First Language (Dinka) Literacy as a Foundation for English ...

First Language (Dinka) 

Literacy as a Foundation 

for English Language, 

Literacy and Numeracy 

Report

© Commonwealth of Australia 2009 

Funded under the Adult Literacy National Project by the Australian Government 

Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations. 

This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no 

part may be reproduced by any process without prior written permission from the 

Commonwealth. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be 

addressed to the Commonwealth Copyright Administration, Attorney General’s Department, 

Robert Garran Offices, National Circuit, Barton ACT 2600 or posted at 

http://www.ag.gov.au/cca. 

The views expressed in this (publication/DVD/report/project etc.) do not necessarily 

represent the views of the Minister for Education or the Australian Government. The 

Australian Government does not give any warranty nor accept any liability in relation to 

the contents of this work.’ 

This report is published by ACL, Level 4, 11 York St, Sydney, NSW 2000. 

The report and accompanying documents can also be accessed via the ACL website at 

www.acl.edu.au. 

This project was undertaken by ACL in partnership with the Dinka Literacy Association. 

Project Team: 

ACL 

Class Teacher and Report Writer: 

Project Manager: 

Zenia Davis 

Barbara Barnard 

Dinka Literacy Association 

Bilingual Support Teachers and developers of Dinka language literacy resources 

Santino Rang Yuot 

Augustino Dut 

Joseph Aguok 

Lual Doong 

John Awen Madut Aken 

With thanks to the Steering Committee: 

Ursula Burgoyne Educational Consultant 

Jackie Cipollone Education Programs Manager, Social Inclusion & Vocational Access Skills Unit, 

TAFE NSW 

Errol Grace Assistant Director Skills, VET and Careers Branch, DEEWR NSW 

John Carter Regional Operations Manager, AMES Employment 

Brooke Endycott Community Development Officer, Research and Programs, Auburn Council 

Delilah Shinko Settlement Services Coordinator, Auburn Diversity Services Inc. 

Santino Rang Yuot Chairperson, Dinka Literacy Association 

Mark Lack 

Manager, Community Relations, ACL 

Rodolfo Cares Educational Manager, ACL Auburn College

Contents 

Section 1: 

Project Report.......................................................................................4 

Overview ............................................................................................................................... 4 

Methodology.......................................................................................................................... 7 

Outcomes .............................................................................................................................. 9 

Implications & Recommendations....................................................................................... 14 

Suggestions for future programs......................................................................................... 17 

Section 2: Food for thought: Practical teaching ideas and learner responses ..........19 

Background ......................................................................................................................... 19 

Key features of teaching and learning................................................................................. 20 

Stories ................................................................................................................................. 21 

Sight words – Sentences..................................................................................................... 26 

Sight words – Words ........................................................................................................... 27 

Handwriting ......................................................................................................................... 28 

Telling the time .................................................................................................................... 29 

Cleaning .............................................................................................................................. 31 

Driving ................................................................................................................................. 32 

Section 3: Attachments ..............................................................................................33 

1. Dinka Literacy Assessment Tool.................................................................................... 33 

2. Famous People: Dinka Story Learning Resource.......................................................... 33 

3. Working with the Dinka Class: A Teacher’s Journal ...................................................... 33

Section 1: Project Report 

Section 1: 

Project Report 

Overview 

Background 

This project was funded as an Innovative Project under the Department of Education, 

Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR) Adult Literacy National Project. It 

was designed for a group of Dinka-speaking adults who have come to Australia as 

refugees from Southern Sudan. Many adults, particularly women, from Southern 

Sudan have no formal schooling or literacy in their first languages and, though they 

may have participated in English language courses in Australia, have made very few 

gains in literacy skills. Unemployment rates amongst people from Southern Sudan in 

the central west, south western and western areas of Sydney are higher than 

average but their limited literacy skills impede the ability of many to access and 

sustain employment, and to undertake accredited training or further education. This 

project aimed to build on the research on classroom management strategies which 

best address the needs of Sudanese refugee learners conducted by Burgoyne and 

Hull in 2007 1 and examine the impact of developing literacy skills in first language 

before and while teaching English literacy. 

Rationale 

There are many reasons as to why learners with no, or very limited, literacy in their 

mother tongue (L1 literacy) find learning English literacy so challenging. If the language is 

one which is predominately spoken, with reading and writing playing very little part in day 

to day activities, people from that culture may have a very limited conceptual framework 

that they can draw upon when learning the new language. They may not have the 

understanding that language can be visually represented, let alone the grapho-phonic 

system that underpins that notion. Added to this are the demands of working with a pen 

or pencil in such a way as to make the symbolic representation of the language intelligible 

to the reader. Another factor adding to the complexity of second language literacy is the 

fact that the learner’s experience of spoken language would be highly context dependent 

and related mostly to concrete experience (context-embedded). Written language and the 

language of the classroom is less tied to its context and this puts additional stresses on 

the learner. Hood (1990) proposes that 

the argument in favor of L1 literacy before L2 literacy is that to move from L1 contextembedded 

to L2 context-reduced language does not allow for the transfer of context reduced 

linguistic abilities and presents too great a leap for many learners. The process of acquisition 

of L2 literacy is facilitated by acquisition of context-reduced language firstly in L1. 

With this in mind the project looked to initially establishing a classroom experience 

focusing on L1 literacy as a means of reducing some of the demands made on the 

learner when learning English and thereby making that experience more effective. 

Aims and objectives of the project 

The overarching aims of the project were to provide a model for learning in which first 

language literacy is taught as a foundation for the further development of English 

1 

http://www.ncver.edu.au/publications/1778.html 

© Commonwealth of Australia 2009 Dinka-English Literacy Project Page 4


language and literacy, and to examine the impact this had on the pace and sustainability 

of the English language acquisition for those with limited or no formal schooling and who 

may be suffering from the effects of torture or trauma. More specifically, the project aimed 

to improve English literacy outcomes, and to promote confidence and self esteem in the 

learner group. Other anticipated outcomes of the project were to enhance the capacity of 

the Dinka Literacy Association (DLA) to deliver classes to their members, by providing 

teacher training and the opportunity to develop language teaching resources. 

