Progressive Housing in New York City: - Columbia University ...
Progressive Housing in New York City: - Columbia University ...
Progressive Housing in New York City: - Columbia University ...
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<strong>Progressive</strong> <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong>:<br />
A Closer Look at Model Tenements<br />
and F<strong>in</strong>nish Cooperatives<br />
BY<br />
Xsusha Carlyann Flandro, Christ<strong>in</strong>e Huh, Neg<strong>in</strong> Maleki,<br />
Mariana Sarango-Manaças & Jennifer Schork<br />
Co lumbia Graduate School of Architecture, Preservation and Plann<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
H istoric Preservation Studio Spr<strong>in</strong>g 2008 with Pro fessor Andrew D olkart 1
Acknowledgement<br />
We’d like to thank our patient studio advisor, Professor and Architectural Historian; Andrew<br />
Dolkart for his guidance and assistance <strong>in</strong> this project. Without his help we would have never<br />
completed the semester and made as much progress as we did. We hope that our time and<br />
research will be useful to social and architectural historians and <strong>in</strong>vite all those who are<br />
<strong>in</strong>terested to use it.<br />
Xsusha Flandro, Christ<strong>in</strong>e Huh, Neg<strong>in</strong> Maleki, Mariana Sarango-Manacas & Jennifer Schork<br />
2
Table of Contents<br />
Item<br />
Page<br />
Introduction……………………………………………………………………………..4<br />
Chapter 1: The Historic Context of <strong>Progressive</strong> <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong>……………………………....5<br />
A. The History of Model Tenements……………………………….......9<br />
B. The History of <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Limited Dividend Cooperatives…………...11<br />
Chapter 2: Women’s Involvement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Progressive</strong> <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong>……………………………..15<br />
Chapter 3: Model Tenements……………………………………………………………24<br />
A. Architectural Analysis ……………………………………………..24<br />
B. De Forest Conditions Survey…………………………………….....35<br />
Chapter 4: F<strong>in</strong>nish Limited Dividend Cooperatives…………………………………….39<br />
A. Discover<strong>in</strong>g the F<strong>in</strong>nish Cooperatives………………...…………..39<br />
B. Alku II Conditions Survey…………………………………………58<br />
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………....60<br />
Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………….62<br />
Selected Bibliography…………………………………………………………………...66<br />
Appendix………………………………………………………………………………...68<br />
3
Introduction<br />
Over the last three months our studio group has undertaken a survey and study progressive hous<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
model tenements and cooperative hous<strong>in</strong>g complexes that lie with<strong>in</strong> the <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong> limits. Before our<br />
group encountered this project some research had been done on this type of hous<strong>in</strong>g but a complete<br />
survey had not been completed. We started our research without a true def<strong>in</strong>ition of progressive hous<strong>in</strong>g<br />
but through our f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs we have come up with a work<strong>in</strong>g def<strong>in</strong>ition of the phrase:<br />
<strong>Progressive</strong> <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong>: homes that were meant for the hourly wage earner (ex: clerk,<br />
bricklayer, carpenter, chauffer, etc.) and their families; the layout and plans of the<br />
build<strong>in</strong>gs were meant to be an improvement on earlier plans and most progressive<br />
hous<strong>in</strong>g was also subsidized <strong>in</strong> some way mak<strong>in</strong>g it affordable to wage earners.<br />
Upon the conclusion of our survey we found roughly n<strong>in</strong>ety progressive hous<strong>in</strong>g build<strong>in</strong>gs that are still<br />
extant <strong>in</strong> <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong>. Images and details are <strong>in</strong>cludes <strong>in</strong> the appendix to this paper. These build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
can further be divided <strong>in</strong>to two categories, the model tenements and limited dividend cooperatives.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish Cooperative‐<br />
Riverview Cooperatives<br />
673‐83 41 st Street, Brooklyn<br />
Model Tenement‐<br />
Hartley Open Stair Tenements<br />
(525 West 47 th Street, Manhattan)<br />
4
Chapter 1- The Historic Context of<br />
<strong>Progressive</strong> <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />
The two major factors contribut<strong>in</strong>g to the <strong>in</strong>troduction of progressive hous<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong><br />
were the liv<strong>in</strong>g conditions of the poor and the massive population of the city. These two forces<br />
work<strong>in</strong>g together created a hous<strong>in</strong>g crisis that cont<strong>in</strong>ues even today, evident by the high cost of<br />
land <strong>in</strong> the city. By 1865 the city’s population was just over eight-hundred thousand, half of<br />
which lived <strong>in</strong> tenement build<strong>in</strong>gs. 1 The majority of these build<strong>in</strong>gs were built on the standard<br />
sized lot, established by the 1811 grid system, one-hundred feet long and twenty-five feet wide.<br />
The build<strong>in</strong>gs were long and narrow and abutted each other on the long sides. There were only<br />
w<strong>in</strong>dows on the front and rear facades, leav<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>terior rooms <strong>in</strong> the build<strong>in</strong>gs with no<br />
exposure to natural light, these build<strong>in</strong>gs also had little, if no, plumb<strong>in</strong>g on the <strong>in</strong>teriors.<br />
Previous civic efforts had helped with the conditions of hous<strong>in</strong>g and had resulted <strong>in</strong> strong<br />
private <strong>in</strong>teraction as well as small amounts of government legislation. The creation of the <strong>New</strong><br />
<strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong> Council of Hygiene a Citizens Association and the Department of Survey and<br />
Inspection of Build<strong>in</strong>gs were two such results. A survey of the 15,309 tenement build<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> <strong>New</strong><br />
<strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong> was completed by the Council of Hygiene and was published <strong>in</strong> 1865. 2 The report<br />
cited the follow<strong>in</strong>g conditions: “filth, overcrowd<strong>in</strong>g, lack of privacy and domesticity, lack of<br />
ventilation and light<strong>in</strong>g and absence of supervision and of sanitary regulation.” 3<br />
These hous<strong>in</strong>g conditions cont<strong>in</strong>ued to l<strong>in</strong>ger well <strong>in</strong>to the twentieth century as the population<br />
exploded to three times its size <strong>in</strong> thirty-five years and the amount of tenement build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
qu<strong>in</strong>tupled to 80,000 <strong>in</strong> 1900. 4<br />
At the government level, three major legislations were passed to combat the problems of<br />
tenement houses. The first of which was <strong>in</strong> 1867 with the passage of the Tenement House Law.<br />
This law legally def<strong>in</strong>ed a tenement as:<br />
1 Citizen’s Association of <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>, 1865, p. lxix.<br />
2 Citizen’s Association of <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>, 1865, p. lxix.<br />
3 Citizen’s Association of <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>, 1865, p. lxxvi.<br />
4 Pluntz, p. 30.<br />
5
Any house, build<strong>in</strong>g, or portion thereof, which is rented, leased, let or hired out to<br />
be occupied or is occupied, as the home or residence of more than three families<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dependently of one another and do<strong>in</strong>g their own cool<strong>in</strong>g on the premises,<br />
or by hav<strong>in</strong>g more than two families upon a floor, so liv<strong>in</strong>g cook<strong>in</strong>g and hav<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
common right <strong>in</strong> the halls, stairways, yards, water-closets, or privies or some of<br />
them. 5<br />
Not limit<strong>in</strong>g this legislation to nearly the def<strong>in</strong>ition of a tenement, it also required exist<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
new build<strong>in</strong>gs to have fire-escapes <strong>in</strong>stalled (on non-fireproof constructions), there were<br />
m<strong>in</strong>imum ceil<strong>in</strong>g heights, one water closet was required for every twenty people (which had to<br />
be connected to the municipal sewer), and three foot transoms had to be provided over the doors<br />
of all <strong>in</strong>terior bedrooms. 6<br />
The second legislation was completed with the pass<strong>in</strong>g of the 1879 Tenement Act, a revision of<br />
the 1867 law. This act changed the footpr<strong>in</strong>t of tenement build<strong>in</strong>gs, it required w<strong>in</strong>dows fac<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the street, backyard or light shaft <strong>in</strong> all <strong>in</strong>terior rooms, and the maximum lot coverage was set at<br />
65% (although city officials <strong>in</strong> charge of enforc<strong>in</strong>g lot coverage often heeded to real estate<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestors and the build<strong>in</strong>gs were allowed to cover 80% of the lot 7 ). The result was the ever<br />
present dumbbell tenement (also referred to as “old-law” tenements). The act also required more<br />
toilets <strong>in</strong> each build<strong>in</strong>g. Unfortunately, these changes to the build<strong>in</strong>g laws did little to improve<br />
the conditions <strong>in</strong>side of the tenement build<strong>in</strong>gs. The light shafts were <strong>in</strong>effective for apartments<br />
more than one floor down from the roof, became flues dur<strong>in</strong>g a fire and a place where refuse<br />
regularly collected. 8<br />
The next development was the 1901 Tenement House Act, aga<strong>in</strong> a revision to the previous<br />
amendment. The 1901 act <strong>in</strong>creased the lot coverage to an enforceable 70%, the airshaft<br />
dimensions were expanded to court sized proportions, height restrictions were imposed on new<br />
constructions, and toilets and runn<strong>in</strong>g water were required for each <strong>in</strong>dividual apartment. These<br />
amendments were also more thoroughly enforced through the simultaneous creation of the new<br />
Build<strong>in</strong>g Bureau and Bureau of Inspection. Build<strong>in</strong>gs constructed under this legislation are<br />
5 Laws of <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>, Chapter 85, Section 13 (1867).b<br />
6 Dolkart, p. 60.<br />
7 Dolkart, p. 61, and Plunz, p. 24.<br />
8 Dolkart, p. 61.<br />
6
eferred to as “<strong>New</strong>-Law” tenements. It must be noted that the majority of progressive hous<strong>in</strong>g<br />
was built under this act.<br />
<strong>Progressive</strong> hous<strong>in</strong>g made up only a very small percentage of total new constructions dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
late n<strong>in</strong>eteenth and early twentieth centuries, the poor liv<strong>in</strong>g conditions of the over crowded<br />
older tenements rema<strong>in</strong>ed as a constant threat to those liv<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g this time.<br />
7
These photographs span 40 years of tenement liv<strong>in</strong>g conditions <strong>in</strong> <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong>.<br />
“266 Elizabeth St., N.Y. 3:00<br />
P.M., February 2, 1912. It is<br />
a licensed tenement and<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g of clothes was<br />
go<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>in</strong> the homes”‐<br />
Lewis H<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
Photograph from Library of<br />
Congress Digital Archives<br />
Shared water closet <strong>in</strong>side<br />
a tenement house,1907<br />
Photograph from the NYPL<br />
Digital Collection<br />
Overcrowded<br />
tenements, 1927<br />
Photograph from the NYPL<br />
Digital Collection<br />
Baby <strong>in</strong> Slum<br />
Tenement, 1888<br />
Photograph by Jacob<br />
Riis, acquired from the Library of<br />
Congress Digital Archives<br />
25’ 50’<br />
Pre‐Law Tenement<br />
‐1879<br />
25’<br />
“Dumbbell” Tenement ‐ Old –Law<br />
1879‐1901<br />
<strong>New</strong>‐Law Tenement‐ 1901<br />
* Floor plans reproduced from Slu ms and <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> V. II: plates 4, 5 and 11, respectively.<br />
8
A. Model Tenement History<br />
With the United States government hesitant to <strong>in</strong>tervene <strong>in</strong> hous<strong>in</strong>g problems (the government<br />
saw this as an <strong>in</strong>vasion on private property rights), civic groups, architects and philanthropists<br />
began to look for possible solutions to the hous<strong>in</strong>g conditions <strong>in</strong> <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>in</strong> foreign projects,<br />
particularly <strong>in</strong> Brita<strong>in</strong> and France. In 1848 the World’s Fair was hosted <strong>in</strong> London and Pr<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
Albert debut his “Model Houses for Families,” a model tenement which was subsequently built<br />
<strong>in</strong> Bloomsbury, England. 9 Each apartment was cross ventilated- all rooms had w<strong>in</strong>dows that<br />
faced either the street of the generously sized courtyard and the staircases were moved to the<br />
exterior of the construction, elim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g any dark hallways. The architect, Henry Roberts, was an<br />
active member of the Society for Improv<strong>in</strong>g Conditions of the Labour<strong>in</strong>g Classes, a civic group<br />
founded <strong>in</strong> the late Victorian, publically m<strong>in</strong>ded era. As part of the society’s charter and<br />
dedication to mak<strong>in</strong>g better hous<strong>in</strong>g obta<strong>in</strong>able to the work<strong>in</strong>g classes they set their profit<br />
dividend at four percent. Any profit exceed<strong>in</strong>g this would then be put back <strong>in</strong>to the build<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
make it better or used to keep the rents low. The design was further developed on by Sir Sydney<br />
Waterlow and his Improved Dwell<strong>in</strong>gs Company for their build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> London <strong>in</strong> 1863, the plans<br />
for these build<strong>in</strong>gs were the first English plans to be published <strong>in</strong> the U.S. and were done so <strong>in</strong><br />
the Council of Hygiene Report <strong>in</strong> 1865 10 . This form of build<strong>in</strong>g and f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g were also used for<br />
model houses <strong>in</strong> France.<br />
Specific architects that traveled and <strong>in</strong>vestigated these model houses <strong>in</strong>cluded James E. Ware,<br />
Henry Atterbury Smith, Grosvenor Atterbury, Ernest Flagg, and I.N. Phelps-Stokes and<br />
philanthropists Alfred Treadway-White, Olivia Sage (Mrs. Russell Sage), Carol<strong>in</strong>e and Olivia<br />
Phelps-Stokes and Ann Harriman Vanderbilt. Once back <strong>in</strong> the United States they used not only<br />
the design ideas gathered from the model houses but also the f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g scheme.<br />
The first successful model tenements to be erected <strong>in</strong> <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong> were the Home Build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and the Tower Build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Brooklyn. F<strong>in</strong>anced by Alfred Treadway-Wright and designed by<br />
William Field and Son they were completed <strong>in</strong> 1877 and a translation of the plans by Waterlow<br />
and his company. Both build<strong>in</strong>gs are six stories high have open stairs and provide amenities such<br />
as a s<strong>in</strong>k, a washtub and a water closet. The build<strong>in</strong>gs only cover 52 percent of the lot, with only<br />
9 Tarn, p. 18.<br />
10 Plunz, p. 88.<br />
9
one <strong>in</strong>terior room receiv<strong>in</strong>g no natural light. The floor plan was an improvement over the<br />
speculative tenements that were be<strong>in</strong>g built at the same time (pre-law and old law tenements).<br />
These build<strong>in</strong>gs are protected from exterior change and demolition by their placement on the list<br />
of <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong> Landmarks.<br />
Women held a particular roll <strong>in</strong> the development of progressive hous<strong>in</strong>g, aga<strong>in</strong> look<strong>in</strong>g to Brita<strong>in</strong><br />
from the 1860’s and earlier “many women <strong>in</strong> towns and cities <strong>in</strong> Brita<strong>in</strong> devoted themselves to<br />
voluntary work.” 11 They wanted to take <strong>in</strong>itiatives <strong>in</strong> hous<strong>in</strong>g reform because the <strong>in</strong>terior of<br />
homes were the one place that women were strictly <strong>in</strong> charge of. Frustrated by their <strong>in</strong>ability to<br />
work directly with the poor due to social norms, women set up settlement houses and teams of<br />
volunteers <strong>in</strong> attempts to befriend and help the poor. This roll cont<strong>in</strong>ued and expanded <strong>in</strong> the<br />
United States with the formation of settlement houses <strong>in</strong> poor neighborhoods, the creation of<br />
active civic groups, such as the League of Mothers’ Club and through the f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g of model<br />
tenements by women, such as the Shively Sanitary Tenements by Ann Harriman Vanderbilt.<br />
It is important to note that model tenements made up only a very small amount of tenement<br />
build<strong>in</strong>gs built <strong>in</strong> the late n<strong>in</strong>eteenth and early twentieth century.<br />
The follow<strong>in</strong>g seven model tenements are designated <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong> Landmarks or protected by<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g contribut<strong>in</strong>g build<strong>in</strong>gs to a historic district:<br />
1. Home Build<strong>in</strong>g- Brooklyn<br />
2. Tower Build<strong>in</strong>g- Brooklyn<br />
3. Shively Sanitary Tenements (East River Homes)- Manhattan<br />
4. <strong>City</strong> & Suburban <strong>York</strong> Avenue Estates- Manhattan<br />
5. <strong>City</strong> & Suburban 1 st Avenue Estates- Manhattan<br />
6. Astral Apartments- Brooklyn<br />
7. Riverside Build<strong>in</strong>gs- (<strong>in</strong> historic district)-Brooklyn<br />
11 Darl<strong>in</strong>g and Whitworth, p. 17.<br />
10
“Model Houses for Families”<br />
Bloomsbury, England 1850, by Pr<strong>in</strong>ce Albert &<br />
architect Henry Roberts.<br />
Photograph ‐Tarn p. 19.<br />
“Tower Build<strong>in</strong>g”<br />
Brooklyn‐ the first successful model tenements <strong>in</strong> Greater <strong>New</strong><br />
<strong>York</strong>, erected 1876–79 by Alfred T. White<br />
B. Limited Dividend Cooperative History<br />
To understand how cooperative hous<strong>in</strong>g systems work it is really important to look back at the<br />
history of the cooperative movement. The two cooperative movements that we are <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong><br />
are either based off of one of the earliest cooperatives, started <strong>in</strong> England or the cooperatives<br />
from F<strong>in</strong>land. Cooperative ideas and pr<strong>in</strong>ciples were transferred to the United States through<br />
immigration.<br />
The Rochdale Cooperative was started <strong>in</strong> 1844 <strong>in</strong> Rochdale, England; co<strong>in</strong>cid<strong>in</strong>g with the<br />
development of the model tenement. It was founded by a group of cloth weavers who were be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
forced out of their careers due to the advancement of the <strong>in</strong>dustrial revolution. They were los<strong>in</strong>g<br />
