regional formation and development studies - KlaipÄdos universitetas

KLAIPĖDA UNIVERSITY 

SOCIAL SCIENCE FACULTY 

REGIONAL FORMATION 

AND 

DEVELOPMENT STUDIES 

Journal of Social Sciences 

No. 2 (7) 

Klaipėda, 2012

Regional Formation and Development Studies 

Klaipėda University 

Social Science Faculty 

Scientific Editor 

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Antanas Bučinskas Klaipėda University (Lithuania) 

Deputy of scientific editor 

Prof. Dr. Ligita Šimanskienė Klaipėda University (Lithuania) 

Editorial board: 

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ciprian Beniamin Benea University of Oradea (Romania) 

Prof. Habil. Dr. Remigijus Čiegis Vilnius University (Lithuania) 

Prof. Dr. Larisa Emeljanova I. Kant Federal University (Russia Federation) 

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Sebastian Gadal University of Versailles Saint Quentin en Yvelines (France) 

Prof. Dr. Hilmar Þór Hilmarsson University of Acureyri (Iceland) 

Prof. Dr. Vytautas Juščius Klaipėda University (Lithuania) 

Prof. Dr. Jose Manuel Lasierra Zaragoza University (Spain) 

Prof. Dr. Vaidutis Laurėnas Klaipėda University (Lithuania) 

Prof. Habil. Dr. Tadeusz Palmowski Gdansk University (Poland) 

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Romana Provazniková Pardubice University (Czech Republic) 

Prof. Habil. Dr. Bronislaw Sitek Alicide De Gasperi University (Poland) 

Prof. Dr. Biruta Sloka Latvia University (Latvia) 

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Eduardas Spiriajevas Klaipėda University (Lithuania) 

Prof. Dr. Rimantas Stašys Klaipėda University (Lithuania) 

Prof. Habil. Dr. Gerhard Strohmeier Alpen-Adria Universitat Klagenfurt (Austria) 

Prof. Habil. Dr. Stasys Vaitekūnas Klaipėda University (Lithuania) 

Prof. Habil. Dr. Povilas Zakarevičius Vytautas Magnus University (Lithuania) 

Lithuanian language editor: Vilma Urbonavičiūtė (Lithuania) 

Layout: Karolis Saukantas (Lithuania) 

Cover design: Vilhelmas Giedraitis (Lithuania) 

The first number was published in 2007. 

There are 3 annual volumes in Lithuanian, English languages. 

The first numbers of journal were included in EBSCO Publishing Business Source Complete databases 

(http://www.ebscohost.com/titleLists/bth-journals.pdf.). 

Address: 

Herkaus Manto g. 84, LT-92294 Klaipėda, Lietuva, tel. (370 46) 39 88 95, fax (370 46) 39 89 99 

Internet address: http://www.ku.lt/leid 

© Klaipėda University, 2012 

© Social Science Faculty, 2012 

Every paper is revised by two reviewers 

ISSN 2029-9370

PREFACE 

This journal seeks to invite scientist from social sciences to discuss about problems in regional development. 

The important direction in regional development is – social, economic and development problems 

in borderlines; so here a very important line is dispose of researches and frame of proposals for sustainable 

development in borderlines. The new scientific theme remains the same important scientific and practical direction 

– problems of regional development. Organizations management determines different regional development, 

therefore corporate social responsibility and studies of small and medium – sized organizations are 

like the main engine of regional development, also are very important for sustainable regional development 

and timely. Journal is turned to change title to more clear description about basic problem in our region “Regional 

Formation and Development Studies”. This was decided at Klaipėda University Senate (2011 05 06 

Nr. 11-55). We hope that these changes will encourage social sciences scientists to do more researches in this 

field and to have also practical value to region. 

Deputy of scientific editor 

Prof. Dr. Ligita Šimanskienė (Klaipėda University, Lithuania) 

PRATARMĖ 

Žurnalas siekia pakviesti socialinės srities mokslininkus diskutuoti apie problemas, kurių kyla regionuose. 

Svarbi regionų vystymosi kryptis – pasienio regionų socialinės, ekonominės ir plėtros problemos. Šia 

kryptimi atliekami tyrimai, pateikiama pasiūlymų, kaip darniai vystyti pasienio regionus. Nevienodą regionų 

išsivystymą lemia organizacijų valdymas, todėl įmonių socialinės atsakomybės, smulkaus ir vidutinio dydžio 

organizacijų tyrimai, kaip pagrindinis darnaus regionų vystymo variklis, yra svarbūs ir savalaikiai. Žurnalas 

siekia išgryninti tematiką, todėl keičiamas pavadinimas: „Regionų formavimo ir plėtros studijos“. Tai 

nuspręsta Klaipėdos universiteto Senate (2011 05 06 Nr. 11-55). Tikimės, kad šie pokyčiai paskatins socialinių 

mokslų mokslininkus atlikti daugiau tyrimų šia tematika, kartu suteiks praktinę vertę regionų vystymuisi. 

Redaktoriaus pavaduotoja 

Prof. dr. Ligita Šimanskienė (Klaipėdos universitetas, Lietuva) 

3

TURINYS 

Ludmila Bandeviča, Agnese Līgotne 

Higher Education Study Programme Quality Assessment / 6 

(Aukštesniojo mokslo studijų programų kokybės vertinimas) / 17 

Viktorija Grigaliūnaitė, Lina Pilelienė 

Vartotojų pasitenkinimo Kauno miesto picerijomis nustatymas / 19 

(Determination of Customer Satisfaction with Pizzerias in Kaunas) / 31 

Violeta Grublienė, Eglė Gotautienė 

Regioninio verslo jūrų žuvininkystės sektoriaus problemos ir perspektyvos / 33 

(Problems and Perspectives of Regional Sea Fishery Business) / 46 

Darja Kaļiņina, Irina Voronova 

Risk Management as a Tool to Improve the Reliability: Case of Insurance Company / 48 

(Rizikos valdymas, kaip patikimumo didinimo priemonė: draudimo bendrovės atvejo analizė) / 56 

Deimena Kiyak, Daiva Labanauskaitė, Tomas Reichenbachas 

Finansų krizių tipai ir jų palyginamoji analizė Lietuvoje / 57 

(Comparative Analysis of Financial Crisis Types in Lithuania) / 72 

Carolin Kuhn, Ilona Dubra, Erika Sumilo 

Influential Determinants of Innovation: Case Study of Latvia and Germany / 74 

(Svarbūs inovacijos veiksniai: Latvijos ir Vokietijos atvejų analizė) / 85 

Daiva Labanauskaitė, Laura Astrauskaitė, Deimena Kiyak 

Relationship between the Population Aging and the Supply of Services in Different Regions in Lithuania 

/ 86 

(Visuomenės senėjimo ir paslaugų pasiūlos ryšys Lietuvos regionuose) / 96 

Olga Ličmane, Irina Voronova 

Problems and Perspectives in Pension System: Case of Baltic States / 99 

(Pensijų sistemos problemos ir perspektyvos: Baltijos šalių atvejo analizė) / 108 

Valērijs Praude, Santa Bormane 

Influence of Marketing Communications on the Processes of Consumers’ Decisions / 110 

(Rinkodaros komunikacijos įtaka vartotojų sprendimo priėmimo procesui) / 124 

Edgaras Ribačonka, Darius Burgis 

Koordinavimo sistemos organizacijų tinkluose modelis / 125 

(Model of System for Coordination in Networks of Organizations) / 131 

Roland Schmuck 

Operations Strategies / 133 

(Operacijų strategijos) / 141 

4

Sandra Stucere, Gunita Mazure 

Assessment of Factors Affecting the Amount of Immovable Property Tax in Latvia / 142 

(Latvijos nekilnojamojo turo mokesčių dydžiui įtakos turinčių veiksnių vertinimas) / 152 

Jeļena Šalkovska 

The Features of Marketing Communications in the Conditions of Economic Crisis / 153 

(Rinkodaros komunikacijos ekonominės krizės laikotarpiu bruožai) / 162 

Inessa Vorontchuk, Irina Lando 

Intensification of Knowledge Management System within the Framework of Adult Learning for Effective 

Regional Development / 163 

(Žinių valdymo sistemos suaugusiųjų mokymo procese tobulinimas, siekiant efektyvios regionų plėtros) / 171 

5


HIGHER EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAMME QUALITY ASSESSMENT 

HIGHER EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAMME 

QUALITY ASSESSMENT 

Ludmila Bandeviča 1 , Agnese Līgotne 2 

University of Latvia (Latvia) 

ABSTRACT 

Study programme quality assessment provides higher education quality which in its turn is an essential precondition for the successful 

national economy development. At the moment the society has a lot of discussion about what is higher education quality 

and how to assess it. The pragmatic approach makes us set criteria for study programme quality assessment. However, before doing 

that one must understand what higher education quality is. Developing over the years, higher education has created different quality 

understandings. The different quality understandings form the necessity of different quality assessment approaches. As the foundation 

of higher education quality assessment to create the methodological basis there are taken higher education quality assessment 

conceptions distinguished by R. Barnett: objective, subjective and development. Each of the conceptions intends to use different 

approaches for higher education assessment. The research approbates the usage of The Analytic Hierarchy process (AHP) method to 

detect the most significant study programme quality criteria and the most suitable way of assessment for them. AHP method is based 

on expert surveys, which were taken part by two most important interest groups interested in higher education: higher education 

administrative staff and students. Higher education administrators are represented by Higher Education Council representative, LU 

heads of administrative departments and leadership staff who are responsible for study quality and programme accreditation. In their 

turn, students are represented by members of Latvian Student Association, LU student council representatives and students from 

different LU faculties. 

KEY WORDS: study programme quality, quality assessment methodology, assessment criteria, approaches for quality assessment, 

the Analytic Hierarchy Process method. 

JEL CODES: I230, I210, D790 

Introduction 

Traditionally the notion of “quality” in higher education was integrated into academic life; it was considered 

as self evident and accepted for everyone. Quality was connected with academic freedom and was 

rooted deeply into academic traditions. State regulations, for example, the necessity of having the Doctor’s 

degree, were set with the aim to provide the quality of academic work and knowledge. Together with that 

academic environment did not need the necessity of defining the notion of “quality” or discuss its significance. 

There was an opinion that higher education can be discussed only by academicians who are professionals 

in this field; therefore quality provision and development in higher education were left under their management. 

The notion “quality” in higher education was something like untold knowledge, which included in 

1 

Ludmila Bandeviča – University of Latvia, Faculty of Economic and Management, Prof. Dr. habil. oec., Scientific interest: mathematical 

modelling in economics and management. 

E-mail: ludmila.bandevica@lu.lv 

Tel.: +371 670 347 53. 

2 

Agnese Līgotne – University of Latvia, Faculty of Education, Psychology and Art, Doctoral student, Scientific interest: Quality 

of Higher Education Study Programme. 

E-mail: agnese.ligotne@lu.lv 

Tel.: +371 670 343 48. 

6

ISSN 2029-9370. Regional Formation and Development Studies, No. 2 (7) 

itself both what the quality is, and how to provide it. Hungarian and British erudite Polanyi characterizes it 

as silent knowledge: “Know more than say” (Polanyi, 1966: 22–24). 

We can see two main problems which complicate the definition of “higher education quality” notion: 

Problem No. 1: Quality notion in higher education is a lot more specific and complicated than in other 

fields, because higher education aims are different, and also its members cannot be unequivocally compared 

to business or state sector fields; 

Problem No. 2: The differences of understanding the notion of “higher education quality” appear depending 

on which perspective of higher education interested side to look at it. It is promoted by both different 

needs of interested sides and non-uniformity of higher education; 

While studying the research literature about quality assessment, we can identify three main fields where 

are set quality standards and assessment criteria: state sector organizations, industrial and service providing 

companies. But higher education cannot be directly (without additional conditions) included into any of these 

fields, because its aims and tasks are different. Higher education does not have clients, but it has interested 

sides. The quality notion in higher education is a lot more discussed and specific than it is in other fields. In 

industrial and service companies the quality is oriented to client satisfaction and process. Many people associate 

the presumptions about higher education quality with academic values which not always are oriented 

to the satisfaction of students’ needs; therefore higher education is quite often reproached for insufficient 

quality. However, on the other side, in the author’s opinion, not only higher education establishments, but 

also student himself is responsible for the quality of acquired knowledge and skills. 

Higher education quality can be looked at from different perspectives, which in their turn form different 

understanding about that. Also, Swedish researcher Giertz stresses that when defining the notion of “higher 

education quality” and comparing it with other people’s understanding of higher education quality, there 

more likely are going to be bigger or smaller differences (Giertz, 2000: 296–300). We can distinguish two 

way reasons for the different understanding of “quality” notion. Firstly, the interested sides in higher education 

quality are not only the academic staff and students, but also parents, employers, state and society on 

the whole. British researcher Barnett stresses the different aims and interests of the interested sides, which 

cannot always be combined or united, therefore each of the interested sides prefer different quality aspects 

(Barnett, 1992: 31–34). Secondly, a different understanding promoting factor is non-uniformity of higher 

education. Developing over the years, higher education has created different forms – professional and academic 

higher education. It is implemented not only by state universities, but also by state and private higher 

education establishments, colleges. Also the higher education levels are different: college level, basic studies 

and higher level studies. We must take into account that this diversity creates different aims and purposes for 

higher education. As well, labour market understanding about non-uniformity of higher education creates 

satisfaction with higher education on the whole. It was proved by the study done by Norwegian researchers 

Storen and Aamodt about employment and higher education quality (Storen & Aamodt, 2010: 311–312). 

Assessing the higher education quality we must take into account all the definition problems of the 

“higher education quality” notion mentioned above. There arises the question who has to decide, which of 

the aspects should be included or which should be given priority or first hand in quality concept? There is an 

impression that the question is about power and influence. We can agree with British academician Ball, that, 

when defining what higher education quality is, we have to come into contact with political aspects as well 

(Ball, 1985: 103). 

One of the main questions of discussion is „higher education usefulness to society”, should it be included 

into higher education quality understanding. Swedish authors do not support the inclusion of this aspect into 

higher education quality definition, because he considers that academic quality is not usefulness to society. 

Swedish researcher and practitioner Van Vught distinguishes two ways quality of higher education: outer or 

inessential, and inner or essential (Vught, 1997: 80–81). The outer quality is considered by the researcher as 

inessential, as it characterizes the ability of higher education establishments to react to the changing society 

needs, taking into account, that it is a part of society. In its turn, the inner quality is considered by the author 

as essential, as it characterizes main values in higher education “unconnected search for truth and justice, as 

7



well as altruistic pursuit for knowledge”, therefore with this in this understanding “higher education usefulness 

to society” becomes secondary. 

The purpose for this article is to make a methodological foundation for higher education study programme 

quality assessment and assess significance of higher education alternative approaches using the AHP 

method. 

Dawn for this research created by Briška (Briška (today Līgotne), 2010: 132–133). Author used quality 

understandings grouped by Harvey and Green and higher education quality assessment conceptions subdivided 

by Barnett for characterize a quality of study programme (Barnett, 1992; Harvey, Green, 1993). In this 

paper quality understandings and assessment concepts mentioned above transform to assessment methodology 

for study programme quality. According to theoretical background, there are three alternative approaches 

for assessing quality of study programme: experts’ assessment, quantitative indicators and students’ 

assessment. Authors used expert survey and the AHP method for evaluating these alternative assessment 

approaches. 

1. Formation of higher education quality assessment methodological foundation 

British researchers Harvey and Green distinguish quality understandings, determining what? and how? 

should be done to ensure and assess higher education quality (Harvey, Green, 1993: 3). Researchers distinguish 

five quality understanding perceptions: 

• y quality as exception; 

• y quality as excellence; 

• y quality as correspondence to aim; 

• y quality as financial value; 

• y quality as transformation. 

Looking through L. Harvey and D. Green’s grouped quality understanding perceptions, we can state that 

quality understandings differ not only in their wideness, but also in their purpose. Depending on the way of 

quality, the aims of understandings change, that is, the inner quality understanding concentrates on higher 

education process quality provision, but the outer quality understanding – on result provision. This division 

can be proved by that for the interested sides in higher education more acceptable and understandable there 

seems the quality which is concerned to higher education results, that determine the inclusion of higher 

education usefulness to society as the characterizing indicator in higher education assessment (Vught – outer 

quality). Higher education quality ways and understanding perceptions mentioned above have been summarised 

in Figure 1. 

The different understandings about higher education quality determine the necessity for different quality 

assessment approaches. British academician Barnett distinguishes three higher education quality assessment 

conceptions: objective, subjective and development (Barnett, 1992: 45–52). Objective and subjective quality 

assessment conceptions are suitable for the assessment of outer higher education assessment, as they assess 

the acquired result. 

8


Figure 1. Perceptions for quality in higher education 

Source: created by authors 

Objective quality assessment conception determines mostly the usage of quantitative measurements 

in education quality assessment. Usually this quality assessment conception is used when assessing 

the input and results of education system. It characterizes the perception of quality as exception, where the 

main attention is paid to the quality of input, which is considered as a guarantee for getting qualitative results. 

In its turn, to use study process results characterizing indicators in higher education quality assessment 

is intended by the perception quality as financial value. When assessing higher education quality, it is very 

important to ensure the objectiveness of the acquired assessments, which can be the most precisely provided 

by quantitative characterizing indicators. However, to compare the acquired assessments mutually, and as a 

result of that, to make decisions about education quality in one or another higher education establishment, 

or study programme, there should be carefully selected assessment criteria, as quite often the selection of 

criteria determines the acquirable result. The similar observation had professor Rauhvarger about university 

ranking indicators (Rauhvargers, 2011: 13). 

Subjective quality assessment conception does not determine absolute usage of criteria, but it 

makes to assess higher education correspondence to aims. Anything in higher education quality is assessed in 

connection with aim; therefore the stress should be put on the quality assessment of different interested sides 

in higher education. This assessment corresponds to the perception quality as correspondence to (clients) 

aim, besides, when assessing higher education quality from client’s perspectives, there should definitely be 

used students’ assessment about study quality. Students are involved in the creation of higher education results; 

therefore they are most closely connected with study programme quality. 

To assess higher education inner quality, R. Barnett offers development conception, where there has 

been assessed the sustainability of higher education establishment or study programme. Its aim is to assess 

the opportunities of development, taking into consideration the existing situation. The main difference from 

the objective and subjective conceptions is concentration on the inner quality, not taking into account „higher 

education usefulness to society”. Assessment involves only students and university academic staff who determines 

what should be done to improve higher education quality. Development conception is suitable for 

higher education quality understandings which refer to the process and the provision of inner higher education 

provision: quality as excellence, quality as transformation and quality as correspondence to (universi- 

9



ty) aim. The authors consider that one of the main elements of the development conception is self-assessment 

and SWOT analysis which provides quality improvement and sustainability. 

Each of the conceptions intends to use different quality assessment alternative approaches. Objective 

conception determines the usage of quantitative indicators in higher education study programme quality assessment, 

but subjective conception – surveys of students and other interested sides. In its turn development 

conception as the most suitable one mention the self-assessment which can be compared to inner experts’ 

assessment. 

To assess the significance of higher education quality assessment alternatives according to the three conceptions 

discussed above, there will be used the Analytic Hierarchy process method (AHP). This method is 

suitable for solving this kind of unique cases not only to assess the significance of the mentioned alternatives, 

but also to detect the most important criteria to assess study programme quality. 

2. Basic guidelines of using the Analytic Hierarchy process method 

Traditionally, when assessing higher education or study programme quality, there are distinguished three 

assessment aspects: first, input to ensure the study process or “available resources”, second, study environment 

and process organization, and third, students’ acquired knowledge and skills or graduates’ achieved 

results. This point of view is suitable to do international comparisons, demonstrate higher education achievements 

to the interested sides and create strategies of political development for higher education. 

Figure 2. Components for study programme quality 


However, to assess the quality of study programme it is important to stand apart from assessments, 

which do not refer directly to its quality. For example, it is practically impossible to assess how big study 

programme input is in student’s newly acquired knowledge and skills or achieved results. They are formed 

from the one side mutually cooperating the study programme offer and implementation, but from the other 

side the student himself by getting involved into study process, they are also affected by many different 

factors outside studies. Therefore high study results not always testify of qualitative study programme, and 

vice versa. Together with this the quality of students’ study results is not just the responsibility of higher education 

establishment; it is also students’ co-responsibility (see Figure 2). Students’ achievements in studies 

and outside them are not directly referred to study programme quality. Also, just after the study programme 

10


completion the results acquired in studies the usage of them is hard to identify, because it is necessary to have 

real practice during several years to assess the usefulness and usability of study results. Taking into account 

the mentioned above, for the experts’ assessment initially there were offered 24 criteria which characterize 

study programme offer quality and study programme implementation quality. 