Once the project started, it became apparent that the scope of these aims was too broad. 

The limited time frame and sample size of the learner group, and methodological 

differences between the Dinka and English teaching, all had a significant impact on the 

ability of the project to meet the primary aim of providing a valid model for learning in 

which first language literacy teaching had any impact on the pace and sustainability of the 

English language acquisition. As this became apparent the objectives of providing a 

model of literacy provision was modified to that of achieving some insight into the impact 

of providing first language literacy classes on English literacy acquisition and learner 

confidence. 

Participants 

1. Dinka Literacy Association 

The Dinka Literacy Association (DLA) is a community organisation run by members of the 

Dinka-speaking Sudanese community that provides Dinka and English classes. The 

organisation was established in 2005 and runs classes in Lidcombe, Auburn and 

Wentworthville in Sydney. 

2. ACL 

ACL delivers English classes for migrants and refugees through the Adult Migrant English 

Program (AMEP) in Western and South Western Sydney, the regions where Southern 

Sudanese people are settling. ACL also delivers the Integrated Humanitarian Settlement 

Strategy (IHSS) on behalf of the Department of Immigration and Citizenship for the 

Northern and Southern Sydney regions. 

3. The learners 

The learners selected for the project were native speakers of Dinka. In the English phase 

of the course, there were 11 learners - 9 women and 2 men. All were aged 25 – 50. Only 

1 learner had had formal schooling as a child. Any literacy in languages other than 

English was in Dinka, and had been acquired as an adult through community classes in 

Australia. Most had been in Australia for at least 4 years. All had completed their AMEP 

entitlement and some had also accessed Language, Literacy and Numeracy Program 

(LLNP) tuition. 

All the learners were able to name and copy the English alphabet, but most were unable 

to read anything. Most of the learners were familiar with numerals, but had very limited 

experience in using numbers for practical purposes such as telling the time, reading the 

date or in commercial transactions. All the learners wanted to get a job at some stage, but 

were very aware of their barriers to employment (ranging from disability to age to 

language to care of young children). 

The selection criteria 



At the start of the project, ACL met with the DLA to discuss criteria for the Dinka class. 

Even though the project steering committee recommended that the student numbers in 

the Dinka phase and the English phase be limited to eleven learners, the DLA was keen 

for as many people to benefit from the class as possible, and they were happy to take up 

to twenty five learners. The DLA proposed to accept learners with varying levels of Dinka 

literacy, though concentrated towards the lower end of the spectrum. 

For the English phase, eleven learners were selected from the Dinka class. English oracy 

varied from ISLPR 0 to ISLPR 1+, but English literacy was capped at ISLPR 0+. Learners 

were selected on the basis of their ISLPR (most at ISLPR 0 in reading and writing) and 

their availability. 

Content and curriculum 

The project offered a rare opportunity to work with a needs-based approach, outside 

existing curricula. Early discussion with the learners revealed that most felt they had 

‘learnt nothing’ from other formal English classes. This may have been due to factors 

such as their readiness to learn so soon after arrival in Australia and their expectations of 

what they believed they would be able to achieve. To address this it was decided that an 

approach which explicitly asked learners for input into course content and methodology 

would be worth testing. In practice, this involved interviews with the learners at the start of 

the English course, and constant, ongoing consultation throughout the course (made 

possible by the presence of the Dinka teachers as bilingual assistants in the English 

classroom). The English teacher made initial decisions about content that would probably 

be relevant to the learners, and the teacher and the learners refined and changed it as 

the course progressed. 

The main areas of course content ended up being time telling, date reading and short 

biographical stories of ‘famous’ people. There was also a module on cleaning work in 

Australia, and on driving (road signs). 

Because most of the learners had been in Australia for a long time, the course did not 

cover issues typically addressed in early settlement classes such as using money (though 

the use of receipts was part of the course), and in order to avoid saturation, there was a 

deliberate lack of focus on ‘personal information’. 

Observation of the Dinka classes and conversations with the Dinka teachers provided the 

ACL with valuable insights into learner preferences for methodology. The most salient 

point to emerge from the observations was that the learners expected and wanted a great 

deal of simple repetition of written content, including oral memorization, to support their 

reading. They also preferred to work with short written texts in a single genre, rather than 

dealing with a range of contexts and text types (they reported this was ‘too difficult’). With 

this in mind, the English teacher introduced the Language Experience Approach (LEA) to 

ensure that the content of the texts was relevant and therefore accessible to the learners 

(in the LEA, the teacher elicits content for writing and reading from the learners, rather 

than providing texts from an external source). Another feature of methodology that the 

course aimed relied on was independent learning through the use of Language Master 

machines or ‘card readers’, in order to provide learners with the opportunity to take 

control of their own learning. This is a simple technology which was widely and 

successfully used in language classes in the 1970s and 1980s but has tended to be 

overlooked as computer technology has become more popular. 



Methodology 

1. Preparation phase 

November 2008 

The Dinka and English teachers developed a Dinka literacy assessment tool (see 

Attachment 1) designed a course plan and conducted placement assessments. 

2. Dinka phase 

6th November – 19th December 2008 

The Dinka literacy class ran for 8 weeks. The class was 4 hours a day, 5 days a week. 

Teaching was shared among 4 Dinka teachers. 20 – 25 learners regularly attended the 

class. The course mainly focussed on learning the Dinka alphabet, through the use of a 

text book – the Dinka Alphabet Book. This book started with letters and pictures, then 

gradually introduced very short reading texts. It was the core text book for the course. 

The teachers also introduced some basic numeracy eg reading prices using pages from 

shopping catalogues. 

During the course the English teacher worked with the Dinka teachers two days a week, 

observing and assisting with teaching methodology, and developing teaching resources. 

At the end of the course, 20 Dinka learners were assessed using standardised language 

and literacy assessment tools from the English Language and Literacy Placement 

Assessment (ELLPA) Kit, a set of validated LLN assessment tasks produced by NSW 

AMES. The 11 learners assessed as having the lowest levels of literacy were enrolled in 

the English phase, as the community identified this group as having the greatest need. 