their jobs and subsequently their homes because they were no longer seen as valuable workers,<br />
as their jobs could be done by mach<strong>in</strong>es:<br />
From all around came reports of weavers clothed <strong>in</strong> rags, who had sold all their<br />
furniture, who worked 16 hours a day yet lived on a diet of oatmeal, potatoes,<br />
onion porridge and treacle. No m<strong>in</strong>imum wage existed and salaries were<br />
commonly below the equivalent of 10 pence per week <strong>in</strong> modern terms. Moreover,<br />
pollution had <strong>in</strong>creased and public sanitation system was both poor <strong>in</strong> quality and<br />
11
quantity. In fact, <strong>in</strong> 1848 the mean life expectancy <strong>in</strong> Rochdale was only 21<br />
years. 12<br />
Their want for better liv<strong>in</strong>g conditions is an obvious result. This cooperative movement was<br />
based off of the writ<strong>in</strong>gs and teach<strong>in</strong>gs of Robert Owen and Dr. William K<strong>in</strong>g of Brighton. Owen<br />
founded the Economist magaz<strong>in</strong>e ten years earlier and used it as a platform to express his strong<br />
views and beliefs about self government. In the May 13 th , 1848 issue speak<strong>in</strong>g about government<br />
legislation on hous<strong>in</strong>g he says, “they have always been more productive of evil than good.” 13<br />
Dr. William K<strong>in</strong>g of Brighton, founded the Co-Operator Magaz<strong>in</strong>e and <strong>in</strong> his monthly<br />
publication he showed people how they could use what little monetary ga<strong>in</strong> they had as a group<br />
to start a cooperative. He worked out a system of capital ga<strong>in</strong> by profits derived from the<br />
collective sell of goods, which was then distributed evenly among the share holders. This differs<br />
from regular “co-ops” of today, which distributes profits to the purchasers based on the amount<br />
of their total purchases.<br />
The weavers put these f<strong>in</strong>ancial pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>in</strong>to action and started their cooperative by charg<strong>in</strong>g<br />
three pounds to buy a share (mak<strong>in</strong>g the share holder a partial owner). Start<strong>in</strong>g with twenty eight<br />
members they were able to take the money gathered, through the sell<strong>in</strong>g of the shares, to open a<br />
cooperative food store. The members would then be able to buy food at the store for a lesser size<br />
price than the market price and if any profit was ga<strong>in</strong>ed it by the store it was distributed evenly<br />
among the members. This style of cooperative was based on open and voluntary enrollment,<br />
democratic control, limited return if any, net surplus belonged to the members and owners,<br />
honest bus<strong>in</strong>ess practices, education and their ultimate aim was the advancement of the common<br />
good. 14<br />
In 1861 they used the same pr<strong>in</strong>ciples used to start the food cooperative to start the hous<strong>in</strong>g<br />
cooperative. They wanted to build better houses for those of the work<strong>in</strong>g class, and by the end of<br />
the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century they owned and built over 300 homes. 15<br />
The second and largest area where cooperation was to be found <strong>in</strong> the world <strong>in</strong> the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth<br />
century was F<strong>in</strong>land. The first F<strong>in</strong>nish publication of the Rochdale system was <strong>in</strong> 1866. Prior to<br />
12 <strong>University</strong> of Texas, The History of the Rochdale Cooperative.<br />
13 Tarn, p. 9.<br />
14 Reeves, p. 29.<br />
15 <strong>University</strong> of Texas, The History of the Rochdale Cooperative.<br />
12
this time the F<strong>in</strong>ns had banned together with formal rules and purposes to make liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the<br />
harsh climate easier. A direct correlation between these early groups and the cooperative<br />
movement has yet to be established, but it did make them more susceptible to the idea of<br />
cooperation. However, after the publication of the Rochdale pr<strong>in</strong>ciples, co-operations <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
skyrocketed.<br />
Cooperative movements first took hold <strong>in</strong> the larger cites <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land and then spread to the more<br />
rural areas. In 1898, Axel Granstrom, the Secretary of the Board of Trade and Industry <strong>in</strong><br />
F<strong>in</strong>land, published his book <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>nish, Cooperative Self-Help Societies. One year later the<br />
“Father of F<strong>in</strong>nish Cooperatives,” Hannes Gebhard, published his book, Agriculture Cooperation<br />
<strong>in</strong> Other Lands. 16 At the same time Gebhard, who was a university professor, started Pellervo, an<br />
<strong>in</strong>formational system set up to spread the gospel of cooperation and to help established<br />
cooperative movements. He sent 150 students to the more rural areas of F<strong>in</strong>land to help spread<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation about cooperatives. The number of local cooperative societies <strong>in</strong>creased 250 percent<br />
between 1904 and 1908, 17 and by 1914 two thirds of the F<strong>in</strong>nish population was <strong>in</strong> some way<br />
part of the cooperative movement. 18<br />
The F<strong>in</strong>nish hous<strong>in</strong>g cooperative system was based on non-profit pr<strong>in</strong>ciples, mean<strong>in</strong>g that each<br />
apartment was worth one share, both <strong>in</strong> purchas<strong>in</strong>g and sell<strong>in</strong>g. The owner of the share would<br />
receive the same amount of money that she/he bought the apartment for when they decide to sell<br />
it, regardless of speculative market prices. Along with the purchase of the share, each share<br />
holder also ga<strong>in</strong>s one “vote.” When decisions are made about the build<strong>in</strong>g (repairs etc.) each<br />
share holder will have one vote. In profit cooperative hous<strong>in</strong>g (the majority of co-ops now<br />
present <strong>in</strong> <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong>) a share holder could possibly have more than one vote if their<br />
apartment is worth more than the others, the worth of the apartment could be based on its and<br />
location <strong>in</strong> the build<strong>in</strong>g, these co-ops are also sold and purchased at market value rates. More<br />
about the f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g of F<strong>in</strong>nish Cooperatives <strong>in</strong> the United States will be discussed further <strong>in</strong> a<br />
later chapter.<br />
16 Marshall, p. 228.<br />
17 Marshall, p. 229.<br />
18 Reeves, p. 89.<br />
13
Through large immigrant populations to the United States <strong>in</strong> the early parts of the twentieth<br />
century, cooperative movements were transplanted. The first cooperative hous<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the United<br />
States was established by F<strong>in</strong>nish immigrants <strong>in</strong> the Sunset Park area of Brooklyn.<br />
The follow<strong>in</strong>g cooperative hous<strong>in</strong>g complexes are designated as <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong> Landmarks:<br />
1. The United Worker’s Colony- Bronx<br />
2. Dunbar Apartments- Manhattan (first cooperative apartments for African Americans)<br />
Please note that at this time none of the F<strong>in</strong>nish Cooperatives <strong>in</strong> Brooklyn are protected by<br />
Landmark designation or by be<strong>in</strong>g part of a historic district.<br />
<strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> cooperatives <strong>in</strong> Katajanokka, F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
(Built around 1901)<br />
Photograph from Wikipedia.org‐ Article on Katajonoka<br />
Cooperative <strong>New</strong>s, serv<strong>in</strong>g as the Rochdale<br />
Cooperative weekly newspaper s<strong>in</strong>ce 1871.<br />
Cover from 1890 edition.<br />
Image from: <strong>University</strong> of Texas<br />
14
Chapter 2- Women’s Involvement <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Progressive</strong> <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />
Women became <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> progressive hous<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> NYC <strong>in</strong> the early 1900s, when they started to<br />
realize the awful and unsanitary conditions <strong>in</strong> which poor and low-<strong>in</strong>come people lived. Women<br />
identified themselves with domestic issues such as hous<strong>in</strong>g, s<strong>in</strong>ce they thought their role <strong>in</strong><br />
society was that of mothers and wives.<br />
A big personality <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Reform Movement <strong>in</strong> NYC was Joseph<strong>in</strong>e Shaw<br />
Lowell. Mrs. Lowell was a social reformer and a philanthropist who <strong>in</strong>fluenced legislation and<br />
organizations <strong>in</strong> order to create modern programs for the poor and needy. She worked with the<br />
State Charities Aid Association for which she wrote reports on the need for adequate facilities<br />
for the poor. These reports impressed Governor Samuel J. Tilden who, <strong>in</strong> 1876, appo<strong>in</strong>ted her as<br />
Commissioner of the State Board of Charities, becom<strong>in</strong>g the first woman <strong>in</strong> this position.<br />
Joseph<strong>in</strong>e Shaw Lowell<br />
Image from the Texas Council for Developmental Disabilities web site.<br />
Samuel J. Tilden<br />
Image from Wikipedia web site.<br />
Among her many achievements were the found<strong>in</strong>g of important organizations such as the Charity<br />
Organization Society of the <strong>City</strong> of <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1882, the House of Refuge for Women <strong>in</strong> 1886,<br />
the Women’s Municipal League <strong>in</strong> 1894, and the Civil Service Reform Association of <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong><br />
15
State <strong>in</strong> 1895. Of these organizations, the Charity Organization Society of the <strong>City</strong> of <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong><br />
was among her greatest achievements. The Society gave form and direction to all the efforts of<br />
dist<strong>in</strong>guished philanthropists <strong>in</strong> <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>. Its primary concern was to dist<strong>in</strong>guish between the<br />
deserv<strong>in</strong>g and the undeserv<strong>in</strong>g poor s<strong>in</strong>e they believed that giv<strong>in</strong>g out charity without<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigat<strong>in</strong>g the problems beh<strong>in</strong>d poverty created a class of citizens that would always be<br />
dependent on people giv<strong>in</strong>g them money.<br />
Joseph<strong>in</strong>e Shaw Lowell <strong>in</strong>fluenced a number of women <strong>in</strong>to becom<strong>in</strong>g more <strong>in</strong>volved with social<br />
problems. Among these women were Lillian Wald, who <strong>in</strong> 1893 founded the Henry Street<br />
Settlement where she taught health and hygiene to immigrant women <strong>in</strong> the impoverished Lower<br />
East Side; and Mary K<strong>in</strong>gsbury Simkhovitch, who <strong>in</strong> 1902 founded the Greenwich House <strong>in</strong><br />
order to improve the liv<strong>in</strong>g conditions among the predom<strong>in</strong>ately immigrant population <strong>in</strong><br />
Greenwich Village.<br />
Lillian Wald<br />
Image from the Encyclopedia Britannica web site.<br />
Henry Street Settlement<br />
Image from the <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Architecture Images web site.<br />
With Joseph<strong>in</strong>e Shaw Lowell as their leader, women became more <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the progressive<br />
hous<strong>in</strong>g movement by becom<strong>in</strong>g philanthropists <strong>in</strong> the subject. They started react<strong>in</strong>g to the<br />
terrible conditions <strong>in</strong> which low-<strong>in</strong>come people lived by fund<strong>in</strong>g projects that provided better<br />
hous<strong>in</strong>g conditions. Women as philanthropists could only donate money under their husbands’<br />
16
name unless they were w<strong>in</strong>dows or never married, thus becom<strong>in</strong>g philanthropists <strong>in</strong> their own<br />
right.<br />
Mary K<strong>in</strong>gsbury Simkhovitch<br />
Image from the Unitarian Universalist Organization web site.<br />
Greenwich House<br />
Image from the Barrow Street Theatre web site.<br />
An important figure <strong>in</strong> the philanthropic world was Margaret Olivia Sage, most commonly<br />
known as Mrs. Russell Sage. Mrs. Sage was very <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> social problems and <strong>in</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the liv<strong>in</strong>g conditions of the less privileged. When her husband, Russell Sage, died <strong>in</strong> 1906, he<br />
left her an approximate of 75 million dollars with which she founded the Russell Sage<br />
Foundation <strong>in</strong> 1907 as a memorial for her husband. The ma<strong>in</strong> goal of the Russell Sage<br />
Foundation was to promote the improvement of social and liv<strong>in</strong>g conditions for the poor. The<br />
Foundation was very active <strong>in</strong> the development of social work and urban plann<strong>in</strong>g as<br />
professions, it published books and articles about social welfare, and sponsored progressive<br />
activities.<br />
17
Margaret Olivia Sage<br />
Image from Crocker, p. 196.<br />
Russell Sage<br />
Image by Hulton Archive/Getty Images.<br />
In 1908 the foundation, under the advice of Robert Weeks de Forest, donated the money to build<br />
Forest Hills Gardens, a model hous<strong>in</strong>g project <strong>in</strong> Queens. De Forest was a layer who had been<br />
<strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the Reform <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Movement for years and whose firm represented Russell Sage.<br />
Mrs. Sage thought the suburbs, as she refer to the outer boroughs, needed better and more<br />
attractive facilities for low-<strong>in</strong>come families. She had been <strong>in</strong> England and had the idea of<br />
recreat<strong>in</strong>g its garden cities <strong>in</strong> the suburbs, where the build<strong>in</strong>gs or houses could be surrounded by<br />
flowers and gardens and had accessibility to playgrounds and recreation facilities. She also<br />
believed that the build<strong>in</strong>gs for this complex should be of, quote, “tasteful design, constructed <strong>in</strong><br />
brick, cement, or other permanent material, even though of somewhat greater <strong>in</strong>itial cost are<br />
more economical <strong>in</strong> durability and lesser repair bills”, end quote. The idea was to provide<br />
healthful homes at low rates so that families of modest means would be able to afford good<br />
hous<strong>in</strong>g conditions and, by prov<strong>in</strong>g this method to work, encourage other such projects.<br />
18
Robert Weeks de Forest Forest Hills Gardens, 1913<br />
Image from Crocker, p. 202. Image from Klaus, p. 91<br />
Another such woman was Anne Harriman Vanderbilt, wife of William K. Vanderbilt, Sen.. She<br />
dedicated herself to philanthropic causes and was concern with the problems of poor people <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>, for which she was active <strong>in</strong> help<strong>in</strong>g unfortunate children.<br />
Ann Harriman Vanderbilt<br />
William K. Vanderbilt<br />
Image from Lewis, p. 173. Image from Lewis, p. 173.<br />
19
In 1910 she was approached by Dr. Henry Shively to help fund hous<strong>in</strong>g for tuberculosis patients,<br />
for which she agreed to build what would then become the Shively Sanitary Tenements. Dr.<br />
Shively was the head of the Vanderbilt Cl<strong>in</strong>ic and was concerned <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g efficient treatments<br />
for the disease. He thought patients would benefit of liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a build<strong>in</strong>g that had, quote, “all the<br />
positives features of a sanatorium treatment brought to the patients <strong>in</strong> their own home”, end<br />
quote.<br />
The Shively Sanitary Tenements housed low-<strong>in</strong>come tuberculosis patients and their families. It<br />
was believed that fresh air cured the disease for which the architect, Henry Atterbury Smith,<br />
provided every apartment with a balcony, a build<strong>in</strong>g complex with an open stair design, a roof<br />
space, and a park-overlook<strong>in</strong>g location for this purpose. Furthermore, the build<strong>in</strong>gs at the <strong>New</strong><br />
<strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong> designated landmark had electricity <strong>in</strong>stead of gas with the purpose of keep<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
environment of fresh air and heal<strong>in</strong>g conditions for the tenants.<br />
Shively Sanitary Tenements<br />
Shively Sanitary Tenements Plan<br />
Image from Dolkart, “East River Houses” Image from Plunz, p. 103.<br />
The Tuskegee was another model tenement funded by philanthropic women, as were Carol<strong>in</strong>e<br />
and Olivia E. Phelps-Stokes. The Phelps-Stokes sisters came from a wealthy family and grew up<br />
travel<strong>in</strong>g around the world and witness<strong>in</strong>g other types of liv<strong>in</strong>g conditions, which later <strong>in</strong> life<br />
they would witness <strong>in</strong> their own city. Carol<strong>in</strong>e and Olivia were reverent Christians and believed<br />
that nobody should be discrim<strong>in</strong>ated regardless of color, race, or station. They were very<br />
20
<strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> creat<strong>in</strong>g better life conditions for American m<strong>in</strong>orities, such as African and Native<br />
Americans, <strong>in</strong> education, <strong>in</strong> advanc<strong>in</strong>g the Christian religion, and <strong>in</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g hous<strong>in</strong>g for the<br />
poor. The Tuskegee was a six-story model tenement for African American families designed by<br />
their nephew’s, I. N. Phelps-Stokes, architectural firm, Howells & Stokes, <strong>in</strong> 1901.<br />
The Tuskegge<br />
Image from Lubove, p. 81.<br />
Phelps-Stokes Properties<br />
Own image.<br />
In 1910, Olivia funded another model tenement <strong>in</strong> honor to her sister Carol<strong>in</strong>e, who died <strong>in</strong> 1909.<br />
These two build<strong>in</strong>gs had open stairs, dropped balconies, and raised sills. Carol<strong>in</strong>e endowed a<br />
large part of her will to the creation of the Phelps-Stokes Fund specify<strong>in</strong>g that the <strong>in</strong>come be<br />
used, quote, “for the creation and improvement of tenement hous<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong>, for<br />
educational purposes <strong>in</strong> the education of Negroes both <strong>in</strong> Africa and the Unites Stated, North<br />
American Indians, and needy and deserv<strong>in</strong>g white students”, end quote. In 1915, Olivia gave to<br />
the Fund two more improved model tenements she had funded for African American families<br />
Other important women <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the progressive hous<strong>in</strong>g movement and who also funded<br />
model tenements were Helen Hartley Jenk<strong>in</strong>s, who funded the Hartley Open Stair Tenements <strong>in</strong><br />
1912; Laura Bill<strong>in</strong>gs, who funded the Bill<strong>in</strong>gs model tenements <strong>in</strong> 1901; and Joseph<strong>in</strong>e L. De<br />
Forest, who funded the De Forest Fireproof Tenements <strong>in</strong> 1905. Even though Mrs. De Forest<br />
died before the build<strong>in</strong>g was f<strong>in</strong>ished, she showed <strong>in</strong>terest and <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> the progressive<br />
hous<strong>in</strong>g movement by erect<strong>in</strong>g a seven-story fireproof model tenement that housed 53 families<br />