The research uses AHP method which is a systematic procedure to arrange elements of any problem in 

hierarchy. In the research, experts compare the criteria groups, criteria and assessment approaches mentioned 

above in pairs, using Relative importance scale, which allows transforming verbal information into numbers 

(Saaty, 2006: 73). Doing the calculations intended in AHP method and summarising the acquired results 

of expert survey, each of elements involved into hierarchy analysis is set a relative importance coefficient, 

which in its turn allows making a unite system of study programme quality assessment. 

Study programme quality assessment structure is shown in Figure 3. As the highest aim of the research 

(Level 1) is set „the evaluation of study programme quality alternative assessment approaches”. Second level 

includes two groups of criteria which characterize study programme quality: 

• y criteria of study programme offer quality, 

• y criteria of study programme implementation quality. 

Third level includes criteria of study programme quality (12 in each group), which were assessed by 

experts as well as the groups of criteria correspondingly to the aim set in Level one. Fourth level sets three 

study programme quality assessment alternatives which were assessed by experts regarding the criteria, criteria 

groups and the main aim of research. 

Figure 3. Structure for the AHP method 


Initially the results of data analysis about the significance of criteria in study programme quality assessment 

were published in the international conference proceeding “New Challenges of Economic and Business 

Development – 2012”, the publication “Investigation of the opportunities of study programme quality” 

(Līgotne, 2012: 382, 384–389). This article analyses in detail only the most important assessment criteria 

which were assessed by experts as the most significant for study programme offer and implementation quality 

assessment. 

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Figure 4. Criteria for SP Offer Quality 


The quality of study programme offer is formed by study programme workout. Experts evaluated seven 

main criteria for quality of study programme (SP) offer: 

1) clearance and accessibility of study programme aims; 

2) correspondence of study course offer to study programme aims, that is, coordination of study course 

aims and results with study programme aims and results; 

3) study course contents quality; 

4) academic staff qualification, which is characterised by the position structure of academic staff involved 

in study programme, existence and correspondence of scientific degrees, length of service, as well 

as average age; 

5) research activity of academic staff, which is characterised by publications and participation in conferences 

and projects; 

6) library resources provision, which is characterised by literature sources and subscribed data bases; 

7) material and technical provision of lecture rooms, including laboratory provision and accessibility of 

computers and internet. 

Calculated relative significance for criteria of study programme offer quality is demonstrated in figure 4. 

There can conduct, that Study programme offer quality is mainly characterized by qualitatively worked 

out study courses which correspond the study programme aims and correctly selected academic staff, which 

not only have necessary qualifications, but also actively continue to develop their knowledge and skills. Also 

important is the provision of library resources and material and technical provision in lecture rooms (Līgotne, 

2012: 389). 

The quality of study programme implementation is oriented to process to organize as high as possible study 

result achievement for students. Its main characterizer is education effectiveness, that is, in what amount a 

student acquires new knowledge, skills and values during the studies. Experts evaluated seven main criteria 

for quality of study programme implementation: 

1) study course implementation, which is characterized by study course succession and connection, as 

well as provision of e-courses; 

2) academic staff involvement in study process – average academic staff load in study programme, their 

accessibility to students, as well as academic staff cooperation with students; 

3) studies give good basis of theoretical and practical knowledge, including research skills; 

4) studies promote critical thinking; 

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5) studies promote development of communication and generally used skills, which includes in itself 

working skills of written language, presentations, discussions and teamwork, as well as foreign languages, 

computer programming and organizational skills; 

6) international experience in studies, which is characterized by students’ mobility, guest lecturers and 

academic staff mobility; 

7) students’ satisfaction with the selected study programme. 

Calculated relative significance for criteria of study programme implementation quality is demonstrated 

in figure 5. 

Figure 5. Criteria for SP Implementation Quality 


There can conduct, that the most important thing in study programme implementation quality is 

not only to give good basis of theoretical and practical knowledge, but also to promote critical thinking and 

the development of communicative and generally used skills, which is not possible without qualitative study 

course contents and corresponding academic staff. That will promote students’ satisfaction with the selected 

study programme (Līgotne, 2012: 389). 

As study programme quality assessment alternatives are selected: 

• y Experts’ assessments about higher education development, strengths and weaknesses, as well as 

opportunities and threats to work out suggestions in time and make decisions about the necessary improvements. 

This assessment alternative refers to higher education inner quality. The aim of experts’ 

assessment is not to demonstrate higher education quality to the society, but to promote the continuous 

improvement of quality therefore providing the sustainability of higher education. 

• y Quantitative indicators are the most objective alternative of higher education quality assessment. Its 

aim is to compare and assess different higher education operation indicators, which mainly characterize 

the input and results. That way the society in clear and understandable way is shown higher 

education operation indicators which testify the quality. 

• y Students’ assessments. Students’ task is to assess if study process and its contents corresponds to their 

needs and aims. The aim of assessment is also to create and strengthen the feedback with one of the 

main interested sides in higher education therefore ensuring their involvement in quality improvement. 

13



Furthermore this article analyses the research results about the significance of the three quality assessment 

alternatives: experts’ assessment, quantitative indicators and students’ assessment. There are analyzed 

experts’ survey assessments about the most significant approach for study programme quality assessment, as 

well as there are detected the most suitable ways of assessment for groups of criteria and for each criterion. 

3. The analysis of results acquired in research 

Evaluating study programme quality assessment alternatives for study programme on the whole and 

groups of criteria, we can see (see Figure 6), that as the most important both groups (higher education administrators 

and students) of experts have evaluated students’ assessment. This way of assessment was assigned 

the relative importance coefficient 0.38 out of 1. As the next most important study programme quality assessment 

alternative is evaluated experts’ assessment with relative importance coefficient 0.32, but quantitative 

indicators have been assessed with relative importance coefficient 0.3. 

However, we have to take into account that experts’ assessments are not the same if compared within 

groups of criteria. In study programme offer quality assessment as the most important the experts have admitted 

experts’ assessments and quantitative indicators, the relative importance coefficients being accordingly 

0.37 and 0.36. In its turn, as the most suitable alternative for study programme implementation quality the 

experts have admitted students’ assessment, assigning it with relative importance coefficient 0.49 out of 1. 

Figure 7. Assessments for evaluating approaches of SP offer quality 


Evaluating study programme quality assessment alternatives for each criterion according to experts’ assigned 

relative importance coefficients; we can state that each criterion can be appointed one or more ways 

which are most suitable for it. Figures 7 and 8 represent results of expert assessments for alternative approaches 

of study programme quality evaluating for every criteria. There are differences between expert assessments; 

relative importance coefficients for alternative assessment approaches are different to each criterion. 

In this case, it is useful to break down criteria in groups according to suitable assessment approach. 

To evaluate the most suitable way of assessment for each criterion, there are evaluated experts’ assigned 

relative importance coefficients. The evaluation of most suitable criteria is done in two stages: the first one 

evaluates the significance of relative importance coefficient according to Table 1, but the second detects the 

most suitable way of assessment. 

14


Figure 8. Assessments for evaluating approaches of SP implementation quality 


Table 1. The relative significance coefficient division in groups 

Relative importance coefficient value 

Characteristics 

0,55 and more Main way of assessment, can be the only way of assessment 

0,45–0,54 Very important way of assessment, can be independent 

0,35–0,44 Important way of assessment 

0,25–0,34 Partly important way of assessment, cannot be independent 

below 0,25 

Unimportant way of assessment, can be replaced 

Source: made by authors 

Study programme quality assessment criteria can be divided into seven groups according to their most 

suitable way of assessment, observing the following rules: 

1) at least one of study programme quality assessment alternatives has got relative importance coefficient 

0,35; 

2) alternative assessment ways are summarized, if their relative importance coefficients are in neighboring 

groups. 

Table 2. Groups of SP quality criteria according to suitable assessment approache 

Charasteristic of group 

Criteria of SP quality 

Group 1 experts’ assessments 

Correspondence of study course offer to SP aims 

Group 2 quantitative indicators – 

Group 3 students’ assessments 

Study course implementation 

Academic staff involvement in study process 

Students’ satisfaction with the selected SP 

Group 4 experts’ assessments and Research activity of academic staff 

quantitative indicators 

Library resources provision 

Group 5 experts’ assessments and students’ Study course contents quality 

assessments 

Studies give good basis of theoretical and practical knowledge 

Studies promote critical thinking 

Studies promote development of communication and generally used skills 

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Charasteristic of group 

Criteria of SP quality 

Group 6 students’ assessments and – 

quantitative indicators 

Group 7 experts’ and students’ assessments Material and technical provision of lecture rooms 

and quantitative indicators 

Clearance and accessibility of SP aims 

Academic staff qualification 

International experience in studies 

Source: made by authors 

Evaluating study programme quality assessment alternatives for each criterion, we can conclude that to 

assess the study programme offer and implementation quality, it is necessary to use all three ways of assessment. 

Taking into account the research results (see Table 2), we can conclude that 

• y Experts’ assessment has the main meaning in study programme offer quality assessment. It can be the 

only way of assessment when evaluating the study course correspondence to study programme aims. 

It can also be combined with quantitative indicators when assessing the research achievements of academic 

staff or library resource provision; 

• y Quantitative indicators cannot be independent way of assessment. They can be added to experts’ assessments, 

but not students’ assessments; 

• y Students’ assessments main importance is in study programme implementation quality assessment. It 

can be the only assessment when evaluating study course implementation, academic staff involvement 

in study process and students’ satisfaction with study programme on the whole. 

For some assessment criteria, none of the assessment ways appeared as the main (see Group 7 in Table 

2) or all three assessment ways are equally important and necessary. Such criteria are: material technical 

provision of rooms, clearance and attainability of study programme aims, academic staff qualification and 

international experience. 

Basing on the results acquired in the research, we can distinguish five groups of criteria according to their 

approach for assessment. Although the number of groups has decreased, none of the three study programme 

quality assessment approaches is excluded. Therefore, to assess the study programme quality it is necessary 

to use both expert and student assessments and quantitative indicators. It allows concentrating not only on 

the aims of interested sides in higher education and good quantitative indicators, but also on inner quality 

provision. It is important to prove the reasonable usage of the resources invested into higher education and 

to ensure sustainability of higher education. 

The results of this research should be taken into account when organizing study programme quality assessment, 

selecting the appropriate assessment criteria and the approaches for their assessment. 

Conclusions 

1. Studying the literature about higher education quality, we can identify several problems which complicate 

the definition of the notion “higher education quality”. It creates different perceptions of higher 

education quality which differ in wideness and purpose. 

2. The higher education quality assessment methodology worked out in research intends to use as foundation 

three quality assessment conceptions distinguished by R. Barnett: objective conception, subjective 

conception and development conception. Each of these conceptions in study programme 

quality assessment intends to use different alternative assessment approaches: experts’ assessment, 

quantitative indicators and students’ assessment of study programme. 

3. Approbating the worked out higher education quality assessment methodology, we can conclude that 

the AHP method is suitable for solving such complicated problems. Method allows evaluating study 

16


programme assessment alternatives, determining their significance in assessment of separate criteria, 

groups of criteria and study programme quality. 

4. For full assessment of higher education quality we must use all R. Barnett’s higher education assessment 

conceptions. It allows concentrating not only on aims of interested sides in higher education and 

on good quantitative indicators, but also on inner quality provision. It is necessary to prove the reasonable 

usage of invested resources in higher education and ensure sustainability of higher education. 

5. Assessing the three assessment approaches detected in research, we can conclude that for study programme 

quality assessment it is necessary to use all three quality assessment alternatives. However, 

as the most important both experts groups have admitted students’ assessment approach. 

6. Assessing quality assessment alternatives within criteria groups and for separate criteria, we can state 

common tendencies. In study programme offer quality assessment the most important and suitable is 

experts’ assessment approach. For evaluation of separate SP offer criteria, experts’ assessment should 

be added by quantitative indicators. In its turn, the most important one for study programme implementation 

quality criteria assessment is students’ assessment approach. 

References 

Ball, C. (1985). Fitness for Purpose. Essays in Higher Education. Edited by D. Urwin. Guildford. SRHE and NFER- 

Nelson, 143 p. 

Barnet, R. (1992). Improving higher education: total quality care. SRHE and Open University Press, 238 p. 

Briška, A. (2010). “Quality” of study programmes in higher education. International conference. Website: http://www. 

ev.lu.lv/conf2010/index.php?Conference_Proceedings. „New Socio-economic Challenges of Development in Europe 

– 2010” proceedings. Riga: University of Latvia, p. 128–134. 

Giertz, B. (2000). The Qaulity concept in Higher education. Website: http://web.blweb.it/esoe/tqmhe2/23.pdf. Sinergie 

Rapporti di Ricerca, No. 9, p. 295–306. 

Harvey, L., Green, D. (1993). Defining quality. Website: http://www.scribd.com/doc/39175910/Defining-Quality. Assessment 

and Evaluation in Higher Education, Vol. 18, 26 p. London. 

Līgotne, A. (2012). Investigation of the opportunities of study programme quality. Website: http://www.evf.lu.lv/ 

conf2012/proceedings. International conference „New Challenges of Economic and Business Development – 2012” 

proceedings. Riga: University of Latvia, p. 377–390. 

Polanyi, M. (1966). The Tacit Dimension. Doubleday & Company Inc., Garden City, New York. 

Rauhvargers, A. (2011). EUA Report in Rankings 2011: Global University Rankings and Their Impact. Website: http:// 

www.eua.be/Libraries/Publications_homepage_list/Global_University_Rankings_and_Their_Impact.sflb.ashx. 

European University Association, 85 p. 

Saaty, T. L. (2006). Fundamentals of Decision Making and Priority Theory with the Analytic Hierarchy Process, Vol. 6 

of the AHP series. USA, 478 p. 

Storen, L. A., Aamodt, P. O. (2010). The Quality of Higher Education and Employability of graduates. Quality in 

Higher Education, Vol. 16, No. 3, November, p. 297–313. 

Van Vught, F. (1997). To innovate for quality. Quality assurance as support for processes of innovation. The Swedish 

model in Comparative Perspective. Stockholm: Høgskoleverkets Skriftserie. 

AUKŠTESNIOJO MOKSLO STUDIJŲ PROGRAMŲ 

KOKYBĖS VERTINIMAS 

Liudmila Bandeviča, Agnese Līgotne 

Latvijos universitetas (Latvija) 

Santrauka 

Studijų programos kokybės vertinimas prisideda prie aukštesniojo mokslo studijų kokybės, kuri savo 

ruožtu yra viena esminių ekonomikos vystymosi prielaidų. Šiuo metu visuomenėje nemažai diskutuoja- 

17



ma, kas yra ta aukštesniojo mokslo kokybė ir kaip ją įvertinti. Pragmatinė prieiga skatina nustatyti studijų 

kokybės vertinimo kriterijus, bet pirmiausia reikia suprasti, kas yra ta aukštesniojo mokslo kokybė. Laikui 

bėgant susiformavo kelios aukštesniojo mokslo kokybės sampratos. Kadangi jos skiriasi, reikia ir skirtingos 

kokybės vertinimo prieigos. 

Siekiant sukurti metodologinį aukštesniojo mokslo kokybės vertinimo pagrindą remtasi R. Barnett išskirtomis 

aukštesniojo mokslo kokybės vertinimo koncepcijomis: objektyvia, subjektyvia ir plėtros. Kiekviena 

koncepcija siūlo skirtingas aukštesniojo mokslo kokybės vertinimo prieigas. 

Atliekant tyrimą taikytas analitinės hierarchijos proceso (AHP) metodas, siekiant nustatyti svarbiausius 

studijų programų kokybės kriterijus ir tinkamiausius jų vertinimo būdus. AHP metodas remiasi ekspertų 

apklausa, kurioje dalyvavo dvi svarbiausios aukštesniojo mokslo plėtra suinteresuotos grupės: aukštesniojo 

mokslo administracinis personalas ir studentai. Aukštesniojo mokslo administratoriui atstovavo Aukštesniojo 

mokslo komiteto atstovai, Latvijos universiteto skyrių vadovai ir vadovai, susiję su studijų programos 

kokybės vertinimu bei programų akreditavimu. Tuo tarpu studentams atstovavo Latvijos studentų sąjungos 

atstovai, Latvijos universiteto Studentų tarybos atstovai ir įvairių Latvijos universiteto fakultetų studentai. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: studijų programų kokybė, kokybės vertinimas, kokybės vertinimo metodologija, 

vertinimo kriterijai, kokybės vertinimo prieigos, analitinės hierarchijos proceso metodas. 

JEL klasifikacija: I230, I210, D790 

18


VARTOTOJŲ PASITENKINIMO KAUNO MIESTO PICERIJOMIS 

NUSTATYMAS 

Viktorija Grigaliūnaitė 1 , Lina Pilelienė 2 

Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas (Lietuva) 

ANOTACIJA 

Maitinimo įstaigų populiarumo Lietuvoje didėjimas pagrindžia vartotojų pasitenkinimo šiomis įstaigomis tyrimo aktualumą. Vertinant 

itališkos virtuvės atitikimą tradiciniam lietuvio skoniui, tyrimą nuspręsta atlikti picerijų sektoriuje. Tiriant siekta įvertinti vartotojų 

pasitenkinimą Kauno miesto picerijomis. Tyrimo duomenys leidžia daryti išvadą, kad siekiant didesnio vartotojų pasitenkinimo 

picerijomis, svarbiausia suderinti vartotojų lūkesčius ir produktų bei aptarnavimo kokybę. Apibendrinus atlikto tyrimo rezultatus, 

sudarytas vartotojų pasitenkinimo Kauno miesto picerijomis modelis, kuris gali būti taikomas apskaičiuojant vartotojų pasitenkinimą 

visomis picerijomis arba konkrečia Kauno miesto picerija, taip pat adaptuotas kitų miestų picerijų ar kitų maitinimo įstaigų vartotojų 

pasitenkinimui matuoti. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: ECSI, Kaunas, maitinimo paslaugos, vartotojų pasitenkinimas. 

JEL klasifikacija: L660, M310. 

Įvadas 

Tyrimo aktualumas. Maistas – pirmo būtinumo prekė, be kurios pasaulyje neapsieina nė vienas žmogus. 

Greitėjant žmonių gyvenimo tempui ir didėjant jų užimtumui atsiranda daug įvairaus tipo greito maisto 

restoranų. Spartėjanti techninė pažanga, kai tolimos šalys pasiekiamos per kelias valandas, ir globalizacija, 

kai verslas neapsiriboja vienos šalies teritorija, o siekia užimti ir kitų šalių rinkas, lėmė galimybę žmonėms 

paragauti svetimų šalių virtuvės patiekalų ir pagal savo skonį išsirinkti mėgstamiausią maistą. Todėl atsirado 

daug įvairių ne nacionalinės virtuvės restoranų, kurie teikia kitų šalių tradicinius patiekalus. 

Maitinimo įstaigų populiarumas neaplenkė ir Lietuvos bei antro pagal dydį Lietuvos miesto Kauno. Statistikos 

departamento duomenimis (2012), Kaune 2011 metais gyveno daugiau kaip 330 tūkstančių gyventojų, 

o įmonių, užsiimančių maitinimo ir gėrimų teikimo veikla, buvo 470 (bendras vietų skaičius – 26 200). 

Tai reiškia, kad maitinimo įstaigų vietų yra tik 13 kartų mažiau nei Kaune iš viso gyvena žmonių ir tai rodo 

maitinimo įstaigų populiarumą visuomenėje. Dažniausiai maitinimo įstaigoms priskiriami restoranai, picerijos, 

kavinės, barai, greitojo maisto restoranai, sveikojo maisto restoranai, vyninės, alaus restoranai, pakelės 

kavinės, valgyklos ir įvairūs šių įstaigų deriniai. Įvertinant itališkos virtuvės populiarumą Lietuvoje, tyrimą 

nuspręsta atlikti picerijų sektoriuje. 

Tyrimo problema: ar vartotojai patenkinti Kauno miesto picerijų paslaugomis, kokie veiksniai tą pasitenkinimą 

lemia. 

1 

Viktorija Grigaliūnaitė – Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto Ekonomikos ir vadybos fakultetas, bakalaurė. Mokslinės kryptys: 

vartotojų pasitenkinimas, matematikos metodai rinkotyroje. 

El. paštas: v.grigaliunaite@fc.vdu.lt. 

Tel.: +370 37 327856. 

2 

Lina Pilelienė – Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto Ekonomikos ir vadybos fakulteto Ekonomikos katedros docentė, daktarė 

(socialiniai mokslai). Mokslinės kryptys: vartotojų elgsena, vietovės rinkotyroje. 

El. paštas: l.pileliene@evf.vdu.lt. 

Tel.: +370 37 327856. 

19


VARTOTOJŲ PASITENKINIMO KAUNO MIESTO PICERIJOMIS NUSTATYMAS 

Straipsnio objektas – vartotojų pasitenkinimas Kauno miesto picerijomis. 

Straipsnio tikslas – įvertinti vartotojų pasitenkinimą Kauno miesto picerijomis. 

Siekiant straipsnio tikslo keliami šie uždaviniai: 

• y aptarti vartotojų pasitenkinimo sampratą ir pateikti modelius; 

• y atlikti vartotojų pasitenkinimo Kauno miesto picerijomis tyrimą; 

• y sudaryti vartotojų pasitenkinimo Kauno miesto picerijomis modelį. 

