are called
_______________________ _______________________ .
39. Reinforcers that must be conditioned and therefore
derive their power through association are called
_______________________ _______________________ .
40. Children who are able to delay gratification tend to
become (more/less) socially competent and high achieving
as they mature.
41. Immediate reinforcement (is/is not) more effective than
its alternative, _______________________ reinforcement.
This explains in part the difficulty that
_______________________ users have in quitting their
habits, as well as the tendency of some teens to engage in
risky, _______________________
_______________________ .
STUDY TIP: Some students have a problem differentiating
positive and negative reinforcers because they naturally think
"positive" indicates a "good," or desirable, outcome, while
"negative" connotes a "bad," or undesirable, outcome.
Remember that from the organism's point of view,
reinforcement is always a desirable outcome. You may find it
useful to think of a photography analogy. A "negative" is a
reverse image in which the "positive" photographic image is
not present. So too, negative reinforcement involves taking
away an event-in this case, one that is undesirable.
Objective 7-7: Explain how the different reinforcement
schedules affect behavior.
42. A _______________________
_______________________ is a pattern specifying how
often a _______________________
_______________________ is reinforced.
43. The procedure involving reinforcement of each and
every response is called _______________________
_______________________ . Under these conditions,
learning is (rapid/slow). When this type of reinforcement is
discontinued, extinction is (rapid/ slow).
44. The procedure in which responses are reinforced only
part of the time is called _______________________
reinforcement. Under these conditions, learning is generally
(faster /slower) than it is with continuous reinforcement.
Behavior reinforced in this manner is (very /not very)
resistant to extinction.
45. When behavior is reinforced after a set number of
responses, a _______________________ -
_______________________ schedule is in effect.
46. Three-year-old Yusef knows that if he cries when he
wants a treat, his mother will sometimes give in. When, as
in this case, reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable
number of responses, a _______________________ -
_______________________ schedule is being used.
47. Reinforcement of the first response after a set interval of
time defines the _______________________ -
_______________________ schedule. An example of this
schedule is _______________________________________ .
48. When the first response after varying amounts of time is
reinforced, a _______________________ -
_______________________ schedule is in effect.

Learning 5
Describe the typical patterns of response under fixedinterval,
fixed-ratio, variable-interval, and variable-ratio
schedules of reinforcement.
APPLICATlONS:
49. You are expecting an important letter in the mail. As the
regular delivery time approaches you glance more and
more frequently out the window, searching for the letter
carrier. Your behavior in this situation typifies that
associated with which schedule of reinforcement?
a. fixed-ratio c. fixed-interval
b. variable-ratio d. variable-interval
50. From a casino owner's viewpoint, which of the following
jackpot-payout schedules would be the most desirable for
reinforcing customer use of a slot machine?
a. variable-ratio
b. fixed-ratio
c. variable-interval
d. fixed-interval
51. Lars, a shoe salesman, is paid every two weeks; whereas,
Tom receives a commission for each pair of shoes he
sells. Evidently, Lars is paid on a
_______________________ schedule of reinforcement,
and Tom on a _______________________ schedule of
reinforcement.
a. fixed-ratio; fixed-interval
b. continuous; intermittent
c. fixed-interval; fixed-ratio
d. variable-interval; variable-ratio
52. Jack finally takes out the garbage in order to get his father
to stop pestering him. Jack's behavior is being influenced
by _______________________
_______________________ .
53. Your instructor invites you to her home as part of a select
group of students to discuss possible careers in
psychology. The invitation is an example of a
_______________________
_______________________ .
Objective 7-8: Discuss how punishment and negative
reinforcement differ, and explain how punishment affects
behavior.
54. Negative reinforcement (increases / decreases) a
response by _______________________ an aversive
stimulus after that response. Punishment
(increases/decreases) a response by
_______________________ an aversive stimulus after that
response.
55. An aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood
of the behavior that preceded it is called
_______________________ . If an aversive stimulus is
administered, it is called _______________________
_______________________ . If a desirable stimulus is
withdrawn, it is called _______________________
_______________________ .
56. Because punished behavior is merely
_______________________ , it may reappear. Also,
punishment teaches _______________________ , that
behavior that is unacceptable in one context may be
acceptable in another. Punishment can also lead to
_______________________ and a sense of helplessness, as
well as to the association of the aversive event with
_______________________ _______________________.
57. Punishment also often increases
_______________________ and does not guide the
individual toward more desirable behavior.
STUDY TIP/APPLICATION: To avoid the natural tendency to
confuse punishment and negative reinforcement, remember
that positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement both
lead to an increase in behavior, while punishment decreases
behavior. In punishment, something bad occurs following an
undesirable behavior; in negative reinforcement, something
bad is removed. Complete the chart below of examples of
punishment and negative reinforcement. The first example
has been filled in for you.