and was built out of steel and concrete, which floors were proofed to save more space for liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
areas.<br />
21
These women established a tradition of female <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> philanthropy <strong>in</strong> social and<br />
hous<strong>in</strong>g work that cont<strong>in</strong>ued <strong>in</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g years <strong>in</strong> policy-mak<strong>in</strong>g, plann<strong>in</strong>g, design, and<br />
adm<strong>in</strong>istration, as opposed to companies dedicated to the build<strong>in</strong>g of model tenements where the<br />
shareholders did not have an active and direct participation with<strong>in</strong> the hous<strong>in</strong>g reform movement.<br />
A very <strong>in</strong>fluential woman <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g, adm<strong>in</strong>istration, and policy-mak<strong>in</strong>g related to the<br />
<strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Reform Movement <strong>in</strong> NYC was Edith Elmer Wood, who wrote books and articles <strong>in</strong><br />
order to <strong>in</strong>form people about current liv<strong>in</strong>g conditions of the less privileged and to promote a<br />
movement that would deal with these k<strong>in</strong>d of social issues. In 1911 she moved to Wash<strong>in</strong>gton<br />
and jo<strong>in</strong>ed a campaign to get rid of the capital’s slums and it was then that she began question<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the effectiveness of the progressive reforms and decided to further study the subject. She<br />
believed that because the hous<strong>in</strong>g reform movement was not backed by the state and local<br />
government it had no control over law enforcement for better hous<strong>in</strong>g conditions and that it<br />
would never work as it should be until this was <strong>in</strong>corporated.<br />
In 1915 she moved to NYC <strong>in</strong> order to be at the center of the hous<strong>in</strong>g movement. Her book, The<br />
<strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> of the Unskilled Wage Earner, provided the first exhaustive survey of American<br />
hous<strong>in</strong>g efforts and an analysis of its results. It also redef<strong>in</strong>ed the hous<strong>in</strong>g problem and placed its<br />
solution <strong>in</strong> community plann<strong>in</strong>g and government subsidies, for which it proposed a legislative<br />
outl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> order to accomplish this. Mrs. Wood believed that the problem of hous<strong>in</strong>g reform laid<br />
on the function<strong>in</strong>g of capitalism and the use of hous<strong>in</strong>g codes, as opposed to some earlier<br />
reformers who po<strong>in</strong>ted the problem to poor liv<strong>in</strong>g conditions given by the landlords. She thought<br />
that the new <strong>in</strong>dustrial system, which required more workers at low wages, was the cause for<br />
slums s<strong>in</strong>ce there was more area occupation and not enough earned money for these workers to<br />
afford to move to different and better spaced areas. Furthermore, this was made even worse with<br />
the passage of the new law, which did not allow cheaper hous<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Edith Elmer Wood did not believe that the hous<strong>in</strong>g reform movement was progressive or<br />
effective. She believed that <strong>in</strong> order for low-<strong>in</strong>come people to be able to afford a decent hous<strong>in</strong>g<br />
environment the community and government had to be <strong>in</strong>volved.<br />
Follow<strong>in</strong>g the steps of Edith Elmer Wood, women were fight<strong>in</strong>g for better hous<strong>in</strong>g conditions<br />
before and after the Great depression and urg<strong>in</strong>g the government for <strong>in</strong>volvement and<br />
22
development of hous<strong>in</strong>g for families liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> conditions of poverty. They were so <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong><br />
the hous<strong>in</strong>g problem that they created clubs and societies specifically oriented to this, such as the<br />
Women’s Municipal League of the <strong>City</strong> of <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>, the League of Mother’s Clubs, and the<br />
Association to Promote Proper <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> for Girls, Inc., among others. They also made use of<br />
newspapers, bullet<strong>in</strong>s and magaz<strong>in</strong>es oriented to women <strong>in</strong> order to raise awareness on the<br />
subject among other women. For example, the Women and the <strong>City</strong>’s Work was a bullet<strong>in</strong><br />
issued weekly and addressed hous<strong>in</strong>g problems <strong>in</strong> a political way by <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g city and state<br />
officers.<br />
The organizations created by these women performed a number of studies to try to determ<strong>in</strong>e<br />
what the cause was for people to live under these hous<strong>in</strong>g conditions.<br />
Between 1928 and 1932 the League of Mother’s Clubs performed a study called Tenements and<br />
Tenants on 1104 tenement families <strong>in</strong> which they showed how families struggled dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
depression by show<strong>in</strong>g their <strong>in</strong>come, rent, and hous<strong>in</strong>g conditions before the depression <strong>in</strong> 1928,<br />
and after it <strong>in</strong> 1932. By compar<strong>in</strong>g and analyz<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>formation gathered <strong>in</strong> these 2 years they<br />
were able to determ<strong>in</strong>e how the <strong>in</strong>come, rent, and hous<strong>in</strong>g conditions of these 1104 families were<br />
affected over this 4-year period.<br />
Among their f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs they realized than more than half of the group was <strong>in</strong> conditions of poverty<br />
and that they were dependent on agencies, the state or city relief, or starv<strong>in</strong>g. Some of them,<br />
which represented the 27% of the group, had <strong>in</strong>comes between $1000 and $1500 per year and<br />
were so close to the M<strong>in</strong>imum Subsistence Level that any accident or loss of earn<strong>in</strong>gs even for a<br />
small period of time would have brought them <strong>in</strong>to the dependent group. In 1932, 40% of the<br />
group was unemployed and thus had no means to afford rent and food for their family members.<br />
Furthermore, there was no positive relationship between the amount earned and the amount spent<br />
for rent, which meant that the amount spent for rent was not dependent upon the family <strong>in</strong>come.<br />
These types of studies not only addressed the hous<strong>in</strong>g problems but also raised awareness among<br />
social groups and, ultimately, gave way to the subsidized hous<strong>in</strong>g projects developed by the <strong>New</strong><br />
<strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong> <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Authority start<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the mid 1930s.<br />
23
Chapter 3-The Model Tenements<br />
A. Model Tenement Architectural Analysis<br />
Throughout our research we discovered over thirty two model tenement properties that are still<br />
stand<strong>in</strong>g. For the purpose of this paper we choose to focus our research on three properties. Two<br />
of which were f<strong>in</strong>anced by women philanthropist and all of which lie <strong>in</strong> Manhattan: The De<br />
Forest Fire Proof Tenements, The Hartley Open Stair Tenements and The Bishop Model<br />
Tenements.<br />
De Forest Fire Proof Tenements<br />
1905<br />
205 East 27 th Street‐ Manhattan<br />
Funded by: Joseph<strong>in</strong>e L. De Forest<br />
Architect: Ernest Flagg<br />
Harley Open Stair Tenements<br />
1912<br />
525 West 47 th Street‐ Manhattan<br />
Funded by: Mrs. Helen Hartley Jenk<strong>in</strong>s<br />
Architect: Henry Atterbury Smith &<br />
William P. Miller<br />
Bishop Model Tenements<br />
1901‐1902<br />
60 Hester Street‐ Manhattan<br />
Funded by: Cortlandt & DW Bishop<br />
Architect: Ernest Flagg<br />
The Bishop Model Tenements were the earliest built of the three. Erected <strong>in</strong> 1901 by Cortland<br />
and D.W. Bishop with the architect Ernest Flagg, this build<strong>in</strong>g stands on 60 Hester Street <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Lower East Side. The Bishop tenement provides a good example of exterior model tenement<br />
construction. Buff colored brick was used <strong>in</strong> alternat<strong>in</strong>g courses of headers and stretchers, the<br />
w<strong>in</strong>dows are stacked vertically giv<strong>in</strong>g the build<strong>in</strong>g a verticality that it would otherwise be<br />
lack<strong>in</strong>g. The only other place that another masonry material is used is <strong>in</strong> the l<strong>in</strong>tels and sills<br />
where limestone has been <strong>in</strong>serted. The build<strong>in</strong>g is topped by a relatively small and simple<br />
cornice. The build<strong>in</strong>g does not have any other decoration; it is an austere façade but an effective<br />
one. The goal here was to create a good build<strong>in</strong>g, not a fancy one, and it has succeeded because it<br />
still stands <strong>in</strong> good condition 107 years after its construction date.<br />
24
The <strong>in</strong>terior tells a different story. Another goal of the model tenements were to establish a<br />
quality of life on the <strong>in</strong>terior that was unobta<strong>in</strong>able <strong>in</strong> dumbbell tenements. The Bishop Model<br />
Tenements were not as successful <strong>in</strong> this area. At the time of completion there were n<strong>in</strong>e<br />
apartments per floor, some with w<strong>in</strong>dows that all faced the light court, residence would have to<br />
pass through a bedroom to get to the restroom and the kitchen and liv<strong>in</strong>g rooms were comb<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
<strong>in</strong>to one.<br />
After look<strong>in</strong>g at different plans for model tenements it quickly became apparent that we would<br />
have to come up with a way to objectively assess these build<strong>in</strong>gs on the <strong>in</strong>teriors, thereby<br />
reveal<strong>in</strong>g whether or not they were really progressive <strong>in</strong> terms of <strong>in</strong>terior design and layout. We<br />
looked extensively at the literature that was published on model tenements pr<strong>in</strong>ted dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
period of model tenement construction <strong>in</strong> <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong> (see bibliography and selected<br />
bibliography for references), and came up with seventeen pieces of criteria that were cited as<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g important <strong>in</strong> model tenement layout design. Each of these criteria were given a numeric<br />
value, ventilation questions made up 46 po<strong>in</strong>ts, crowd<strong>in</strong>g 44 po<strong>in</strong>ts, amenities 24 po<strong>in</strong>ts and<br />
privacy 18 po<strong>in</strong>ts, total<strong>in</strong>g 132 po<strong>in</strong>ts. A plan that earned all 132 po<strong>in</strong>ts would be our mark<strong>in</strong>g<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t as a layout that was one-hundred percent progressive with its <strong>in</strong>terior layout. All three<br />
plans underwent this evaluation. The plans used, the complete results and a brief written<br />
summary can be found on the follow<strong>in</strong>g pages.<br />
25
Criterion used to evaluate model tenement <strong>in</strong>terior layouts<br />
26
Street<br />
Street<br />
Bishop Model Tenements- Ground floor plan Bishop Model Tenements-<br />
Plan for floors two through six<br />
27
28<br />
Bishop Model Tenements- Numerical Analysis
Street<br />
De Forest Fireproof Tenements- Floor plan for floors two through seven, plan for floor one is identical<br />
except it doesn’t have the three street fac<strong>in</strong>g apartments <strong>in</strong> the front.<br />
29
De Forest Fireproof Tenements- Numerical Analysis<br />
30
Hartley Open Stair Tenements‐ Upper floor plans*<br />
*B ec aus e we were unable to locate the orig<strong>in</strong>al floor plans for this build<strong>in</strong>g, we found one with the same foot pr<strong>in</strong>t , same lot size and built four years earlier<br />
to complete our analysis. Image from Slums and <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> V. II P late 13.<br />
31
Hartley Open Stair Tenements- Numerical Analysis<br />
32
Bishop Model Tenements- This tenement build<strong>in</strong>g rated as be<strong>in</strong>g only twenty-n<strong>in</strong>e percent<br />
progressive. Some of the factors that drew its score down were: it had n<strong>in</strong>e apartments per floor<br />
mak<strong>in</strong>g crowd<strong>in</strong>g higher, some apartments only had court fac<strong>in</strong>g w<strong>in</strong>dows, a person would have<br />
to pass through a bedroom to get to the bathroom <strong>in</strong> a few of the apartment layouts and the liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
room and kitchen were comb<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> all of the apartments. What kept this plan from total failure<br />
were: the majority of the w<strong>in</strong>dows faced a yard or a street rather than a court, <strong>in</strong> the majority of<br />
the apartments a person did not have to pass through a bedroom to get to the bathroom and the<br />
plan of the first floor had rooms for boarders. Rooms for boarders were a good th<strong>in</strong>g, see<strong>in</strong>g as to<br />
they kept the boarders from liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the apartments with the families but also helped to keep<br />
rent low for the entire build<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
De Forest Fireproof Tenements- Funded by Joseph<strong>in</strong>e L. De Forest and her husband Shephered<br />
De Forest <strong>in</strong> 1905 us<strong>in</strong>g Ernest Flagg as the architect, this build<strong>in</strong>g also has an austere façade and<br />
uses the same brick lay<strong>in</strong>g techniques as the Bishop tenements. Aga<strong>in</strong>, the same verticality is<br />
given to the build<strong>in</strong>g with the stack<strong>in</strong>g of w<strong>in</strong>dows and small cornice. However, terra-cotta<br />
ornamentation surrounds the door <strong>in</strong> the form of imitation stone blocks and a large cartouche,<br />
draw<strong>in</strong>g the eye to the private entrance as the large event on the façade.<br />
The De Forest tenements actually had the highest result on our survey, a sixty-four percent.<br />
Some of th<strong>in</strong>gs that drove its score down were: a few of the apartments had only court fac<strong>in</strong>g<br />
w<strong>in</strong>dows, courts which were closed on all four sides (once the neighbor<strong>in</strong>g build<strong>in</strong>gs were<br />
erected) and <strong>in</strong> some apartments the liv<strong>in</strong>g room and kitchens were comb<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong>to one. This<br />
build<strong>in</strong>g however had more pros <strong>in</strong> its layout than cons. The pros were: the majority of<br />
apartments had separate kitchens and liv<strong>in</strong>g rooms, half of the apartments had more amenities <strong>in</strong><br />
the restrooms with addition of a tub, and none of the restrooms had to be accessed through a<br />
bedroom, and only eight apartments were on each floor, the lowest amount <strong>in</strong> our evaluation.<br />
Hartley Open Stair Tenements- The last build<strong>in</strong>g we looked at, the Hartley tenements were<br />
funded by Helen Hartley Jenk<strong>in</strong>s and the architect was Henry Atterbury Smith. The build<strong>in</strong>g was<br />
completed <strong>in</strong> 1912. The façade is the most decorated out of all the model tenements we<br />
evaluated, with terra-cotta surround<strong>in</strong>g the entrance as well as decorat<strong>in</strong>g the parapet. It also uses<br />
brick lay<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g manor, used to draw attention to certa<strong>in</strong> areas of the façade. On the<br />
façade the brick is extended out from the plane to create pilasters. The Pilasters beg<strong>in</strong> with a<br />
33
ectangular design done <strong>in</strong> brick and triumphantly end with poly-chromed terra-cotta garlands,<br />
added color to the build<strong>in</strong>g and also giv<strong>in</strong>g the build<strong>in</strong>g verticality. Poly-chrome terra cotta is<br />
aga<strong>in</strong> used around the entrance (this has s<strong>in</strong>ce been pa<strong>in</strong>ted over <strong>in</strong> a buff colored pa<strong>in</strong>t), and<br />
bricks were laid diagonally <strong>in</strong> the parapet to visually separate it from the rest of the build<strong>in</strong>g. A<br />
stone band runs horizontally between the ground and first floor.<br />
The <strong>in</strong>terior layout of this build<strong>in</strong>g scored a forty-five percent. The cons were: there were only<br />
toilets <strong>in</strong> the restrooms, all the light courts are closed on all four sides, and the kitchens and<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g rooms are comb<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the majority of the apartments. The pros were: all the apartments<br />
had vestibules separat<strong>in</strong>g the public hall from the private apartment, the restrooms were separate<br />
from the bedrooms, and the most of the apartments are cross ventilated because of the number<br />
and placement of the w<strong>in</strong>dows.<br />
In order to judge our build<strong>in</strong>gs as progressive <strong>in</strong> terms of <strong>in</strong>terior layout we had to run the same<br />
survey on three speculative apartment build<strong>in</strong>gs, built for the same <strong>in</strong>come bracket, dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
same period of the century. The results have been graphed below for comparison and complete<br />
results from the speculative tenements can be found <strong>in</strong> the appendix.<br />
Model tenements progressive value compared with speculative tenements progressive value<br />
1902 1902 1902 1903 1905 1912<br />
Speculative tenements<br />
Model tenements<br />
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As the graph reveals, the majority of our previously named progressive model tenements were<br />
actually not progressive <strong>in</strong> their layout, contrary to common beliefs. This could have been one of<br />
the reasons that only a small number of model tenements were ever erected and their<br />
construction was discont<strong>in</strong>ued.<br />
If the same <strong>in</strong>come bracket could live <strong>in</strong> a better build<strong>in</strong>g and it was available to them, there<br />
would be little reason fro them to choose to live <strong>in</strong> some of the model tenements. However, this<br />
doesn’t make them any less significant <strong>in</strong> the history of hous<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong>, similar to<br />
how pre-law and old-law tenements were found to be poor <strong>in</strong> terms of design; they cont<strong>in</strong>ue to<br />
be visual representations of the changes <strong>in</strong> hous<strong>in</strong>g. The model tenements were used as one<br />
example of the progression towards better hous<strong>in</strong>g conditions <strong>in</strong> future government subsidized<br />
projects. They were transitional hous<strong>in</strong>g but they can be used to give a historic memory that<br />
would otherwise be lost.<br />
B. De Forest Conditions Survey<br />
Build<strong>in</strong>g materials def<strong>in</strong>e a build<strong>in</strong>g and express its design <strong>in</strong>tent. Brick was the primary build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
material <strong>in</strong> every s<strong>in</strong>gle build<strong>in</strong>g we have discovered with<strong>in</strong> the context of progressive hous<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(over 90 build<strong>in</strong>gs total, with construction dates rang<strong>in</strong>g from 1894 to 1963). While this is not a<br />