Tyrimo metodai. Siekiant atskleisti vartotojų pasitenkinimo sampratą ir sudaryti modelius, kurie bus 

taikomi, atliekant vartotojų pasitenkinimo Kauno miesto picerijomis tyrimą, atliekama teorinė mokslinės 

literatūros analizė ir sintezė. Vartotojų požiūriai ir Kauno miesto picerijų vertinimas nustatomi atliekant 

anketinę apklausą. Statistinei apklausos duomenų analizei atlikti taikytas struktūrinių lygčių modeliavimas 

(SEM) mažiausių dalinių kvadratų (PLS) metodu, regresinė analizė, koreliacinė analizė, loginė analizė. 

1. Vartotojų pasitenkinimo samprata 

Vienas pirmųjų rinkotyros specialistų, tyręs vartotojų pasitenkinimą, buvo R. N. Cardozo (1965). Pastaraisiais 

dešimtmečiais vartotojų pasitenkinimo sąvoka susilaukia vis daugiau organizacijų dėmesio. Pagrindinis 

veiksnys, skatinantis organizacijas skirti vis daugiau dėmesio vartotojų pasitenkinimui, – didesnis vartotojų 

pasitenkinimas gali lemti palankesnę konkurencinę padėtį rinkoje, todėl didėja užimama rinkos dalis ir pelnas 

(Fornell, 1992). Vartotojų pasitenkinimas laikomas reikšmingu pakartotinių pirkimų, teigiamų atsiliepimų 

ir vartotojų lojalumo veiksniu. Patenkinti klientai grįžta, daugiau perka ir apie savo patirtį pasakoja kitiems 

žmonėms (Fornell ir kt., 1996). Todėl vienas organizacijos tikslų tampa vartotojų pasitenkinimo siekis. 

R. L. Day (1984) vartotojo pasitenkinimą / nepasitenkinimą apibrėžė kaip vartotojo reakciją į tam tikro 

produkto vartojimo patirtyje jaučiamo skirtumo tarp vartotojo lūkesčių ir įsigyto produkto neatitikimo lūkesčiams 

įvertinimą. Vartotojas yra patenkintas, kai prekė tenkina jo lūkesčius, ir priešingai, jei prekė vartotojo 

lūkesčių netenkina, jis yra nepatenkintas. Gali būti, kad prekė vartotojo lūkesčius viršija, tada jis būna labai 

patenkintas (sužavėtas). Pastaraisiais metais vartotojų pasitenkinimo sąvokos esmė nepakito, daugelis autorių 

pasitenkinimą apibrėžia kaip skirtumo tarp vartotojo lūkesčių ir įsigytos prekės ar paslaugos suvokimo 

rezultatą (Appiah-Gyimah ir kt., 2011). Todėl, glaustai nusakant vartotojo pasitenkinimą produktu ar paslauga, 

galima teigti, kad jis bus patenkintas, kai produktas ar paslauga atitiks jo lūkesčius. 

Matuojant vartotojų pasitenkinimą nustatoma, kiek organizacijos produktai ar paslaugos atitinka jų lūkesčius 

(Krishan ir kt., 2011). Kai kurie autoriai (Boulding ir kt., 1993; Johnson ir kt., 1995; Fornell ir kt., 

1996; Chan ir kt., 2003) skiria transakcinį specifinį ir sukauptą pasitenkinimą. Transakcinis specifinis pasitenkinimas 

– pasitenkinimas konkrečiu pirkiniu, atsiradęs jį vartojant, o sukauptas pasitenkinimas atskleidžia 

bendrą pasitenkinimą, kuris pagrįstas produkto pirkimo ir vartojimo patirtimi per tam tikrą laiką. Išmatuotas 

transakcinis specifinis pasitenkinimas gali suteikti diagnostinės informacijos apie tam tikrą produktą 

ar paslaugą (Fornell ir kt., 1996). Sukauptojo pasitenkinimo įvertinimas yra gana nauja ir naudingesnė už 

transakcinio specifinio pasitenkinimo matavimą idėja, prognozuojant vartotojų elgseną bei įmonės ekonominės 

veiklos rezultatus (Chan ir kt., 2003). Matuojant bendrą vartotojų pasitenkinimą įmonės gaminiais / 

paslaugomis, įmonių grupe ar visa pramonės šaka, tikslingiau matuoti sukauptą pasitenkinimą, nes taip galima 

įvertinti ir prognozuoti ilgalaikius procesus. Todėl atliekant tyrimą vartotojų pasitenkinimas siejamas su 

sukauptu pasitenkinimu. 

Mokslinėje literatūroje pateikiama nemažai vartotojų pasitenkinimo modelių, kurie leidžia matuoti vartotojų 

pasitenkinimą. Žinomiausi: Švedijos vartotojų pasitenkinimo barometras (SCSB), Amerikos vartotojų 

pasitenkinimo indeksas (ACSI), Vokietijos barometras, Šveicarijos vartotojų pasitenkinimo indeksas 

(SWICS), Norvegijos vartotojų pasitenkinimo barometras (NCSB), Europos vartotojų pasitenkinimo indeksas 

(ECSI), Korėjos vartotojų pasitenkinimo indeksas (KCSI), Malaizijos vartotojų pasitenkinimo indeksas 

(MCSI), Honkongo vartotojų pasitenkinimo indeksas (HKCSI). Brazilija, Argentina, Meksika, Kanada, Australija, 

Taivanas ir kai kurie kiti regionai taip pat turi savo VPI sistemas (Yang ir kt., 2005). 

20


Straipsnyje pateikiami vartotojų pasitenkinimo Kauno miesto picerijomis tyrimo rezultatai. Gautus tyrimo 

rezultatus naudinga palyginti su kitų maitinimo įstaigų vartotojų pasitenkinimo tyrimo rezultatais, kitų pramonės 

šakų Kaune pasitenkinimo tyrimų rezultatais, taip nustatant picerijų Kaune silpnąsias ir stipriąsias veiklos 

vietas, kurios susijusios su vartotojų pasitenkinimo, jo priežasčių bei pasekmių organizacijai aspektais. 

2. Vartotojų pasitenkinimo modelio parinkimas 

Atliekant tyrimą, nuspręsta taikyti koreguotą Europos vartotojų pasitenkinimo indekso modelį (ECSI), 

kurį sudaro pagrindinis modelis su tradiciniais neatskleistais kintamaisiais – suvokiama kokybe (įtraukti 

abu kokybės aspektai: produkto ir paslaugos / aptarnavimo kokybė), lūkesčiais, suvokiama verte, pasitenkinimo 

indeksu, vartotojų lojalumu ir ryšiais tarp jų bei du papildomi neatskleisti kintamieji, kuriuos prideda 

nacionaliniai komitetai – įvaizdis ir vartotojų skundai bei ryšiai tarp jų (Bayol ir kt., 2000). Pagal šį modelį 

skaičiuojant vartotojų pasitenkinimą įvertinama daugiausiai vartotojų pasitenkinimą lemiančių veiksnių ir 

visos tiesioginės vartotojų pasitenkinimo pasekmės organizacijai. Modelis pritaikytas kiekvieno vartotojo 

pasitenkinimą lemiančiam veiksniui ir jo pasekmių organizacijai įtakos laipsniui matuoti bei galimiems 

ryšiams tarp jų paaiškinti. Modelis padės nustatyti vartotojų pasitenkinimą Kauno miesto picerijomis, tam 

tikrą pasitenkinimą lemiančius veiksnius ir kiek kuris veiksnys lemia atitinkamą pasitenkinimą. Tai leidžia 

organizacijai efektyviai paskirstyti ribotus išteklius didinant vartotojų pasitenkinimą. 

Pasirinktame modelyje pateikti 7 neatskleisti kintamieji. Pateikiamas vienas egzogeninis veiksnys – 

įvaizdis, į kurį nenukreiptos jokios rodyklės, jį veikia išoriniai, vartotojų pasitenkinimo modelyje neįvardyti 

veiksniai. Šeši veiksniai yra endogeniniai. Į juos nukreiptos rodyklės iš tų modelyje įvardytų veiksnių, kurie, 

manoma, juos lemia. 

Daromos prielaidos, kad įvaizdis lemia vartotojų lūkesčius, vartotojų pasitenkinimą ir lojalumą. Vartotojų 

lūkesčiai lemia suvokiamus kokybę, vertę ir vartotojų pasitenkinimą. Suvokiama kokybė lemia suvokiamą 

vertę ir vartotojų pasitenkinimą. Suvokiama vertė lemia vartotojų pasitenkinimą. Vartotojų pasitenkinimas 

veikia vartotojų lojalumą ir skundus. Skundai daro įtaką lojalumui. Visi išvardyti ryšiai susiję tiesiogine 

teigiama įtaka, išskyrus skundus, kurie veikiami pasitenkinimo ir veikia lojalumą darydami tiesioginę atvirkštinę 

įtaką. Modelyje šie ryšiai sudaryti remiantis įvairiomis mokslinėmis teorijomis ir tyrimais, tačiau 

kiekvienu vartotojų pasitenkinimo tyrimo atveju ryšių stiprumas ir net patys ryšiai yra skirtingi ir priklauso 

nuo šalies, kurioje tyrimas atliekamas, pramonės šakos, paslaugos ar produkto, vartotojų požiūrių ir daugelio 

kitų veiksnių, todėl šie ryšiai yra tik bendra nuoroda, rodanti galimus ryšius. 

3. Tyrimo metodika 

3.1. Duomenų rinkimo metodas 

Tyrimui atlikti pasirinktas kiekybinis pirminių duomenų rinkimo metodas, tai grindžiant tuo, kad vartotojų 

pasitenkinimas gali būti išreiškiamas skaičiais ir matuojamas. Pirminiai tyrimo duomenys rinkti pasitelkus 

anketas, kur pateikti iš anksto parengti klausimai. Anketa yra standartizuoto tipo: klausimai visiems 

respondentams yra vienodi ir nesikeičia jų pateikimo tvarka. Duomenis rinkti taikant anketas pasirinkta 

todėl, kad parengti standartiniai anketos klausimai, kurie užduodami respondentams skaičiuojant vartotojų 

pasitenkinimą taikant ECSI modelį. Atsižvelgiant į šalį, vartotojų požiūrį, produktą ar paslaugą, 15–25 

klausimai, skirti vartotojų pasitenkinimui apskaičiuoti, gali būti modifikuojami, tačiau jų esmė lieka ta pati 

(Eklof ir kt., 2008). 

Klausimai-teiginiai, kurie pateikiami respondentams, siekiant apskaičiuoti vartotojų pasitenkinimą, vadinami 

akivaizdžiais kintamaisiais. Šie susiję kintamieji sujungiami į 7 neatskleistus kintamuosius. Tyrime 

21



naudojama anketa sudaryta iš 3 dalių. Pirmoji dalis (1-as ir 3-ias klausimai) – tai klausimai, atliekantys 

klausimo filtro funkciją, siekiant nustatyti, ar respondentas yra tinkamas. Antroji dalis (2-as klausimas) – tai 

klausimai, padedantys apskaičiuoti vartotojų pasitenkinimą Kauno miesto picerijomis. Trečioji dalis (4-as, 

5-as, 6-as klausimai) – tai klasifikavimo klausimai, pateikiami siekiant gauti informaciją, kuri leistų grupuoti 

respondentus ir juos apibūdinti. 

Tyrime naudojami akivaizdūs ir neatskleisti kintamieji, skirti vartotojų pasitenkinimui Kauno miesto 

picerijomis nustatyti, pateikiami 1 lentelėje. Tyrimo gylis, t. y. klausimų respondentams skaičius, yra 23. 

Anketa atitinka ECSI standartus. Tyrime laikomasi nuostatos, kad organizacijos įvaizdį atskleidžia bendra 

nuomonė apie organizaciją, patikimumas, profesionalumas, naujumas (Turkyilmaz, Ozkan, 2007) ir vartotojo 

nuomonė apie tai, kiek organizacija orientuota į vartotojus (O’Loughlin, Coenders, 2004). 

Lentelė 1. Neatskleisti ir akivaizdūs kintamieji 

Neatskleisti kintamieji Akivaizdūs kintamieji Trumpinys 

Kauno picerijų įvaizdis visuomenėje yra teigiamas 

IMAG1 

Picerijos yra naujoviškos 

IMAG2 

Įvaizdis (ξ1) 

Picerijos orientuotos į vartotojus 

IMAG3 

Picerijose geras aptarnavimas 

IMAG4 

Picerijomis visiškai pasitikiu 

IMAG5 

Pasirinkęs Kauno miesto picerijas, tikėjausi aukštos kokybės 

CUEX1 

Vartotojų lūkesčiai (ξ2) Tikėjausi labai geros produkto kokybės 

CUEX2 

Tikėjausi labai gero aptarnavimo 

CUEX3 

Bendrai teikiamus Kauno miesto picerijų produktus vertinu labai gerai PERQ1 

Bendrai Kauno miesto picerijų aptarnavimą vertinu labai gerai PERQ2 

Produktų kokybė visiškai tenkina mano keliamus reikalavimus PERQ3 

Aptarnavimo kokybė visiškai tenkina mano keliamus reikalavimus PERQ4 

Suvokiama kokybė (ξ3) 

Produktų kokybė, lyginant su kitomis maitinimo įstaigomis, yra labai 

PERQ5 

gera 

Aptarnavimo kokybė, lyginant su kitomis maitinimo įstaigomis, yra labai 

PERQ6 

gera 

Suvokiama vertė (ξ4) 

Produktų kokybė visiškai atitinka už produktus sumokėtą kainą PERV1 

Kaina visiškai atitinka gautą kokybę 

PERV2 

Bendras pasitenkinimas produktu ir aptarnavimu yra labai geras CUSA1 

Vartotojų pasitenkinimas (ξ5) Picerijos visiškai atitiko mano lūkesčius 

CUSA2 

Kauno miesto picerijos yra netoli nuo idealo 

CUSA3 

Vartotojų skundai (ξ6) 

Jei netenkina picerijos teikiamo produkto ar aptarnavimo kokybė, 

CUSCO1 

skundžiatės draugams ir giminaičiams 

Jei netenkina picerijos teikiamo produkto ar aptarnavimo kokybė, 

CUSCO2 

skundžiatės picerijos vadovybei 

Vartotojų lojalumas (ξ7) 

Planuoju lankytis Kauno miesto picerijose ateityje 

CUSL1 

Kauno miesto picerijas rekomenduočiau draugams ir pažįstamiems CUSL2 

1 lentelėje pateikti teiginiai apie picerijų įvaizdį visuomenėje (bendra nuomonė), naujumą, orientaciją 

į vartotojus, būdingą aptarnavimą (profesionalumas) ir pasitikėjimą picerijomis (patikimumas) yra susiję 

su įvaizdžiu, asociacijomis, kurių kyla vartotojui pagalvojus apie picerijas, todėl šie akivaizdūs kintamieji 

matuoja įvaizdžio neatskleistą kintamąjį. Vartotojų lūkesčius atskleidžia tai, kokios kokybės vartotojas tikėjosi, 

o suvokiama kokybė apibūdinama bendru kokybės įvertinimu, atitikimu vartotojo reikalavimams 

(Kristensen ir kt., 1999). Vartotojų lūkesčių neatskleistą kintamąjį matuoja akivaizdūs kintamieji, susiję su 

tuo, kokios bendros produkto ir aptarnavimo kokybės jie tikėjosi. Tai yra pagrindiniai aspektai, kuriuos picerija 

gali pasiūlyti, todėl būtent su jais siejami vartotojų lūkesčiai. Suvokiama kokybė susideda iš suvokiamos 

produkto ir aptarnavimo kokybės, todėl 6 teiginiai, siejami su suvokiama kokybe, sudaryti iš 3 teiginių apie 

produkto ir 3 tokių pačių teiginių apie aptarnavimo kokybę. Šių teiginių dėka nustatomas bendras vartojimo 

22


patirties įvertinimas, atitikimas vartotojo reikalavimams ir palyginimas su konkurentais. Suvokiamos vertės 

kintamasis matuojamas akivaizdžiais kintamaisiais, kurie susiję su vartotojo suvokiamu kokybės lygiu, 

lyginant su kaina, bei kainą lyginant su kokybe (O’Loughlin ir kt., 2004). Vartotojų pasitenkinimą matuoja 

trys kintamieji: bendras pasitenkinimas produktu ir aptarnavimu, picerijų atitikimas vartotojo lūkesčiams 

bei palyginimas su idealu (Eklof ir kt., 2008). Vartotojų skundų kintamasis padeda nustatyti, ar jie yra linkę 

skųstis, jei taip, tai kam skundžiasi: atitinkamiems vadovaujantiems picerijos darbuotojams ar savo giminėms, 

draugams, nepranešdami picerijos atstovams, kad yra nepatenkinti produktu arba aptarnavimu ir taip 

netiesiogiai lemdami atitinkamus padarinius organizacijai (skųsdamasis draugams ar artimiesiems vartotojas 

gali pakeisti jų nuomonę dėl organizacijos). Lojalumą rodo teiginiai, susiję su ketinimu lankytis tose pačiose 

picerijose ir jas rekomenduoti draugams ar artimiesiems (Ciavolino, Dahlgaard, 2007). Taigi visi akivaizdūs 

kintamieji priskirti tam tikram neatskleistam kintamajam. Kiekvienas kintamasis yra matuojamas, apskaičiuojamas 

kintamojo reikšmės lygis, įvertinami ryšiai tarp kintamųjų. Taip užtikrinami patikimi ir tinkami 

rezultatai (Eklof ir kt., 2008). 

Visus pateiktus teiginius respondentai vertino pagal 10 balų skalę, kur 1 reiškia visiškai neigiamą nuomonę 

dėl pateikto teiginio, 10 – visiškai teigiamą. Jei respondentas dėl pateikto teiginio nuomonės neturi, jam 

suteikiama nulinio atsakymo galimybė. 

3.2. Tiriamųjų kontingentas 

Tyrimo plotis, t. y. apklaustų respondentų skaičius, yra 250 – rekomenduojamas imties dydis, skaičiuojant 

vartotojų pasitenkinimą pagal ECSI modelį. Teigiama, kad toks respondentų skaičius yra pakankamas, 

kad tyrimo rezultatai būtų patikimi. 

Kadangi atliekamas skersinio pjūvio aprašomasis tyrimas neturint generalinės aibės sąrašo, imties tūrio 

parinkimo būdas yra netikimybinis atsitiktinis. Tyrimas atliekamas apie Kauno miesto picerijas, todėl 

respondentai asmeniškai apklausti Kauno mieste. Tyrimui tinkami respondentai yra tie, kurie lankosi arba 

lankydavosi Kauno miesto picerijose. Respondentai atrenkami ne pagal demografinius ar kitus kriterijus. 

Taip apklausus daugiau skirtingų pagal lytį, amžių ir gaunamas pajamas žmonių, apskaičiuotas vartotojų 

pasitenkinimo indeksas rodo bendrą visų Kauno miesto picerijų lankytojų pasitenkinimą. 

Apklausa vykdyta 2012 metų kovo 7–21 dienomis. Tyrime dalyvavo 128 moterys (51,2 %) ir 122 vyrai 

(48,8 %). Pagal amžių respondentai taip pasiskirstė: nuo jaunesnių nei 18 metų iki vyresnių nei 55 metų amžiaus. 

Vyraujantis respondentų amžius – 18–25 metai (47,6 % apklaustųjų). Pagal mėnesines pajamas, kurios 

tenka vienam šeimos nariui, respondentai pasiskirstė nuo gaunančiųjų mažiau nei minimalią mėnesinę algą 

iki gaunančiųjų daugiau nei vidutines mėnesines pajamas (Lietuvos statistikos departamento [2012] duomenimis, 

2011 m. 4 ketvirtį vidutinis mėnesinis bruto darbo užmokestis Lietuvoje buvo 2175 Lt, minimalioji 

mėnesinė alga Lietuvoje – 800 Lt), tačiau daugiausiai apklausoje dalyvavusių respondentų teigė, kad pajamos, 

tenkančios vienam jų šeimos nariui, yra tarp minimalaus ir vidutinio mėnesinio atlyginimo. 

3.3. Tyrimo rezultatų apdorojimo metodas 

Vartotojų pasitenkinimo modelį sudaro vartotojų pasitenkinimo priežastys ir pasekmės, todėl skaičiuojant 

jų pasitenkinimą vertinamos tiek jo priežastys, tiek pasekmės bei ryšiai tarp jų. Taigi vartotojų pasitenkinimas 

apskaičiuojamas taikant struktūrinių lygčių modelį (SEM). Vartotojų pasitenkinimą skaičiuojant 

taikant ECSI modelį, rekomenduojama naudoti PLS techniką (Eklof ir kt., 2008). Tai pagrįstas metodas, kurį 

galima taikyti skaičiuojant sudėtingus priežasčių ir pasekmių santykių modelius (Gudergan ir kt., 2008). 

