Governance and Micropolitics of Traditional ... - IPRsonline.org
Governance and Micropolitics of Traditional ... - IPRsonline.org
Governance and Micropolitics of Traditional ... - IPRsonline.org
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2. INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS, AGREEMENTS AND FORA<br />
The relationship between intellectual property, traditional knowledge <strong>and</strong> plant genetic<br />
resources has become politicised as these resources rapidly disappear, their perceived value<br />
increases, <strong>and</strong> the culture <strong>of</strong> those that have acted as custodians are threatened. In response to<br />
the ongoing politicisation, there is a growing body <strong>of</strong> international law that seeks to clarify the<br />
legal uncertainties, but in practice only seems to exacerbate them (Dutfield, 2004). Table 1<br />
provides a summary <strong>of</strong> international laws relevant to the governance <strong>of</strong> intellectual property<br />
rights (IPRs), TK <strong>and</strong> genetic resources with details <strong>of</strong> their most pertinent elements.<br />
This section provides an approximately chronological review <strong>of</strong> proceedings in recent years,<br />
in the international arena, that are <strong>of</strong> importance to Thail<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> critically analyses the<br />
dominant discourses.<br />
Table 1: Chronology <strong>of</strong> International Laws on intellectual property rights, traditional<br />
knowledge <strong>and</strong> genetic resources.<br />
International Law Year Drafted Details<br />
International Convention<br />
for the Protection <strong>of</strong> New<br />
Varieties <strong>of</strong> Plants (UPOV)<br />
1961, revised<br />
1969, 1978 <strong>and</strong><br />
1991<br />
International Undertaking<br />
on Plant Genetic Resources<br />
for Food <strong>and</strong> Agriculture<br />
(IUPGR)<br />
Convention on Biological<br />
Diversity (CBD)<br />
Trade Related Aspects <strong>of</strong><br />
Intellectual Property Rights<br />
(TRIPS) Agreement<br />
Patent Law Treaty (<strong>and</strong><br />
Patent Cooperation Treaty<br />
(PCT)) WIPO<br />
International Treaty on<br />
Plant Genetic Resources<br />
for Food <strong>and</strong> Agriculture<br />
(ITPGR)<br />
- UPOV is essentially designed for protection <strong>of</strong> new plant<br />
varieties for commercialisation. The most recent version has<br />
been criticised for limiting farmer’s rights.<br />
1980 - Non-binding, but has rhetorical importance for the<br />
consideration <strong>of</strong> germplasm as the ‘common heritage <strong>of</strong><br />
mankind’.<br />
1992 - Established principles <strong>of</strong>: access <strong>and</strong> benefit sharing, prior<br />
informed consent, national sovereignty over natural resources,<br />
sustainable use.<br />
1995 - Recognises exclusive rights over genetic resources.<br />
- Members must allow patenting <strong>of</strong> genetic resources or<br />
implement a sui generis system <strong>of</strong> plant variety protection.<br />
- Raises minimum st<strong>and</strong>ards, eg minimum patent term is 20<br />
2000 (<strong>and</strong> 1970<br />
(amended 1984)<br />
years.<br />
- Although the Patent Law Treaty <strong>and</strong> PCT are not specific to<br />
GRs <strong>and</strong> TK, they work to ‘harmonise’ patent st<strong>and</strong>ards<br />
worldwide. At the same time WIPO holds a forum on TK <strong>and</strong><br />
GRs, however WIPO have resisted inclusion <strong>of</strong> elements <strong>of</strong><br />
disclosure <strong>of</strong> origin <strong>of</strong> inventions in the PCT.<br />
2001 - The ITPGR includes recognition <strong>of</strong> farmer’s rights, <strong>and</strong> sets<br />
up a st<strong>and</strong>ardised material transfer agreement for accessing<br />
plant genetic resources.<br />
2.1 Historical Developments<br />
Only in recent years has the ownership <strong>of</strong> germplasm become problematic <strong>and</strong> highly<br />
politicised. This section attempts to provide some historical background <strong>of</strong> the evolution <strong>of</strong><br />
control over plant genetic resources <strong>and</strong> biodiversity, particularly pertaining to agriculture.<br />
6