3. Transition phase 

January 2009 

The Dinka teachers attended 2 days of specifically designed professional development on 

teaching numeracy and literacy teaching methodology. These sessions gave some 

background to different approaches to the teaching of reading and writing and then 

focused on the Language Experience Approach (LEA) as an effective method for 

teaching learners from an oral language background. The English teacher also prepared 

material and planned content for the English course. 

4. English phase 

27th January – 4th April 2009 

The English literacy class ran for eleven weeks for four hours a day, four days a week. In 

response to requests by the DLA, the Dinka teaching continued for one day a week for 

those eleven weeks. 11 learners continued from the Dinka phase to the English phase. 

During the course the Dinka teachers provided bilingual support, teaching support and 

bicultural expertise in the class, for 2 of the 4 hours each day. Outside class hours, the 

Dinka teachers also worked on producing a Dinka version of some of the materials used 

in the English class (See Attachment 2). Throughout this phase the ESL teacher provided 

ongoing teacher training in an informal way, by fully engaging the Dinka teachers in the 

teaching activities and discussing the rationale and delivery method of those activities. 



During the course the English teacher kept a daily journal to document class events and 

learner feedback (See Attachment 3). At the beginning and end of the course, the 

learners’ literacy and numeracy were assessed using a limited version of the checklists 

developed by Bottomley & Wyse (Measuring NYA Learning Gains, LLNP Innovative 

Research Project 2008). The learners were also interviewed individually in Dinka at the 

beginning of the course to gain further information about their motivations for studying 

Dinka, their previous experiences of learning English and their plans for the future. At the 

end of the course, the learners were interviewed again in small groups in Dinka to get 

feedback on the course content and methodology. 



Outcomes 

1. Outcomes linked to project aims 

Model for learning in which first language literacy is taught as a foundation for the 

further development of English language and literacy 

The model trialed the teaching of Dinka literacy for 8 weeks, as a foundation for 11 weeks 

of English literacy and numeracy. There were improvements in both English and Dinka 

literacy among the participants, however the sequence of Dinka and English teaching did 

not prove to be the key factor in the acquisition of English literacy. More critical were the 

learner-centred, needs-based approach and the availability of the bilingual teachers in the 

English classroom. 

There were very positive aspects to the model which certainly enhanced the learning 

experience. These included the development of a very strong group identity as a learning 

community, and the close working relationship with teachers from the community, who 

were able to inform the ESL teacher of the learning styles and possible barriers of the 

participants. The ESL teacher’s observation of the Dinka classes also provided valuable 

insight into the learners’ styles and strategies, which she used to inform her teaching in 

the English phase. 

In order for the model to be successful there needs to be common understandings of 

what both organizations would expect the learners to achieve and of how we would go 

about achieving this. Underpinning this, there needs to be a shared concept of what 

constitutes literacy. 

One of the less positive outcomes of the project was the failure to fully develop this 

common understanding of literacy. The Dinka teachers were unfamiliar with the literacy 

and numeracy teaching approaches and methodology employed by the ESL teacher at 

the beginning of the project and therefore unable to apply these approaches in their 

classes. The content of the Dinka classes tended to focus largely on alphabet recognition, 

with some simple narrative texts related to the Dinka culture for the learners with higher 

levels of literacy. In the early stages of the project it was not possible to predict that the 

differences would be so significant. Nevertheless, it difference created a notable barrier 

and limited the overall outcome. (See Recommendation 1) 

There were gains made in Dinka literacy and these can be attributed both to the Dinka 

teaching and to a washover effect from learning English literacy as the Dinka phase did 

continue on in parallel to the English phase. The main gain in this area was in alphabet 

recognition, which matched the aims of the Dinka teachers. 10 of the 11 learners were 

able to recognise the Dinka alphabet by the end of the English and Dinka courses, 

compared to 6 members of the class having no knowledge at the beginning. There was 

also some change in reading, with 5 learners gaining some basic reading, whereas none 

of the group had basic reading skills at the start. 

Improvement in English literacy 

The main English literacy gains were in reading, which was the focus of the course. In 

terms of a sight reading vocabulary of familiar words, at the start of the course four 

learners had none at all, four had a beginning vocabulary (less than 10 words), and three 

had a basic vocabulary (more than 20 words). At the end of the course, four learners had 

a beginning vocabulary and seven had a basic vocabulary. In terms of the skills required 



to decode unfamiliar words, at the start of the course six learners had no decoding skills 

at all, while the rest could make an attempt at decoding. At the end of the course, only 

two learners were still unable to attempt to decode unfamiliar words. The majority of the 

group were also using the strategy of examining the context of the unknown word to 

predict the meaning. 

Promotion of confidence and self esteem in the learner group 

There was a marked increase in learning confidence and motivation over the course. 

There was a significant increase in self-initiated learning activities during class time, from 

half the learners at the beginning to all the learners at the end. There was also evidence 

that almost all the learners were voluntarily studying outside of class times by the end of 

the course, compared to about a third at the beginning. 

Enhanced capacity of the Dinka Literacy Association (DLA) 

Three Dinka teachers had professional development support in teaching methodology. 

This included a critical review of some of the main approaches to teaching reading and 

their application to teaching Dinka and English as a second language. There was a more 

intensive training session on the Language Experience Approach (LEA) as this 

methodology was one that the was to be used during the English phase of the project. 

The Dinka teachers had expressed concerns at the difficulties they were having teaching 

numeracy to their community members so ACL also provided some training in this area. 

Two of the teachers reported successfully trying some of the new ideas from the training 

in their other Dinka classes. For example, one teacher used LEA to develop current 

affairs content in Dinka, and the other used shopping catalogues to teach numeracy. 

They also said they had tried out some activities they had informally observed in the 

English class, with positive results and feedback from their other Dinka learners. For 

example, one teacher reported using the independent study + testing method that the 

ESL teacher used for sight word practice. 

The Dinka and English teachers produced a set of Dinka teaching resources (See 

Attachment 2) based on the resources developed in the English class. They also 

produced a simple Dinka literacy and numeracy assessment tool. (See Attachment 1). 

2. Other Outcomes 

Numeracy 

Almost all the learners improved significantly in telling the time using an analogue clock. 