23



Tyrime naudojama programinė įranga, skaičiuojanti PLS technika, vadinama SmartPLS. PLS technika 

skaičiuojant naudoja algoritmą, kuris yra vektorių reikšmių regresijos seka. Algoritmas nusako, kokius 

veiksmus ir kokia tvarka turi atlikti kompiuteris, kad iš turimų pradinių duomenų gautų reikiamus teisingus 

rezultatus (Blonskis ir kt., 2005). 

2 lentelėje pateikta ECSI modelio kintamųjų įtakos matrica, iš kurios matoma, kokie kintamieji lemia 

atitinkamą kintamąjį bei kokių kintamųjų koks kintamasis yra lemiamas. Pavyzdžiui, lojalumas neturi įtakos 

nė vienam modelio kintamajam, įvaizdžiui nedaro įtakos nė vienas modelio kintamasis (todėl pastarasis yra 

egzogeninis kintamasis). 

Lemiantis 

kintamasis 

Įvaizdis 

Lentelė 2. ECSI modelio kintamųjų įtakos matrica 

Lūkesčiai 

Suvokiama 

kokybė 

Suvokiama 

vertė 

Pasitenkinimas 

Skundai 

Lemiamas 

kintamasis 

Įvaizdis 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Lūkesčiai 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Suvokiama kokybė 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 

Suvokiama vertė 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 

Pasitenkinimas 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 

Skundai 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 

Lojalumas 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 

Šaltinis: Tenenhaus ir kt., 2005 

Lojalumas 

4. Tyrimo rezultatų analizė 

Atliekant anketinę apklausą respondentai turėjo pagal 10 balų skalę įvertinti pateiktus teiginius, kurie 

skirti Kauno picerijų darbui įvertinti. 

1 pav. Teiginių dėl Kauno picerijų įvertinimo dažnumas 

24


1 paveiksle pateiktas respondentų teiginių įvertinimo dažnumas, vertinant teiginius apie Kauno picerijas. 

Kaip matome, reikšmės „0“, reiškiančios, kad respondentas dėl atitinkamo teiginio neturi nuomonės, nepažymėjo 

nė vienas respondentas. Galima teigti, kad respondentai turi susiformavę nuomones apie Kauno picerijas. 

Tyrimo rezultatai rodo, kad daugiausiai reikšmių „1“ pažymėta vertinant teiginius, kurie susiję su vartotojų 

skundais: vartotojai nelinkę skųstis, kai jų netenkina picerijos produktų ar aptarnavimo kokybė. Reikšmę „10“ 

daugiausiai kartų respondentai žymėjo ties teiginiu „planuoju lankytis Kauno miesto picerijose ateityje“. Taip 

pat reikšmę „10“ nemažai respondentų (15–16 %) rinkosi, vertindami lūkesčius matuojančius akivaizdžius 

kintamuosius, todėl galima teigti, kad vartotojų lūkesčiai dėl Kauno picerijų buvo dideli. Įvertinimus „8“ ir „9“ 

respondentai buvo linkę gana dažnai (18–32 %) žymėti vertindami Kauno miesto picerijų įvaizdį bei lūkesčius 

atskleidžiančius akivaizdžius kintamuosius, tačiau toliau vertinant suvokiamą kokybę, suvokiamą vertę 

ir pasitenkinimą atskleidžiančius akivaizdžius kintamuosius šių reikšmių žymėjimo dažnis gerokai sumažėjo 

(13–28 %). 1 paveiksle ryškiai išsiskiria reikšmės „5“ ir „7“: vertinant visus kintamuosius jos žymėtos daugiausiai 

kartų, todėl galima teigti, kad respondentų nuomonė apie Kauno miesto picerijas yra vidutiniška. 

Apibendrinant apklausos rezultatus, 2 paveiksle pateikti neatskleistų kintamųjų indeksai. Kaip matome, 

ECSI indeksas lygus 58. Galima teigti, kad vartotojų pasitenkinimas Kauno picerijomis yra mažas, nors ne 

daug trūksta iki vidutinio pasitenkinimo lygio, kuris pasiekiamas, kai ECSI yra lygus arba didesnis nei 60 

(Pan European Customer Satisfaction Report, 2011). 

2 pav. Neatskleistų kintamųjų indeksai 

Vienas didžiausių indeksų pateiktame modelyje – vartotojų lūkesčių. Galima teigti, kad Kauno miesto 

picerijos skatina gana aukštus vartotojų lūkesčius, tačiau jų nepatenkina, todėl vartotojų pasitenkinimas yra 

mažesnis nei jų lūkesčiai. Picerijoms nereikėtų formuoti vartotojams tokių aukštų lūkesčių, tada galėtų juos 

pranokti, taip sukeldamos jų susižavėjimą. Tokį patį indeksą turi vartotojų lojalumo kintamasis. Taigi vartotojų 

lojalumas Kauno miesto picerijoms yra vidutinio lygio. 

Vartotojų skundų indeksas yra mažiausias modelyje, todėl dar kartą galima teigti, kad Kauno miesto 

vartotojai nėra linkę skųstis picerijų produktų ar aptarnavimo kokybe. Susiformavęs Kauno miesto picerijų 

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įvaizdis taip pat yra vidutiniškas, indikuojantis įvaizdžio gerinimo būtinybę. Tiek suvokiamos kokybės, tiek 

suvokiamos vertės indeksai svyruoja ties riba tarp mažo ir vidutinio lygio – tiek kokybę, tiek vertę vartotojai 

vertina vidutiniškai. 2010 metais bendras absoliutus Lietuvos vartotojų pasitenkinimo indeksas buvo 71 (Pan 

European Customer Satisfaction Report, 2011), tačiau nė vienas nagrinėjamo modelio indeksas šios reikšmės 

nepasiekė. Tyrimo duomenys rodo, kad Kauno picerijos nėra užtikrintos, kad jų verslo ateityje laukia 

sėkmė. Nei vienas kintamasis nepasiekė indekso reikšmės 75, kuri reiškia aukštą atitinkamo kintamojo lygį 

ir prognozuoja verslo sėkmę ateityje. 

3 paveiksle pateikti neatskleistų kintamųjų determinacijos ir kelio koeficientai tarp neatskleistų kintamųjų 

bei tarp neatskleistų ir akivaizdžių kintamųjų. 

Determinacijos koeficientas (R 2 ) rodo, kokią dalį atitinkamo kintamojo dispersijos paaiškina kiti modelio 

kintamieji, jis gali būti matuojamas procentais (Turkyilmaz, Ozkan, 2007). Įvaizdžio kintamasis yra 

3 pav. Kintamųjų kelio ir determinacijos koeficientai 

egzogeninis, todėl jam determinacijos koeficientas neskaičiuojamas. Didžiausias R 2 yra kintamojo „pasitenkinimas“ 

– 86,7 proc. Galima teigti, kad modelis tiksliai aprašo pasitenkinimo lygtį. Kintant pasitenkinimo 

rodikliui, 86,7 proc. šio kitimo paaiškina įvaizdžio, lūkesčių, kokybės ir vertės kintamųjų kitimas. Regresijos 

tiesė taip pat gerai aprašo vertės ir lojalumo kintamuosius, paaiškindama atitinkamai 74,3 proc. ir 70,9 proc. 

vertės ir lojalumo kintamųjų dispersijas. Lūkesčių ir kokybės R 2 atitinkamai lygūs 61,4 proc. ir 55 proc., taigi 

šių kintamųjų regresijos lygtys juos pakankamai aprašo. Kintamojo „skundai“ R 2 yra 29,8 proc., kas nėra 

pakankama, kad būtų galima teigti, jog modelis tinkamai aprašo kintamojo duomenis. 

Nors beveik visų kintamųjų determinacijos koeficientai yra pakankamai aukšti ir galima teigti, kad modelis 

gerai aprašo kintamųjų lygtis, tačiau tai nereiškia, kad visi kintamieji modelyje yra būtini. 

Kelio koeficientai rodo tiesioginę vieno kintamojo įtaką kitam kintamajam, tačiau atitinkamą kintamąjį 

veikia ne tik tiesioginiai veiksniai, pavyzdžiui: visa kokybės įtaka pasitenkinimui lygi tiesioginės kokybės 

įtakos pasitenkinimui ir netiesioginės kokybės įtakos pasitenkinimui sumai (kokybės įtaka vertei → vertės 

įtaka pasitenkinimui). Tokią vieno kintamojo įtaką kitam kintamajam vadinsime bendra įtaka (žr. 3 lentelę). 

26


Lentelė 3. Neatskleistų kintamųjų kelio koeficientai, bendra įtaka ir T kriterijų reikšmės 

Kelio T kriterijus 

T kriterijus 

Kintamieji 

Bendra įtaka 

koeficientas (kelio koeficiento) 

(bendros įtakos) 

Įvaizdis Lojalumas 0,403 4,998 0,661 12,803 

Įvaizdis Lūkesčiai 0,783 26,840 0,783 26,840 

Įvaizdis Pasitenkinimas 0,079 1,243 0,544 9,603 

Kokybė Pasitenkinimas 0,606 7,554 0,904 14,858 

Kokybė Vertė 1,055 25,763 1,055 25,763 

Lūkesčiai Kokybė 0,742 18,526 0,742 18,526 

Lūkesčiai Pasitenkinimas 0,005 0,174 0,594 8,011 

Lūkesčiai Vertė 0,291 6,144 0,492 8,220 

Pasitenkinimas Lojalumas 0,519 6,181 0,475 5,791 

Pasitenkinimas Skundai 0,546 10,148 0,546 10.148 

Skundai Lojalumas -0,079 -1,783 -0,079 -1,584 

Vertė Pasitenkinimas 0,282 6,538 0,282 6,538 

Kaip matyti 3 lentelėje, įvaizdžio įtaka lūkesčiams, remiantis kelio koeficientu, yra didelė ir sutampa su 

bendra įtaka, tai reiškia, kad iš visų nagrinėjamų kintamųjų vartotojų lūkesčius lemia tik organizacijos įvaizdis. 

T kriterijaus reikšmė didesnė nei 1,96, todėl tiesioginė įtaka yra reikšminga. Tiesioginė įvaizdžio įtaka 

lojalumui yra vidutinė, tačiau reikšminga (T > 1,96), įvaizdžio kintamajam padidėjus vienetu, lojalumas 

padidėja 0,403. Bendra įvaizdžio įtaka lojalumui yra didelė ir reikšminga (T > 1,96). Tiesioginė įvaizdžio 

įtaka pasitenkinimui yra labai maža ir nereikšminga (T < 1,96), tačiau bendra įvaizdžio įtaka pasitenkinimui 

yra didelė ir reikšminga (T > 1,96), todėl šį kintamąjį modelyje reikia palikti, tačiau nereikia nurodyti, kad 

jis tiesiogiai lemia pasitenkinimą. Tiek tiesioginė, tiek bendra kokybės įtaka pasitenkinimui yra didelės ir 

reikšmingos (T > 1,96). Pati didžiausia įtaka visame modelyje yra kokybės įtaka vertei, kokybės rodikliui 

padidėjus vienetu, vertės rodiklis padidėja 1,055 vieneto. Ši įtaka yra tiesioginė ir reikšminga (T > 1,96). 

Lūkesčių įtaka kokybei yra didelė, tiesioginė ir reikšminga (T > 1,96). Pasitenkinimo lūkesčiai tiesiogiai nelemia 

(kelio koeficientas apskaičiuotas 0,005, T < 1,96), bendra įtaka yra didelė ir reikšminga (T > 1,96). Tiesioginė 

lūkesčių įtaka vertei yra vidutiniška ir reikšminga, bendra įtaka yra didesnė nei tiesioginė, tačiau taip 

pat vidutiniška ir reikšminga (T > 1,96). Vertės įtaka pasitenkinimui yra tiesioginė, vidutinė ir reikšminga 

(T > 1,96). Pasitenkinimo įtaka tiek lojalumui, tiek skundams yra tiesioginė, didelė ir reikšminga (T > 1,96). 

Skundų įtaka lojalumui yra tiesioginė atvirkštinė, tačiau labai maža ir statistiškai nereikšminga (T < 1,96). 

Neatskleistų kintamųjų koreliacijos koeficientai pateikiami 4 lentelėje. 

Lentelė 4. Neatskleistų kintamųjų koreliacijos koeficientai 

Kintamieji Įvaizdis Kokybė Lojalumas Lūkesčiai Pasitenkinimas Skundai Vertė 

Įvaizdis 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Kokybė 0,872 1 0 0 0 0 0 

Lojalumas 0,796 0,854 1 0 0 0 0 

Lūkesčiai 0,783 0,742 0,713 1 0 0 0 

Pasitankinimas 0,839 0,917 0,813 0,656 1 0 0 

Skundai 0,529 0,494 0,417 0,437 0,546 1 0 

Vertė 0,771 0,839 0,757 0,492 0,855 0,458 1 

27



Neatskleistų kintamųjų įtaka visiems akivaizdiems kintamiesiems nustatyta didelė (mažiausias kelio koeficientas 

yra 0,829) ir reikšminga (T > 1,96). Išorinio svorio koeficientai ne mažesni kaip 0,7. Tai reiškia, kad 

visi akivaizdūs kintamieji ir apskaičiuotos jiems daromos įtakos reikšmės yra patikimos. 

4 lentelėje pateikti neatskleistų kintamųjų koreliacijos koeficientai. Koreliacija nereiškia kintamųjų tarpusavio 

įtakos, o parodo jų tarpusavio ryšio stiprumą. Kaip matome, silpnos koreliacijos tarp kintamųjų nėra. 

Maža koreliacija yra tarp skundų ir kokybės, skundų ir lojalumo, vertės ir lūkesčių, skundų ir lūkesčių bei 

skundų ir vertės. Tai reiškia, kad tarp skundų ir kitų neatskleistų kintamųjų yra mažas ryšys, kas patvirtina, 

kad šio kintamojo regresijos lygtis jį aprašo nepakankamai gerai. Maža koreliacija taip pat pastebima tarp 

vertės ir lūkesčių. Vidutinė koreliacija matoma tarp skundų ir įvaizdžio, pasitenkinimo ir lūkesčių, pasitenkinimo 

ir skundų. Vėlgi tie patys kintamieji – lūkesčiai ir skundai, taigi galima teigti, kad tarp skundų ir kitų 

modelio kintamųjų yra maža ir vidutinė koreliacija, tarp lūkesčių ir vertės bei pasitenkinimo yra atitinkamai 

mažas ir vidutinis ryšys. Labai stiprus ryšys yra tarp kokybės ir pasitenkinimo. Tarp likusių kintamųjų pastebimas 

stiprus ryšys. 

Neatskleistų kintamųjų koreliacijos koeficientų, pakeltų kvadratu, ir 5 lentelėje pateiktų išgaunamos vidutinės 

dispersijos (AVE) reikšmių palyginimas leidžia teigti, kad duomenys pagrįsti, t. y. tie kintamieji, 

kurie neturi būti susiję, iš tiesų ir nėra susiję. Palyginę šiuos duomenis matome, kad visų kintamųjų AVE 

reikšmės yra didesnės už atitinkamų kintamųjų didžiausią kvadratu pakelto koreliacijos koeficiento reikšmę, 

nes pati mažiausia AVE rodiklio reikšmė (0,764) yra didesnė už pačią didžiausią koreliacijos koeficiento, 

pakelto kvadratu, reikšmę (0,760). 

Lentelė 5. Neatskleistų kintamųjų AVE, sudėtinio patikimumo, Cronbach alfa ir bendrumo rodikliai 

Rodiklis 

Kintamasis 

AVE Sudėtinis patikimumas Cronbach alfa Bendrumas 

Įvaizdis 0,764 0,942 0,922 0,764 

Kokybė 0,886 0,979 0,974 0,886 

Lojalumas 0,930 0,964 0,925 0,930 

Lūkesčiai 0,925 0,974 0,959 0,925 

Pasitenkinimas 0,889 0,960 0,937 0,889 

Skundai 0,777 0,875 0,714 0,777 

Vertė 0,955 0,997 0,953 0,955 

Ištyrę 5 lentelėje pateiktus rodiklius matome, kad sudėtinio patikimumo (kiekvieno kintamojo bendras 

patikimumas) ir Cronbach alfa rodiklių reikšmės visiems neatskleistiems kintamiesiems yra didesnės kaip 

0,7. Galima teigti, kad visi neatskleisti kintamieji yra patikimi ir homogeniški. AVE rodiklio reikšmės taip 

pat yra ne mažesnės kai 0,7, nors reikalaujama, kad šios reikšmės būtų ne mažesnės kaip 0,5. Paklaidų 

dispersija nedidelė, kintamiesiems būdinga konvergencija ir duomenys yra pagrįsti. Bendrumo rodiklis yra 

kvadratu pakelta koreliacija tarp akivaizdžių kintamųjų ir jais matuojamo neatskleisto kintamojo. Šis rodiklis 

atskleidžia atitinkamo kintamojo dispersijos procentą, kuris paaiškina akivaizdžius kintamuosius. Šiuo atveju 

mažiausia bendrumo rodiklio reikšmė yra 0,764, tai reiškia, kad vidutiniškai 76,4 % atitinkamų kintamųjų 

dispersijos paaiškina jais matuojamas neatskleistas kintamasis. Kitų kintamųjų bendrumo rodiklis yra aukštesnis. 

Kadangi reikalaujama, kad bendrumo rodiklis būtų ne mažesnis kaip 0,5, o šiuo atveju visi bendrumo 

rodiklio duomenys yra gerokai didesni, galima teigti, kad kintamieji yra patikimi. 

Įrodytas modelio patikimumas ir duomenų pagrįstumas leidžia teigti, kad apskaičiuoti neatskleistų kintamųjų 

indeksai, neatskleistų kintamųjų įtakos kryptys bei įtakos stiprumai yra teisingi. Gauti tyrimo rezultatai 

lėmė Europos vartotojų pasitenkinimo indekso modelio korekciją (žr. 4 pav.), rekomenduojamą skaičiuojant 

vartotojų pasitenkinimą visomis picerijomis arba konkrečia Kauno miesto picerija. 

28


4 pav. Vartotojų pasitenkinimo Kauno miesto picerijomis modelis 

Visi 7 neatskleisti kintamieji, pavaizduoti 4 paveiksle, modelyje išlieka tie patys, kaip ir pateikti vartotojų 

pasitenkinimo modelyje, kuris naudotas atliekant tyrimą, nes bendra visų neatskleistų kintamųjų įtaka atitinkamiems 

modelio kintamiesiems yra reikšminga. Juodomis paryškintomis rodyklėmis pavaizduota tiesioginė 

vieno neatskleisto kintamojo įtaka kitam neatskleistam kintamajam rodyklės kryptimi. Šios įtakos yra 

tiesioginės ir reikšmingos, lemiančios atitinkamą vartotojų pasitenkinimo lygį ir jo padarinius organizacijai. 

Neparyškintomis rodyklėmis (rodyklės kryptimi) nurodytos tos tiesioginės neatskleistų kintamųjų įtakos 

atitinkamiems neatskleistiems kintamiesiems, kurios nei įrodytos, nei paneigtos. Tai reiškia, kad kartais šios 

įtakos gali egzistuoti, tačiau nebūtinai visais atvejais. Vartotojų lūkesčių tiesioginė įtaka vartotojų pasitenkinimui 

iš šio modelio pašalinta. Šiuo atveju sutinkama su kai kurių autorių (Martensen ir kt., 2000; Johnson 

ir kt., 2001; O’Loughlin ir kt., 2004) nuomone, kad vartotojų lūkesčiai neturi tiesioginės įtakos vartotojų 

pasitenkinimui. Tyrimo rezultatų analizė rodo, kad bendra vartotojų lūkesčių įtaka vartotojų pasitenkinimui 

yra didelė ir reikšminga, todėl jų lūkesčių neatskleistas kintamasis modelyje paliekamas. 

Išvados 

Įvairūs autoriai mini daug skirtingų vartotojų pasitenkinimą lemiančių veiksnių, tačiau daugelio jų įtaka 

vartotojų pasitenkinimui neįrodyta. Be to, autoriai nesutaria dėl pagrindinių veiksnių, kurie lemia vartotojų 

pasitenkinimą, įtakos reikšmės. Apibendrinus nagrinėtų autorių nuomones, skiriami šie vartotojų pasitenkinimą 

lemiantys veiksniai: organizacijos įvaizdis, vartotojų lūkesčiai, vartotojų suvokiama kokybė, vartotojų 

suvokiama vertė. Dėl vartotojų pasitenkinimo ilgo laikotarpio padarinių organizacijai daugelis autorių sutaria, 

jie teigia, kad didesnis vartotojų pasitenkinimas organizacijos produktais ar paslaugomis yra vienas 

veiksnių, lemiančių didesnę organizacijos vertę, tačiau dėl tiesioginių vartotojų pasitenkinimo pasekmių or- 

29



ganizacijai kai kurie autoriai nesutaria, todėl skiriamos tokios pagrindinės pasekmės organizacijai: vartotojų 

lojalumas, vartotojų skundai. 