surpris<strong>in</strong>g fact, it is of <strong>in</strong>terest to further exam<strong>in</strong>e the material choices with<strong>in</strong> this group of<br />
build<strong>in</strong>gs. All the build<strong>in</strong>gs we have studied were of quality materials, as evident <strong>in</strong> how well<br />
they have held up over time.<br />
Brick is one of the most common build<strong>in</strong>g materials throughout history; it offers affordability,<br />
speed of construction, and by the end of the 19 th century- creativity <strong>in</strong> ornamentation. Brick<br />
masonry was <strong>in</strong>expensive but at the same time, very expressive. It is a versatile material that can<br />
articulate many different styles and details, as previously shown <strong>in</strong> the Hartley Tenements.<br />
Many, many of different k<strong>in</strong>ds of bricks were used on these build<strong>in</strong>gs, usually with trimm<strong>in</strong>g<br />
details of terra cotta or stone. These build<strong>in</strong>gs were designed and built with expressions of<br />
modesty—for their function was to provide better hous<strong>in</strong>g to the work<strong>in</strong>g class. While most of<br />
these designs are relatively restra<strong>in</strong>ed, with no extraneous ornament, the <strong>in</strong>tricate brickwork<br />
35
achieves a great deal of visual <strong>in</strong>terest. As we see here, a lot of variety and creativity can be<br />
expressed both with the choice of bricks and the manner <strong>in</strong> which they are laid.<br />
The first step to preserv<strong>in</strong>g these build<strong>in</strong>gs is awareness—we hope this will be accomplished<br />
through our extensive research and analysis. The next step will be the actual preservation of the<br />
structures <strong>in</strong> their physical fabric. One method is through conditions surveys.<br />
A build<strong>in</strong>g conditions survey has been def<strong>in</strong>ed as, “A comprehensive, critical, detailed, and<br />
formal <strong>in</strong>spection of a build<strong>in</strong>g to determ<strong>in</strong>e its condition and value, often result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the<br />
production of a report <strong>in</strong>corporat<strong>in</strong>g the results of such an <strong>in</strong>spection.”<br />
Conduct<strong>in</strong>g a conditions survey on a historic build<strong>in</strong>g of significance can serve as an <strong>in</strong>credibly<br />
valuable tool for preservation of the structure. A close exam<strong>in</strong>ation of the materials used on the<br />
build<strong>in</strong>g is necessary to determ<strong>in</strong>e the current condition and understand the decay processes of<br />
these materials. Before any work is done to structure (be it conservation, alterations,<br />
refurbishment, or restoration) a conditions survey acts as a guide <strong>in</strong> def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the scope of work.<br />
The defects and problems can then be prioritized and dealt with accord<strong>in</strong>gly. Conditions surveys<br />
are <strong>in</strong>credibly valuable to the future ma<strong>in</strong>tenance of build<strong>in</strong>gs. Problems with the build<strong>in</strong>g found<br />
at an early stage of deterioration can be assessed, and the conditions can be monitored and<br />
compared over time.<br />
The surveys I conducted were purely visual conditions assessments. I used simple tools like<br />
b<strong>in</strong>oculars, a camera with a zoom lens, and took field notes and sketches to document the<br />
build<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
The De Forest Fireproof Tenements were built <strong>in</strong> 1905, and designed by Earnest Flagg. The<br />
build<strong>in</strong>g is seven stories, with a central entrance and retail spaces on the ground floor. The<br />
simple ornamentation of the Beaux Arts style terra cotta detail<strong>in</strong>g and the flat arch brick l<strong>in</strong>tels<br />
gives this build<strong>in</strong>g a subtle dignity. To the owner’s credit, it is <strong>in</strong> excellent condition.<br />
The orig<strong>in</strong>al 2 over 2 w<strong>in</strong>dows have unfortunately all been replaced with black metal framed, 1<br />
over 1 w<strong>in</strong>dows. It is recommended that more historically sensitive w<strong>in</strong>dows are specified when<br />
the current ones need replacement. The terra cotta cornice is <strong>in</strong>tact and <strong>in</strong> good condition.<br />
36
Some of the issues we see is the soil<strong>in</strong>g on the entryway, small areas of spall<strong>in</strong>g or damaged terra<br />
cotta, and excessive plant growth on the façade.<br />
The mortar jo<strong>in</strong>ts appear to be <strong>in</strong> good condition, and the orig<strong>in</strong>al recessed po<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g detail<br />
rema<strong>in</strong>s. This effect creates shadows and accentuates the buff-colored bricks. The brick wall,<br />
however, is <strong>in</strong> need of clean<strong>in</strong>g—the mortar is covered <strong>in</strong> a blackish film, over-accentuat<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
recessed quality. This is a m<strong>in</strong>or problem, need<strong>in</strong>g no immediate action, and only mildly affects<br />
the aesthetics of the facade.<br />
The terra cotta around the entryway and str<strong>in</strong>g course is <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>e condition, consider<strong>in</strong>g the age of<br />
the build<strong>in</strong>g. Aside from some small areas of spall<strong>in</strong>g and blackish sta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, the entry is very<br />
much <strong>in</strong>tact and not deteriorated. It does appear however, that the jo<strong>in</strong>t between the terra cotta<br />
blocks were <strong>in</strong>sensitively repaired at some po<strong>in</strong>t, and the <strong>in</strong>appropriate caulk-like material has<br />
accumulated a great deal of soil<strong>in</strong>g, caus<strong>in</strong>g visual discont<strong>in</strong>uity.<br />
The most press<strong>in</strong>g issue with the ma<strong>in</strong>tenance of this build<strong>in</strong>g is the excessive plant growth<br />
accumulat<strong>in</strong>g on the second floor. V<strong>in</strong>es are grow<strong>in</strong>g from the east elevation (the neighbor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
build<strong>in</strong>g’s property), wrapp<strong>in</strong>g around to the front façade, and extend over the first story terra<br />
cotta str<strong>in</strong>g course and up above <strong>in</strong>to the bricks. This appears to have caused some deterioration<br />
to the masonry and a great deal of soil<strong>in</strong>g. The presence of these plants could further<br />
compromise the <strong>in</strong>tegrity of the façade; as the v<strong>in</strong>es mature and grow bigger, they could push on<br />
the mortar jo<strong>in</strong>ts or trap moisture <strong>in</strong> the masonry wall.<br />
A careful exam<strong>in</strong>ation of the build<strong>in</strong>g can also tell you about its past or even orig<strong>in</strong>al features<br />
that have been removed. When paired with documentary research, oddities on the build<strong>in</strong>g can<br />
often be expla<strong>in</strong>ed—as we see here, the addition of lighter bricks on the seventh story, below the<br />
w<strong>in</strong>dows can at first be puzzl<strong>in</strong>g, but upon review<strong>in</strong>g the orig<strong>in</strong>al draw<strong>in</strong>gs, it is clear that this<br />
decorative balcony rail<strong>in</strong>g was removed at some po<strong>in</strong>t dur<strong>in</strong>g the build<strong>in</strong>gs history. The replaced<br />
bricks are poor color matches to the orig<strong>in</strong>al shade of buff brick, or else the older bricks appear<br />
darker with soil<strong>in</strong>g and age.<br />
Lavoisier Apartments, a progressive hous<strong>in</strong>g build<strong>in</strong>g funded by John D. Rockefeller, is a<br />
perfect example of a rather destructive repair campaign. Work was recently completed on the<br />
37
uild<strong>in</strong>g, with little respect to the design <strong>in</strong>tent or materials of the build<strong>in</strong>gs. In contrast to the De<br />
Forest Tenements, Lavoisier is <strong>in</strong> relatively poor condition despite the recent repairs.<br />
The bricks have been repaired and/or replaced <strong>in</strong>appropriately, and very adverse re-po<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g has<br />
occurred. These changes have drastically altered the aesthetic read<strong>in</strong>g of the build<strong>in</strong>g, and <strong>in</strong> this<br />
case, a conditions survey could have helped guide the work that was completed, and helped to<br />
develop a historically sensitive repair program.<br />
A great textural aesthetic created by these rough bricks. This visual texture is completely lost <strong>in</strong><br />
the areas of poor repo<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g, as previously shown. On the left, it also appears that the masonry is<br />
experienc<strong>in</strong>g some issues with salt deposition (or efflorescence), that should be further<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigated. Many of the orig<strong>in</strong>al w<strong>in</strong>dows rema<strong>in</strong> on Lavoisier, seen on the right, but are <strong>in</strong> a<br />
quite deteriorated state.<br />
This build<strong>in</strong>g shows how and why it can be beneficial to have an <strong>in</strong>itial conditions survey<br />
completed, before the work is performed. Recommendations from the survey can help ensure<br />
that proper repair methods are carried out on historic build<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
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Chapter 4- F<strong>in</strong>nish Cooperatives<br />
History<br />
History of the F<strong>in</strong>nish Immigration to the United States<br />
Sunset Park is a neighborhood <strong>in</strong> south Brooklyn that once attracted a large population of<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish immigrants. The large immigration of these F<strong>in</strong>ns to the United States started <strong>in</strong> 1864.<br />
Initially, four groups of immigrants settled <strong>in</strong> M<strong>in</strong>nesota. Soon thereafter, the first group of<br />
immigrants arrived <strong>in</strong> Michigan, which became a popular state for immigration. These<br />
immigrants worked <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>es and lumberyards.<br />
The largest wave of immigration took place between 1899 and 1913. In the peak years, over<br />
20,000 immigrated to this country each year. Out of the 40,000,000 Europeans who emigrated to<br />
North America between 1821 1nd 1929, 350,000 were F<strong>in</strong>nish and they immigrated to the<br />
United States. 19 However, with the 1921 immigration “Emergency Quota Act”, which limited<br />
the number of F<strong>in</strong>nish immigrants to 500 a year, the number of immigrants decreased.<br />
Most of the immigrants settled <strong>in</strong> the eastern states of <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>, and Massachusetts, and <strong>in</strong> the<br />
midwestern states of Michigan and M<strong>in</strong>nesota, near the Great lakes. Later the settlement spread<br />
westward to Montana, California, Oregon and Wash<strong>in</strong>gton. However, very few settled <strong>in</strong> the<br />
southern states.<br />
Image from F<strong>in</strong>nish Immigrants <strong>in</strong> America<br />
19 Genealogy website<br />
39
F<strong>in</strong>nish Immigrants <strong>in</strong> Brooklyn<br />
The largest number (10,240) of these urban settlers settled <strong>in</strong> the city of <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>, mostly <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Sunset Park area of Brooklyn. This area, which was known as the F<strong>in</strong>ntown, covered 20 to 25<br />
blocks, between 40th and 45th Streets, to the south and north, and 5th and 9th Avenues, to the<br />
west and east.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ntown <strong>in</strong> Sunset Park<br />
At this time, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> was faced with a serious hous<strong>in</strong>g shortage. Overpopulation and over<br />
development were the two factors lead<strong>in</strong>g to this shortage <strong>in</strong> Manhattan, while under<br />
development and lack of sufficient hous<strong>in</strong>g were the <strong>in</strong>stigators of the problem <strong>in</strong> Brooklyn.<br />
This led the grow<strong>in</strong>g population of the F<strong>in</strong>nish immigrants <strong>in</strong> Sunset Park, to jo<strong>in</strong> forces and<br />
build their own homes.<br />
<strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> was only one of the problems of these immigrants. Lack of familiarity with the new<br />
country and the <strong>in</strong>ability to speak English, created special hardships for these immigrants,<br />
excluded them from jobs and made it difficult for them to assimilate. All of these factors were<br />
compell<strong>in</strong>g forces that led the F<strong>in</strong>ns <strong>in</strong>to form<strong>in</strong>g their own network <strong>in</strong> the community.<br />
From the 1890s the F<strong>in</strong>ns began form<strong>in</strong>g work<strong>in</strong>gmen’s societies that were later replaced by<br />
socialist clubs. In 1890, the Imatra Society of Brooklyn <strong>in</strong> <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> was among the first<br />
work<strong>in</strong>gmen’s clubs that was formed as a mutual benefit association for work<strong>in</strong>gmen. This was<br />
a social club, where the F<strong>in</strong>ns would gather to socialize and discuss their problems, one of which<br />
was hous<strong>in</strong>g. Soon thereafter, they established the co-operative system of conduct<strong>in</strong>g bus<strong>in</strong>ess,<br />
based on the pr<strong>in</strong>ciples set forth by the “Co-operative Movement” <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land.<br />
40
Based on those ideologies, the F<strong>in</strong>ns <strong>in</strong> Brooklyn launched an array of co-operative bus<strong>in</strong>esses,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g a grocery store, a bakery, a meat market, a restaurant, a poolroom, a newspaper<br />
establishment and garages. All of these bus<strong>in</strong>esses were concentrated on 8th Avenue, between<br />
40th and 45th Streets.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish shopp<strong>in</strong>g center (left) and F<strong>in</strong>nish Co-op Bakery (right)<br />
Images from the Library of congress<br />
History of the F<strong>in</strong>nish Co-ops<br />
From start<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 1910, the exist<strong>in</strong>g hous<strong>in</strong>g shortage prompted the F<strong>in</strong>ns to beg<strong>in</strong> construct<strong>in</strong>g<br />
s<strong>in</strong>gle family houses on the blocks bounded by 41st and 43rd Streets, to the south and north, and<br />
7th and 9th Avenues, to the west and east. These were built by the F<strong>in</strong>nish Build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Corporation, and they acted as the precursor to the F<strong>in</strong>nish Coops. 20<br />
One-family and two-family houses built by the F<strong>in</strong>nish<br />
Image from Co-operative Movement; the co-operative movement <strong>in</strong> Brooklyn, Manhattan, and the Bronx.<br />
This was followed by the construction of limited-dividend co-ops. The first such co-op, which<br />
was the first to be built <strong>in</strong> the United States, was built <strong>in</strong> 1916 and was named Alku I, mean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
20 Ekman, p.59-68.<br />
41
“beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g”. This was followed by the construction of Alku II <strong>in</strong> 1917. After the success of<br />
Alku I & II, 12 exist<strong>in</strong>g build<strong>in</strong>gs were purchased and converted <strong>in</strong>to co-ops. At this time<br />
construction was slowed down by World War I. However, start<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 1923, once aga<strong>in</strong><br />
construction picked up and 14 new co-ops were constructed. By 1927, over 28 co-operative<br />
apartment build<strong>in</strong>gs - orig<strong>in</strong>al and converted - were operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the Sunset Park area. 21<br />
Alku I<br />
Alku II<br />
After the 1920s, two factors contributed to the decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the construction of co-ops, which<br />
resulted from a reduction <strong>in</strong> the demand for hous<strong>in</strong>g. First, the new immigration laws which<br />
limited the number of immigrants, led to a decrease <strong>in</strong> the number of new immigrants to the<br />
Brooklyn area. Second, the Depression forced many of the immigrants who were <strong>in</strong> search of<br />
jobs <strong>in</strong>to leav<strong>in</strong>g <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> for other states. Today, few F<strong>in</strong>ns rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the area, and the social<br />
fabric of the neighborhood has completely changed, but these co-operative apartments cont<strong>in</strong>ue<br />
to stand.<br />
Build<strong>in</strong>gs Selected as Case Studies<br />
For the purpose of our study, we have focused on 6 build<strong>in</strong>gs that were orig<strong>in</strong>ally built as co-ops,<br />
and have chosen to exclude the converted ones; because the latter were not built by the F<strong>in</strong>ns,<br />
there was no way that they could be l<strong>in</strong>ked to the F<strong>in</strong>nish culture through architectural analysis.<br />
In select<strong>in</strong>g our case studies, we used two criteria. First we selected those that were the first to<br />
be built by the F<strong>in</strong>nish as limited-dividend co-ops, and these were Alku I & Alku II.<br />
21 For a complete list of images of the F<strong>in</strong>nish coops, refer to the build<strong>in</strong>g profiles provided at the end of this report.<br />
42
Next, we selected the build<strong>in</strong>gs that were designed by Eric Holmgren, a Swedish/American<br />
architect born <strong>in</strong> the United States, with an architectural practice <strong>in</strong> Brooklyn. These build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>in</strong>cluded the Sunset Court, River View, Sun Garden Homes, and Park Slope Homes and Alku<br />
II. 22<br />
Analysis of the 1930 Census Records: Ethnicity & Occupation<br />
We then looked at the 1930 census records to determ<strong>in</strong>e the percentage of occupants that were <strong>in</strong><br />
fact F<strong>in</strong>nish, and what percentage of these F<strong>in</strong>ns were <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the construction <strong>in</strong>dustry.<br />
In do<strong>in</strong>g so we discovered that the F<strong>in</strong>nish made up 95% of the occupants <strong>in</strong> Alku I, 95% of the<br />
occupants <strong>in</strong> Alku II, 80% of the occupants <strong>in</strong> Riverview, 65% of the occupants <strong>in</strong> Park Slope<br />
Homes, and 87% of the occupants <strong>in</strong> Sun Garden Homes. These results stand <strong>in</strong> great contrast to<br />
those found for the speculative homes, which showed a great ethnic diversity.<br />
Ethnical identity of the Occupants: Ethnicity<br />
The census records also revealed that a good number of the occupants were <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
trades. The number of such tradesman constituted 80% of the households <strong>in</strong> Alku I,<br />
47% of the households <strong>in</strong> Alku II, 57% of the households <strong>in</strong> Riverview, 39% of the households<br />
<strong>in</strong> Park Slope, and 64% of the households <strong>in</strong> Sun Garden Homes. Our analysis confirmed that<br />
these were <strong>in</strong> fact built by and for the F<strong>in</strong>ns.<br />
22 For a complete list of images of the F<strong>in</strong>nish coops, refer to the build<strong>in</strong>g profiles provided at the end of this report.<br />
43
Number of Households <strong>in</strong> Build<strong>in</strong>g Industry<br />