6
be acceptable in another. Punishment can also
lead to
and a sense of helplessness,
as well as to the association of the aversive
event with
Learning
_
In punishment, something bad occurs following an
undesirable behavior; in negative reinforcement,
something bad is removed. Complete the chart
below of examples of punishment and negative reinforcement.
The first example has been filled in for
you.
58. Which Is Taken Away, Is This Punishment or
Behavior Consequence Something Good or Bad? Negative Reinforcement?
Driving
Lose driver's
while intoxicated license Good Punishment
a. Forgetting to give your
roommate a phone
message
b. Putting on your coat
so that you are
no longer cold
c. Getting a drink
when you are thirsty
d. Using your laptop
until the battery dies
e. Your brother nagging
you until you help
him with his homework
Objective 7-9:Describe the the controversy over over Skinner's
Skinner's views of human behavior, and identify
views of human behavior, and identify some ways to apply
some ways to apply operant conditioning principles
operant at school, conditioning in sports, principles at work, and at school, at home. in sports, at work,
and at home.
59. Skinner's views were controversial because he
59. Skinner's
insisted
views
that
were controversial because
influences,
he insisted
that _______________________ rather than
influences, _ rather than
_______________________ and _______________________ _
and _______________________ shape behavior. shape behavior.
60. 60. Skinner Skinner also also advocated advocated the the use use of of
_________ principles to influence people
in ways that promote more desirable
_______________________ principles to influence people
in ways that promote more desirable
_______________________ .
61. Skinner's critics argued that he
61. Skinner's ________ critics argued that people he by neglecting their
_______________________ people by neglecting their
personal _______________________ and by seeking to
_______________________ their actions.
62. The use of teaching machines and programmed
textbooks was an early application of the operant
conditioning procedure of _______________________ to
education. Online systems, software that is
_______________________ and
_______________________-based learning are newer
examples of this application of operant principles.
Reinforcement principles can also be used to enhance
_______________________ abilities by shaping successive
approximations of new skills.
63. In personal boosting productivity in the workplace, and by seeking positive to
reinforcement _________ is (more/less) effective their actions. when applied to
specific 62. The behaviors use of teaching than when machines given to and reward programmed general merit
and when
textbooks
the desired
was an
performance
early application
is well defined
of the operant
and
conditioning procedure of
_
_______________________ . For such behaviors,
to education. Online
systems,
immediate reinforcement
software that
is
is
(more/no more) effective
_
than
delayed andreinforcement.
-based learning
64. In are using newer operant examples conditioning of this to application change your of own operant
behavior, principles. you would Reinforcement follow these principles four steps can also be
used to enhance
abilities by
a. ______________________________________________
shaping successive approximations of new skills.
b. ______________________________________________
63. In boosting productivity in the workplace, positive
reinforcement is
_
c. ______________________________________________
d. ______________________________________________
(more/less) effective when applied to specific
APPLICATIONS:
65. The manager of a manufacturing plant wishes to use
positive reinforcement to increase the productivity of
workers. Which of the following procedures would
probably be the most effective?
a. Deserving employees are given a general merit
bonus at the end of each fiscal year.
b. A productivity goal that seems attainable, yet is
unrealistic, is set for each employee.
c. Employees are given immediate bonuses for
specific behaviors related to productivity.
d. Employees who fail to meet standards of
productivity receive pay cuts.

ductivity of workers. Which of the following procedures
would probably be the most effective?
a. Deserving employees are given a general
merit bonus at the end of each fiscal year.
b. A productivity goal that seems attainable, yet
is unrealistic, is set for each employee.
c. Employees are given immediate bonuses for
66. Reggie's specific mother behaviors tells him that related he can to watch productivity. TV after he
cleans d. Employees his room. Evidently, who fail to Reggie's meet mother standards is attempting of productivity
receive pay cuts.
to use to increase room cleaning.
66. Reggie's a. operant mother conditioning tells him that he can watch
TV after he cleans his room. Evidently, Reggie's
mother b. secondary is attempting reinforcement to use to
increase c. positive room reinforcement cleaning.
a. d. operant all of these conditioning procedures
b. secondary reinforcement
c. positive reinforcement
d. all of these procedures
Objective 7-10:Identify the characteristics that distinguish
operant conditioning from classical conditioning.
responses.
70. The reflexive responses of classical conditioning
involve
behavior.