Tyrimo rezultatų analize nustatyti vartotojų pasitenkinimo modelio kintamųjų indeksai ir jų apibendrinimas 

leidžia teigti, kad vartotojų pasitenkinimas Kauno miesto picerijų teikiamomis paslaugomis yra mažas. 

Tyrimo duomenys leidžia daryti išvadą, kad siekiant didesnio vartotojų pasitenkinimo picerijomis, svarbiausia 

suderinti vartotojų lūkesčius ir produktų bei aptarnavimo kokybę. 

Rengiant vartotojų pasitenkinimo Kauno miesto picerijomis modelį nustatyta, kad vartotojų lūkesčiai 

vartotojų pasitenkinimui Kauno miesto picerijomis tiesioginės įtakos neturi. Nepatvirtinta, bet ir nepaneigta 

lūkesčių tiesioginė įtaka suvokiamai vertei, įvaizdžio – pasitenkinimui, vartotojų skundų – lojalumui, todėl 

šios įtakos modelyje pavaizduotos. Analizuojant kintamųjų įtakas (dėl picerijų) nustatyta, kad visi modelio 

kintamieji yra reikšmingi, apskaičiuojant vartotojų pasitenkinimą bei jo pasekmes organizacijai. 

Remiantis atlikto tyrimo rezultatais, Kauno miesto picerijoms rekomenduojama didinti ne savo vartotojų 

lūkesčius, bet teikiamų produktų ir paslaugų kokybę arba užtikrinti tokį kokybės ir kainos lygį, kad vartotojų 

pasitenkinimas pasiektų vidutinį lygį. 

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O’Loughlin, C., Coenders, G. (2004). Estimation of the European Customer Satisfaction Index: Maximum Likelihood 

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mobile phone sector. Industrial Management and Data Systems, Vol. 107, No. 5. 

DETERMINATION OF CUSTOMER SATISFACTION 

WITH PIZZERIAS IN KAUNAS 


Vytautas Magnus University (Lithuania) 

Summary 

Relevance of the research. Food can be called as a necessary good for human existence and welfare. 

Nowadays, as a speed of our life is intensifying and busyness is growing, many fast-food restaurants are 

establishing and getting their part in the catering service field. Due to a technical progress (people can reach 

foreign countries in a few hours) and globalization, businesses are not framed by a borders of a particular 

country any longer – they are expanding to other countries and cultures. Contemporary society is facing the 

possibility to try and make preferences to cuisines by many different countries. Consequently, many restaurants 

serving other countries’ traditional meals can be found in Lithuania. 

The popularity of foreign cuisine restaurants is growing in Kaunas, as well as in all the country. According 

to Lithuanian Department of Statistics (2012), there were more that 330’000 inhabitants in Kaunas in 

2011; moreover, there were 470 registered enterprises providing catering activities and sharing 26 200 seats. 

The figures highlight that amount of seats in catering industry in Kaunas is only 13 times smaller than the 

number of inhabitants. Accordingly, it can be stated that catering is a very popular service in society. Considering 

that one of the most popular foreign cuisines in Lithuania is Italian cuisine, pizzerias were chosen under 

consideration. Accordingly, scientific problem solved in this article is: what is customer satisfaction 

with pizzerias’ services in Kaunas and what are the factors determining their satisfaction. 

The object of the article is customer satisfaction with pizzerias in Kaunas. 

The aim of the article is to evaluate customer satisfaction with pizzerias in Kaunas. 

To meet the aim of the article following tasks were set: 

• y To reveal the conception and models of customer satisfaction. 

• y To perform the research on customer satisfaction with pizzerias in Kaunas. 

• y To design the model of customer satisfaction with pizzerias in Kaunas. 

Research methods. On purpose of analysing conception and models satisfaction which could be used 

for the research, the theoretical analysis and synthesis was provided. Customers’ attitudes and evaluations towards 

pizzerias in Kaunas were determined providing the questionnaire research. Structural equation modelling 

(SEM) using partial least squares (PLS) path modelling methodology was applied for statistical analysis. 

After the analysis of scientific literature it can be concluded that various authors highlight different customer 

satisfaction determinants; however many of these determinants lack scientific substantiation. Moreover, 

there is a polemic about the impact existence of main determinants. As main determinants of customer satisfaction 

can be named: organization’s image, customer expectations, customer perceived quality, customer 

perceived value. Analyzing long-term impact of customer satisfaction, many authors state that bigger custo- 

31



mer satisfaction is one of the factors providing organization’s value; however, some outcomes of satisfaction 

are being criticized and held as indirect, those are: customer loyalty, customer complaints. 

The indexes of customer satisfaction variables and their interpretation made during the research, leads to 

a conclusion that customer satisfaction with pizzerias in Kaunas is low. Research results let us state that endeavoring 

to reach greater customer satisfaction with pizzeria most important is balance between customer 

expectations and product or service quality. 

While designing the model of customer satisfaction with pizzerias in Kaunas it was determined that 

customer expectations have no direct impact on customer satisfaction with pizzerias in Kaunas. The direct 

impact of customer expectation on perceived value, image’s impact on satisfaction, and customer’s complaints’ 

impact on loyalty were neither substantiated, nor unsubstantiated. Therefore, latter impacts were 

showed at the designed model. During the analysis of variables’ impacts on satisfaction (with pizzerias) it 

was determined that all the variables included into a model are significant for calculation of customer satisfaction 

and its’ outcomes for the organization. 

Considering research results for pizzerias in Kaunas it can be recommended to stop elevating customer 

expectations, herewith improving product and service quality, or to maintain balance level of quality and 

price which would lead customer satisfaction to at least an average level. 

KEY WORDS: Catering services, Customer satisfaction, ECSI, Kaunas. 

JEL CODES: L660, M310. 

32


REGIONINIO VERSLO JŪRŲ ŽUVININKYSTĖS SEKTORIAUS 

PROBLEMOS IR PERSPEKTYVOS 

Violeta Grublienė 1 , Eglė Gotautienė 2 

Klaipėdos universitetas (Lietuva), Klaipėdos valstybinė kolegija (Lietuva) 

ANOTACIJA 

Straipsnyje nagrinėjamos jūrų žuvininkystės sektoriaus, kaip regioninio verslo, problemos ir perspektyvos. Įvertinta jūrų žuvininkystės 

sektoriaus būklė, problemos ir numatytos galimos perspektyvos. Straipsnyje apibendrinta informacija, pateikta žuvininkystės 

sektoriaus norminiuose aktuose ir dokumentuose, statistinė informacija, moksliniai straipsniai bei informacija iš įvairių seminarų. 

Pateikta siūlymų galimoms perspektyvoms įgyvendinti. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: jūrų žuvininkystė, sektorius, regionas, perspektyvos, tvari plėtra. 

JEL klasifikacija: M100, Q22, Q56. 

Įvadas 

Lietuva iš visų Baltijos jūros valstybių turi trumpiausią kranto liniją (apie 90 km) ir mažiausią jūros akvatoriją 

(apie 7000 km²). Tai sudaro 1,5 proc. Baltijos jūros ploto. Tačiau jūros ir pajūrio reikšmė mūsų mažai 

šaliai yra itin svarbi ekonominiu, kultūriniu ir geopolitiniu požiūriais. Su jūriniu verslu jau šiandien yra 

susiję apie 18 proc. viso Lietuvoje sukuriamo BVP. Kita vertus, Lietuvos pajūryje glūdi dar daug neišnaudoto 

potencialo, kuris intensyviai diegiant inovacijas, skatinant mokslo ir verslo integraciją gali reikšmingai 

padidinti šalies ekonomikos plėtrą ir socialinę gerovę. 

Lietuvos jūrinis sektorius – tai įvairių jūrinio verslo šakų (jūros transportas, uostai, žvejyba, naudingų 

išteklių gavyba, pramonė, rekreacija ir kt.), jūrinių fundamentinių ir taikomųjų mokslinių tyrimų bei jūrininkystės 

specialistų rengimo sistemų visuma. 

Viena svarbesnių regionui jūrinio verslo sričių – žuvininkystė. Tai specifinė ūkio šaka, daugiausia naudojanti 

natūralius gyvuosius gamtos išteklius – žuvis. Žuvininkystės sektoriaus poreikiai turi atitikti jo galimybes, 

kurias lemia išteklių būklė. Žuvų ištekliai – lengvai pažeidžiami gyvieji gamtos ištekliai, todėl jų 

naudojimo reguliavimas ir apsauga turi būti ypač atsakinga, būtina remiantis moksliniais tyrimais ir ilgalaikėmis 

tikslinėmis programomis (Green paper (...), 2001). 

Jūrų žuvininkystė – viena seniausių žmonijos veiklos sričių, susijusi su tiesioginiu jūros žuvų, kaip maistinių 

gamtos išteklių, naudojimu. Didėjant pasaulyje žuvų ir jų produktų vartojimui, ilgą laiką jūrinė žuvininkystė 

plėtota laikantis principo – pasiimk žuvų iš jūros tiek, kiek gali. Trumpalaikiais ekonominiais 

1 

Violeta Grublienė – Klaipėdos universiteto Socialinių mokslų fakulteto Vadybos katedros docentė, daktarė (socialiniai mokslai). 

Mokslinės kryptys: regioniniai verslai, verslo projektavimo galimybės. 

El. paštas: Violeta_grubliene@yahoo.com 

Tel.:+370 612 546 63. 

2 

Eglė Gotautienė – Klaipėdos valstybinės kolegijos Vadybos katedros vedėja, lektorė. Mokslinės kryptys: verslo plėtros galimybės, 

regionų problemos. 

El. paštas: eglegotautiene@gmail.com 

Tel.: +370 614 036 88. 

33


REGIONINIO VERSLO JŪRŲ ŽUVININKYSTĖS SEKTORIAUS PROBLEMOS IR PERSPEKTYVOS 

prioritetais paremtas žuvininkystės sektorius susidūrė su rimta grėsme sunaikinti savo pajamų šaltinį. Tai 

lemia naują požiūrį ne tik į žuvininkystę, bet ir į visą ūkinę veiklą. 

Atkūrus nepriklausomybę Lietuvos jūrų žuvininkystės ūkis išgyveno dramatišką ekonominės recesijos ir 

kokybinių transformacijų laikotarpį. Nesuskubus pertvarkyti stambiosios okeaninės žvejybos pramonės atsižvelgiant 

į naujas ekonomines ir politines sąlygas, dar neseniai dinamiškai plėtota Lietuvos žuvų ir kitų jūros 

produktų gavybos pramonė paskutiniojo dešimtmečio pirmojoje pusėje gerokai sumažino gamybos apimtis. 

Norint išvengti jūrų žuvininkystės ūkio, kaip savarankiškos ūkio šakos, nunykimo, reikia numatyti mokslo, 

politinių sprendimų ir pragmatinių tikslų sąveiką. Lietuvos jūrų žuvininkystės ūkis buvo ir turi likti svarbia 

tęstine Lietuvos nacionalinės kultūros dalimi, pasireiškiančia kaip kompleksinė veikla, susieta su šakos 

strateginiu valdymu, tausojančiu žuvų išteklių naudojimu, jūrų žvejyba, žuvų transportavimu ir saugojimu, 

žvejybos uostais, prekyba žuvų produktais, jų vartojimu, atliekų perdirbimu, šios šakos ūkine ir socialine 

infrastruktūra. 

Pagrindinės straipsnyje akcentuojamos problemos: Lietuvos jūrų žuvininkystės sektoriaus valdymo 

sudėtingumas, kai kurių žuvų rūšių kvotų mažėjimas, žvejybos sezono trumpėjimas, seni laivai, jaunimo 

nenoras susieti savo karjerą su šiuo sektoriumi. 

Tyrimo objektas: Lietuvos jūrų žuvininkystės sektoriaus problemos ir perspektyvos. 

Tyrimo tikslas: įvertinus Lietuvos jūrų žuvininkystės sektoriaus problemas ir galimybes, numatyti jo 

plėtros perspektyvas. 

Siekiant suformuluoto tikslo sprendžiami šie tyrimo uždaviniai: 

• y įvertinti mokslinę literatūrą ir norminius aktus bei dokumentus, reglamentuojančius sektoriaus veiklą; 

• y nustatyti pagrindines jūrų žuvininkystės sektoriaus problemas ir galimas perspektyvas; 

• y pateikti siūlymų, kaip siekti tvarios jūrų žuvininkystės sektoriaus plėtros. 

Tyrimo metodika. Rengiant šį straipsnį atlikta teisės aktų, reglamentuojančių žuvininkystės sektoriaus 

plėtros procesą Lietuvoje, bei kitų mokslinių šaltinių, analizė ir sintezė, apibendrinta informacija, seminarų 

medžiaga atskleidžianti jūrų žuvininkystės raidos procesą ir jo pokyčius atsižvelgiant į ekonomines ir politines 

tendencijas. Pagrindiniai nagrinėti dokumentai: Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektoriaus 2007–2013 metų 

nacionalinis strateginis planas (2006) ir Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektoriaus 2007–2013 metų veiksmų programa 

(2007), kurie reglamentuoja sektoriaus plėtros procesą. Taip pat nagrinėtos žuvininkystės tarnybos 

prie Žemės ūkio ministerijos veiklos sritys, įvairūs planavimo dokumentai, skirtingų metų žuvininkystės 

sektoriaus ekonominės ir socialinės būklės apžvalgos ataskaitos. 

1. Rezultatai 

Analizuojant jūrų žuvininkystės problemas ir perspektyvas vartojamos šios pagrindinės sąvokos: jūrų 

žuvininkystė, regionas, darnus (tausus) vystymasis. Šios sąvokos interpretuojamos įvairiai, bet tiksliausias 

žuvininkystės sampratos aiškinimas pateiktas Lietuvos Respublikos žuvininkystės įstatyme (2001). Įstatyme 

pažymėta, kad Lietuvos žuvininkystė – tai su žuvų išteklių valdymu, išsaugojimu ir atkūrimu, žvejyba, akvakultūra, 

žuvų perdirbimu, pirminiu žuvininkystės produktų pardavimu ir supirkimu susijusi veikla. Šalyje 

plėtojamos 4 pagrindinės žuvininkystės sektoriaus šakos: 

• y jūrų žuvininkystė (žvejyba tolimuosiuose rajonuose, atviroje Baltijos jūroje ir jos priekrantėje); 

• y žvejyba vidaus vandenyse; 

• y akvakultūra; 

• y žuvų perdirbimo pramonė ir rinkodara (Lietuvos Respublikos (...), 2001). 

Jūrų žuvininkystės sektorius yra sudedamoji Lietuvos jūrų ūkio dalis ir realiai egzistuoja tiek, kiek Lietuva 

turi priėjimą prie Baltijos jūros, todėl analizuojant žuvininkystės sektoriaus jūrų žuvininkystės šaką, 

tikslinga apibrėžti regiono sąvoką (Grublienė, 2003). 

Mokslinėje literatūroje dažnai vartojamos tokios sąvokos kaip: teritorija, regionas, teritorinė sistema, 

regioninė ekonomika, rajonas ir kt. Socialinę-ekonominę erdvę skirstant dalimis vartojami tokie teritoriniai 

34


vienetai: arealas, zona, rajonas, regionas, anklavas ir kt. Dažniausiai vartojamos dvi sąvokos: rajonas ir regionas. 

Rajonas apibrėžiamas kaip teritorija su jai priklausančių elementų visuma (Бильчак, Захаров, 1998). 

Regiono sąvoka atsirado vėliau. Šis terminas lankstesnis, nesusijęs su teritoriniu administravimu. 

Ekonomikos mokslas regioną apibrėžia kaip socialinę-ekonominę visumą, kur vyksta materialinės gamybos 

procesai (Rutkauskas, 2001; 2008). Socialinė-ekonominė geografija apibrėžia jį kaip gamybos objektą arba 

kaip aplinką, kurioje žmogus ir materialinė gamyba yra tarpusavyje susiję (Vaitekūnas, 1996, 2001). Regioną, 

kaip gyvenamąją aplinką, kur kuriamos žmonių gyvenimo sąlygos, tiria demografija (Stepukonis, 1998). 

Ekologija domisi regionu kaip teritorija, kuri daro poveikį supančiai aplinkai (Toliušis, Maksimovas, 1998). 

Bendro regiono apibrėžimo nėra, pats aiškiausias ir priimtiniausias teigia, kad regionas – tai visų pirma 

teritorija, pasižyminti tam tikromis specifinėmis gamtinėmis, demografinėmis, socialinėmis ir ekonominėmis 

sąlygomis, kurios jį apibūdina ir skiria nuo gretimų teritorijų (Гладкий, Чистобаев, 1998). 

Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektoriaus 2007–2013 metų veiksmų programoje (2007) pažymėta, kad siekiant 

tvarios žuvininkystės sektoriaus plėtros ir skatinant vietos partnerystę bei iniciatyvą, laikantis principo „iš 

apačios į viršų“, žuvininkystės regiono gyventojams būtina suteikti galimybę rengti žuvininkystės regiono 

plėtros strategijas, kurios atskleis jų poreikius ir tikslus. 

Ten pat pažymėta, kad gerinti žuvininkystės regionų aplinkos kokybę būtina, siekiant gerinti vietos 

gyventojų gyvenimo kokybę, skatinti turizmą, taip regionai taps konkurencingesni ir išliks patrauklūs bei 

saugūs ateities kartoms. Kad žuvininkystės regionai galėtų pasidalyti geriausia praktika ir žiniomis, būtina 

skatinti žuvininkystės regionų bendradarbiavimą. Šiame kontekste reikėtų paminėti ir Naująją paradigmą, 

kurioje pabrėžiama būtinybė ne tiek remti atsiliekančius regionus, kiek išnaudoti regiono individualumą ir 

siekti konkurencinio pranašumo (OECD 2006a; 2006b). 

Su žuvininkystės veikla susijęs regionas turi visas regionui būdingas savybes: teritorija, specifinės gamtinės, 

demografinės, socialinės ir ekonominės sąlygos. 

Žuvininkystės sektoriaus jūrų žuvininkystės šakos veikla: žvejyba atviroje Baltijos jūroje ir jos priekrantėje 

siejasi su Lietuvos jūrų ūkiu ir regionu, nes daugiausia žuvininkystės įmonių susitelkę Klaipėdos apskrityje 

(81,3 proc. visų įmonių). Daugiausiai tai jūrų ir vidaus vandenų žvejybos įmonės. Šioje apskrityje susibūrusios 

stipriausios žuvininkystės regionų vietos veiklos grupės (ŽRVVG). 

Lietuvos valstybės ilgalaikėje raidos strategijoje numatyta, kad regionų ekonomika bus plėtojama ir jų 

konkurencingumas didinamas atsižvelgiant į regiono turimus išteklius bei prioritetines plėtros kryptis, išryškinant 

regiono savitumą. Regionų institucijos bendradarbiaus tarptautiniu lygmeniu, įgyvendindamos nacionalinius 

ir ES regioninės plėtros politikos tikslus (Valstybės (...), 2002). 

Ten pat teigiama, kad pagrindinis regioninės plėtros politikos tikslas – užtikrinti stabilaus aukšto gyvenimo 

lygio galimybes visoms šalies bendruomenėms; didinti šalies regionų sanglaudą, mažinant ekonominius, 

socialinius, kultūros, išsilavinimo sąlygų ir administracinių gebėjimų skirtumus tarp jų; užtikrinti darnią regionų 

ekonomikos plėtrą bei didinti jų konkurencingumą atsižvelgiant į regionų ypatumus; tolydžiai plėtoti 

regionų fizinę ir socialinę infrastruktūrą; užtikrinti veiksmingą regionų vietinių išteklių naudojimą, racionalų 

regioninės plėtros finansavimą naudojant tiek šalies, tiek užsienio finansinių šaltinių lėšas, kaimo bendruomenių 

gyvybingumą ir plėtrą (Valstybės (...), 2002). 

Darnus analizuojamos šakos vystymasis yra labai svarbus. R. Čiegio (2009) teigimu, ši sąvoka apima tris 

esminius požiūrius: ekonominį, aplinkos ir socialinį vystymąsi. Darnaus vystymosi koncepcijos pagrindą 

sudaro trys lygiaverčiai komponentai – aplinkos apsauga, ekonominė plėtra ir socialinis vystymasis. Kitaip 

tariant, darnus vystymasis – tai savotiškas kompromisas tarp aplinkosauginių, ekonominių ir socialinių visuomenės 

tikslų, leidžiantis siekti visuotinės gerovės sau ir ateinančioms kartoms. 

Ten pat pažymėta, kad literatūroje gausu darnaus vystymosi sąvokos apibūdinimų, tačiau pagrindinę 

mintį išreiškia klasikiniu tapęs Brundtland komisijos ataskaitoje pateiktas apibrėžimas: tai vystymasis, kuris 

tenkina šiuolaikinio žmogaus poreikius, išsaugodamas galimybes būsimoms kartoms tenkinti savuosius 

(Čiegis, 2009). 