The Co-operative <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> System<br />
The Co-operative Society System<br />
The Co-operative System<br />
A co-operative hous<strong>in</strong>g Association is one composed of a group of like-m<strong>in</strong>ded people who unite<br />
to secure attractive homes; homes built and run, not for profit but for the service of the<br />
occupants.<br />
Title<br />
In this type of hous<strong>in</strong>g a tenant does not buy or own his house or apartment. He owns shares <strong>in</strong><br />
the Cooperative Society. The ownership of these shares entitles him to a permanent lease for the<br />
home he occupies. In this system, the legal ownership of the property is vested <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Association as a whole.<br />
Costs<br />
Payment on land and build<strong>in</strong>g was secured by the tenant members buy<strong>in</strong>g shares <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />
Association. These payments were secured <strong>in</strong> two mortgages, the first of which is about 50<br />
percent of the valuation, and the second of which varies between 50 to 75 percent. In order to<br />
achieve the most favorable conditions, ideally the mortgages do not exceed 66.6 percent of the<br />
44
cost of land. Bond issues, loans, and preferred stocks are among other forms of f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
enterprise.<br />
Steps to Incorporation<br />
A co-operation is <strong>in</strong>corporated only after a land or property has been selected, approved by all<br />
the members, and its value determ<strong>in</strong>ed. 23<br />
Advantages Lead<strong>in</strong>g to the Success of the F<strong>in</strong>nish Co-ops<br />
There were certa<strong>in</strong> advantages to liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the F<strong>in</strong>nish co-operative hous<strong>in</strong>g. As mentioned<br />
earlier, these co-ops were built by the F<strong>in</strong>ns themselves, and they provided the people of their<br />
community with secure homes <strong>in</strong> a new country, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a sense of stability and permanence.<br />
This granted the co-ops their pr<strong>in</strong>cipal advantage, and acted as a strong <strong>in</strong>centive for want<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
be part of the F<strong>in</strong>nish co-operative system. Furthermore, as we saw earlier, many skilled<br />
build<strong>in</strong>g-<strong>in</strong>dustry craftsmen, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g carpenters, bricklayers, plasterers, pa<strong>in</strong>ters, and<br />
electricians, were liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> these build<strong>in</strong>gs. These craftsmen participated <strong>in</strong> the actual<br />
construction, which resulted <strong>in</strong> a higher degree of craftsmanship. F<strong>in</strong>ally, members knew their<br />
neighbors and they united with them <strong>in</strong> the up-keep of the property, thus contribut<strong>in</strong>g to their<br />
beauty, order, and cleanl<strong>in</strong>ess. These advantages were the direct result of the like-m<strong>in</strong>dedness of<br />
the co-operators, and the strong sense of community and camaraderie among them.<br />
Factors Lead<strong>in</strong>g To Low Costs & Affordability<br />
The none-profit “limited dividend” characteristic of these co-ops, which <strong>in</strong>creased their<br />
affordability by reduc<strong>in</strong>g costs, was the ma<strong>in</strong> factor lead<strong>in</strong>g to their success. Also, the familiarity<br />
of the F<strong>in</strong>nish with an already-established system of co-operation, was the other factor to which<br />
this success can be attributed. This familiarity provided them with the know-how of the system.<br />
Moreover, we have reason to believe that two of the design architects of the build<strong>in</strong>gs may have<br />
also contributed to this reduction <strong>in</strong> cost by provid<strong>in</strong>g their services at reduced value; we know<br />
that Eric Holmgren was <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> charitable affairs, and Maxwell Cantor – the architect of<br />
23 International Labour Office, p.1-15.<br />
45
Alku I - made contributions to the shortage <strong>in</strong> hous<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the spirit of cooperation and<br />
helpfulness.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, the participation of the resident build<strong>in</strong>g-<strong>in</strong>dustry craftsmen <strong>in</strong> the actual construction<br />
resulted <strong>in</strong> a reduced cost of construction. Costs could be kept at the absolute m<strong>in</strong>imum by<br />
limit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>volvement to these residents and to those most familiar to their community. The<br />
result<strong>in</strong>g affordability led to reduced rents; for <strong>in</strong>stance <strong>in</strong> 1925, members of Alku I were pay<strong>in</strong>g<br />
$32 a month while other workers <strong>in</strong> the neighborhood were pay<strong>in</strong>g $70 to $80 a month to private<br />
landlords. 24<br />
Case Study: “Riverview”<br />
The above-described pr<strong>in</strong>ciples are demonstrated by the “Riverview” case, reported <strong>in</strong> the Cooperation<br />
magaz<strong>in</strong>e, as follows:<br />
“In the case of “Riverview”, the total cost of construction was $170,000. Each member put <strong>in</strong><br />
$300 per room (which would mean $1,500 for a five-room apartment); a first mortgage of<br />
&70,000 was placed with a local bank, and the balance was raised from the well-known method<br />
of negotiat<strong>in</strong>g “Comrade Loans”. These loans are procured from fellow co-operators <strong>in</strong> the<br />
neighborhood who make loans to the hous<strong>in</strong>g group at 5% on notes. Every one of the apartment<br />
houses built s<strong>in</strong>ce the first two has solved the second mortgage problem by means of these<br />
“Comrade Loans”. As there are 104 rooms <strong>in</strong> the “Riverview”, the cash paid <strong>in</strong> by members was<br />
about $31,200, and the amount raised from “Comrade Loans” about $68,000.” 25<br />
“One of the members of the group was an experienced builder, so he was made construction<br />
super<strong>in</strong>tendent, and worked for a weekly wage. Through buy<strong>in</strong>g many of the materials himself<br />
and hir<strong>in</strong>g much of his labor by the day, he elim<strong>in</strong>ated large contractors’ fees. Every week<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the entire process of construction he met with the whole group and they together went<br />
over all the details <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g their home. The excellent quality of material used, the<br />
24 Co-operation (1925), p.64-65.<br />
25 Co-operation (1925), p.64-65.<br />
46
usually f<strong>in</strong>e workmanship, and the low cost are all due to this careful oversight of the whole job<br />
by the whole membership.” 26<br />
Riverview<br />
Architectural Characteristics of the F<strong>in</strong>nish Co-ops<br />
The F<strong>in</strong>nish Precedent - Worker <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> Hels<strong>in</strong>ki<br />
The F<strong>in</strong>nish were already familiar with the idea of tenement hous<strong>in</strong>g. These two-story apartment<br />
houses are examples of what the F<strong>in</strong>nish call “work<strong>in</strong>g hous<strong>in</strong>g” <strong>in</strong> Hels<strong>in</strong>ki. This particular<br />
build<strong>in</strong>g seems to have a l<strong>in</strong>ear plan with a double loaded corridor. In other words, the core of<br />
the build<strong>in</strong>g is used for circulation and the outer portions are dedicated to liv<strong>in</strong>g spaces which<br />
require natural light. The <strong>in</strong>teriors consist of s<strong>in</strong>gle rooms occupied by several people. Unlike<br />
<strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> where privacy was one of the ma<strong>in</strong> criteria for the new law tenement hous<strong>in</strong>g, privacy<br />
was virtually nonexistent here. Nonetheless, these apartments have large w<strong>in</strong>dows that admit<br />
plenty of light <strong>in</strong>to the space.<br />
26 Co-operation (1925), p.64-65.<br />
47
Kirst<strong>in</strong>kuja 4<br />
Hels<strong>in</strong>ki, F<strong>in</strong>land<br />
1910 1920s<br />
Images courtesy of Professor Andrew Dolkart, <strong>Columbia</strong> <strong>University</strong><br />
1925-26 1930s<br />
Images courtesy of Professor Andrew Dolkart, <strong>Columbia</strong> <strong>University</strong><br />
48
Lot Coverage – Build<strong>in</strong>g Footpr<strong>in</strong>ts<br />
• With a lot coverage of 74%, Alku I and II are shaped like the letter “I”. This makes it<br />
possible for the <strong>in</strong>termediate spaces to have exposure to natural light. The juxtaposition of<br />
the two build<strong>in</strong>gs forms an <strong>in</strong>terior courtyard.<br />
• Riverview, on the other hand, with a lot coverage of 64%, has an <strong>in</strong>terior courtyard, two sides<br />
of which are occupied by the vertical circulation of the abutt<strong>in</strong>g build<strong>in</strong>gs. This elim<strong>in</strong>ates<br />
any circulation on the exterior plane of the build<strong>in</strong>g, which could be dedicated to more liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
spaces that require natural light. Here the courtyard is directly accessible from the street<br />
through a screened transitional space.<br />
• Sun Garden Homes, with a lot coverage of 65%, is composed of six build<strong>in</strong>gs that form an<br />
<strong>in</strong>terior courtyard. Once aga<strong>in</strong>, all vertical circulation is placed on the <strong>in</strong>terior courtyard side<br />
of the build<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
Alku I & II Riverview Sun Garden Homes<br />
• Sunset Court has a lot coverage of 70%. This build<strong>in</strong>g and the Riverview are similar <strong>in</strong> that<br />
the courtyard to both of these build<strong>in</strong>gs is accessible from the street through a screened<br />
transitional space. This direct access has resulted <strong>in</strong> a break <strong>in</strong> the build<strong>in</strong>g mass<strong>in</strong>g. The<br />
provided screen serves as vertical circulation, while it helps reta<strong>in</strong> the volumetric uniformity<br />
of the façade. Also, besides the fact that Sunset Court has an elongated courtyard, the<br />
build<strong>in</strong>gs have similar footpr<strong>in</strong>ts.<br />
• Then we have the Park Slope Homes with a lot coverage of 63%, where the entrance is<br />
emphasized by be<strong>in</strong>g set back from the street. Here the vertical circulation jo<strong>in</strong>s the three<br />
different segments of the build<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
49
Sunset Court<br />
Park Slope Homes<br />
By look<strong>in</strong>g at the shape of the footpr<strong>in</strong>ts we realized that although the layout of these build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
follow the codes, spelled out <strong>in</strong> the new-tenement laws, the use of natural light has been<br />
optimized; a conscious effort has been made to place more liv<strong>in</strong>g spaces on the exterior plane of<br />
the build<strong>in</strong>g. Also, with the exception of Alku I & II, the lot coverage for all of these co-ops is<br />
actually lower than the 70% allowed by the codes. This created lots with open spaces that<br />
allowed for good ventilation and ample light. Judg<strong>in</strong>g from the selection of lots for these co-ops<br />
(newly built and converted co-ops), we can see that 12 of them face the park, which implies that<br />
<strong>in</strong> fact the open space required by the codes was not viewed as an impediment by the builders.<br />
This is <strong>in</strong> contrast to the desire of the speculative builder who maximizes the return on his<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestment by maximiz<strong>in</strong>g floor area.<br />
Architectural Analysis<br />
Plan and Interior of Three Case Studies<br />
Case Study No. 1 compared to the typical two-family house for work<strong>in</strong>g people <strong>in</strong> Sunset Park<br />
The two-family house for work<strong>in</strong>g people has long rectangular plans that create <strong>in</strong>terior spaces<br />
that do not get any exposure to natural light. In the house, except for the spaces that are on<br />
either end of the build<strong>in</strong>g, none of the <strong>in</strong>termediate spaces have w<strong>in</strong>dows to the exterior. On the<br />
other hand, all of the spaces <strong>in</strong> the F<strong>in</strong>nish co-ops have w<strong>in</strong>dows and receive direct natural light.<br />
Moreover, the F<strong>in</strong>nish co-ops show considerable improvement <strong>in</strong> the arrangement of spaces,<br />
<strong>in</strong>terior circulation, and <strong>in</strong> their <strong>in</strong>creased consideration for light and air. Also, the spaces are<br />
50
larger and brighter, and the corridors are much wider. The typical houses for work<strong>in</strong>g people on<br />
the other hand have longer, darker and narrower corridors.<br />
Alku I<br />
Typical Sunset Park Two Family <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />
817 43rd Street 640 54th Street<br />
51
Alku I<br />
The Chislehurst<br />
817 43rd Street, Brooklyn Fort Wash<strong>in</strong>gton Ave., near 180th St., Manhattan<br />
Alku I Interior:<br />
Entry corridor Bedroom Bathroom<br />
52
Sun Garden Homes: Floor Plan and Interior<br />
The design of Sun Garden Homes proves to be even more ref<strong>in</strong>ed. This build<strong>in</strong>g consists of twobedroom<br />
apartments, with a clean, clear, and straightforward layout. All rooms have w<strong>in</strong>dows to<br />
the exterior, admitt<strong>in</strong>g plenty of natural light, and they are all accessible from a wide central<br />
corridor.<br />
Floor plan<br />
Orig<strong>in</strong>al image from Corcoran<br />
Sun Garden Homes <strong>in</strong>terior<br />
Images from Corcoran<br />
Liv<strong>in</strong>g room<br />
D<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g room<br />
53
Kitchen<br />
Entry corridor<br />
Park Slope Home: Floor Plans and Interior<br />
Park Slope Home consists mostly of one-bedroom apartments. In this build<strong>in</strong>g, an efficient use<br />
of space has resulted <strong>in</strong> nice open layouts. Two plan types were exam<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> this build<strong>in</strong>g. In<br />
both plan types, all rooms have w<strong>in</strong>dows. In plan type A, the public and private spaces are<br />
separated, which results <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>creased level of privacy. This is achieved by plac<strong>in</strong>g the two<br />
sections on either side of the entrance. However, <strong>in</strong> Plan type B, the only access to the bedroom<br />
is from the d<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g room. In fact all rooms are accessed from each other.<br />
54
Plan A<br />
Plan B<br />
Park Slope Homes <strong>in</strong>terior<br />
Kitchen D<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Room Liv<strong>in</strong>g Room<br />
55
The fact that spaces are accessed through each other might raise a question as to how well the<br />
plans work <strong>in</strong> terms of space adjacencies. However, the sample layout found from the 1939 to<br />
1940, attest to the fact that this was not an uncommon concept <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land, and that private spaces<br />
(bedroom) could be accessed from a public space (liv<strong>in</strong>g). 27<br />
Apartment <strong>in</strong> Hels<strong>in</strong>ki (1939-1940)<br />
Floor plan from: Asunnon Muodonmuutoksai<br />
So it can be concluded that <strong>in</strong> addition to the fact that the spaces are bright and cheerful, the<br />
layout of the apartments work well.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Although built under the new-tenement laws, these co-operatives were progressive <strong>in</strong> that they<br />
were much better <strong>in</strong> quality than the speculative apartments built <strong>in</strong> <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong> at the time.<br />
They have enhanced layouts and they make better use of space. There is a higher degree of<br />
privacy, better <strong>in</strong>terior circulation, ample light and air, and were built with an enhanced degree of<br />
craftsmanship as opposed to typical family homes for work<strong>in</strong>g people. Moreover, the design of<br />
27 Unfortunately we could not f<strong>in</strong>d any plans for apartments built <strong>in</strong> F<strong>in</strong>land before 1934.<br />
56
these co-operatives improved over time. F<strong>in</strong>ally, due to their smaller scale, they did and still do<br />
create a stronger sense of community.<br />
While co-operative hous<strong>in</strong>g was later sponsored by labor unions and the city, the limiteddividend<br />
co-operatives of Sunset Park were the first successful case with a clear ethnic<br />
affiliation. Furthermore, these co-ops rema<strong>in</strong> as the last physical signs of the F<strong>in</strong>nish<br />
community, which once settled <strong>in</strong> the Sunset Park area. These build<strong>in</strong>gs were built for the<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish people by the very members of this community. These factors del<strong>in</strong>eate a strong ethnic<br />
picture, the historic memory of which merits preservation.<br />
57
A. Alku II Condition Survey<br />
A conditions survey was also undertaken on one of the first F<strong>in</strong>nish Co-operative build<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong><br />
Brooklyn. Alku II, located <strong>in</strong> Sunset Park, was built <strong>in</strong> 1917, just after Alku I, and designed by<br />
Eric O. Holmgren. Alku II is four stories with a central entrance, flat roof, and a three-bay<br />
parapet. It is a brick masonry build<strong>in</strong>g with limestone trimm<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
The simple limestone detail<strong>in</strong>g is quite soiled as shown here. The areas that are the most soiled<br />
are the undersides of the cornice, belt course, and entryway, as limestone tends to accumulate<br />
soil<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> areas where the ra<strong>in</strong> does not wash the stone.<br />
Tapestry brick is the primary masonry material on Alku II, exhibit<strong>in</strong>g deep vertical ridges that<br />
were raked <strong>in</strong>to the brick before fir<strong>in</strong>g. Two different shades of bricks were used, a yellow-buff<br />
color for the majority of the structure, and a darker reddish-brown iron-spot brick for the w<strong>in</strong>dow<br />
surrounds and pilasters.<br />
Tapestry brick tends to have issues with soil<strong>in</strong>g due to the deep grooves accumulat<strong>in</strong>g dirt, but<br />
the condition of this façade is quite clean. Upon <strong>in</strong>quir<strong>in</strong>g about this with the co-op president, it<br />
was learned that the build<strong>in</strong>g was steam-cleaned about fifteen years ago. This treatment seems to<br />
have been a very successful technique, and the bricks currently display almost no signs of<br />
soil<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
W<strong>in</strong>dow decisions on this build<strong>in</strong>g are both made and paid for by the <strong>in</strong>dividual residents <strong>in</strong> each<br />
unit, so there is a variety of w<strong>in</strong>dow replacements seen here that create a discont<strong>in</strong>uity on the<br />
facade. The orig<strong>in</strong>al w<strong>in</strong>dows (6 over 1 and 9 over 1 panes) can be seen on the bottom right of<br />
the screen. In this case, a w<strong>in</strong>dow replacement master plan is recommended to ensure future<br />
visual cont<strong>in</strong>uity of the façade.<br />
Alku II serves as an example of a well-ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed build<strong>in</strong>g. Co-ops are often fortunate <strong>in</strong> this<br />
sense because the residents of the build<strong>in</strong>g are also the owners, so there is a vested <strong>in</strong>terest to<br />
take care of the structure itself.<br />