At the end of the course, nine learners were able to read an analogue clock, compared to 

only one learner at the beginning. Reading dates was another area of major 

improvement, with eight learners able to read numerical dates at the end of the course, 

compared to only two at the start. 

As well as an improvement in skill level, learners’ confidence in using numeracy also 

increased. Most of the learners were able to independently use a sign-in book to register 

their daily class attendance by the end of the course. Several learners reported that they 

now use receipts to exchange goods and for tax purposes and two learners reported that 

they are now teaching their children how to tell the time and can understand when their 

children talk about times. 



Increased mental health awareness 

A family tragedy during the course raised the need for an introduction to a specialist 

mental health service. The NSW Service for the Treatment and Rehabilitation of Torture 

and Trauma Survivors (STARTTS) met with the class to explain their services. In this 

meeting, two of the learners thanked STARTTS for the excellent treatment they received 

soon after their arrival in Australia, and one learner said she had thought that people who 

went to STARTTS would be taken away to a mental hospital and that only people with a 

severe mental illness could go there. A third of the learners said they were now planning 

to seek assistance from STARTTS. 

Another mental health outcome was feedback from the learners about their state of mind. 

In a casual conversation about sleep, most of the learners reported that they had not 

slept well the previous night, and that broken or minimal sleep was normal for them, with 

one woman reporting that she consistently could only sleep for 3 to 4 hours a night. In a 

conversation about previous English study, most of the learners reported that their 

memory had been severely impaired by stress, and that they continued to have a great 

deal of stress now. Whatever the source of this stress (torture / trauma, settlement or 

other), this feedback is important for language and literacy providers as stress does affect 

memory, and it can continue to do so even years after arrival. Giving the feedback was 

also important for the learners themselves, as they had a chance to say they were not 

just ‘stupid’. 

Pathways to study 

All the learners said that they were now keen and confident enough to study more 

English, though they had strong reservations about finding an appropriate class, as they 

had all had very negative study experiences before this course, both in the AMEP and the 

LLNP. 

Most of the learners wanted to join a particular community class, but that class was full, 

so they asked the English teacher to seek more options. At the end of the course, 

learners met with an LLNP provider and discussed their negative perceptions of LLNP 

classes. Most learners left the meeting with a much more positive view of the possibility of 

attending LLNP classes, and took away details for referral. More than half the learners 

also gave their details for a possible TAFE Outreach class. 

Since the end of the course, we have learnt that 4 of the learners are enrolled in a 

community class, and 1 learner is studying at TAFE. 

Pathways to work 

None of the learners felt confident enough to seek work on the basis of the course, 

however most were not in a position to do so anyway, due to family commitments and 

health issues. Three of the learners did, however, say they could now actually imagine 

working in Australia after some more English study. This represents a significant change 

in self-perception. 

In terms of employment-related course content, at the beginning of the course the 

learners stated clearly that they felt they were not ready to look for work, as they were 

unable to read or write in English, therefore they did not want to study employmentrelated 

content in class. This self-assessment of work readiness appeared to be accurate. 



Nevertheless, some of the learners subsequently said that they enjoyed the cleaning 

module they studied in the English phase (chosen because almost all had previous 

experience in cleaning). 

Links to community resources 

One learner reported that she now had the confidence to talk to Centrelink on her own, 

instead of asking a family member to talk on her behalf. Another learner gained the 

confidence to attempt – and pass - the learner licence test at the RTA. 

Improved understanding of effective teaching + learning strategies for this type of 

learner group 

The daily journal of the English teacher, conversations with the Dinka teachers and the 

initial and final interviews with the learners have produced a clear picture of what did and 

did not work with this learner group. A copy of the journal, Working with the Dinka 

Class, is attached to this report. 

To inform teachers who may be working with similar client groups, this report includes 

sections on Implications and Recommendations, Suggestions for future programs 

and Some practical ideas and learner responses 

3. Report from the Dinka Literacy Association 

Written by Santino Yuot and Augustino Dut from the Dinka Literacy Association 

The DLA has contributed to the project by encouraging the Dinka students to join both 

English and Dinka classes. The DLA Teachers informed the Dinka speaking community 

members before the beginning of classes for them to be aware of the project. During the 

delivery of the classes, DLA teachers taught Dinka literacy in Dinka classes during the 

first phase of the project and then worked as Bilingual supporters in the second phase of 

English classes. 

The DLA teachers have learned from the initiative of working collaboratively with ACL 

through the English and Dinka project. This joint project gave the DLA teachers a better 

understanding about different teaching methodology and they are hoping to work on 

similar projects in the future with ACL and other organizations. 

The students were very grateful and delighted by the considerable knowledge and 

learning experiences the project had provided. More importantly, they were very 

appreciative and thankful for the initiative as well as for the supportive and respective 

environment that both teachers in the project had offered to them. They were motivated 

by overall content of the project and professionalism the teachers had applied to meeting 

their learning needs. Most of the students were thinking of continuing with their studies. 

They have highlighted that the lessons delivered to them by the teachers on the project 

had many positive impacts on them and they were thinking they would not get this 

teaching anywhere else. 

The childcare was inadequate since it was not covered in the project cost. However, 

some of the students managed to take care of the kids while the classes were going on. 

This meant some students missed some classes. In the first phase of Dinka class, the 

childcare was in the hands of the mothers. 



The selection of students on the first phase of Dinka classes was done through an 

assessment and another assessment was later on given to assess what student had 

learned and achieved in the Dinka class. However, the number of students in Dinka class 

ranged from 20 to 25 so that we had to close the enrollment in order for students to be 

able to do better in the classes. Some of students whom we taught have joined TAFE, 

Flemington and other Educational Institutions. Overall, students had expressed their 

strong feelings about the potential of such a project to provide them with an ongoing 

process to bridge their learning gaps and increase their literacy and reading capacity. 

Feedback from Santino and Augustino in a conversation about the course 

The group appreciated the fact that the structure of the English lessons was very 

consistent and that the students knew what type of content they would be studying at 

each point in the day. 