A. V. Rutkauskas (2008) akcentuoja, kad šiandien plėtros ir tvarumo sąvokos dažnai neatsiejamos analizuojant 

tiek globalinius, tiek regioninius, tiek vietinius procesus. 

35



Jūrų žuvininkystė susieta su tiesioginiu jūros žuvų, kaip maistinių gamtos išteklių, naudojimu. Vertinant žuvininkystės 

sektoriaus jūrų žuvininkystės šakos būklę ir vystymosi galimybes, būtina atsižvelgti į regiono bei šakos 

darnaus vystymosi aspektus, kurie turi įvertinti aplinkosauginius, ekonominius ir socialinius visuomenės tikslus. 

Lietuvos jūrų žuvininkystė yra: nacionalinė pagal kultūrinį reikšmingumą; regioninė pagal veiklos koncentraciją; 

tarpžinybinė pagal interesų sritis; tausojanti pagal natūralių gamtos išteklių naudojimo pobūdį; socialiai 

orientuota, nes yra žemas pajamas gaunančių gyventojų pragyvenimo šaltinis; ekonomiškai tikslinga, kadangi 

nuolat didėja žuvų produktų paklausa ir išlieka nesunkiai pasiekiami žuvų ištekliai (Grublienė, 2006). 

Kitas straipsnio uždavinys – įvertinti jūrų žuvininkystė sektoriaus problemas. 

2. Pagrindinės jūrų žuvininkystės sektoriaus problemos 

Straipsnyje šio sektoriaus problemos vertinamos analizuojant ir apibendrinant informaciją, pateiktą dviejuose 

su sektoriaus veikla susijusiuose dokumentuose: Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektoriaus 2007–2013 metų 

nacionaliniame strateginiame plane (2006) ir Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektoriaus 2007–2013 metų veiksmų 

programoje (2007). Nagrinėti ir sektoriaus statistiniai dokumentai: Lietuvos žuvininkystė. Dokumentai, faktai, 

skaičiai. 2006–2007 metai (2009), Rinkotyra Nr. 1(43) (2009), informacija pateikta Žuvininkystės tarnybos 

prie Žemės ūkio ministerijos tinklalapyje. 

Viena pagrindinių problemų – sektoriaus valdymo sudėtingumas. Žuvininkystės sektorių Lietuvos 

Respublikoje administruoja Žuvininkystės tarnyba prie Lietuvos Respublikos žemės ūkio ministerijos ir 

Aplinkos ministerija. Taikomuosius biologinius žuvininkystės tyrimus atlieka Žuvininkystės tarnyba, Vilniaus 

universiteto Ekologijos institutas, Klaipėdos universitetas. Žuvininkystės tyrimų ir mokslo skyrius 

nuolat stebi ir tiria Baltijos jūros žuvų išteklių būklę, Vilniaus universiteto Ekologijos instituto Jūros ekologijos 

laboratorija tiria žuvų išteklius Kuršių mariose ir Kauno vandens talpykloje. Šilavoto filiale užsiimama 

karpių selekcija, Žeimenos lašišinių žuvų veislyne – dirbtinai veisiamos ir auginamos įžuvinimo į valstybinės 

reikšmės vandens telkinius tikslais lašišinės žuvys (lašišos ir šlakiai), taip pat atliekami lašišinių žuvų 

genetinės kontrolės darbai. Žuvininkystės sektoriaus ekonominius ir socialinius tyrimus atlieka Lietuvos 

agrarinės ekonomikos institutas (Lietuvos žuvininkystės (...), 2006). 

Pateikta informacija akivaizdžiai iliustruoja žuvininkystės sektoriaus valdymo sudėtingumą. Visos įstaigos, 

administruojančios žuvininkystės sektoriaus veiklą, išsibarsčiusios po Lietuvą, jų veiksmus koordinuoti 

labai sudėtinga (Grublienė, 2007). 

Kita akivaizdi Jūrų žuvininkystės šakos problema – nuolatos mažėjančios žvejybos kvotos (išskyrus 

menkių kvotą, kuri 2007–2009 metais mažėjo, 2010–2012 m. didėja). 

Lentelė 1. Lietuvai skirta šprotų žvejybos kvota 2008–2012 m. 

Metai 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 

Kvota, t 22745 20015 19015 14451 11272 

Šaltinis: seminaro Žvejybos Baltijos jūroje aktualijos ir jų aptarimas, vykusio 2011 12 05 Palangoje, medžiaga. 

Kvota 2012 m. sumažinta 22 proc. Lietuvai skirta 11 272 t, tai 3179 t mažiau nei 2011 m. Remiantis 

Tarptautinės jūrų tyrinėjimo tarybos (TJTT) 2008–2011 metų „Rekomendacijų ir patarimų“ knygose pateiktais 

rodikliais, 2008–2012 metų laikotarpiu šprotų ištekliai vertinami kaip žvejojami netausojančiai. 

Lentelė 2. Lietuvai skirta strimelių žvejybos kvota 2008–2012 m. 

Metai 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 

Kvota, t 4456 4192 3689 3136 2289 


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Kvota 2012 m. sumažinta 27 proc. Lietuvai skirta 2289 t, tai 847 t mažiau nei 2011 m. 

Remiantis Tarptautinės jūrų tyrinėjimo tarybos (TJTT) 2008–2011 metų „Rekomendacijų ir patarimų“ 

knygose pateiktais rodikliais, 2008–2012 metų laikotarpiu strimelių ištekliai vertinami kaip žvejojami 

netausojančiai. 

Lentelė 3. Lietuvai skirta vakarinių menkių žvejybos kvota 2008–2012 m. 

Metai 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 

Kvota, t 450 383 415 440 499 


Kvota 2012 m. padidinta 13 proc. Lietuvai paskirta 499 t, tai 59 t daugiau nei 2011 m. 

Remiantis Tarptautinės jūrų tyrinėjimo tarybos (TJTT) 2008–2011 metų „Rekomendacijų ir patarimų“ 

knygose pateiktais rodikliais, 2008–2012 metų laikotarpiu menkių ištekliai vertinami kaip žvejojami 

tausojančiai. 

Lentelė 4. Lietuvai skirta rytinių menkių žvejybos kvota 2008–2012 m. 

Metai 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 

Kvota, t 2181 2509 2885 3318 3818 


Kvota 2012 m. padidinta 15 proc. Lietuvai skirta 3818 t, tai 500 t daugiau nei 2011 m. Ištekliai žvejojami 

tausojančiai. Išteklius reikėtų vertinti kaip labai geros būklės. 

Seimo Verslo ir užimtumo komisijos pirmininkas S. Lapėnas teigia, kad Lietuvoje dabar egzistuojanti 

žuvų sugavimo kvotų paskirstymo metodika ir proporcijos ne tik neatitinka strateginių šalies tikslų, bet ir 

neskatina žvejų keisti žvejybos būdų. Pažymima, kad neperspektyviai ir aplinką bei žuvų išteklius naikinančiai 

žvejybai tralais kiekvienais metais suteikiama kelis kartus didesnė kvotos dalis, palyginus su kvota, 

skiriama laivams, žvejojantiems ūdomis (kabliukais) ir aplinką tausojančiais tinklais. Tokia disproporcija 

sunkiai pagrindžiama, nes 26 tralinės žvejybos laivams skiriama 85 proc., kitiems maždaug 20-čiai laivų 

skiriama vos 15 proc. numatomos kvotos. Su tokiu kvotų paskirstymu, nesudarant sąlygų plėtotis moderniems 

mažiesiems laivams, Lietuva gali likti ir be žuvų, ir be jas galinčių pagauti žvejų. Europos Sąjungos 

mokslininkai jau seniai kritikuoja ir siūlo atsisakyti Lietuvoje plačiausiai taikomo dugninės tralinės menkių 

žvejybos būdo. Pasak S. Lapėno (2011), Verslo ir užimtumo komisija nustatė, kad šiuo metu praktikoje veikianti 

žuvų sugavimo kvotų skirstymo metodika ir santykis neatitinka Vyriausybės patvirtintame Lietuvos 

žuvininkystės sektoriaus 2007–2013 metų nacionaliniame strateginiame plane keliamų plėtros tikslų ir prioritetų, 

nes neskirta dėmesio racionaliam žuvų išteklių naudojimui, neskatinama keisti žuvų gaudymo būdų, 

nesudaromos sąlygos modernizuotis ir plėstis mažoms įmonėms. Atsižvelgdama į tai, ar Verslo ir užimtumo 

komisija Seime siūlo Vyriausybei Baltijos jūros menkės gaudymo kvotas skirstyti ne pagal tradiciškai nusistovėjusius 

santykius, o atsižvelgiant į pažangesnius žvejybos būdus ūdomis ir aplinką tausojančiais tinklais; 

atšaukti nepagrįstą Žuvininkystės departamento generalinio direktoriaus įsakymą dėl 20 metrų gylio apribojimo 

priekrantės žvejams; numatyti skaidresnę ir konkrečios įmonės veiklai pritaikytą rodiklių procedūrą 

kompensacijoms už žvejybinės veiklos nutraukimą. 

Remiantis informacija Europos Sąjungos oficialiame leidinyje, kaip nustatomos Baltijos jūroje atitinkamiems 

metams tam tikrų žuvų išteklių ir žuvų išteklių grupių žvejybos galimybės bei susijusios sąlygos, galima 

teigti, kad nuolat trumpinamas menkių žvejybos sezonas. 2008 metais leista žvejoti 223 dienas per metus, 

2009-aisiais žvejybos laikotarpis sutrumpėjo iki 201 dienos, o 2010 metais leista žvejoti tik 181 dieną, t. y. 

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beveik 19 proc. mažiau nei 2008-aisiais, 2011 ir 2012 m. žvejybos laikotarpis sutrumpintas iki 163 dienų, 

t. y. dar maždaug 10 procentų nei 2010 metais (Tarybos reglamentas – 1404/2007, 1322/2008, 1226/2009, 

1124/2010, 1256/2011). 

2011 metai Lietuvos žvejams ypatingi. 2011 m. gruodžio 19 d. duomenimis, menkių žvejybos kvotos 

panaudotos tik 83 proc., žvejams dar liko sugauti apie 600 t menkių. Ši situacija susidarė dėl kelių priežasčių. 

Rytinių menkių kvota pastaruosius 3 metus didėjo po 15 proc. kasmet. Nuo 2008 m. iki 2011 m. Lietuvos 

menkių kvota padidėjo 1127 t. 15 proc. menkių kvota didės ir 2012 m. – iki 4317 t. 

Ši situacija atskleidžia dar vieną Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektoriaus problemą: Baltijos jūroje ir jos 

priekrantėje žvejojama senais ir neekonomiškais laivais, kurie sunaudoja daug kuro, neaprūpinti modernia 

įranga tinkamai žuvų kokybei palaikyti ją gabenant, laivuose prastos sanitarijos ir higienos sąlygos (Lietuvos 

žuvininkystės (...), 2007). 

Pasenęs Lietuvos Baltijos jūros žvejybos laivynas nebepajėgia išnaudoti visų menkių kvotų. Didžioji 

menkes žvejojanti laivų dalis – mažieji žvejybos traleriai, kurių varikliai yra seno modelio, mažo galingumo 

ir neekonomiški kuro sąnaudų požiūriu. Žemės ūkio ministerijos Žuvininkystės departamentas, matydamas 

susidariusią situaciją, kelis kartus kreipėsi į Europos Komisiją su prašymu, kad laivynui atnaujinti būtų 

galima panaudoti Žuvininkystės fondo lėšas, tačiau gautas neigiamas atsakymas. Lietuvos atstovai kėlė šį 

klausimą Europos Tarybos posėdžiuose, tačiau Europos institucijos nebuvo linkusios šios problemos spręsti. 

Kita vertus, menkių žvejybinės kvotos nepanaudojamos ir dėl kitų priežasčių: dažnai žvejoti neleidžia blogi 

orai, o daugiausiai įtakos turi tai, kad žvejai, taupydami menkių žvejybos kvotas, pavasarį žvejoja šprotus 

ir strimeles. Šių rūšių žvejybos kvotos išnaudojamos daug geriau: 97 proc. strimelių ir 99 proc. šprotų. Tokį 

didelį šių rūšių žvejybos kvotų panaudojimą galima laikyti išskirtiniu. 

Šiuo metu ES Taryba išsiuntinėjo šalims Europos Parlamento (EP) pateiktus siūlymus dėl Europos jūrų reikalų 

ir žuvininkystės fondo (EJRŽF) steigimo bei jūrinės strategijos. Naujas dokumentas nuo 2014 metų turėtų 

pakeisti ankstesnius žuvininkystės reglamentus. Šie metai skirti priemonėms svarstyti ir pastaboms pateikti. 

Projekte įrašyta Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektoriui nepalanki nuostata – iki 2020 metų neremti naujų laivų 

statybos, kaip to daryti neleista ir iki šiol. Naujos strategijos projekte daug kalbama apie laivų modernizavimo 

priemones, nors atnaujinti lietuvių turimus 30 metų senumo tralerius vargu ar įmanoma. Šių laivų „pavargęs“ 

net korpusų metalas. Lietuvos žuvininkystės valdininkai mano, kad atnaujinti laivyną žvejų įmonėms 

padės siūlomos žuvų kvotų koncesijos. Naują tvarką ketinama diegti jau nuo 2013 metų. 

Iki 2012 metų Lietuvos žvejai yra gavę per 28 mln. litų laivams pjaustyti ir už pasitraukimą iš verslo. 

Baltijos laivynas sumažėjo trečdaliu – iki 37 laivų. Ši situacija nepalanki, siekiant išnaudoti kvotas: vieni 

laivai dėl senumo nepajėgūs žuvų išgaudyti, o kiti, kurių techninės galimybės yra didesnės negu skirta kvota, 

dėl didelių degalų sąnaudų naudojami neekonomiškai. 

Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektoriui svarbu atnaujinti laivus. Esant nepalankioms oro sąlygoms, nuo lapkričio 

mėn. mažai kas išplaukia žvejoti, nes laivų korpusai surūdiję ir žvejai, esant 10 metrų per sekundę vėjui, 

bijo plaukti į jūrą. 

Dar viena akcentuotina problema yra neefektyvus Klaipėdos žuvininkystės produktų aukciono valdymas. 

Aukcionas savo veiklą pradėjo 2007 metais. Jam statyti panaudotos Europos Sąjungos (ES) Žuvininkystės 

fondo lėšos, iš viso – 5,64 mln. litų. Šio aukciono steigėja ir visų akcijų savininkė yra Žemės ūkio ministerija. 

Žemės ūkio ministerija, būdama už 300 kilometrų, negali garantuoti efektyvaus aukciono valdymo. Klaipėdos 

miesto savivaldybė turi planų perimti šio objekto valdymą savo žinion, bet jokių oficialių prašymų ir 

aukciono veiklos vizijos žuvininkystės tarnybai nėra pateikusi. Oficialiuose žvejų susitikimuose akcentuojama, 

kad aukcioną reorganizavus į municipalinį liautųsi kalbos dėl jo privatizavimo. Žuvininkystės produktų 

gamintojų asociacijos, vienijančios 70 proc. žvejų, atstovo teigimu, savivaldybei perėmus aukcioną pagerėtų 

ir pačių žvejų padėtis. Pinigai už parduotą laimikį žvejus pasiektų greičiau, be to, jie žuvis galėtų pardavinėti 

tiesiogiai miestiečiams. Pagrindinis aukciono pajamų šaltinis – 6,5 proc. lėšų nuo parduotų žuvų. 2010 metais 

aukcionas gavo 641 tūkst. litų, veiklos sąnaudos sudarė 480 tūkst. litų. 

Kita sektoriaus problema susijusi su žmonių ištekliais. Pastaraisiais metais stebima Lietuvos žvejybos 

laivyne dirbančių kvalifikuotų darbuotojų senėjimo tendencija. Jaunimas mažai domisi šia veikla, o žuvi- 

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ninkystės sektoriaus darbuotojai ir su jais susiję asmenys labai susiskaidę, trūksta jų aktyvaus dalyvavimo, 

kuriant savo pačių gerovę, inicijuojant žuvininkystės sektoriaus efektyvią plėtrą. 

Lietuvos regionai, priklausantys nuo žuvininkystės veiklos, pastaruoju metu patiria daug ekonominių ir 

socialinių sunkumų dėl vykdomos žuvų išteklių tausojimo politikos bei žvejybos pajėgumų mažinimo (Lietuvos 

žuvininkystė (...), 2009). 

Jūrų žuvininkystės sektoriaus veikla yra problemiška, bet Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektoriaus 2007–2013 

metų nacionaliniame strateginiame plane (2006) ir Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektoriaus 2007–2013 metų veiksmų 

programoje (2007) akcentuota, kad Lietuva turi išsaugoti ir plėtoti žuvininkystės sektorių, pertvarkydama 

jį į ekonomiškai efektyvią ir socialiai naudingą veiklos šaką. Būtina pažymėti, kad pasaulio ekonomikos 

globalizacijos procesų kontekste jūrinių verslų išreikšta augimo tendencija. 

3. Jūrų žuvininkystės perspektyvos 

Žuvininkystė Lietuvoje – senas tradicijas turinti veikla. Lietuvai esant Europos Sąjungos (ES) nare Žemės 

ūkio ministerijos veiklą lemia nacionaliniai interesai ir vykdoma ES bendroji žuvininkystės politika, 

kurios tikslas – suderinti žuvų išteklius su į rinką orientuotu moderniu ir konkurencingu žuvininkystės ūkiu, 

švelninant jo pertvarkymo socialinius padarinius. 

Įstojus į ES, vienas svarbių Žemės ūkio ministerijos uždavinių buvo įgyvendinti su ES suderintą žuvininkystės 

sektoriaus administravimo modelį, naują teisinę bazę, pasinaudoti žuvininkystės plėtrai skirta parama. 

Žemės ūkio ministerija nustatyta tvarka administruoja Lietuvos Respublikos valstybės biudžeto ir finansinės 

paramos Lietuvos žuvininkystei lėšas, skirtas žuvininkystės plėtros programoms įgyvendinti. Lietuvai, kaip 

ir kitoms ES valstybėms narėms, žuvininkystės plėtrai teikiama ES finansinė parama. 

2007 m. pradėta vykdyti Europos žuvininkystės fondo (EŽF) programa žuvininkystės sektoriaus plėtrai 

suteikia naujų galimybių. Fondo sudarymo tikslas – ES parama valstybių narių žuvininkystės sektoriams 

2007–2013 m. Parama žuvininkystės sektoriui šiuo programavimo laikotarpiu teikiama pagal 5 prioritetines 

kryptis: žvejybos laivyno pajėgumų pritaikymo priemonės; akvakultūra; žvejyba vidaus vandenyse; žuvininkystės 

ir akvakultūros produktų perdirbimas ir rinkodara; bendro intereso priemonės; tvari žuvininkystės 

regionų plėtra; techninė parama. 2007–2013 m. laikotarpiu žuvininkystės sektoriui numatyta paskirstyti 

246,56 mln. Lt, iš jų 189,3 mln. Lt – iš EŽF ir 57,23 mln. Lt – Lietuvos nacionalinio biudžeto lėšų. 

Bendrasis programos tikslas, kurį tikimasi pasiekti iki 2013 m., yra žuvininkystės sektoriaus plėtra ir 

konkurencingumo didinimas, užtikrinant ekonominį, aplinkos bei socialinį tvarumą, žuvų išteklių tausojimą 

ir atkūrimą. 

Žuvininkystės regionai skiriasi tiek geografiniu išsidėstymu, tiek ir gamtos ar socialiniais ištekliais, skirtinguose 

žuvininkystės regionuose kyla ir atitinkamos problemos. Taigi tik ŽRVVG, būdamos vietoje ir atlikusios 

savo teritorijų analizę, gali įvardyti opiausias problemas, su kuriomis regionai susiduria, atitinkamai 

skiriasi ir problemų sprendimo būdai ar pasirinktos įgyvendinti priemonės bei veiklos sritys. 

2006 metais rengtame Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektoriaus 2007–2013 metų nacionaliniame strateginiame 

plane pažymėta, kad Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektorius glaudžiai susijęs su jūriniais reikalais. Ten pat minima, 

kad Lietuva 2004 metais įstojo į ES ir kartu su kitomis ES valstybėmis kuria ir įgyvendina Bendrąją 

žuvininkystės politiką (toliau – BŽP). Narystė ir Bendrijos finansinė parama žuvininkystei, remiantis Lietuvos 

Bendruoju programavimo dokumentu (toliau – BPD) bei jo priedu, padėjo Lietuvai pritaikyti savo 

žuvininkystės sektorių veikti Bendrijos rinkoje ir atitinkamai reformuoti administravimo sistemą. Ten pat 

suformuota žuvininkystė sektoriaus vizija 2006–2013 metams. Jos esmė: Žuvininkystės sektoriaus plėtra ir 

konkurencingumo didinimas, užtikrinant ekonominį, aplinkos ir socialinį tvarumą, žuvų išteklių tausojimą 

ir atkūrimą. 