Many build<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> the Sunset Park area, where the F<strong>in</strong>nish co-ops are concentrated, are poorly<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed. As you can see here, parapet and roof problems can be major issues. This parapet is<br />
58
<strong>in</strong> a severely unsafe condition. Because this build<strong>in</strong>g is under six stories, Local Law 11 (the NYC<br />
law that mandates build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>spection every five years) does not apply. Alku II’s parapet is <strong>in</strong><br />
very stable and safe condition, as a testament to the owners’ careful ma<strong>in</strong>tenance.<br />
Another co-op with<strong>in</strong> our study, the Brooklyn Garden Apartments on the right, shows issues with<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>tenance and graffiti on the build<strong>in</strong>g. In contrast, the majority of the F<strong>in</strong>nish co-ops are <strong>in</strong><br />
quite good condition, well-ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed and cared for by their owners.<br />
59
Conclusion<br />
In research<strong>in</strong>g the build<strong>in</strong>gs associated with progressive hous<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong>, we have<br />
clearly found a great deal of historical, social, and cultural significance. Based on our f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs,<br />
we believe some of these build<strong>in</strong>gs are worthy of preservation efforts. They are <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
historically, and key to the development of hous<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>.<br />
While there is a great deal more research that could (and should) be done, we feel that the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g preservation actions should be taken at this time:<br />
Model tenements were an extremely small percentage of <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>’s hous<strong>in</strong>g stock at the time;<br />
yet their contribution to hous<strong>in</strong>g reform should certa<strong>in</strong>ly be acknowledged. Our f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs show<br />
that the true significance of these build<strong>in</strong>gs lies primarily <strong>in</strong> their <strong>in</strong>terior layouts and plans. We<br />
feel that while the plans were not necessarily progressive, the architects and funders truly felt<br />
that they were build<strong>in</strong>g homes that were better than the older tenements. The layout and plans of<br />
these build<strong>in</strong>gs provide us an <strong>in</strong>sight to progressive hous<strong>in</strong>g that would otherwise be lost. The<br />
methods of their f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g and philanthropic construction are also very important to the history<br />
of women’s social <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> hous<strong>in</strong>g. Due to the limitations of <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>’s Landmarks<br />
Law, the <strong>in</strong>teriors of these build<strong>in</strong>g cannot be given Landmark status. Therefore, we advocate for<br />
the addition of some of the more successful model tenements funded by female philanthropists to<br />
the National Register of Historic Places. While the National Register designation does not hold<br />
any legal protection, it does designate the entire build<strong>in</strong>g, as opposed to merely the exterior<br />
facade. If the opportunity to rehabilitate one of these structures us<strong>in</strong>g tax credits or federal funds<br />
arose, their placement on the Register would provide them with protection of historic fabric<br />
through the required employ of the Secretary of Interior Standards. For example, the Emerson<br />
Tenements, built <strong>in</strong> 1914 by William Emerson, has recently qualified for eligibility to the<br />
Register, and will undergo a tax credit rehabilitation project follow<strong>in</strong>g these Standards.<br />
Research on the F<strong>in</strong>nish Co-operative movement <strong>in</strong> Brooklyn has clearly divulged cultural<br />
significance. As the first limited dividend co-operative hous<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> America, these build<strong>in</strong>gs hold<br />
great historic value. This group of build<strong>in</strong>gs serves as a representation of what was once known<br />
as F<strong>in</strong>n-town, one of the largest concentrations of F<strong>in</strong>ns <strong>in</strong> the United States. While the F<strong>in</strong>nish<br />
60
presence <strong>in</strong> Brooklyn (and <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong> <strong>in</strong> general) has all but disappeared, the build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
rema<strong>in</strong> as an important l<strong>in</strong>k to ethnic heritage.<br />
Because Alku 1 and 2 were the first of these limited dividend co-operatives to be built by the<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish, we recommend designation as <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong> Landmarks. These two build<strong>in</strong>gs have<br />
already been recognized by Place Matters (an organization dedicated to preserv<strong>in</strong>g the cultural<br />
heritage of <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>). We feel that the Alku build<strong>in</strong>gs would contribute to NYC’s Landmarks<br />
as icons of this larger group of F<strong>in</strong>nish co-operatives (over 25 <strong>in</strong> all). These build<strong>in</strong>gs are still an<br />
<strong>in</strong>tegral part of the Sunset Park area, and part of the ethnic overlays that characterize <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>.<br />
A Thematic Nom<strong>in</strong>ation to the National Register would also be appropriate for the F<strong>in</strong>nish Coops.<br />
This nom<strong>in</strong>ation could help raise awareness and recognition for this small but important<br />
historical hous<strong>in</strong>g movement.<br />
Community education plays a crucial role <strong>in</strong> our preservation recommendations for this large<br />
group of build<strong>in</strong>gs with<strong>in</strong> <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>’s history of progressive hous<strong>in</strong>g. With public <strong>in</strong>volvement<br />
and knowledge, these build<strong>in</strong>gs could successfully be recognized and valued by the community.<br />
Education can work as a powerful tool <strong>in</strong> successful preservation efforts. Because cultural<br />
heritage is often difficult to present, the presence of these physical manifestations should be<br />
made known. Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance and proper care of these build<strong>in</strong>gs can emerge from acknowledgment,<br />
along with more <strong>in</strong>terest from the community as a whole. Educational recommendations <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
children’s school programs, articles <strong>in</strong> local publications, or public <strong>in</strong>formational lectures about<br />
the history and importance of the F<strong>in</strong>nish Co-ops. Recognition and awareness can be powerful<br />
tools applicable not only to our project, but to a broader understand<strong>in</strong>g of preservation as a<br />
whole.<br />
61
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Clark, T.M. Apartment Houses. The American Architect and Build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>New</strong>s. (January 5, 1907)<br />
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63
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65
Selected Bibliography<br />
1. Better Tenement Houses, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: November 22, 1896.<br />
2. <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>’s Great Movement for <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Reform, Review of Reviews, December 1896.<br />
3. Tenement House Show, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: February 10, 1900.<br />
4. Pay<strong>in</strong>g Model Tenements, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: May 28, 1901.<br />
5. Tenement Reform Threatened, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: February 1, 1903.<br />
6. The Model Tenement Problem, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: April 7, 1903<br />
7. To Promote Philanthropy, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: May 23, 1905.<br />
8. A <strong>New</strong> Model Tenement is opened to Tenants, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: January 21, 1906.<br />
9. Display Ad 32- Homewood, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: March 25, 1906.<br />
10. Philanthropy and Bus<strong>in</strong>ess, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: May 29, 1906.<br />
11. Model Tenements Pay, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: May 29, 1906.<br />
12. Apartment Houses, The American Architect and Build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>New</strong>s, January 5, 1907.<br />
13. Model Homes for the Poor, The Atlanta Constitutional, April 21, 1907.<br />
14. 5,000,000 Invested <strong>in</strong> Model Tenements for <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong>’s Poor, Boston Daily Globe:<br />
April 28, 1907.<br />
15. Pay<strong>in</strong>g Philanthropy, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: February 18, 1908.<br />
16. Model Homes, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: June 30, 1908.<br />
17. “Model Flats” Ready Jan. 1, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: December 11, 1908.<br />
18. Model Tenement Problem, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: March 21, 1909.<br />
19. Bath Tubs as Garden Spots; Trials of Model Tenements, Chicago Daily Tribune: April<br />
18, 1909.<br />
20. Men Crowded Out as Tenement Heads: <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: May 21, 1909.<br />
21. Model Tenements, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: December 13, 1909.<br />
22. Model Tenements Viewed from Investment Standpo<strong>in</strong>t, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: December 12,<br />
1909.<br />
23. South Brooklyn Tenements: <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: April 3, 1910.<br />
24. Model Tenements Secured by Women, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: May 8, 1910.<br />
25. Model Tenements Good Investment, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: May 29, 1910.<br />
26. Designs Homes for Work<strong>in</strong>g Girls, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: June 5, 1910.<br />
27. Model Tenement Section, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: December 25, 1910.<br />
28. Hartley Open Stair Tenement, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: July 9, 1911.<br />
29. <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong>: References to Books and Magaz<strong>in</strong>es, The Monthly Bullet<strong>in</strong>, December 1911.<br />
30. Seek<strong>in</strong>g to Remedy the Failure of Model Tenements, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: December 1,<br />
1912.<br />
31. Rent Model Flats after Rigid Tests, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: August 8, 1913/<br />
32. Latest Model Tenement on Avenue A, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: December 12, 1915.<br />
33. Model Tenements for West Harlem, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: May 14, 1916.<br />
34. Care of Tenement House Properties, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: May 27, 1917<br />
35. Model Tenement Designs W<strong>in</strong> Prizes, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: February 5, 1922.<br />
36. Site For Model Tenement, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: March 16, 1922.<br />
37. <strong>New</strong> Tenement House Shows a 6% Return, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: February 25, 1923.<br />
38. Model Tenements at $9 Per Room, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: April 8, 1923.<br />
39. Brooklyn to Build Model Tenements, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: December 11, 1927.<br />
40. <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Authority Buys 2 Tenements, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: August 15, 1941.<br />
41. I.N. Phelps Stokes Architect, 77, Dead, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: December 19, 1944.<br />
66
42. I.N. Phelps Stokes: Tenement Architect, Economist, Planner, The Journal of the Society<br />
of Architectural Historians, Vol, 23 No. 2 (May, 1964) Article by Roy Lubove.<br />
43. Landmark Land Grab, The Village Voice: November 12, 1991.<br />
44. Streetscapes: Model Tenements; Far West on 42 nd St., A 1901 Innovation, Christopher<br />
Gray, <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times: June 21, 1992.<br />
67
Appendix<br />
68
Distribution Ma p:<br />
Red= Model Tenements,<br />
Yellow= Limited Dividend Cooperatives<br />
69
304-306 West 149 th Street<br />
Image from Slums and <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> V. II,<br />
Plate 11D<br />
70
179 Mulberry Street<br />
Plan from Clark, Figure 17.<br />
71
183 Mulberry Street<br />
Plan from Clark, Figure 17.<br />
72
F<strong>in</strong>nish Co-op hous<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Sunset Park<br />
# Name Address (Brooklyn) Architects Date Other Notes<br />
Built<br />
1 Corner View I 4401 4th Ave. ? 1912<br />
2 Corner View II 4407 4th Ave. ? ?<br />
3 Bayview 540 40th St.(b/w 5th C. Schubert 1912? converted<br />
and 6th Ave.)<br />
1920?<br />
4 Florence 546 40th St. (5th&6th Eisenla & Carlson 1912 converted<br />
Ave.)<br />
5 Park Slope Homes 521-31 41st St. Eric O. Holmgren 1927<br />
6 Parkside 549-561 41th St. Eric O. Holmgren 1926<br />
7 Sunset View I 605 41st St ? 1921<br />
8 Sunset View II 611 41st St. ? 1920?<br />
9 Sun Garden Homes 637-661 41st St. (7th Eric O. Holmgren 1924<br />
Ave.)<br />
10 Riverview 673-83 41st St., (7th Eric O. Holmgren 1923<br />
Ave.)<br />
11 Sunset Court 4002-4012, 7th Eric O. Holmgren 1925<br />
Ave.(40th St.)<br />
12 Berkshire Court 4001-11 7th Ave. Benjam<strong>in</strong> Cohn of Cohn<br />
Bros.<br />
1915?<br />
1924?<br />
13 Sunset Home 4015-21 7th Ave. ? 1916? converted<br />
1929?<br />
14 Baltic Homes 4113 7th Ave. ? 1914? converted<br />
15 Elmo Homes 728-734 41st St. ? 1927<br />
16 Park Hill Home 759 42nd St. ? 1926<br />
17 Alku I 816 43rd St. (near 8th Maxwell A. Cantor 1916-17<br />
Ave.)<br />
18 Alku II 826 43rd St. (near 8th Eric O. Holmgren 1917<br />
Ave)<br />
19 Advance Homes 848-856 43rd St. ? 1922?<br />
20 Top View 807 44th St. ? 1923<br />
21 Broadview 4313 9th Ave. Eric O. Holmgren? 1923?<br />
22 L<strong>in</strong>den Heights 702 45th St. Eric O. Holmgren? 1924<br />
23 Victory Home 672 46 St. ? 1915 converted<br />
24 Bay View 671 47th St. ? 1915? converted<br />
1930?<br />
25 Hillside 566 44th St. Eisenla & Carlson 1912-3 converted<br />
26 Parkslope 570 44th St. Eisenla & Carlson 1912-3 converted<br />
27 Pleasant View 574 44th St. Eisenla & Carlson 1912-3 converted<br />
28 Hilltop View 4404 6th Ave. Eisenla & Carlson 1912-3 converted<br />
29 517 49th Street Club 517 49th St. ? 1914? converted<br />
30 466 49th Street Club 466 49th St. Eisenla & Carlson 1909?<br />
1914?<br />
converted<br />
73
Model Tenements<br />
75
“Brooklyn Garden Apartments”<br />
715‐29 4 th Av (at 24 th St),<br />
Brooklyn<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model Tenement<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: Brooklyn Garden Apartments,<br />
Inc<br />
•Architect:<br />
•Date Built: 1929<br />
•Materials: brick & limestone<br />
76
“Brooklyn Garden Apartment”<br />
100 Adelphi Street, Brooklyn<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model Tenement<br />
• Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: Brooklyn Garden Apartments,<br />
Inc.<br />
• Architect: Frank H. Quimby<br />
• Date Built: 1930<br />
• Materials: red brick<br />
77
“Emerson Tenements”<br />
746 11 th Av, Manhattan<br />
(at 53 rd St)<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model Tenements<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: William Emerson<br />
•Architect: William Emerson<br />
•Date Built: 1914<br />
•Materials: brick, fireproof construction<br />
•Significance: It is about to be added to the National<br />
Register to utilize tax credits for<br />
rehabilitation. The first floor was<br />
entirely devoted to communal<br />
amenities.<br />
78
“Hartley Open Stair Tenements”<br />
523‐531 W 47 th St, Manhattan<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Tenement<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner:<br />
•Hartley Open Stair Tenement Co. (20 Broad St.)<br />
*Funded by Mrs. Helen Hartley Jenk<strong>in</strong>s<br />
•Architect: Henry Atterbury Smith & William P. Miller<br />
•Date Built: 1912‐13<br />
•Materials: brick with polychrome terra cotta<br />
ornamentation<br />
•Significance: In the Special Cl<strong>in</strong>ton zon<strong>in</strong>g district of<br />
Manhattan<br />
79
“Harlem Apartments”<br />
211 West 146 th &<br />
210 West 147 th Street,<br />
Manhattan<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model Tenements<br />
• Developer/Owner: Open Stair Dwell<strong>in</strong>gs Company<br />
• Architect: Henry Atterbury Smith & William P. Miller<br />
• Date Built: 1916<br />
• Materials: Brick<br />
80
“Mills House 1”<br />
160 Bleecker St, Manhattan<br />
(at Sullivan St)<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model Tenement<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: Darius Ogden Mills<br />
•Architect: Ernest Flagg<br />
•Date Built: 1896<br />
•Materials: brick with stone detail<strong>in</strong>g<br />
•Significance: This build<strong>in</strong>g was not for families but<br />
rather for s<strong>in</strong>gle work<strong>in</strong>g men, we <strong>in</strong>cluded it <strong>in</strong> our<br />
survey as it is mentioned frequently <strong>in</strong> the literature<br />
about model tenements. There is also a “Mills Hotel<br />
No. 3” at 7 th Avenue between West 36 th & 37 th<br />
Streets, Manhattan. The architect was Copeland and<br />
Dole, it was completed <strong>in</strong> 1906 and also funded for<br />
by Darius Ogden Mills. Mills House 2 has s<strong>in</strong>ce been<br />
demolished.<br />
81
“Manhattan <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Corporation”<br />
176‐182 E 3 rd St, Manhattan<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model Tenement<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Construction Corp.<br />
(Lippman Schurmacher, pres.)<br />
•Architect: Horace G<strong>in</strong>sberg<br />
•Date Built: 1931<br />
•Materials: brick with glazed brick detail<strong>in</strong>g<br />
82
“Stanton Homes Corporation”<br />
193‐95 Stanton St, Manhattan<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model Tenement<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: Stanton Development Corp.<br />
(Lippman Schurmacher, pres.)<br />
•Architect: Louis R. Uffner<br />
•Date Built: 1930<br />
•Materials: brick<br />
83
“Thomas Garden<br />
Apartments”<br />
840 Grand Concourse, Bronx.<br />
Plan from Plunz page 155.<br />
Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model Tenement<br />
Developer/Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: John D. Rockefeller<br />
Architect: Andrew J. Thomas<br />
Date Built: 1928<br />
Significance: The five‐story development was<br />
funded by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. as hous<strong>in</strong>g for<br />
middle‐<strong>in</strong>come families.<br />
84
“<strong>York</strong> Avenue Estates”<br />
<strong>York</strong> Between 78‐79 th Street‐<br />
Manhattan, Landmark<br />
• Type: Model Tenement<br />
•Developer/Owner: <strong>City</strong> & Suburban<br />
• Architects: Harde & Short, Percy Griff<strong>in</strong> and Philip H. Ohm<br />
• Date Built: 1900‐1913<br />
• Materials: Buff brick, limestone<br />
•Significance: Designated a <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong> Landmark <strong>in</strong> 1990<br />
85
“Seventy Third Street Estate/James H.<br />
Jones Memorial Build<strong>in</strong>gs”<br />
415‐419 East 73 rd St., Manhattan<br />
Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model Tenement<br />
Developer/Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: <strong>City</strong> & Suburban<br />
Architect: <strong>City</strong> & Suburban Homes Corporation Architect Dept.<br />
Date Built: 1906<br />
Materials: brick, granite, limestone.<br />
86
“First Avenue Estates”<br />
First Avenue between 64 th &<br />
65 th Streets, Manhattan<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model Tenement<br />