The classes provided exactly what the students wanted as the students were asked about 

what they wanted to learn. They wanted to learn about famous people and when they 

learnt about these famous people the teacher was very focused on the language part of 

the stories and the students provided the content part. They liked being given the 

opportunity to talk about the famous person and then the teacher doing more research 

and passing the new information on to the students. Then the teacher wrote the story that 

they wanted. 

The students liked the classes that focused on cleaning as they thought they were very 

helpful when they thought about doing this job. 



Implications & Recommendations 

First language literacy 

While this project had many positive outcomes, the relationship between the Dinka 

literacy training received and English literacy learning was very complex and we were not 

able to measure with any certainty the impact that one had upon the other. The Dinka 

classes certainly established a strong foundation for learning English literacy, particularly 

as the learners were actively engaged in a supportive, formal classroom environment 

where high value was placed on the written word. While the students varied in their ability 

to read Dinka, all gained some understanding of the sound-symbol relationships required 

to read and this certainly assisted their English literacy acquisition. However the limited 

timeframe, coupled with the difference in interpretations of literacy, effective teaching 

approaches and course content between ACL and the DLA meant that the impact of the 

L1 classes on the English literacy acquisition was difficult to ascertain. Nevertheless, 

further investigation into a first language literacy approach for other classes would be 

valuable. 

Recommendation 1: That the level of funding provided by the various State Departments 

of Education or other bodies to provide assistance to voluntarily run community (first 

language) language schools be reviewed to ensure that the necessary professional 

development support and overall sector development occurs, in line with the expansion of 

rare languages particularly from the African continent, in the Australian community. 

Further, that any such professional development has a focus on basic modern teaching 

practice and methodology for literacy acquisition, be it in the first language or English, 

with considerations given to the pre-existing cultural context of being a “teacher”. 

Bilingual teaching 

A key factor in the success of the English course was the bilingual support provided by 

the Dinka teachers. 

Much more than straight interpreting, bilingual support facilitated the development of 

difficult concepts and independent learning strategies that is otherwise left to chance (and 

generally does not occur). For example, the bilingual teachers helped with concepts of 

time telling, information about reading strategies, and explanation of the purpose and 

method of certain learning activities. Addressing these issues explicitly in their first 

language allowed the class to deal with them efficiently and effectively. 

The bilingual teachers also allowed for genuine and ongoing consultation, feedback and 

negotiation between the English teacher and the learners. This ensured that the learners 

had a strong sense of ownership and involvement in the class, which resulted in high 

levels of motivation. 

Recommendation 2: As much as possible, provide bilingual support for early literacy 

learners. Ensure the bilingual assistants are trained in the ESOL/literacy rationale and 

methodology so they can best convey the value of classroom activities to the learners. 

Class size and profile 

The smaller class size (11) was crucial for ensuring that everyone had adequate 

opportunities for individual participation and feedback. The relatively homogenous 

educational backgrounds and English literacy levels of the learners meant that the 



teacher was able to design a course to meet the learners’ needs far more effectively than 

in a class with disparate needs. 

Recommendation 3: Where possible, limit class size to 10 – 12 people for early literacy 

learners. 

Learner readiness 

The teacher identified that there were still high levels of stress amongst the group, 

manifested in reports of poor sleep patterns mostly due to concerns about family and 

friends in Africa and settlement and family issues in Australia. However, as the group had 

all been in Australia for more than 18 months, these were not as prominent as when the 

learners undertook previous courses and the learners reported that they were now able to 

concentrate more on their study. 

Recommendation 4: Continue to incorporate training on the effects of stress on learning 

in teacher training and professional development programs, and suggest that teachers 

address these issues explicitly with learners. 

Curriculum and content 

It is recognised that publically funded LLN programs require that an accredited curriculum 

is followed in order to measure the outcomes of the learning process. However this may 

have a neutral, if not negative, impact on learning as the teacher is not given the freedom 

to respond to the learners’ interests, needs and readiness to learn. 

Recommendation 5: That courses involving pre-literate learners not be required to follow 

a prescribed curriculum such as the Pre-Spoken and Written English (Pre-SWE) course 

or the Certificates in General Education for Adults (CGEA). If outcomes need to be 

measured then a tool such as that developed by Bottomley and Wyse for measuring “not 

yet achieved” gains, be used. 

Teaching strategies 

The project has yielded detailed information on effective teaching / learning strategies for 

these learners. The strategies could all be incorporated into existing curricula if 

necessary. This information will be of use for programs teaching similar learner groups eg 

AMEP, LLNP and other LLN programs, and that it may help to reduce the relative 

ineffectiveness of these programs for this type of learner. Information on the strategies is 

available in Section 2 of this report. 

Teaching recommendations: 

• Use learners’ own experiences, interests and knowledge as content for texts 

• Plan a predictable daily structure for learning activities 

• Use oracy to memorise content that will be used for literacy / numeracy 

• Limit the range of content for study 

• With bilingual assistance, be explicit with learners about the purpose, method and 

content of learning activities 



Learner feedback regarding previous courses 

Initial and final interviews with the learners yielded feedback about what had not worked 

for them in previous formal study: 

• ‘More papers with less teaching’ - progressing in terms of ‘getting through’ a lot of 

worksheets but not actually learning anything from doing the worksheets (and having 

an overwhelming quantity of paper) 

• Teachers writing things on the board for them to copy without understanding 

• Teachers teaching but not providing opportunities for learners to practise 

• Having two teachers sharing one class across the week but no coordination / 

communication / planning between them 

• Learning to name the letters of the alphabet but not learning how to read 

These strongly voiced comments are included on behalf of the learners for consideration 

by literacy and language providers. 



Suggestions for future programs 

With the benefit of hindsight, we cannot overemphasize the importance of planning and 

preparation for a program that involved teaching first language literacy and English 

literacy. If there was an opportunity to undertake similar projects in the future a more 

effective model to apply would be one in which the first language teacher was employed 

by the English literacy provider, fully trained in literacy theory and approaches and 

worked in collaboration with the ESL teacher so that the approaches and content of the 

first language program reflected the ESL program. In particular, we would recommend 

investing substantially in the following areas, before the course begins. 

Methodology 

With the bilingual teacher(s), identify the methodology currently used in the first language 

program, and make a training plan together to extend that repertoire as appropriate. Start 

training before the course begins. 