Learning 7
71. In contrast, behavior that is more spontaneous
and that is influenced by its consequences is
called .
behavior.
the influences of _______________________ processes and
_______________________ 72. Classical and operant predispositions.
conditioning are both subject
to the influences of
_
processes and
_
STUDY TIP/APPLICATION: If you still find yourself confusing
predispositions.
classical conditioning and operant conditioning, try the
following. STUDYAsk TIP/APPLICATION:
yourself two questions: If you (1) Is still the find behavior yourself
confusing classical conditioning and operant conditioning,
try the following. Ask yourself two questions:
voluntary (operant conditioning) or involuntary (classical
conditioning)? (1) Is the behavior (2) Does voluntary the learning (operant involve an conditioning)
association
or involuntary (classical conditioning)? (2) Does the
between two stimuli (classical conditioning) or between a
learning involve an association between two stimuli
response (classical and conditioning)
an outcome (operant or between conditioning)? a response Test your
and an outcome (operant conditioning)? Test your
understanding with the following examples.
understanding with the following examples.
73. Is the Behavior Type of
Behavior Voluntary or Involuntary? Conditioning
a. After receiving a mild shock
from the "invisible fence"
surrounding his yard, a dog no
longer crosses the boundary.
b. You flinch when someone
yells, "Duck!"
c. You ask more questions in
class after the professor praises
you for a good question.
d. The pupil of your eye dilates
(opens wider) after you enter
a darkened theater.
67. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are
both forms of _______________________
_______________________ .
68. Both types of conditioning involve similar processes of
_______________________ , _______________________ ,
_______________________ , _______________________ ,
_______________________ and
_______________________ .
69. Classical conditioning associates
_______________________ stimuli with stimuli that trigger
responses that are _ Thus, in this form of conditioning, the
organism (does/does not) control the responses.
70. The reflexive responses of classical conditioning involve
_______________________ behavior.
71. In contrast, behavior that is more spontaneous and that
is influenced by its consequences is called
_______________________ behavior.
72. Classical and operant conditioning are both subject to
Biology, Cognition, and Learning
Objective 7-11: Explain how biological constraints affect
classical and operant conditioning.
74. Some psychologists once believed that any natural
_______________________ could be conditioned to any
neutral _______________________ .
75. Garcia discovered that rats would associate
_______________________ with taste but not with other
stimuli. Garcia found that taste-aversion conditioning
(would/would not) occur when the delay between the CS
and the US was more than an hour is speedier, stronger,
and more durable when the CS is
_______________________ relevant.
76. Results such as these demonstrate that the principles of
learning are constrained by the _______________________
predispositions of each animal species and that they help
each species _______________________ to its environment.

8
Learning
They also demonstrate the importance of different
_______________________ in understanding complex
phenomena.
77. Operant conditioning (is/is not) constrained by an
animal's biological predispositions.
78. For instance, with animals it is difficult to use food as a
_______________________ to _______________________
behaviors that are not naturally associated with
_______________________ .
79. Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn
associations that are naturally _______________________ .
When animals revert to their biologically predisposed
patterns, they are exhibiting what is called
_______________________ _______________________ .
APPLICATIONS:
80. A pigeon can easily be taught to flap its wings to avoid
shock but not for food reinforcement. According to the
text, this is most likely so because
a. pigeons are biologically predisposed to flap their
wings to escape aversive events and to use their
beaks to obtain food.
b. shock is a more motivating stimulus for birds than
food is.
c. hungry animals have difficulty delaying their eating
long enough to learn any new skill.
d. of all of these reasons.
81. Last evening May-Ling ate her first cheeseburger and
french fries at an American fast-food restaurant. A few
hours later she became ill. It can be expected that May-
Ling will
a. develop an aversion to the sight of a cheeseburger
and french fries.
b. develop an aversion to the taste of a cheeseburger
and french fries.
c. not associate her illness with the food she ate.
d. associate her sickness with something she
experienced immediately before she became ill.
Objective 7-12: Explain how cognitive processes affect
classical and operant conditioning.
82. The early behaviorists believed that to understand
behavior in various organisms, any presumption of was
_______________________ unnecessary.
83. Experiments by Rescorla and Wagner demonstrate that
a CS must reliably _______________________ the US for
an association to develop and, more generally, that
_______________________ processes playa role in
conditioning. It is as if the animal learns to
_______________________ that the US will occur.
84. The importance of cognitive processes in human
conditioning is demonstrated by the failure of classical
conditioning as a treatment for _______________________
_______________________ .
85. Skinner and other behaviorists resisted the growing
belief that expectations, perceptions, and other
_______________________ processes have a valid place in
the science of psychology.
86. When a well-learned
route in a maze is blocked,
rats sometimes choose an
alternative route, acting as
if they were consulting a
_______________________ _______________________ .
87. Animals may learn from experience even when
reinforcement is not available. When learning is not
apparent until reinforcement has been provided,
_______________________ _______________________ is
said to have occurred.