Dokumente pažymėta, kad būtina užtikrinti darnią žuvininkystės plėtrą, racionaliai derinant verslo konkurencingumą 

ir efektyvumą, racionaliai naudojant išteklius ir sprendžiant socialines problemas. Kompleksinė 

žuvininkystės plėtra turi užtikrinti visų žuvų produktų judėjimo ciklo grandžių tolygią ir tarpusavyje 

suderintą veiklą, kuri atitinka Lietuvos ir ES strateginio valdymo tradicijas. 

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Siekiant plėtoti Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektorių, nacionaliniame strateginiame plane pabrėžiama būtinybė 

daug dėmesio skirti racionaliam žuvų išteklių naudojimui, aplinkos kokybės gerinimui, sudaryti tinkamas 

sąlygas labai mažų ir mažų įmonių plėtrai, skatinti mokymąsi visą gyvenimą. Siekiant suderinti žvejybos pajėgumus 

su esamais žuvų ištekliais, kai kurios žvejybos įmonės, kurių veikla ekonomiškai nenaudinga, bus 

skatinamos palikti žvejybos verslą. Bus siekiama didinti pasiliekančių žvejybos versle įmonių konkurencingumą 

ir skatinti veiklos efektyvumą. Siekiant socialinės sanglaudos, prioritetinės sritys bus darbo sąlygų žuvininkystės 

sektoriuje gerinimas, investicijų į žmogiškuosius išteklius (mokslą, naujų technologijų diegimą) 

didinimas, perteklinės žvejyboje užimtos darbo jėgos perėjimas į kitą, ne žuvininkystės ekonominę veiklą. 

Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektoriaus 2007–2013 metų nacionaliniame strateginiame plane (2006) akcentuotas 

šio sektoriaus regioninis aspektas ir pažymėta, kad sudėtinga nustatyti regionus, kurių socialiniameekonominiame 

vystymesi svarbiausia būtų žuvininkystė, nes šis sektorius yra labai mažas. Kadangi mažos 

įmonės, žvejojančios priekrantėje ir vidaus vandenyse, koncentruojasi Klaipėdos ir Kauno apskrityse bei 

sugauna jose daugiausiai žuvų, be to, tuose regionuose labiausiai mažėja žvejybos veiklos, būtina išskirti 

šias apskritis kaip pagrindinius, prioritetinius žuvininkystės regionus. Šie regionai ateityje galėtų tapti ekonominiu 

ir socialiniu požiūriu stipriausiais Lietuvos žuvininkystės regionais, nes juose yra didelis turizmo ir 

ekoturizmo plėtros, žuvininkystės sektoriaus konkurencingumo didinimo, tarpregioninio ir transnacionalinio 

bendradarbiavimo tarp žuvininkystės regionų vystymo, potencialas. 

Per 2006–2012 metų laikotarpį, kai buvo parengtas Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektoriaus 2007–2013 metų 

nacionalinis strateginis planas ir 2007–2013 metų veiksmų programa, šiuose dokumentuose esanti informacija 

ir prioritetinės veiklos kryptys buvo nuolat tikslinamos, remiantis ES dokumentais ir atsižvelgiant į 

kintančius žuvininkystės sektoriaus poreikius. 

Oficialiame Žuvininkystės tarnybos tinklalapyje akcentuotos šios pagrindinės veiklos sritys: 

Stiprinti žvejybos kontrolę. Svarbi Žuvininkystės tarnybos veiklos sritis yra žvejybos kontrolė Baltijos 

jūroje ir Atlanto vandenyne. Klaipėdoje įkurtas Žvejybos Baltijos jūroje reguliavimo skyrius, kuris 

kontroliuoja, kaip laikomasi verslinę žvejybą Baltijos jūroje ir pirminį žuvininkystės produktų pardavimą 

reglamentuojančių teisės aktų, tikrina žvejybos laivus jūroje, žuvininkystės produktų iškrovimą, jų pirminį 

pardavimą ir supirkimą Lietuvos Respublikos teritorijoje. Žvejybą Atlanto ir Ramiajame vandenynuose kontroliuoja 

Žvejybos Atlanto vandenyne kontrolės ir stebėsenos skyrius. Žuvininkystės tarnyba su palydovinio 

ryšio stebėjimo sistema vykdo Lietuvos žvejybos laivų stebėseną Baltijos jūroje ir Atlanto vandenyne, organizuoja 

žuvų išteklių tyrimus, kuria bei administruoja žuvininkystės duomenų informacinę sistemą, tvarko 

Lietuvos žvejybos laivų rejestrą, tobulina žvejybos kontrolės teisinę bazę, kontroliuoja NAFO ir kitų tarptautinių 

organizacijų reguliuojamose akvatorijose bei užsienio valstybių išskirtinėse ekonominėse zonose 

žvejojančius Lietuvos laivus, dalyvauja kontrolės misijose ES žvejybos kontrolės laivuose. 

Plėtoti žvejybos infrastruktūrą. Šiam uždaviniui vykdyti Klaipėdos valstybinio jūrų uosto Smiltelės 

upės žiotyse pastatyta Baltijos jūros žvejybos laivų prieplauka. Prieplaukoje įrengtas žuvininkystės produktų 

aukcionas, kuriame organizuojamas pirminis žuvininkystės produktų pardavimas, teikiamos žuvų rūšiavimo, 

ledo gamybos ir dėžių plovimo paslaugos. 

Optimizuoti žvejybą Baltijos jūros priekrantėje. Siekiant suderinti priekrantės vandenyse žvejojančio 

laivyno pajėgumus su esamais žuvų ištekliais ir organizuoti racionalią, griežčiau kontroliuojamą 

žvejybą bei žuvų išteklių naudojimą, numatoma riboti kai kurių rūšių žuvų žvejybą tam tikru laiku arba 

tam tikrose vietose, nustatyti tam tikrų žuvų rūšių sugavimo limitus, leidžiamų žvejybos įrankių skaičių ir 

žvejybos būdus, patikslinti priekrantės žvejybos barų ribas bei optimizuoti priekrantėje žvejojančių įmonių 

skaičių. Įmonėms ir žvejams, kurie visam laikui nutraukė žvejybos veiklą, numatyta kompensavimo sistema. 

Skatinti žvejybos laivyno ir žuvų perdirbimo pramonės modernizavimą, didinti jų 

konkurencingumą tarptautinėse rinkose. Įgyvendinant ES bendrąją žuvininkystės politiką svarbu 

išsaugoti esamus žvejybos rajonus ir žvejybos apimtis, modernizuoti žvejybos laivyną, didinti žuvų 

perdirbimo pramonės efektyvumą bei konkurencingumą tarptautinėse rinkose. Tik ekonomiškai efektyvus, 

modernus, su žuvų ištekliais suderintas žvejybos laivynas ir ekonomiškai pajėgi pramonė galės išlikti 

didelės konkurencijos sąlygomis. Šiam tikslui pasiekti bus naudojamos Europos žuvininkystės fondo lėšos. 

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Numatoma remti žvejybos laivų ir žuvininkystės sektoriaus įmonių modernizavimo, naujų technologijų 

diegimo, darbo sąlygų gerinimo projektus. 

Plėtoti akvakultūrą, didinti jos konkurencingumą. Tvenkinių žuvininkystė šiuo metu yra pagrindinė 

vidaus vandenų žuvininkystės sritis, kur užauginama ir sugaunama daugiau kaip 50 procentų visos 

vidaus vandenų žuvininkystės produkcijos. Įgyvendinus šį uždavinį padidėtų tvenkiniuose išaugintų žuvų 

skaičius ir pagausėtų asortimentas. Numatoma remti esamų akvakultūros įmonių modernizavimą, vandens 

tiekimo ir šalinimo sistemų rekonstrukciją, naujų technologijų diegimą, asortimento didinimą, ypač ekologiškos 

produkcijos gamybą, plėtoti žuvų selekcijos darbus, teikiant prioritetą lietuviškai karpių veislei. Pagal 

tikslines programas bus finansuojamos žuvų ligų profilaktikos priemonės akvakultūros įmonėse. 

Vykdyti žuvivaisos darbus, siekiant atkurti natūralių vandens telkinių žuvų išteklius. 

Įgyvendinant Žuvų įveisimo į valstybinės reikšmės vandens telkinius programas, valstybiniuose vandens 

telkiniuose bus veisiami žuvų jaunikliai. Kad šis procesas vyktų efektyviau, būtina: modernizuoti žuvivaisos 

įmones, išmokti veisti vertingas, vidaus ir užsienio rinkose paklausias žuvis bei vėžius ir auginti jų jauniklius, 

didinti vertingų žuvų (sykų, peledžių, lynų), ypač plėšriųjų (lydekų ir starkių) bei lašišinių, veisimo mastą, 

vyresnių amžiaus grupių žuvų jauniklių, įskaitant ungurius, veisimą. 

Įgyvendinti struktūrinę politiką. Vadovaujantis Tarybos reglamentu dėl Europos žuvininkystės 

fondo, parama žuvininkystės sektoriui bus teikiama penkių prioritetinių ašių pagrindu. Siekdama panaudoti 

ES paramą, Lietuva parengė strateginius programinius dokumentus – Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektoriaus 

2007–2013 metų nacionalinį strateginį planą ir veiklos programą, kurie nubrėžia pagrindines žuvininkystės 

sektoriaus vystymo kryptis, siektinus tikslus ir priemones jiems pasiekti. Vienas svarbiausių struktūrinės paramos 

įgyvendinimo elementų yra žvejybos pajėgumų derinimas su žuvų ištekliais. Tuo tikslu dalis žvejybos 

laivų bus modernizuojama, kita dalis – atiduodama į metalo laužą. Ne mažiau svarbios paramos kryptys yra 

akvakultūros ir perdirbimo įmonių modernizavimas, žvejybos uosto ir prieplaukų plėtra, socialinius padarinius 

mažinančios priemonės. Kad kuo efektyviau būtų panaudotos ES lėšos, bus teikiama parama ugdant jas 

administruojančių institucijų gebėjimus ir didinant efektyvumą. 

Šiuo metu pagal Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektoriaus 2007–2013 metų veiksmų programos ketvirtosios 

prioritetinės krypties „Tvari žuvininkystės regionų plėtra“ priemonę „Žuvininkystės regionų vietos plėtros 

strategijų įgyvendinimas“ patvirtintos dešimties žuvininkystės regionų vietos veiklos grupių (ŽRVVG) plėtros 

strategijos. Paramą strategijoms įgyvendinti gavo Klaipėdos, „Klaipėdos rajono iniciatyvų“, „Pasienio 

žuvų“, Kretingos, Tauragės, „Vilkaudos“, Zarasų ir Visagino, Ignalinos rajono, Utenos bei Raseinių ŽRVVG. 

Tikslas – gerinti žuvininkystės regionų gyvenimo kokybę. 

Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektoriaus 2007–2013 metų veiksmų programos priemonė „Žuvininkystės regionų 

vietos plėtros strategijų įgyvendinimas“ skirta telkti žuvininkystės regiono bendruomenę ir ugdyti jos 

gebėjimus veikti kartu žuvininkystės sektoriaus ir bendruomenės labui. Įgyvendinant žuvininkystės regionų 

plėtros strategijas siekiama ne tik gerinti ekonominę ir socialinę žuvininkystės regionų padėtį, didinti žuvininkystės 

ir akvakultūros produktų vertę ir konkurencingumą, išlaikyti esamas darbo vietas ir sukurti naujų, 

remiant žuvininkystės regionų bendruomenes, kurios dėl pokyčių žuvininkystės sektoriuje patiria socialinių 

ir ekonominių sunkumų, bet ir skatinti pakrančių bei gyvenviečių, kuriose vykdoma žuvininkystės veikla, 

aplinkos tobulinimą. Minėta priemonė taip pat skatina nacionalinį ir tarpvalstybinį žuvininkystės regionų 

bendradarbiavimą, organizuojant žuvininkystės sektoriaus darbuotojų mokymus, kurie skirti jų kvalifikacijai 

kelti arba, prireikus, perkvalifikuoti. 

Dar viena sektoriaus galimybė – naujas ES jūrų ir žuvininkystės politikai skirtas fondas. 

Europos Komisija siūlo 2014–2020 m. laikotarpiui įsteigti naują ES jūrų reikalų ir žuvininkystės politikos 

fondą – Europos jūrų reikalų ir žuvininkystės fondą (EJRŽF). Taip siekiama palengvinti bendros žuvininkystės 

politikos reformos plataus užmojo tikslų įgyvendinimą ir padėti žvejams pereiti prie tausios žvejybos, 

o pakrančių bendruomenėms – įvairinti ekonomiką. Fondo lėšomis bus finansuojami projektai, kuriuos 

vykdant bus kuriamos naujos darbo vietos ir gerinama gyvenimo Europos pakrančių teritorijose kokybė. 

Kad paramos gavėjams būtų lengviau gauti finansavimą, bus mažinama biurokratinė našta. Už jūrų reikalus 

ir žuvininkystę atsakinga komisijos narė M. Damanaki akcentavo: „Šis fondas padės spartinti ekonomikos 

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augimą ir šiame sektoriuje kurti darbo vietas. Pinigų dideliems laivams statyti skiriama nebebus. Bendros 

žuvininkystės politikos biudžetinėmis priemonėmis siekiama tausoti aplinką – tai duos naudos smulkiosios 

žuvininkystės ir akvakultūros sektoriams“ (Mokslinio-praktinio seminaro (...), 2011). 

Šis fondas pakeis dabartinį Europos žuvininkystės fondą (EŽF) ir įvairias kitas priemones. Siūlomas 

2014–2020 m. laikotarpio finansinis paketas – 6,5 mlrd. eurų. 

Pažangi ir aplinkai nekenksminga žuvininkystė. Nuo praeito amžiaus paskutiniojo dešimtmečio 

pradžios nemažai laivų virto metalo laužu, tai kainavo 1,7 mlrd. eurų. Tačiau ES laivyno pajėgumas vis dar 

gerokai per didelis: nors dalis laivų išmontuota, likusieji dėl technologinės pažangos tapo pajėgesni. Taigi 

nuo šiol pinigai bus naudojami kitu tikslu: juos planuojama skirti tokiai veiklai, kuri būtų naudinga tiek ekonomikai, 

tiek visuomenei. Ekonomikos įvairinimas – viena iš jų. Iki šiol principu „iš apačios į viršų“ grindžiamų 

iniciatyvų skatinimas duoda puikių rezultatų tokiose su žvejyba susijusiose srityse kaip perdirbimas, 

viešasis maitinimas ir turizmas. EJRŽF skatins tokias bendruomenių iniciatyvas. Nedideli pakrančių laivynai 

tebėra daugelio pakrančių bendruomenių ekonomikos šerdis, todėl parama jiems bus didinama. Naujojo fondo 

lėšomis bus remiami novatoriški projektai, pavyzdžiui, žvejybos tinklų keitimas selektyvesniais žvejybos 

įrankiais, kad atgal į jūrą būtų išmetama mažiau žuvų, kuriamos žvejybos bei žuvivaisos poveikį aplinkai 

padedančios mažinti technologijos. 

Pažangi ir aplinkai nekenksminga akvakultūra. Žuvivaisa – puiki galimybė mažinti priklausomumą 

nuo importo. Ši ūkio šaka kaimo vietovėse užtikrina darbą, ant europiečių stalų – sveiką maistą. 

Fondo lėšomis bus siekiama tvariai plėtoti žuvivaisą ir šiuo tikslu bus skatinamos naujovės, taip pat bus 

remiama naujų akvakultūros krypčių, pavyzdžiui, ne maistui skirtų akvakultūros produktų gamybos, plėtotė. 

Mokslininkų ir žvejų partnerystės rėmimas. Įgyvendinant bendros žuvininkystės politikos reformą 

ypač svarbu gauti tikslius žuvų išteklių ir jūrų aplinkos būklės duomenis, todėl EJRŽF skirs pakankamai 

lėšų duomenų rinkimui, stebėsenai ir kontrolei. Jūroje dirbantiems žvejams ir jūrą tiriantiems mokslininkams 

nebendradarbiauti – neracionalu, todėl EJRŽF juos ragins dirbti kartu ir ieškoti būdų, kaip tausiai naudoti 

gamtos ištekius. 

Bendras žuvininkystės ir integruotos jūrų politikos fondas. 2007 m. ES integruota jūrų politika 

sieja jūrų sektorius, kurie istoriškai buvo atsieti vienas nuo kito ir valdomi atskirai. EJRŽF teiks paramą 

tokiems projektams kaip jūrų erdvės planavimas, integruotas jūrų stebėjimas ir pažinimas. Tai pavyzdžiai, 

kai integracija gali padėti išvengti dvigubo darbo ir sumažinti sąnaudas, nes įvairūs sektoriai skatinami bendradarbiauti 

ir koordinuoti tarpusavio veiksmus. Jūrų politiką įtraukus į EJRŽF veiklos sritį būtų lengviau 

užtikrinti nuoseklumą ir siekti dviejų politikos krypčių sinergijos. 

Paprastinimas. Bus suderintos EJRŽF ir kitų ES fondų veiklą reglamentuojančios taisyklės. Taip bus 

paprasčiau ir paramos gavėjams, ir nacionalinėms institucijoms. EJRŽF – bendros strateginės programos, 

kuri užtikrins, kad visi esami ES fondai savo veiklą derintų tarpusavyje ir vengtų besikartojančios ar besidubliuojančios 

veiklos, dalis. 

Fondo veikla. Naujojo fondo lėšomis bendrai su valstybėmis narėmis bus finansuojami tam tikri projektai. 

Visas fondo biudžetas bus paskirstomas valstybėms narėms, atsižvelgiant į žuvininkystės sektoriaus 

svarbą kiekvienoje jų. Bus taikomi Komisijos ir valstybių narių pasidalijamojo valdymo principai. Kiekviena 

valstybė narė konkrečiam laikotarpiui rengs veiklos programą, kurioje nurodys, kaip ketina leisti jai skirtus 

pinigus. Kai komisija programą patvirtins, valstybė narė galės pati spręsti, kuriuos konkrečius projektus 

gautomis lėšomis finansuoti. Veiklos atitikimą paramos skyrimo reikalavimams ir programos įgyvendinimą 

kontroliuos valstybės narės ir komisija (ES parama (...) veiklos grupėms, 2011). 

ES siekia atsisakyti pernelyg intensyvios žuvininkystės. I. Jepsen (Mokslinio-praktinio seminaro 

(...), 2011) pristatė ES Bendrosios žuvininkystės politikos (BŽP) reformos nuostatas ir paramos galimybes 

2014–2020 m. laikotarpiu. 

Reformos ašis – tausojanti žuvininkystė. I. Jepsen (Mokslinio-praktinio seminaro (...), 2011) akcentavo, 

kad EK labai aktuali visų valstybių narių žuvininkystės sektoriaus atstovų nuomonė. BŽP – tai įvairios 

priemonės, kuriomis siekiama Europos žuvininkystės sektoriaus klestėjimo ir tvarumo. Įgyvendinant 

naująją politiką, kurioje numatyta nepereikvoti žuvų išteklių ir žvejybos galimybes nustatyti atsižvelgiant 

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į mokslininkų rekomendacijas, bus sudarytos sąlygos žuvų ištekliams atsikurti iki tvaraus lygio. Reforma 

siekiama, kad žuvininkystės sektorius vėl suklestėtų: numatoma panaikinti jo priklausomybę nuo subsidijų ir 

sudaryti naujų darbo vietų kūrimo bei ekonomikos augimo pakrančių regionuose galimybes. Pasak I. Jepsen 

(Mokslinio-praktinio seminaro (...), 2011), žvejo profesija turi tapti pelninga. Radikalių pokyčių prireikė 

išryškėjus, kad žuvų sugavimų mažėja, o ES žuvininkystės rinka negali patenkinti savo poreikių. Nustatyta, 

kad daugiau kaip 30 proc. laivyno dirba nuostolingai. Elementarūs techniniai klausimai politizuojami ir tai 

labai apsunkina darbą. I. Jepsen (Mokslinio-praktinio seminaro (...), 2011) pažymėjo, kad siekiant ilgalaikės 

pažangos žuvininkystės reforma būtina. 

Šiemet liepos mėnesį EK, įvertinusi šalių narių idėjas ir pasiūlymus, pateikė apibendrintus pasiūlymus 

dėl naujosios BŽP, kurioje akcentuojama, kad iki 2015 metų svarbu pasiekti didžiausią tausojančią žuvininkystę 

užtikrinantį žuvų išteklių lygį. Didelį dėmesį numatoma skirti žuvų išmetimo į jūrą problemai, ekosistemos 

apsaugos gerinimui, akvakultūros plėtrai, decentralizuotam valdymui ir finansavimui. 

Įgyvendinant naujosios BŽP tausojimo tikslus bus teikiama ES finansinė parama. Finansinė parama bus 

skiriama tik laikantis griežtų taisyklių, šį principą taikant tiek valstybėms narėms, tiek veiklos vykdytojams. 