Teacher orientation 

If your bilingual teacher(s) are new to your workplace, allow sufficient time for orientation, 

including time and assistance to complete induction and ongoing employment paperwork. 

Also ensure that there is sufficient ongoing support in the non-teaching aspects of the 

work. 

Learner selection 

Ensure that potential learners are drawn from a range of sources rather than any single 

source. Also ensure that potential learners have clear and complete information about the 

course (word of mouth is very effective for advertising, but it can result in variable 

information). 

Childcare 

Plan for childcare. If you cannot provide childcare, consider alternative arrangements. If 

your target learner group has minimal literacy in any language, it is likely that they will 

need considerable support to make their own childcare arrangements. 

Course content 

Take time to identify course content in detail with the bilingual teacher(s). Ensure that 

practical numeracy is a key content area. We strongly recommend formalising proposed 

course content in detail, either through the development of a new first language teaching 

resource, or of a syllabus document. 

In short, invest heavily in planning and make explicit all assumptions with everyone 

involved (community groups, teachers, learners). 



Bibliography 

AMEP Research Centre Fact Sheet: Course planning for preliterate and low-literacy 

learners, 2007 

AMEP Research Centre Fact Sheet Learners with low literacy in the Adult Migrant 

English program (AMEP), 2006 

Bottomley & Wyse L, 2008 Measuring NYA Learning Gains, LLNP Innovative Research 

Project , DEEWR (unpublished report) 

Burgoyne, U & Hull, O, 2007, Classroom management strategies to address the needs of 

Sudanese refugee learners, NCVER, Adelaide 

Burgoyne, U & Hull, O, 2007, Teaching learners from highly oral cultural backgrounds: 

Good practice guide, NCVER, Adelaide 

Christie, J, English Language and Literacy Placement Assessment Kit. NSW AMES, 

Sydney 

Gunn, M, 2003, Opportunity for Literacy? Preliterate learners in the AMEP. Prospect: Vol 

18 No 2, AMEP Research Centre, Sydney 

Hajncl, L, 2008, Into Learning: a professional development kit for teachers and 

trainers of adult literacy learners from aural/oral learning cultures, Adult Migrant 

Education Services, Melbourne 

Hood, S, 1990, Second Language Literacy: Working with Non-Literate Learners, 

Prospect, Vol 5, NCELTR, Sydney 

McPherson, P 1997, Investigating learner outcomes for clients with special needs in 

the AMEP, NCELTR, Sydney 


Section 2: Teaching Ideas 

Section 2: Food for thought: Practical teaching ideas 

and learner responses 

Background 

The project 

In 2008 and 2009, the Dinka Literacy Association (DLA) and ACL (an Adult Migrant 

English Program provider) ran a bilingual literacy course for Dinka-speakers from 

Southern Sudan. In the first half of the course, the learners studied literacy and numeracy 

in Dinka. In the second half, the learners studied literacy and numeracy in English. 

The learners 

Most of the learners in the class were female, aged 25 – 50, with no formal schooling 

outside Australia and no literacy in languages other than English. A few of the learners 

were able to communicate easily using spoken English, while others had almost zero 

English oracy. Most had been in Australia for at least 4 years. All had completed their 

AMEP entitlement and some had also accessed Language, Literacy and Numeracy 

Program (LLNP) tuition. 

All the learners were able to name and copy the English alphabet, but most were unable 

to read anything. Most of the learners were familiar with numerals, but had very limited 

experience in using numbers for practical purposes such as telling the time or reading the 

date. 

This document 

The following pages provide detailed information on what did (and did not) work with this 

particular class. The intention is not to suggest that the approaches described would be 

effective and appropriate for all classes. Rather, it is hoped that the information can 

provide some fresh food for thought – some ideas that practitioners might like to test as 

different ways of teaching preliterate learners (even though the project was confined to 

Dinka-speaking learners, the activities could apply to other beginning literacy learners). 



Key features of teaching and learning 

Dinka phase 

• Oral practice of written texts eg through reading aloud 

• Collective learning eg each individual ‘has a go’ while the other learners listen (a lot of 

repetition, which helps everyone to remember) 

• Use of readers / text books as the main source of course content 

• Ample time given for copying (recognition that it’s not a simple, quick activity) 

English phase 

• Predictable lesson structure – a clear routine 

• Limited, focussed, predictable staging of the introduction of new content in order to 

avoid the sense of overload and failure that the learners reported experiencing in 

previous formal study 

• Strong emphasis on the practice and recycling of content 

• Memorisation of content through repeated oral practice to support literacy / numeracy 

work 

• Very limited, carefully targeted use of worksheets 

• Use of worksheets and activities requiring an oral (not written) response 

• Regular opportunities for each individual to demonstrate their knowledge, particularly 

through reading aloud 

• Use of reading materials generated by the learners, or coming from the learners’ own 

areas of interest / knowledge. 



Stories 

Week 2 Week 6 Week 9 

Each week the class created a new ‘story’ text. At the beginning of the week the class 

constructed the story together orally, with multiple opportunities for repetition so 

everybody could memorise it. Then the teacher built the text up on the board, from key 

words to whole sentences, with more opportunities for repetition, before ample time for 

copying. 

During the week the class practised the story in a variety of ways, with some practice 

every day. These practice activities included: 

• reading aloud 

• sequencing 

• copying 

Before any practice with the written text, the story was ‘refreshed’ orally first. 

The first story was about the weather, there was one story about a topical event (the 

Victorian bushfires) and the rest of the stories were about real people. The people were 

all public figures known to the learners, ranging from Kevin Rudd to a Dinka supermodel. 

At first the teacher chose the story topics, but towards the end the learners chose to 

nominate their own topics. 

This approach was loosely based on the Language Experience Approach, in which texts 

are created using learners’ own experiences and language. However instead of using an 

individual or ephemeral experience, it was easier to work with something more shared 

and permanent. 

The learners liked the fact that they understood the content of the stories. This allowed 

them to concentrate on practising very basic reading skills instead of coping with 

comprehension. While comprehension is the aim of reading, and comprehension 

exercises are a staple of English classes, it requires a combination of skills which these 

learners had not yet developed. The class was very happy to have that pressure taken off 

so they could concentrate on mastery of the building blocks of reading. 