88. Excessive rewards may undermine
_______________________ _______________________,
which is the desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.
The motivation to seek external rewards and avoid
punishment is called _______________________
_______________________ .
APPLICATIONS:
89. After discovering that her usual route home was closed
due to road repairs, Sharetta used her knowledge of the
city and sense of direction to find an alternative route.

Learning 9
This is an example of
a. latent learning.
b. observational learning.
c. shaping.
d. using a cognitive map.
90. Two rats are independently placed in a maze. One rat is
rewarded with food in the goal box. The other receives no
food reward. On a later trial, food is placed in the goal box
for the "unrewarded" rat. What can you say about the rat's
behavior on that trial?
a. The "unrewarded" rat will run to the goal box just
as quickly as the rewarded rat.
b. The rat will wander around the maze and never
find the food reward.
c. The rat will find the food reward, but it will take
much longer than the rewarded rat.
d. The rat will not even try to find the food reward.
91. Nancy decided to take introductory psychology because
she has always been interested in human behavior. Jack
enrolled in the same course because he thought it would
be easy. Nancy's behavior was motivated by
_______________________, Jack's by
_______________________ .
a. extrinsic motivation; intrinsic motivation
b. intrinsic motivation; extrinsic motivation
c. drives; incentives
d. incentives; drives
Learning by Observation
Objective 7-13:Describe the process of observational
learning, and explain how some scientists believe it is
enabled by mirror neurons.
92. Learning by observing and imitating others is
called ,or _______________________
_______________________ . This form of learning
(occurs/does not occur) in species other than our own.
93. The psychologist best known for research on
observational learning is _______________________ .
94. In one experiment, the child who viewed an adult
punch an inflatable doll played (more/less) aggressively
than the child who had not observed the adult.
95. Bandura believes people imitate a model because of
_______________________ and
_______________________ those received by the model as
well as by imitators.
96. Models are most effective when they are perceived as
_______________________ , _______________________ ,
or _______________________ . Models are also most
effective when their words and actions are
_______________________ .
97. Neuroscientists have found _______________________
neurons in the brain's _______________________ lobe that
may provide a neural basis for _______________________
learning. These neurons have been observed to fire when
monkeys perform a simple task and when they
_______________________ . Whether the human ability to
_______________________ and
_______________________ is due to these neurons or to
distributed brain _______________________ is an issue
currently being debated.
98. By age _______________________ , infants will imitate
various novel gestures. By age _______________________
they will imitate acts modeled on television. Children's
brains enable their _______________________ and their
_______________________ _______________________
_______________________ .
APPLICATIONS: Children-and, of course, adults learn a great
deal by watching other people. Depending on the models, the
behavior they learn may be good or bad.
99. During holiday breaks Lionel watches wrestling, which
_______________________ his aggressive tendencies.
His brother Michael won't watch the wrestling because he
feels the pain of the choke hold, for example, as reflected
in his brain's _______________________
_______________________ . Instead, Michael spends
time with Grandma, who cooks for the poor during the
holiday season, helping Michael to learn
_______________________ behavior.
100. Mrs. Ramirez often tells her children that it is important to
buckle their seat belts while riding in the car, but she

10
Learning
rarely does so herself. Her children will probably learn to
a. use their seat belts and tell others it is important to
do so.
b. use their seat belts but not tell others it is
important to do so.
c. tell others it is important to use seat belts but
rarely use them themselves.
d. neither tell others that seat belts are important nor
use them.
101. After watching coverage of the Olympics on television
recently, Lynn and Susan have been staging their own
"summer games." Which of the following best accounts
for their behavior?
a. classical conditioning
b. observational learning
c. latent learning
d. shaping
watching violence on television (does/does not) lead to
aggressive behavior.
109. (Thinking Critically) The violence-viewing effect
stems from several factors, including
_______________________ of observed aggression and the
tendency of prolonged exposure to violence to
_______________________ viewers.
Objective 7-14: Discuss the impact of prosocial modeling
and of antisocial modeling.
102. Children will model positive, or
_______________________ , behaviors.
103. Children will also model negative, or
_______________________ , behaviors. This may help
explain why _______________________ parents might
have children. However, _______________________
factors may also be involved.
104. Children in developed countries spend more time
_______________________ _______________________
than they spend in school.
105. Compared with the real world, television depicts a
much higher percentage of crimes as being
_______________________ in nature.
106. (Thinking Critically) Correlational studies (link/ do
not link) watching television violence with violent behavior.
107. (Thinking Critically) The more hours children spend
watching violent programs, the more at risk they are for
_______________________ and
_______________________ as teens and adults.
108. (Thinking Critically) Correlation does not prove
_______________________ . Most researchers believe that