•Developer/Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: <strong>City</strong> & Suburban<br />
• Architect: James E Ware & Son<br />
• Date Built: 1900<br />
• Materials: brick, cast‐stone.<br />
• Significance: Designated as a <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong><br />
Landmark <strong>in</strong> 1990<br />
87
“Celtic Park Apartments”<br />
4810 43 rd Street at 48 th<br />
Avenue, Woodside, Queens.<br />
Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model Tenement<br />
Developer/Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: <strong>City</strong> & Suburban<br />
Architect:<br />
Date Built: 1909‐26‐31<br />
Materials: brick, terracotta<br />
88
“East River Homes (Cherokee)”<br />
E 78 th St at <strong>York</strong> Ave, Manhattan<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model Tenement<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: Mrs. Ann Harriman Vanderbilt<br />
•Architect: Henry Atterbury Smith<br />
•Date Built: 1909<br />
•Materials: brick, terra cotta, Guastav<strong>in</strong>o tile<br />
•Significance: Designated as a <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong> Landmark <strong>in</strong><br />
1985. It was built specifically for those suffer<strong>in</strong>g from<br />
Tuberculosis and their families, with an emphasis on<br />
ventilation and cleanl<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>in</strong> each apartment.<br />
89
“Lavoisier Apartments”<br />
1213 <strong>York</strong> Avenue, Manhattan<br />
Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model Tenement<br />
Developer/Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: John D. Rockefeller Jr.<br />
Architect: Andrew J. Thomas<br />
Date Built: 1924<br />
Materials: Rough red brick with limestone details<br />
90
“Phelps‐Stokes Properties”<br />
52‐58 East 97th Street,<br />
Manhattan<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model Tenement<br />
• Developer/Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: Phelps Stokes Fund<br />
• Architect: Sibley and Fetherston<br />
• Date Built: 1922<br />
• Materials: Brick<br />
91
“Rogers Model Dwell<strong>in</strong>gs”<br />
425‐427 West 44 th Street,<br />
Manhattan<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model tenement<br />
• Developer/Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: Cather<strong>in</strong>e Cossitt.D.<br />
Rogers<br />
• Architect: Grosvenor. Atterbury<br />
• Date Built: 1912<br />
• Materials: Brick<br />
• Significance: This build<strong>in</strong>g was <strong>in</strong> part sponsored by<br />
nuns, and there were very strict criteria if you and your<br />
family were go<strong>in</strong>g to live here. (See <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Times Article<br />
August 8 th 1913‐ Rent Model Flats After Rigid Tests)<br />
92
“Bill<strong>in</strong>gs”<br />
(326‐330) 328 East 35 th<br />
Street, Manhattan<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Two 6 story flats<br />
• Developer/Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: Laura Bill<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
• Architect: Andrews & Withers<br />
• Date Built: 1901<br />
• Materials: Brick with stone trims<br />
93
“DeForest Fireproof<br />
Tenements”<br />
203‐205 East 27 th Street,<br />
Manhattan<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model Tenement<br />
• Developer/Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner:<br />
Joseph<strong>in</strong>e L. De Forest & Shephered K. De Forest<br />
• Architect: Ernest Flagg<br />
• Date Built: 1905<br />
• Materials: Brick with terra‐cotta ornamentation<br />
94
Half demolished<br />
“<strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Fireproof Tenements”<br />
500‐506 West 42 nd Street<br />
• Type: Model tenement<br />
• Developer/Owner: NY Fireproof Tenement Company<br />
aka The Model Tenement Fireproof Company<br />
• Architect: Ernest Flagg<br />
• Date Built: 1899<br />
• Materials: Brick and limestone<br />
• Integrity: Only a partial front façade and one doorway<br />
left of the west w<strong>in</strong>g, the east w<strong>in</strong>g is still <strong>in</strong>tact<br />
•Significance: 1 st Fireproof tenements. Ernest Flagg used<br />
his fireproof partition wall patented construction<br />
technique on these and other build<strong>in</strong>gs that he designed<br />
for the NY Fire Proof Tenement Company which he<br />
founded (the three addresses I found for these build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
have all been demolished). 502‐506 were also<br />
demolished without a DOB Permit and a stop work order<br />
has been placed on the lots.<br />
NYPL Digital Gallery<br />
95
“Henry Phipps Houses”<br />
234‐248 West 64 th Street‐ Manhattan<br />
• Type: Model tenement<br />
•Developer/Owner: Henry Phipps<br />
• Architect: Whitfield & K<strong>in</strong>g<br />
• Date Built: 1912<br />
• Materials: Buff brick, pa<strong>in</strong>ted stone, limestone<br />
• Significance: Ma<strong>in</strong>ly for the African American population<br />
that populated the San Juan Hill area at the time of<br />
construction.<br />
96
“Phipps Garden Apartments<br />
I & II”<br />
5101 39th Avenue at 521 st<br />
Street, Sunnyside, Long Island<br />
<strong>City</strong>, Queens.<br />
Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model Tenement<br />
Developer/Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: Phipps Houses, Inc.<br />
Architect: Clarence S. Ste<strong>in</strong><br />
Date Built: 1927‐30‐35<br />
Materials: brick.<br />
Significance: <strong>in</strong> Historic District. The Phipps<br />
Garden Apartments I is a large complex of<br />
apartments that, together with Phipps Garden<br />
Apartments II to the north, encompass an entire<br />
double‐width block. <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> development that<br />
provided low density, high quality hous<strong>in</strong>g, open<br />
space and gardens for low wage earners and<br />
encouraged civic participation among its<br />
residents.<br />
97
“Henry Phipps Tenement Houses”<br />
233‐247 West 63 rd Street‐ Manhattan<br />
• Type: Model tenement<br />
•Developer/Owner: Henry Phipps<br />
• Architect: Whitfield & K<strong>in</strong>g<br />
• Date Built: 1905‐1906<br />
• Materials: light brick, red brick, some stone work<br />
•Significance: Built for ma<strong>in</strong>ly to house African Americans<br />
that populated the San Juan Hill area at the time.<br />
98
“Tower build<strong>in</strong>gs”<br />
431‐5(419) Hicks St., Brooklyn<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model tenement.<br />
• Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: Alfred White.<br />
• Architect: Williams Field & Son.<br />
• Date Built: 1876‐77<br />
• Materials: Bricks, cast iron and wrought iron<br />
• Significance: Located <strong>in</strong> historic district, it was<br />
also one of the first two (Home Build<strong>in</strong>g was the<br />
other) model tenements that were successful <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong>.<br />
99
“Home Build<strong>in</strong>gs”<br />
445 Hicks St., Brooklyn<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model tenement.<br />
• Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: Alfred White.<br />
• Architect: Williams Field & Son.<br />
• Date Built: 1876‐77<br />
• Materials: Bricks, cast irons and wrought iron.<br />
• Integrity: good.<br />
• Significance: Located <strong>in</strong> historic district, multiple<br />
entrances, multiple build<strong>in</strong>gs, courtyard, simple<br />
and bulky details. It was also one of the first two<br />
(Tower Build<strong>in</strong>g was the other) model<br />
tenements that were successful <strong>in</strong> <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong><br />
<strong>City</strong>. Restored 1986 by Maitland, Strauss & Behr.<br />
100
“Riverside Build<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
(Apartments)”<br />
10 <strong>Columbia</strong> Pl., Brooklyn<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model tenement.<br />
• Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: Alfred Treadway White.<br />
• Architect: Williams Field & Son.<br />
• Date Built: 1890<br />
• Materials: Bricks, terracotta, cast irons and wrought<br />
iron.<br />
• Integrity: half of the complex was demolished for the<br />
expressway construction, but the rest of it is<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed well. remodeled <strong>in</strong> 1988 by R.M. Kliment &<br />
Frances Halsband.<br />
• Significance: Located <strong>in</strong> historic district.<br />
101
“Astral Apartment (flat)”<br />
184 Frankl<strong>in</strong> Street, Brooklyn<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model tenement.<br />
• Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: Charles Pratt.<br />
• Architect: Lamb & Rich.<br />
• Date Built: 1885‐6.<br />
• Materials: Brick & terra cotta.<br />
• Significance: Designated as a <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong><br />
Landmark <strong>in</strong> 1980.<br />
102
“Bishop”<br />
58 Hester St., Manhattan<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Model Tenement. (tenement)<br />
• Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: D.W. & Shepeherd<br />
Bishop.<br />
• Architect: Ernest Flagg.<br />
• Date Built: 1901‐2.<br />
• Materials: ma<strong>in</strong>ly buff brick with limestone<br />
l<strong>in</strong>tels and sills<br />
2 nd ‐5 th Floor plan<br />
103
“Mesa Verde”<br />
3433 90 th Street, Jackson Heights,<br />
Queens.<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Apartments<br />
• Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: Open Stair<br />
Dwell<strong>in</strong>gs Company.<br />
• Architect: Henry Atterbury Smith.<br />
• Date Built: 1926 (completed).<br />
• Materials: Brick and limestone.<br />
• Description: Six closed L build<strong>in</strong>gs organized at<br />
forty‐five degrees to the gridiron. Each build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
was six‐sty high and had one elevator that went<br />
to the roof, mak<strong>in</strong>g the build<strong>in</strong>gs “walk‐downs”.<br />
The <strong>in</strong>tersect<strong>in</strong>g diagonals of the build<strong>in</strong>gs were<br />
connected by bridges and walkways.<br />
Images from Plunz,<br />
Pages: 177 & 179<br />
104
Limited Dividend Cooperatives<br />
105
“Corner View I”<br />
4401 4 th Ave., Brooklyn<br />
•Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/Owner: Corner View Assn., Inc.<br />
• Architect:<br />
• Date Built: 1912?<br />
• Materials: bricks and stone<br />
• Integrity:<br />
•Significance:<br />
•Other <strong>in</strong>fo: Block/Lot= 738‐9<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>g= 1<br />
Number of floors= 4<br />
Number of units= 20<br />
106
“Corner View II”<br />
4407 4 th Ave., Brooklyn<br />
•Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/Owner: Corner View Assn., Inc.<br />
• Architect:<br />
• Date Built:<br />
• Materials: bricks and stone<br />
• Integrity:<br />
•Significance: Block/Lot= 738‐6<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>g= 1<br />
Number of floors= 4<br />
Number of units= 16<br />
107
“Florence (Risula)”<br />
546 40 th St. (5th & 6th Ave.),<br />
Brooklyn<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op (converted)<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: Florence Assn., Inc.<br />
•CM: Armstrong Construction Co. (412 Macon St.)<br />
•Architect: Eisenla & Carlson (312 51 st St., Brooklyn)<br />
•Date Built: 1912, 1920?<br />
•Materials: brick, decoratively laid, stone over entry<br />
•Integrity: relatively <strong>in</strong>tact, cornice miss<strong>in</strong>g<br />
•Significance:<br />
•Other Info: Block/Lot= 917‐23<br />
Number of floors= 4<br />
Units= 16<br />
NB# 6788‐1911<br />
108
“Bay View (Risula)”<br />
540 40 th St (b/w 5th and 6th Ave.),<br />
Brooklyn<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op (converted)<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner:<br />
McK<strong>in</strong>ley Park Hold<strong>in</strong>g Co. (29 th St & 3 rd Ave. Brooklyn)<br />
Current= YMS Realty Corp.<br />
•Architect: C. Schubert (13 th Ave. and 86 th St., Brooklyn)<br />
•Date Built: 1912<br />
•Materials: brick, decoratively laid, stone over entry<br />
•Integrity: relatively <strong>in</strong>tact, cornice miss<strong>in</strong>g<br />
•Significance:<br />
•Other Info: Block/Lot= 917‐21<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>g= 1<br />
Number of floors= 4<br />
Number of units= 19<br />
NB# 585‐1912<br />
109
“Park Slope Homes”<br />
521‐31 41 st St., Brooklyn<br />
• Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
• Developer/Owner: Park Slope Assn., Inc.<br />
•CM: Sun Heights Build<strong>in</strong>g Corp (637‐41st Brooklyn, John Noro.<br />
President 637 41st St., Brooklyn)<br />
•Architect: Eric O. Holmgren (371 Fulton St., Brooklyn)<br />
• Date Built: 1927<br />
• Materials: bricks and stone<br />
• Integrity:<br />
•Significance:<br />
•Other <strong>in</strong>fo: Block/Lot= 917‐58<br />
Number of floors= 4<br />
Number of units= 16<br />
110
• Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
“Parkside (Ylijaama)”<br />
549‐561 41th St., Brooklyn<br />
•Developer/Owner: Parkside Assn., Inc.<br />
•CM: Sun Heights Build<strong>in</strong>g Corp (637‐41st Brooklyn, John Noro. President<br />
637‐41 st St. Brooklyn)<br />
• Architect: Eric O. Holmgren (371 Fulton St., Brooklyn)<br />
• Date Built: 1926<br />
•Materials:<br />
• Integrity:<br />
Upper walls: brick<br />
Floor: wood, steel and c<strong>in</strong>der concrete<br />
Roof<strong>in</strong>g: material 4 ply tar felt and slag.<br />
•Significance:<br />
•Other Info: Block/Lot= 917‐48<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>gs=1<br />
Number of floors= 4<br />
Number of Units= 41<br />
NB 11082‐26<br />
Estimated cost: $150,000<br />
Size: 113’*88’3”*Height 4 stories<br />
111
“Sunset View I”<br />
605 41 st St., Brooklyn<br />
•Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: Horwitz Morris, Ross<br />
Sunset View Assn., Inc.<br />
•Architect:<br />
•Date Built: 1921?<br />
•Materials:<br />
•Integrity: bricks<br />
•Significance:<br />
•Other Info: Block/Lot: 918‐1<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>gs= 1<br />
Number of floors: 4<br />
Number of units: 20<br />
112
“Sunset View II”<br />
611 41 st St., Brooklyn<br />
•Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: Horwitz Morris, Ross<br />
Sunset View Assn., Inc.<br />
•Architect:<br />
•Date Built: 1920?<br />
•Materials: bricks and stone<br />
•Integrity:<br />
•Significance:<br />
•Other <strong>in</strong>fo: Block/Lot= 918‐70<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>gs= 1<br />
Number of floors= 4<br />
Number of units= 20<br />
113
“Sun Garden Homes”<br />
637‐47 & 655‐61 41 st St, Brooklyn<br />
•Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: Sun Garden Homes Assn., Inc.<br />
•CM: Sun‐Heights Build<strong>in</strong>g Corp. (Otto Noro, president‐ 826<br />
43 rd St., Brooklyn)<br />
•Architect: Eric O. Holmgren (371 Fulton St., Brooklyn)<br />
•Date Built: 1924<br />
•Materials: bricks, stone entry<br />
•Integrity: <strong>in</strong>tact<br />
•Significance:<br />
•Other Info: Block/Lot= 918‐52<br />
Build<strong>in</strong>gs on Lot= 6<br />
Number of floors= 5<br />
Number of Units: 72<br />
NB # 11495‐1924 (07/30/1924)<br />
114
“Riverview (Koopeli)”<br />
673‐83 41 st St., Brooklyn(41 st<br />
St&7 th Ave)<br />
•Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: Riverview Homes Assn., Inc.<br />
•Architect: Eric O. Holmgren (371 Fulton St, Brooklyn)<br />
•Date Built: 1923<br />
•Materials: bricks, stone<br />
•Integrity:<br />
•Significance: First Holmgren’s Co‐op hous<strong>in</strong>g design<br />
•Other Info: Tax Block/lot= 918‐44 ,<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>gs= 1<br />
Number of floors= 4<br />
Residential Units= 32<br />
NB 8217/23<br />
ALT 13216/23<br />
•Nickname: Koopeli, ‘The place where old maidens go’;<br />
Kyopeli or Kyopell, ‘Old maids home’ ‐ there were only<br />
unmarried women liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Koopeli.<br />
115
“Sunset Court (Kiusala)”<br />
4002‐12 7 th Ave., Brooklyn<br />
(at 40 th St)<br />
•Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner:<br />
Sunset Court Assn., Inc. (4301 8 th Ave., Brooklyn)<br />
(Kalle Arorven, president)<br />
•Architect: Eric O. Holmgren (371 Fulton St., Brooklyn)<br />
•Date Built: 1925<br />
•Materials: brick, multiple types, with stone entry<br />
•Integrity: Intact<br />
•Significance:<br />
•Other Info: Block/Lot= 918‐36<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>gs: 1<br />
Number of floors: 4<br />
Residential Units: 44<br />
NB # 998‐1925<br />
•Nickname: Kiusala, ‘The place of annoyance’ or<br />
‘nuisance’. The house was built ‘to tease’ <strong>in</strong>habitant of<br />
another house who thought theirs was a good build<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
116
“Berkshire Court”<br />
cor 7Ave. 40st 100*100.<br />
4001‐11 7 th Ave, Brooklyn<br />
•Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner:<br />
Safe Construction Co.<br />
(David Goldste<strong>in</strong>, pres.‐ 125 Bristol)<br />
(current: Martan Properties LLC)<br />
•Architect: Benjam<strong>in</strong> Cohn of Cohn Bros.<br />
•Date Built: 1915? 1924?<br />
(361 Stone Ave., Brooklyn)<br />
•Materials: brick, m<strong>in</strong>imal stone detail<strong>in</strong>g<br />
•Significance:<br />
•Other Info: Block/Lot=919‐1<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>gs= 1<br />
Number of floors= 5<br />
Residential Units= 44<br />
NB 105306‐29‐23F&F‐080923<br />
117
“Sunset Home (Koyha<strong>in</strong>talo)”<br />
4015‐21 7 th Ave., Brooklyn<br />
(at 40 th St)<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner:<br />
•Architect:<br />
•Date Built: 1916?<br />
Sunset Home Assn., Inc.<br />
•Materials: brick, multiple types, with stone entry<br />
•Integrity: Intact<br />
•Significance:<br />
•Other Info: Block/Lot= 919‐1<br />
NB 105306‐29‐23F&F‐080923<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>gs= 2<br />
Number of floors= 4<br />
Number of units= 43<br />
•Nickname: Koyha<strong>in</strong>talo, ‘the poor house’; Residents of<br />
the build<strong>in</strong>g called it Alajokis. ‘very cozy and cared’.<br />
118
“Baltic Homes”<br />
4113 7 th Ave., Brooklyn<br />
•Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op (converted)<br />
•Developer/Owner: Baltic Homes Assn., Inc.<br />
• Architect:<br />
• Date Built: 1914?<br />
• Materials: bricks<br />
• Integrity:<br />
•Significance:<br />
•Other Info: Block/Lot= 922‐4<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>g= 1<br />
Number of floors= 4<br />
Number of units= 16<br />
119
“Elmo Homes (Lepola)”<br />
•Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
728‐734 41 st St.<br />
•Developer/Owner: Elmo Homes Inc., Inc.<br />
• CM:<br />
• Architect:<br />
• Date Built: 1927?<br />
• Materials: bricks and stone<br />
• Integrity:<br />
•Significance: assumed as the last F<strong>in</strong>nish coop house to<br />
be built.<br />
•Other <strong>in</strong>fo: Block/Lot= 922‐17<br />
•Nickname: Lepola, ‘the place of rest or Rest Haven.’ No<br />
specific explanation, assumed as the house <strong>in</strong> which our<br />
pastor lived.<br />
120
“Park Hill Home”<br />
759 42nd St., Brooklyn<br />
•Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/Owner: Parkhill Homes Assn., Inc.<br />
(Current: Biagio Sciacca et al)<br />
• Architect: Eric O. Holmgren?<br />
• Date Built: 1926<br />
• Materials: bricks<br />
• Integrity:<br />
•Significance:<br />
•Other <strong>in</strong>fo: Block/Lot: 922‐45<br />
Numbers of floors: 5<br />
Total # of Units: 24<br />
NB 10287‐061222<br />
NB 89366‐12‐22FOF‐071222<br />
121
“Alku I”<br />
816 43 rd St (near 8th Ave),<br />
Brooklyn<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner:<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish Home Build<strong>in</strong>g Assn., Inc.<br />
(822 42 nd St., Brooklyn)<br />
•Architect: Maxwell A. Cantor of Cantor & Dorfman<br />
(373 Fulton St., Brooklyn)<br />
•Date Built: 1916‐17<br />
•Materials: brick (multiple colors) and stone detail<strong>in</strong>g<br />
•Integrity: <strong>in</strong>tact<br />
•Significance:<br />
•Other Info: Block/Lot=733‐13<br />
NB# 3088‐1916<br />
•Mean<strong>in</strong>g: Alku, ‘beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g’<br />
122
“Alku II”<br />
826 43 rd St (near 8th Ave),<br />
Brooklyn<br />
•Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner:<br />
F<strong>in</strong>nish Home Build<strong>in</strong>g Assn., Inc.<br />
(822 42 nd St, Brooklyn)<br />
•Architect: Maxwell A. Cantor of Cantor & Dorfman<br />
•Date Built: 1917<br />
(373 Fulton St, Brooklyn)<br />