The learners also placed a high value on the ‘truth’ of the stories. When some facts were 

changed in a text for a ‘find the problem’ learning activity, everyone was indignant, and 

insistent that the text was ‘no good’. 

The class also coped well with new and difficult language needed for the texts eg vice 

president, saying they were motivated to learn it because they were interested in the 

topic. Some learners also reported that they learnt and practised new grammatical 

concepts through working with the stories eg male vs female pronouns (these are not 

distinguished in Dinka). 

It would be interesting to test a similar approach with other factual topic areas. These 

could include places (eg a country, a city, a suburb, a school, a class) or events (eg a 

public holiday, a class routine). 



Sentence makers for ‘writing’ 

A weather text on the ‘sentence maker’ 

The class used large fuzzy boards with word cards on Velcro to revise and create texts. 

The fuzzy boards and word cards came from an approach popular in primary schools in 

the 1970s (the Breakthrough to Literacy method of Mackay, Thomson and Schaub). The 

boards and cards are known as ‘sentence makers’. 

At the start of the course, the class used the sentence makers to create texts about the 

weather. The whole class talked about the weather first and established the ‘facts’, then 

individuals volunteered to create a text eg last night was hot or today is good. This was a 

hands on introduction to the significance of word order (learners placed word cards on the 

board, then tested out the sentence by reading it out - quickly discovering that different 

word order affected meaning). The whole class was involved in the construction and 

editing processes. 

Once the group was very familiar with the topic, they also created weather texts in pairs 

using individual sentence makers (words written on business cards). This allowed people 

to work at different levels, with some pairs sticking to a single sentence, while others 

created more extended texts. 



Sentence makers for reading 

A story about Alek Wek – a Dinka supermodel now living in the US 

The learners also used the sentence makers to recreate known texts. They could work 

from memory, or they could refer to the written version. This activity was challenging, but 

there was a warm, supportive atmosphere during work. It was a low stress, fun activity, 

done about once a week. There was only one copy of each text, so in the beginning 

everyone worked as a whole group, but by the end of the course learners were working in 

pairs or threes on different texts. 

The learners said they thought the sentence makers were very useful learning tools. They 

said they liked being able to ‘play’ with words by moving them from one place to another, 

without the time consuming process of having to write. They also said it helped them to 

recognise words. 

To make a large sentence maker, you need: 

• 1.2 metres fuzzy acrylic wall fabric (not felt) 

• A pole or a cardboard tube and some rope to hang it from 

• a metre or so of Velcro dots (adhesive back, hook side only – not the fluffy side) – you 

can cut the dots in half 

• White cardboard (8 cm strips work well) 

Some teachers also use magnetic strips to put word cards on a white board. Probably the 

only advantage of using fuzzy boards is that you can have as many as you want in a 

classroom (this class had 5), whereas white boards are limited. Also, word cards on a 

fuzzy board can move but stay on display, whereas words on a whiteboard have to be put 

away before you can use the whiteboard in another way. 



Card readers 

An old Eiki card reader machine + cards with the recording stripes 

Card readers are simple, low-tech machines which allow learners to play short recordings 

from a card. This class used them in a variety of ways, including: 

• listening to a word and finding it on a word card 

• listening to a sentence and creating it using word cards 

• listening to spelling words and writing them 

The card readers were invaluable tools for independent learning and individual / small 

group practice. They were non-threatening and simple to use. Some of their benefits 

were: 

• massive amounts of active repetition and practice 

• independent control of pace and checking by learners 

• no technical fuss (no getting ‘lost’ with audio cassettes or computer based audio) 

One learner asked on several occasions where to buy a machine, as she wanted to use 

one at home! 

The original machines made by Eiki are now being produced by a company called 

Califone. They sell a cheap play-only model (which reads only commercially produced 

cards) and an expensive recording model (which can record and read any cards). 

Australian distributors of the card players can be found on the Califone website. 



Sight words – Sentences 

Word cards for making sentences 

Early in the course, a few learners were making no progress with reading at all, so they 

tried some different work in a small group. 

Starting with a short sentence drawn from one of the story texts, the learners used the 

card reader to listen to words and identify them on cards. Once they were confident they 

could recognise the words, they listened to sentences using those words, and made the 

sentences with the word cards. When they had practised enough, they read the 

sentences on paper. 

The learners were delighted that they could actually read something. The card reader 

allowed them to practise enough to memorise the words, and because the content 

increased by only one new word each session, the learning was achievable. 

An extract from a paper version – artificial but effective for practice 



Sight words – Words 

One learner’s collection of sight word cards 

Each learner had their own sight word cards. The cards were grouped into sets of 10 

words chosen at random. Each set was a different colour. The words were taken from the 

Dolch list (a list of 220 high frequency sight words - mostly short words like it, the, is, 

have, at). 

From the middle of the course, the learners practised reading these words for a short 

session every day, either with the card reader machine or with a Dinka teacher or with 

each other. The learners started with a single set, then when they felt ready, they 

nominated themselves for assessment (the English teacher’s only role in this activity). If a 

learner could read all the words in one set, her / his name was ticked and s/he took the 

next sheet of word cards to cut up and practise. In this way, the learners ‘graduated’ 

through the sets, getting the next words only when they could read the ones they had. 

Given the abstract nature of the word pool and the heavy focus on assessment, it was 

very surprising that work with the sight word cards drew such a positive response. All the 

learners were highly motivated, practising with their cards of their own accord if they 

arrived early to class, or if they finished an activity quickly. Sometimes the class asked to 

have extra sessions with the cards, and often individuals asked to be quickly assessed 

even though time was up. 

The learners said they liked having an achievable challenge, that the different ‘levels’ 

were motivating, that they enjoyed having a sense of progress, and that they appreciated 

being able to take the cards home to practise and try again if they ‘failed’. 

The activity was extremely effective for the majority of learners, but the abstract content 

did not work for the lowest two. These two would have been better served by continuing 

to work with this method, but with a more meaning-focussed, contextualised choice of 

content eg a sentence from a familiar or personally relevant text. 



Handwriting 

A hand writing sample 

All the learners made some errors in the way they formed certain letters and numbers. 

These errors were possibly due to having learnt to write the alphabet through tracing. 

While the letters / numbers were mostly legible, incorrect formation made the process of 

writing less efficient. 

At first the teacher tried remedial work by focussing on one letter a day, using ‘air writing’ 

and actual writing. The air writing included saying the strokes (eg t is down… across…). 

This was enthusiastically received, as was some repetitive copying of the individual 

letters. 

When the alphabet was ‘finished’, there was a brief period of experimenting with ‘speed 

copying’. This involved learners copying as much of an unseen text as possible within a 

time limit. The aim was to continue to practise handwriting but in a more integrated way. 

However the learners reacted very strongly to this, saying they needed to understand 

what they were copying, or it had no purpose. They said they had spent a lot of time 

copying texts they didn’t understand in other classes, and that it did nothing for them. 

Instead, the class switched to copying the ‘story of the week’ or other texts they were 

already working with in class. This was keenly taken up by at least half the class, who 

subsequently practised copying these texts at home as well, of their own accord. 

The class also focussed on writing numerals, in brief daily sessions with bilingual support. 

This involved practice and discussion, and resulted in excellent short term improvement. 

In terms of long term improvement, however, there was almost no change in accuracy of 

letter and numeral formation. The time the class spent on accuracy was basically a waste 

- habits were ingrained, and the time would have been better spent doing other things. 

On the other hand, copying practice of familiar whole texts had other benefits. Learners 

reported it was now faster and easier to write and that it assisted them with spelling and 

reading (they read as they copied), and one learner said she could now copy word by 

word instead of letter by letter. 



Telling the time 

Cardboard practice clocks 

The original plan was for the learners to sign in and out of class each day. It quickly 

became apparent that this would not be possible at first, because none of the learners 

could read an analogue clock. 

Work started on clock reading, which proved to be a very complex skill indeed. To start, 

the class focussed on reading the hours and minutes round the clock. Once the hours 

and minutes were roughly okay (and everyone understood the concept that ‘4’ can mean 

either ‘4’ or ‘20’), the class mainly practised using cardboard clocks – either listening to a 

time and making it, or looking at a time and saying it. To learn to write a time, the practice 

was mainly listening and writing on the board so everyone could see and check. 

There were also a few sessions using commercially available worksheets eg pages with 

pictures of clocks, which the learners had to look at then write the time. These sessions 

were spectacularly unsuccessful, with an overall atmosphere of disconnected silence. 

Towards the end of the course, the sign-in book was introduced, discussed and then 

used with increasing accuracy and ease by most. 

This class really illuminated the complexity of clock reading. A plea to teachers of this 

type of learner group: please stick to digital formats, even when using analogue clocks! 

Conceptualising and saying four fifteen is much easier than a quarter past four, especially 

when that ends up being transformed into 4.15 in writing. 



Early in the life of the sign-in book 

At the end of the course, after about a month of using the sign-in book 



Cleaning 

Some pages from the cleaning mini-book 

The class did a module on cleaning using a reader-style text (mini-book) with key 

cleaning vocabulary. The mini-book was designed specifically for this class. As well as 

building vocabulary and providing reading practice, the text provided a springboard for 

discussion of employment in the cleaning industry. This involved drawing on the learners’ 

own experiences (all the female learners had worked as cleaners in Sudan or other 

countries), and comparing them to cleaning in Australia. 

Points of comparison focussed largely on Occupational Health and Safety (OHS): 

• Most of the learners had sustained injuries while cleaning overseas (one learner 

described having been electrocuted by a live wire in Sudan), so we talked about the 

laws that protect workers in Australia, and what happens if someone is injured on the 

job 

• Safety signs and why / where they’re used 

• The importance of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) eg rubber gloves when using 

chemicals 

• New cleaning practices eg colour coded cloths for different purposes, and why 

• How to lift heavy things safely 

• Problems if you can’t read and you have to use strong chemicals (one learner had 

worked in a hotel in Australia) 

The discussion was conducted bilingually over several days, after short sessions of 

language and literacy work on the topic. As a method for information sharing, it was 

reasonably effective, as it was more engaging than a one way information session. 

However, it would have been more efficient if a Dinka teacher had taken the role of 

facilitator and the sessions had been conducted in one language. 

The mini-book was effective as a discussion starter, but it would benefit from revision in 

order to provide a tighter, more structured discussion focus (it provided a stimulus for less 

than half the discussion content). 



Driving 

Going into a supermarket 

car park 

There are kangaroos, so 

drive at 30 kmh. 

A hat – maybe a building 

site? 

Some initial interpretations from the learners 

Half the class had a learner driving licence and the other half wanted one. 

In the last 15 minutes of each class, the topic was driving. At first the group worked 

through a few of the questions from the Driver Knowledge Test (DKT) each day, with the 

Dinka teacher interpreting. After a couple of weeks the teacher changed direction, and 

instead focussed on the signs found in the DKT. Each day the group looked at two or 

three signs, guessing and then discussing the meaning, with the Dinka teacher facilitating 

and interpreting. 

The discussions around driving brought to light the unfamiliarity the learners had with the 

concept of distance as in the Sudan they had tended to talk about how long it took to take 

to get to a destination, rather than a measurement based on kilometres. 

Towards the end of the course, one learner tried the DKT (questions given orally through 

a Dinka interpreter). She passed the test on the first attempt and got her L licence. She 

said she had seen most of the signs introduced in class, and that the driving study had 

been very useful. Another learner was planning to attempt the test soon. 

All the non-driving learners said the driving signs were a very helpful course focus. In the 

light of the scope for misinterpretation shown by the examples above, bilingual support 

was absolutely crucial for this work. 


Section 3: Attachments 

Section 3: Attachments 

1. Dinka Literacy Assessment Tool 

2. Famous People: Dinka Story Learning Resource 

3. Working with the Dinka Class: A Teacher’s Journal 

Note: Each of these attachments is provided as a separate document.

First Language (Dinka) Literacy as a Foundation for English ...

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