•Materials: brick (multiple colors) and stone details<br />
•Integrity: <strong>in</strong>tact<br />
•Significance:<br />
•Other Info: Block/Lot= 733‐17<br />
NB# 3088‐1916<br />
•Mean<strong>in</strong>g: Alku, ‘beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g’<br />
123
“Advance Homes (Moskova)”<br />
848‐856 43 rd St., Brooklyn<br />
•Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/Owner: Advance Homes Assn., Inc.<br />
• Architect:<br />
• Date Built: 1922?<br />
• Materials: bricks<br />
• Integrity:<br />
•Significance: Block/Lot= 733‐25<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>gs= 1<br />
Number of floors= 4<br />
Number of units= 36<br />
•Nickname: Moskova, ‘Moscow’. Some residents were<br />
leftists. People lived there were foolish enough to move to<br />
Moscow<br />
124
“Top View”<br />
801‐11 44 th St. (4317‐23 8 Ave.),<br />
Brooklyn<br />
•Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/Owner: Top View Assn., Inc.<br />
Current= 4205 8th Avenue Corp.<br />
• Architect:<br />
• Date Built: 1923<br />
• Materials: bricks<br />
• Integrity:<br />
•Significance: Block/Lot= 733‐1<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>g= 1<br />
Number of floor= 4<br />
Number of units= 18 (residential units: 15)<br />
NB 927‐23<br />
125
“Broadview (Petleheemi)”<br />
4313 9 th Ave., Brooklyn<br />
•Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/Owner: Broadview Assn., Inc.<br />
• Architect: Eric O. Holmgren?<br />
• Date Built: 1923?<br />
• Materials: brick, decoratively laid, stone over entry<br />
• Integrity:<br />
•Significance:<br />
•Other <strong>in</strong>fo: Block/Lot= 5601‐1<br />
Build<strong>in</strong>gs on lot= 2<br />
Numbers of floors= 4<br />
Number of units= 30 (31)<br />
•Nickname: Petleheemi, ‘Bethlehem’<br />
126
“L<strong>in</strong>den Heights”<br />
702 45 th St., Brooklyn<br />
•Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/Owner: L<strong>in</strong>den Heights Assn., Inc.<br />
• Architect: Eric O. Holmgren?<br />
• Date Built: 1924<br />
• Materials: bricks and stone<br />
• Integrity:<br />
•Significance: Block/Lot= 750‐5<br />
Build<strong>in</strong>g on lot= 4<br />
Number of floors= 4<br />
Number of units= 40<br />
127
“Bay View”<br />
671 47 th St., Brooklyn<br />
•Build<strong>in</strong>gType: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/Owner: The Bayview Home Assn., Inc.<br />
• Architect:<br />
• Date Built: 1915? 1930?<br />
• Materials: bricks and stone<br />
• Integrity:<br />
•Significance: Block/Lot= 758‐48<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>g= 1<br />
Number of floor= 5<br />
Number of units= 16<br />
128
“Victory Home”<br />
672 46th St., Brooklyn<br />
•Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op (converted?)<br />
•Developer/Owner: The Victory Home Assn., Inc.<br />
• Architect:<br />
• Date Built: 1915? 1928?<br />
• Materials: bricks and stone<br />
• Integrity:<br />
•Significance: Block/Lot= 758‐37<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>g= 1<br />
Number of floor= 5<br />
Number of units= 17<br />
NB 875P9‐15‐141‐13‐‐030514<br />
129
“Hillside”<br />
566 44 th St., Brooklyn<br />
•Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op (converted)<br />
•Developer/Owner: Hillside Assn., Inc.<br />
•CM: A.S.W.Coust<strong>in</strong> Co.<br />
•Architect: Eisenla & Carlson (16 Court St., Brooklyn)<br />
• Date Built: 1913<br />
• Materials: bricks and stone<br />
• Integrity:<br />
•Significance: Block/lot= 739‐30<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>g= 1<br />
Number of floor= 5<br />
Number of Units: 16 (residential 16)<br />
130
“Parkslope”<br />
570 44 th St., Brooklyn<br />
•Type: F<strong>in</strong>ns Co‐op (converted)<br />
•Developer/Owner: Park Slope Assn., Inc.<br />
• Architect: Eisenla & Carlson (16 Court St., Brooklyn)<br />
• Date Built: 1913<br />
• Materials: bricks and stone<br />
• Integrity:<br />
•Significance: Block/Lot= 739‐32<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>g= 1<br />
Number of floor= 5<br />
Number of units= 16<br />
131
“Pleasant View”<br />
574(576) 44 th St., Brooklyn<br />
•Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op (converted)<br />
•Developer/Owner:<br />
Louis Stechern & John C. Weleh (4516‐6th Ave., Brooklyn)<br />
Current= Pleasant View Assn., Inc.<br />
• Architect: Eisenla & Carlson (16 Court St., Brooklyn)<br />
• Date Built: 1912‐3<br />
•Materials: Wall=brick<br />
•Significance:<br />
Floor= wood<br />
•Other <strong>in</strong>fo: Block/Lot= 739‐34<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>g= 1<br />
Number of floor= 5<br />
Number of units= 17<br />
Estimated cost= $ 30,000<br />
Size of build<strong>in</strong>g= 49’4*85’10”*4 stories 45’6”<br />
132
“Hilltop View”<br />
4402‐4412 6 th Ave., Brooklyn<br />
•Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op (converted)<br />
•Developer/Owner:<br />
Louis stecker & John C. Walsh (4516‐6th Ave.)<br />
Current= Hilltop View Association, Inc.<br />
• Architect: Eisenla & Carlson (16 Court Street)<br />
• Date Built: 1912‐3<br />
•Materials: Upper walls= bricks<br />
floor= wood<br />
•Integrity:<br />
•Other <strong>in</strong>fo: Block/Lot= 739‐37<br />
Number of floor= 4<br />
Number of units: 16<br />
Dimension= 50’*100’2”stories 48<br />
133
“466 49 th Street Club”<br />
466 49 th Street, Brooklyn<br />
•Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op (converted)<br />
•Developer/Owner: 466 49 th St. Club Inc.<br />
• Architect:<br />
• Date Built: 1914?<br />
• Materials: bricks, stone and metal<br />
• Integrity:<br />
•Significance:<br />
•Other <strong>in</strong>fo: Block/Lot= 783‐33<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>g= 1<br />
Number of floors= 4<br />
Number of units= 17<br />
134
“517 49 th Street Club”<br />
517 49 th St., Brooklyn<br />
•Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op (converted)<br />
•Developer/Owner: current= Neighborhood Stab Assn.<br />
• Architect: Eisenla & Carlson<br />
• Date Built: 1909? 1914?<br />
• Materials: brick and stone<br />
• Integrity:<br />
•Significance:<br />
•Other <strong>in</strong>fo: Block/Lot= 775‐80,<br />
Number of build<strong>in</strong>g= 1<br />
Number of floors= 4<br />
Number of units= 8<br />
ALT 379‐517‐052281<br />
ALTERATION 00/00/1982,<br />
135
“Academy <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Cooperation”<br />
523 Commonwealth Avenue, Bronx<br />
• Type: Cooperative<br />
•Developer/Owner: Academy <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Coop.<br />
• Architect: Spr<strong>in</strong>gsteen & Goldhammer<br />
• Date Built: 1931<br />
• Materials: Red Brick, Limestone, Stucco<br />
• Integrity: Appears to still ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> most of the the<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>al material, the w<strong>in</strong>dows have changed and the<br />
stucco along the bottom may or may not be orig<strong>in</strong>al.<br />
Gates have been added for security.<br />
• Size/Build<strong>in</strong>gs: 6‐story build<strong>in</strong>gs/8<br />
•Significance: Largest s<strong>in</strong>gle project built under the<br />
1926 Limited Dividend Law at the time of<br />
construction. Has elevators!<br />
136
“Amalgamated <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong>”<br />
80 Van Cortlandt Park South<br />
Street, Bronx<br />
• Type: Cooperative<br />
• Developer: Amalgamated Cloth<strong>in</strong>g Workers of America<br />
• Owner: Amalgamated <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Corporation<br />
• Architect: Spr<strong>in</strong>gsteen & Goldhammer/ Herman Jessor<br />
•Style: Neo‐Tudor<br />
• Date Built: 1927‐1932<br />
• Materials: Brick, Stone<br />
• Size/Build<strong>in</strong>gs/Units: 7‐story build<strong>in</strong>gs/6/620 units<br />
• Significance: It is the oldest limited equity hous<strong>in</strong>g<br />
cooperative <strong>in</strong> the United States. Sponsored by the<br />
Amalgamated Cloth<strong>in</strong>g Workers Union found<strong>in</strong>g<br />
President and manager Abraham E. Kazan, known as<br />
"The father of cooperative hous<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the United<br />
States." The first 303 "Pioneer Cooperators" began<br />
mov<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> on November 1, 1927. Build<strong>in</strong>g 6 is the<br />
oldest build<strong>in</strong>g. The "newest" build<strong>in</strong>gs are two towers<br />
which were completed <strong>in</strong> 1968 and 1970, and replaced<br />
the orig<strong>in</strong>al first build<strong>in</strong>g. Altogether, the complex<br />
houses 1,482 families.<br />
137
“Amalgamated Dwell<strong>in</strong>gs”<br />
504‐20 Grand Street,<br />
Manhattan<br />
• Type: Co‐op<br />
• Developer: Amalgamated Cloth<strong>in</strong>g Workers of<br />
America<br />
• Owner: Amalgamated Dwell<strong>in</strong>gs Inc.<br />
• Architect: Spr<strong>in</strong>gsteen and Goldhammer.<br />
• Style: Art Deco<br />
• Date Built: 1930<br />
• Materials:Brick and concrete<br />
• Size/Units: 6‐story build<strong>in</strong>gs / 236 units<br />
• Notes: Union’s first architectural achievement.<br />
Won a medal for design excellence<br />
138
“Boulevard Gardens”<br />
54 th St. at Hobart St., Between<br />
30 th and 31 st Avenues<br />
Woodside, Queens<br />
• Type: Co‐op<br />
• Developer/Owner: Boulevard<br />
Gardens <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Corporation<br />
• Architect: Theodore H. Englehardt<br />
• Date Built: 1935<br />
• Materials: Brick, limestone<br />
139
“Hillman House”<br />
504‐20 Grand Street,<br />
Manhattan<br />
• Type: Co‐op<br />
• Developer: United <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Foundation<br />
• Owner: Amalgamated hous<strong>in</strong>g Corporation, and<br />
Amalgamated Cloth<strong>in</strong>g Workers of America<br />
(ACWA)<br />
• Architect: Spr<strong>in</strong>gsteen/Herman Jessor<br />
• Date Built: 1951<br />
• Materials: Re<strong>in</strong>forced concrete and brick façade<br />
• Size/Build<strong>in</strong>gs/Units: 12‐story build<strong>in</strong>gs / 807<br />
units<br />
• Notes: The third cooperative by ACWA Multiple<br />
entrances and courtyards. One of the first<br />
developments of UHF on an open lot fac<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
East River. Four slum blocks were slum and 65<br />
tenements were torn down for the development.<br />
140
“East River Houses”<br />
504‐20 Grand Street,<br />
Manhattan<br />
• Type: Co‐op<br />
• Developer: International Ladies’<br />
Garment Workers’ Union/United<br />
<strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Foundation<br />
• Owner: East River <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />
Corporation<br />
• Architect: Spr<strong>in</strong>gsteen/Herman Jessor<br />
• Date Built: 1956<br />
• Materials: Re<strong>in</strong>forced concrete and<br />
brick façade<br />
• Size/Build<strong>in</strong>gs/Units: 20‐21 stories/<br />
1,672 units<br />
• Notes: Balconies and bay w<strong>in</strong>dows are<br />
Jessor’s <strong>in</strong>novation. Multiple<br />
entrances and courtyards. One of the<br />
first developments of UHF on an open<br />
lot fac<strong>in</strong>g the East River<br />
141
“Seward Park”<br />
504‐20 Grand Street, Manhattan<br />
• Type: Co‐op<br />
• Developer/Owner: United <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong><br />
Foundation/Seward Park <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Corporation<br />
• Architect: Spr<strong>in</strong>gsteen/Herman Jessor<br />
•Date Built: 1961<br />
• Materials: Re<strong>in</strong>forced concrete and brick façade<br />
• Size: 1,728 units<br />
• Notes: Multiple entrances and courtyards. One<br />
of the first developments of UHF on an open lot<br />
fac<strong>in</strong>g the East River<br />
142
“Farband Houses”<br />
2925 Matthews Avenue, Bronx<br />
• Type: Co‐op<br />
• Developer/Owner: Jewish National Workers<br />
Alliance/Farband <strong>Hous<strong>in</strong>g</strong> Corporation<br />
• Architect: Meisner & Uffner<br />
• Style: Neo‐Tudor<br />
• Date Built: 1928<br />
• Materials: Brick<br />
• Size/Units: 2 build<strong>in</strong>gs/127 units<br />
• Significance: An envisioned utopia.<br />
Cornices/parapets have been redone<br />
<strong>in</strong>appropriately.<br />
• Other Name: Eastchester Heights<br />
• Other Information: The Jewish National<br />
Workers Alliance was a labor Zionist<br />
organization that wanted to establish a socialist<br />
Jewish state <strong>in</strong> what was then Palest<strong>in</strong>e<br />
143
“Hillside Homes”<br />
3480 Seymour Avenue, Bronx<br />
• Type: Co‐op<br />
• Developer/Owner:<br />
• Architect: Clarence Ste<strong>in</strong><br />
• Date Built: 1934<br />
• Materials: Brick<br />
• Size/Units: 5‐story build<strong>in</strong>gs/1,400<br />
apartments<br />
• Significance: An envisioned utopia<br />
Cornices/parapets have been redone<br />
<strong>in</strong>appropriately.<br />
•Other Name: Eastchester Heights<br />
144
“Rochdale Village”<br />
Between Baisley Boulevard and 137 th<br />
Avenue (north/South) and Bedell Street<br />
and Guy R. Brewer Boulevard (east/west),<br />
South Jamaica, Queens<br />
• Type: Co‐op<br />
• Developer/Owner: Robert Moses<br />
• Architect: Herman Jessor<br />
• Date Built: 1963<br />
• Materials: Brick<br />
• Significance: The largest s<strong>in</strong>gle cooperative<br />
hous<strong>in</strong>g community ever to be undertaken at<br />
its time. The vision of Robert Moses.<br />
Population 25,000 people. Covers 122 city<br />
blocks.<br />
• Size/Build<strong>in</strong>gs/Units: 20 build<strong>in</strong>gs/5860<br />
apartments<br />
145
“Shalom (Scholem) Aleichem Houses”<br />
Giles Place/ West 238 th Street & Cannon<br />
Place, Bronx<br />
• Type: Co‐op<br />
• Developer/Owner: Yiddish Cooperative<br />
Heimgesellschaft<br />
• Architect: Spr<strong>in</strong>gsteen & Goldhammer<br />
• Date Built: 1927<br />
• Materials: Brick, stucco, stone,<br />
• Integrity: Very good, well kept up<br />
• Significance: In very good condition, well cared<br />
for, and <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g architecturally which might<br />
help make a case.<br />
• Style: Neo‐Tudor<br />
• Website address: www.Bronxcourtyard.com<br />
146
“Workers’ Colony Cooperative”<br />
2700‐2774 Bronx Park East &<br />
2846‐2870 Bronx Park East, Bronx<br />
• Type: Co‐op<br />
•Developer/Owner: United Workers Cooperative<br />
(Jewish)<br />
• Architect: Spr<strong>in</strong>gsteen & Goldhammer & Herman<br />
Jessor<br />
•Style: Austrian/German/Dutch expressionist<br />
• Date Built: 1925‐1929<br />
• Materials: Red brick, wood, stucco<br />
• Integrity: Although it has landmark status the<br />
build<strong>in</strong>g is not well cared for. Harm has been done<br />
to orig<strong>in</strong>al material.<br />
• Significance: Landmarked <strong>in</strong> 1992, see designation<br />
report notes. Particularly notable for its brickwork.<br />
Has the most extensivefacilities, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
classrooms, nursery, k<strong>in</strong>dergarten, youth clubs,<br />
auditorium, gymnasium, children’s library, and adult<br />
library<br />
• Other Names: “The Coops”, “The Allerton Coops”,<br />
“United Workers Cooperative Colony” 147
“The Dunbar”<br />
149 th ‐150 th St. & Adam<br />
Clayton Blvd., Harlem<br />
• Type:Co‐op<br />
• Developer/Owner: John D. Rockefeller Jr.<br />
• Architect: Andrew J. Thomas<br />
• Date Built: 1928<br />
• Materials: Red brick/limestone/stucco<br />
• Integrity: Very good, new w<strong>in</strong>dows to look old<br />
• Significance: Landmark<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to the <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> <strong>City</strong> Landmarks<br />
Commission, it was "the first large cooperative<br />
built for "Peoples of African Descent." Rather<br />
than be<strong>in</strong>g set up as rental apartments, the<br />
complex was a hous<strong>in</strong>g cooperative. Tenants<br />
were required to pay a down payment of $50 per<br />
room, and then $14.50 per room per month,<br />
much of which went towards a mortgage on the<br />
space. In 22 years, if payments were all made on<br />
time, the tenant would own the apartment.<br />
148
“Penn South”<br />
23rd ‐ 29th Streets and<br />
8 th ‐ 9 th Avenues<br />
Chelsea, Manhattan<br />
• Type: Co‐op<br />
• Developer/Owner: International Ladies<br />
Garment Workers Union<br />
• Architect: Herman J. Jessor<br />
• Date Built: 1963<br />
• Materials: Brick<br />
• Size/Units: 2,820 units<br />
149
“Varma I ”<br />
828 Gerard Avenue ,<br />
Bronx<br />
• Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/Owner:<br />
• Construction Company: Build<strong>in</strong>g Three<br />
Corporation<br />
• Architect: C. Scahefer Junior<br />
• Date Built: 1924<br />
• Materials:Brick,castiron<br />
• Size/Units: 6 floors/84 units<br />
• Other Information: Block/Lot: 2474 ‐10<br />
NB #: 302‐1924<br />
NB #: 1984‐1923<br />
150
“Varma II”<br />
825 Walton Avenue,<br />
Bronx<br />
• Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/Owner:<br />
• Construction Company: We<strong>in</strong>sil Construction<br />
Company<br />
• Architect: Glick & Duma Architects<br />
• Date Built: 1926<br />
• Materials:Brick,castiron<br />
•Size/Units: 6 floors/ 64 units<br />
• Other Information: Block/Lot:2474 ‐15<br />
NB # 345‐1926<br />
151
“Flagg Courts”<br />
7200 Ridge Blvd, Brooklyn<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Co‐op<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner:<br />
•Architect:<br />
•Date Built:<br />
•Materials: brick, <strong>in</strong>tricately laid with a<br />
rusticated appearance<br />
•Integrity:<br />
•Significance:<br />
152
Limited Dividend Cooperatives that have<br />
been demolished<br />
“Souja 1 and Souja 2”<br />
129 th St (b/w 5 th Ave and Lenox)<br />
127 th St. and 5 th Ave<br />
• Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: Co‐op<br />
•Developer/ Orig<strong>in</strong>al Owner: F<strong>in</strong>nish<br />
•Architect:<br />
•Date Built:<br />
•Materials:<br />
•Integrity:<br />
•Significance:<br />
Address does not exist<br />
“Eight Family Home”<br />
43st 371' from 9 Ave. 29’3”*100’2”<br />
•Build<strong>in</strong>g Type: F<strong>in</strong>nish Co‐op<br />
•Developer/Owner: Eight Family Home Association Inc.<br />
•Date Built: 1920<br />
153
Model Tenements that have been<br />
demolished • Cathedral Ayrcourt Apartments –<br />
•531 West 122nd Street and 540 West 123 rd Street<br />
• Alfred Corn<strong>in</strong>g Clark Build<strong>in</strong>gs‐<br />
•217‐233 West 68 th Street & 214‐220 West 69 th Street<br />
•Architect: Ernest Flagg<br />
• Date: 1898<br />
• Owner/developer: <strong>City</strong> & Suburban<br />
• Tuskegee Houses –<br />
•213‐215 West 62 nd Street<br />
• Architect: Howells & Stokes<br />
• Date: 1902<br />
• Owner/developer: Miss Carol<strong>in</strong>e Phelps‐Stokes & her<br />
sister Olivia E. Phelps‐Stokes<br />
•Description: First model tenements for African<br />
Americans, s<strong>in</strong>ce Work<strong>in</strong>gmen’s Home<br />
• Bill<strong>in</strong>gs –<br />
•326‐330 East 35th Street, Manhattan<br />
•Architect: Andrews & Withers<br />
• Date: 1901<br />
• Owner/developer: Laura Bill<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
•First Avenue & 71st Street, Manhattan<br />
• Architect: George Da Cunha & modified by Vaux &<br />
Radford<br />
•Owner/developer: Improved Dwell<strong>in</strong>gs Association<br />
•John Jay Dwell<strong>in</strong>gs‐<br />
•East 77 th Street (Across from Shivley Sanitary<br />
Tenements)<br />
•Architect: Henry Atterbury Smith & William P. Miller<br />
• Date: 1913<br />
• Owner/ developer: Open Stair Tenement Company<br />
•Architect: Henry Atterbury Smith.<br />
• Date: 1921<br />
• Owner/developer: Open Stair Dwell<strong>in</strong>gs Company.<br />
• Work<strong>in</strong>gmen’s home<br />
• Intersection of Canal, Mott & Elizabeth Streets<br />
• Architect: John W. Ritch<br />
•Date: 1855<br />
• Owner/developer: <strong>New</strong> <strong>York</strong> Association for<br />
Improv<strong>in</strong>g the Condition of the Poor<br />
•Monroe Model Tenement‐<br />
•Monroe Street, Lower East Side<br />
•Architect: William Field & Son<br />
•Date: 1879<br />
• Owner/ Developer: Abner Chichester<br />
• Cherry Street Model Tenements<br />
•Architect: William Schickel & Company/ Tenement<br />
House Build<strong>in</strong>g Company<br />
•Date: 1886<br />
•Hampton House‐<br />
•West 62 nd Street<br />
•Owner/developer: <strong>City</strong> & Suburban<br />
• Date: 1912<br />
•Phelps‐Stokes Properties<br />
• East 32 nd Street (West of 1 st Avenue)<br />
• Owner/ developer: <strong>City</strong> & Suburban<br />
• Phipps Houses<br />
•321‐337 East 31 st Street<br />
• Architect: Grosvenor Atterbury<br />
• Owner/ Developer: Phipps Houses Inc.<br />
•Date: 1906<br />
154