Dvišaliuose žuvininkystės susitarimuose su ne ES šalimis, Europos Sąjunga skatins tausoti, reguliuoti ir laikytis 

demokratijos principų, užtikrinti žmogaus teises ir vykdyti teisės normas. Dabartinius žvejybos partnerystės 

susitarimus keis tausojančios žvejybos susitarimai, kurie užtikrins, kad žuvų ištekliai būtų žvejojami 

tik atsižvelgiant į patikimas mokslines rekomendacijas ir tik tie, kurių šalis partnerė negali ar nenori žvejoti 

pati (ES parama (...) veiklos grupėms, 2011). 

Apibendrinus pateiktą informaciją reikia pažymėti, kad projektuojant 2014–2020 metų Lietuvos žuvininkystės 

sektoriaus gaires reikėtų rūpintis: 

• y ne tik išteklių išsaugojimu, bet ir žvejais, žuvų augintojais bei perdirbėjais, numatant veiksmingas 

priemones, kurios užtikrintų žuvininkystės sektoriaus ekonominį gyvybingumą ir socialinį patrauklumą; 

• y palankių teisinių ir ekonominių sąlygų sudarymu, akvakultūros vystymu ir plėtra, diegiant 

modernias žuvų auginimo technologijas, didinant auginamų žuvų rūšių skaičių ir mažinant Europos 

Sąjungos vidaus rinkos priklausomybę nuo žuvų ir jų produktų importo iš trečiųjų šalių; 

• y tausojančios žvejybos užtikrinimu, pirmiausia siūlant žvejams jų veiklos alternatyvų. Vykdant 

išorinę politiką, naujojoje bendrosios žuvininkystės politikoje turi išryškėti aiškūs įsipareigojimai, t. y. 

sudarant žvejybos partnerystės susitarimus su trečiosiomis šalimis ir atstovaujant valstybėms narėms 

regioninėse žvejybos valdymo organizacijose bei užtikrinant vienodas veiklos sąlygas Bendrijos ir 

trečiųjų šalių žvejams; 

• y bendrosios žuvininkystės produktų rinkos organizavimo modernizavimu, siekiant jo 

efektyvumo; 

• y daugiamečiais planais paremtu žuvų išteklių valdymu, kuris apimtų ne pavienius išteklius, 

bet susijusių išteklių grupes, o žuvų išmetimai į jūrą turėtų būti eliminuoti laipsniškai, visų pirma nustatant 

ir išmėginant išmetimus mažinančias priemones. 

Atlikus išsamią Lietuvos jūrų žuvininkystės sektoriaus analizę, nustačius problemas ir galimybes, įvertinus 

pasaulio ir Europos Sąjungos šalių patirtį, laikantis tolydumo principo, nuspręsta, kad Lietuvos jūrų 

žuvininkystės ūkis ir ateityje turi būti vystomas vadovaujantis Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektoriaus 2007–2013 

metų nacionaliniu strateginiu planu (2006) ir Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektoriaus 2007–2013 veiksmų programa 

(2007) bei projektuojamomis 2014–2020 metų Jūrų žuvininkystės gairėmis, kuriose atsiskleidžia šie 

metodologiniai principai: 

1. Nacionalinės žuvininkystės kultūros plėtojimas, siekiant išsaugoti sukauptą patirtį ir toliau skatinant 

pažangią žuvų išteklių tausojančio naudojimo, mokslinių tyrimų, žvejybos, žuvų perdirbimo bei prekybos 

žuvų produktais veiklą, laikantis nustatytų Europos Sąjungos taisyklių. 

2. Tolydi žuvininkystės plėtra, nukreipta į ūkio dalyvių ekonominio efektyvumo, socialinių klausimų 

sprendimo ir tausojančio gamtos išteklių naudojimo plėtimą bei racionalų derinimą pagal Jungtinių 

Tautų ir Europos Sąjungos metodologines nuostatas. 

43



3. Žuvininkystės globalizacijos plėtra, skatinant dalyvavimą pasaulio žuvininkystės organizacijų darbe, 

aktyvų pasaulio vandenyno žuvų išteklių naudojimą, keitimąsi žuvų kvotomis, bendrą žvejybos rajonų 

žuvų išteklių tausojantį naudojimą, investicijų ir inovacijų pritraukimą į Lietuvos jūrų žuvininkystės ūkį. 

4. Žuvininkystės internacionalizacijos plėtra, siekiant sudaryti vienodas galimybes Europos Sąjungos ir 

kitų šalių piliečiams dalyvauti Lietuvos jūrų žuvininkystės ūkyje, rūpintis Lietuvos Respublikos piliečių, 

dirbančių kitų šalių žvejybos laivyne, teisėmis ir ginti jų teisėtus interesus. 

5. Kompleksinis žuvininkystės ūkio plėtojimas, siekiant sutvarkyti, aprūpinti ir užtikrinti viso žuvų produktų 

judėjimo ciklo grandžių tolygų ir tarpusavyje suderintą veikimą pagal Europos Sąjungos strateginės 

vadybos tradicijas. 

6. Inovacinis žuvininkystės plėtojimas, siekiant aprūpinti ūkio dalyvius pažangia technika, skatinant 

diegti pažangias gamybos technologijas, kaip tai daroma ES šalyse. 

7. Nuoseklus žuvininkystės ūkio pertvarkymas pagal Europos Sąjungos reikalavimus, rengiant, priimant 

ir įgyvendinant atitinkamus teisės aktus. 

8. Finansinės paramos žuvininkystės ūkio įmonėms teikimas derinant pačių įmonių, valstybės ir Europos 

Sąjungos fondų pastangas. 

9. Demokratinės savivaldos plėtimas, numatantis žuvininkystės ūkio plėtros ir sprendimų mechanizmų 

efektyvumo didinimą, derinant visų šakos dalyvių pastangas ir interesus, kaip tai daroma Europos 

Sąjungoje. 

Šie metodologiniai principai yra svarbūs, nes Lietuvos jūrų žuvininkystė yra: 

• y nacionalinė kultūrinio reikšmingumo požiūriu; 

• y regioninė veiklos koncentracijos požiūriu, nes apie 90 % žuvų sugauna pajūryje veikiančios įmonės; 

• y tarpžinybinė interesų sričių požiūriu, nes vienija įvairialypę veiklą žuvų produktų judėjimo ciklo grandyse: 

žuvininkystės vadyba, tausojantis žuvų išteklių naudojimas, žvejyba, žuvų transportavimas ir 

saugojimas, žuvų perdirbimas, pirminė žuvų prekyba, žuvų produktų mažmeninė prekyba, vartojimas 

ir utilizavimas. Žuvininkystės veikla glaudžiai susijusi su daugeliu ministerijų ir žinybų: Žemės ūkio, 

Aplinkos, Susisiekimo, Ūkio, Sveikatos, Švietimo ir mokslo, Socialinės apsaugos ir darbo, Finansų 

ministerijomis, Klaipėdos ir kitomis apskritimis, Klaipėdos miestu ir kitais miestais, Mokslų akademija, 

Ekologijos institutu ir kitomis mokslo bei tyrimų organizacijomis. Tiesiogiai žuvininkystės 

interesai susiję su žuvininkystės įmonių, jų asociacijų bei darbuotojų veikla;; 

• y tausojanti pagal natūralių gamtos išteklių naudojimo pobūdį. Žuvų ištekliai yra lengvai pažeidžiami 

gamtos ištekliai, kurių valdymas, naudojimas, apsauga ir kontrolė turi būti vykdoma ypač rūpestingai, 

tausojančiai, remiantis moksliniais tyrimais ir ilgalaikėmis tikslinėmis programomis; 

• y socialiai orientuota, kadangi yra žemas pajamas gaunančių gyventojų pragyvenimo šaltinis. Ypač ši 

veikla gelbsti mažai užimtus ir nedideles pajamas gaunančius kaimo gyventojus; ekonomiškai tikslinga, 

kadangi nuolat didėja žuvų produktų paklausa ir išlieka nesunkiai pasiekiami žuvų ištekliai. 

Išvados 

1. Nors Lietuvos jūrų žuvininkystės reforma vykdoma nuosekliai, išlieka aktualios šios pagrindinės problemos: 

sektoriaus valdymo sudėtingumas, nuolatos mažėjančios šprotų ir strimelių žvejybos kvotos, 

trumpėjantis menkių žvejybos sezonas, žvejyba vykdoma senais ir neekonomiškais laivais, Klaipėdos 

žuvininkystės produktų aukciono valdymas yra neefektyvus, stebima kvalifikuotų darbuotojų senėjimo 

tendencija, Lietuvos regionai, priklausantys nuo žuvininkystės veiklos, pastaruoju metu patiria 

daug ekonominių ir socialinių sunkumų dėl vykdomos žuvų išteklių tausojimo politikos ir žvejybos 

pajėgumų mažinimo. 

2. Toliau aštrėjant jūrų žuvininkystės problemoms pavieniai regionai, kur darbo pasirinkimo galimybės 

yra ribotos, gali susidurti su rimta problema, nes žuvininkystė svarbi kaip darbo vietų šaltinis ir pripažįstama 

kaip svarbi ekonomikos šaka. Tiesiogiai ir netiesiogiai su žuvininkystės veikla susiję apie 7 % 

44


pajūrio žmonių. Mažėja žvejo profesijos ir tradicinių žuvininkystės verslų patrauklumas. Jaunimas iki 

25 metų jau dabar žuvininkystės verslo patrauklumą vertina neigiamai ir nesieja jo su kažkada klestėjusia 

žvejybos romantika. 

3. Jeigu žuvininkystės verslas žlugtų, tai būtų skausminga apie 15 % arba kas septintam pajūrio gyventojui. 

Žuvininkystės verslo žlugimas mažiausiai paliestų miesto gyventojus. Labiausiai nukentėtų 

užimtųjų žuvų ūkyje šeimos. 

4. Žuvininkystės sektorių reglamentuojančiuose dokumentuose jūrų žuvininkystė apibūdinama 

kaip veikla, susijusi su žuvų išteklių valdymu, saugojimu ir atkūrimu, žvejyba, akvakultūra, žuvų 

perdirbimu, pirminiu žuvininkystės produktų pardavimu ir supirkimu. 

5. Tvarią (tausią) šakos plėtrą gali užtikrinti žuvininkystės regionų tvari plėtra ir gyvenimo kokybės juose 

gerinimas, nulemtas vietos iniciatyvų ir partnerystės. Tvaresnė šakos plėtra siejama su Lietuvos 

žuvininkystės sektoriaus 2007–2013 metų nacionaliniame strateginiame plane ir Lietuvos žuvininkystės 

sektoriaus 2007–2013 metų veiksmų programoje numatytų tikslų ir uždavinių įgyvendinimu 

bei projektuojamomis 2014–2020 programos gairėmis. Lietuvos jūrų žuvininkystės sektoriaus plėtra 

ypač svarbi įgyvendinant šalies regioninės plėtros tikslus ir patvirtinant Lietuvos, kaip jūrų valstybės, 

statusą. 

6. Vykdant tolesnę jūrų žuvininkystės sektoriaus reformą būtina reguliuoti laivynų perteklinį pajėgumą, 

diegiant veiksmingus mechanizmus, kurie padėtų laivynams prisitaikyti prie turimų ištekių kiekio. 

Sutelkti pagrindines BŽP pajėgas ties sveikų ir tinkamų naudoti išteklių išsaugojimu. Žuvininkystės 

valdymą, kuris šiuo metu tenka Žuvininkystės tarnybos prie Žemės ūkio ministerijai, perkelti į 

regioninį lygmenį, taikant bendrijos valdymo principus. Įtraukti sektorių į išteklių valdymo ir BŽP 

įgyvendinimo veiklą, plėtojant rezultatais paremtą administravimą. Siekti, kad valstybės narės ir šio 

sektoriaus įmonės plėtotų organizacinę kultūrą ir taikytų BŽP priemones. 

Literatūra 

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conditions for certain fish stocks and groups of fish stocks applicable in the Baltic Sea for 2010. Prieiga internetu: 

[žiūrėta 2012-02-23]. 



[žiūrėta 2012-02-23]. 



[žiūrėta 2012-02-23]. 

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fish stocks and groups of fish stocks applicable in the Baltic Sea for 2011. Prieiga internetu: [žiūrėta 2012-02-23]. 

COUNCIL REGULATION (EU) No 1256/2011 of 30 November 2011 fixing for 2012 the fishing opportunities for certain 

fish stocks and groups of fish stocks applicable in the Baltic Sea and amending Regulation (EU) No 1124/2010. 

Prieiga internetu: [žiūrėta 2012-02-23]. 

Čiegis, R. (2009). Darnaus žemės ūkio plėtra Lietuvoje. Vadybos mokslas ir studijos, Nr. 1. Kaunas. 

ES parama – žuvininkystės regionų vietos veiklos grupėms. Prieiga internetu: [žiūrėta 2012-02-21]. 

Europos Komisijos pranešimas spaudai. Europos Komisija. Ateities žuvininkystės politika. Prieiga internetu: [žiūrėta 2012-02-26]. 

Grublienė, V. (2003). Lietuvos jūrų žuvininkystės ūkio plėtros programa: modeliavimas ir valdymas. Daktaro disertacija. 

Vilnius. 

Grublienė, V. (2006). Evaluation of Changes in the Management of Lithuanian Marine Fishery Economy. International 

Scientific Conference. Management Theory and Studies for Rural Business and Infrastructure Development, 5–7 

October. Kaunas, Kaliningrad. Institute of Economics and Social Sciences – Tartu. 

45



Grublienė, V. (2007). Development Possibilities of Lithuanian Fishery Sector in the Context of EU Methodological 

Culture. Social Sciences in Global World: Possibilities, Challenges and Perspectives. The 3 nd International Scientific 

Conference: The recent development of the EU: challenges and experience. Klaipėda. 

Grublienė, V. (2009). Lithuanian Fishery Sector Development Problems and Cluster Formation Opportunities. Tiltai. 

Priedas: mokslo darbai, Nr. 39. Klaipėda. 

Lietuvos Respublikos žuvininkystės įstatymas. (2001, 2004). Valstybės žinios, 2001, Nr. 56-1648; 2004, Nr. 73-2527. 

Lietuvos žuvininkystė. (2009). Dokumentai, faktai, skaičiai. 2006–2007 metai. Lietuvos Respublikos žemės ūkio ministerija. 

Vilnius: Lietuvos agrarinės ekonomikos institutas. 

Lietuvos žuvininkystės sektoriaus 2007–2013 metų nacionalinis strateginis planas. (2006). Vilnius: Žuvininkystės departamentas. 

Mokslinio-praktinio seminaro „ES siekia atsisakyti pernelyg intensyvios žuvininkystės“, vykusio 2011 09 09 Žemės 

ūkio ministerijoje, medžiaga (cituota iš M. Damanaki, S. Lapėno ir I. Japsen pranešimų). (2011). Prieiga internetu: 

[žiūrėta 2012-03-23]. 

Mokslinio-praktinio seminaro „Žvejybos Baltijos jūroje aktualijos ir jų aptarimas“, vykusio 2011 12 05 Palangoje 

medžiaga. Prieiga internetu: [žiūrėta 2012-02-20]. 

OECD. (2006a). Rural Policy Reviews. The New Rural Paradigm: Policies and Governance. OECD Publishing. 

OECD. (2006b). Reinventing Rural Policy. The OECDPolicy Brief. Prieiga internetu: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/18/9/37556607.pdf 

[žiūrėta 2012-05-05]. 

Rutkauskas, A. V. (2008). Apie regiono konkurencingumo plėtros tvarumą atsižvelgiant į riziką. Ūkio technologinis ir 

ekonominis vystymas, Nr. 1. Vilnius: Technika. 

Rutkauskas, A.V. (2001). Regiono rizikos monitoringo parengimo problemos. Konferencijos medžiaga: Verslas ir vadyba-2000. 

Vilnius: Technika. 

Stepukonis, F. (1998). Vidutinė gyvenimo trukmė: pasaulis ir Lietuva. Vilnius. 

Toliušis, Š., Maksimovas, J. (1998). Žuvų ištekliai Baltijos jūros Lietuvos ekonominėje zonoje ir jų sugavimo prognozė. 

Žuvininkystė Lietuvoje. Vilnius: Lietuvos hidrologų draugija. 

Vaitekūnas, S. (1996). Lietuva – jūrų valstybė. I Lietuvos okeanologų konferencijos medžiaga. Klaipėda: KU leidykla. 

Vaitekūnas, S. (2001). Lietuvos regionų problema Europos Sąjungos kontekste. Tarptautinė mokslinė konferencija. 

Regionų plėtra. Pranešimų medžiaga. Kaunas: Technologija. 

Žuvininkystės tarnybos prie Lietuvos Respublikos žemės ūkio ministerijos 2012 metų veiklos planas. (2012). Prieiga 

internetu: http://www.zuv.lt/index.php?2928635225 [žiūrėta 2012-02-23]. 

Бильчак, В. С., Захаров, В. Ф. (1998). Региональная экономика. Калининград: Янтарный Сказ. 

Гладкий, Ю. Н., Чистобаев, А. И. (1998). Основы региональной политики. Спб.: СпбГУ. 

PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES OF REGIONAL SEA FISHERY BUSINESS 


Klaipėda University (Lithuania), Klaipėda State College (Lithuania) 

Summary 

Main problems that are discussed in this article are: complexity of Lithuania’s sea fishery management, 

decrease of quotas for some types of fish, shortening of fishing season, old ships, reluctance of young people 

to pursue a career in fishery sector. 

The object of the research. Problems and perspectives of Lithuania’s sea fishery sector. 

The goal of the research. After evaluation of the problems and opportunities of Lithuania’s sea fishery 

sector, provide the perspectives for the development of the sector. 

The tasks of the research: 

• y to evaluate the scientific literature, normative acts and documentation that regulate the activity of the 

sector; 

• y to determine the main problems and perspectives of the sea fishery sector; 

• y to provide recommendations for sustainable development of the sea fishery sector. 

46


Methods of the research. Analysis and synthesis of scientific literature, normative acts and documents 

that regulate the development of sea fishery sector in Lithuania, generalization of information and 

materials of seminars about the development of sea fishing process and its change considering the economic 

and political tendencies. Main documents that were analysed: National strategic plan of Lithuania’s fishery 

sector for 2007–2013 (2006) and Action program of Lithuania’s fishery sector for 2007–2013 (2007), these 

document regulate the development of the sector. Also the areas of activity of Fishery agency of Ministry of 

agriculture, various planning documents and reports about economical and social condition of fishery sector 

from different years were analysed. 

It was determined that these problems have the biggest impact on fishery sector: complexity of Lithuania’s 

sea fishing management, decrease of quotas for some types of fish, shortening of cod fishing season, 

fishing in Baltic Sea is conducted with old ships, management of Klaipėda’s auction of fishery products, 

aging workforce. 

Perspectives of the sector could be defined in these main directions of activity: strengthening of fishing 

control, development of fishing infrastructure, optimization of fishing near the shore of the Baltic Sea, modernization 

of fishing fleet and fish processing industry, increase of their competitiveness in the international 

markets, execution of fish-culture for the restitution of natural fish resources. 

KEY WORDS: sea fishery, sector, region, perspectives, sustainable development. 

JEL codes: M100, Q22, Q56. 

47


Risk management as a tool to improve the reliability: case of insurance company 

Risk management as a tool to improve 

the reliability: case of insurance company 

Darja Kaļiņina 1 , Irina Voronova 2 

Riga Technical University (Latvia) 

ABSTRACT 

Risk management is one of the most critical and important areas that affects every insurance company’s activity and development. 

The goal of the research is to identify and establish the most important parts of risk management with the aim to improve the insurance 

company’s reliability with the risk self-assessment. Also risk management is one of the most significant functions under Solvency 

II Directive framework. The methods chosen for conducting the research are: literature exploring, comparative methods, modeling, 

analysis, methods of expert evaluation. 

KEY WORDS: risk management, risk self-assessment, Solvency II Directive. 

JEL CODES: G22. 

Introduction 

Risk management is the process of identifying potential danger and undesirable cases that include risk 

occurring probability evaluation and risk expected harm assessment. Risk management is a very important 

area in insurance because of the main aim to guarantee the insured person’s safety, and to pay the promised 

claim sum to an insurant, beneficiary, or insured legatee in case of a risk event occurrence. Therefore, one of 

the risk management points is to provide the clients with a sense of protection. 

The Solvency II regime sets many challenges for every insurance company’s risk management. Risk 

management principles should be improved under Solvency II Directive, the main purpose of which is to 

establish economic risk – the specified solvency requirements across all the European Union countries. 

The goal of the research is to improve the reliability of every insurance company with the risk management 

tool. The Hypothesis of the paper is that risk factors, which affect an insurance company’s activity and 

development, can be assessed, managed, and improved by a risk self-assessment test. 

The object of the paper is an insurance company registered in the European Union. Therefore, the subject 

is the improvement of the insurance company’s reliability with the risk management, according to the Solvency 

II Directive requirements. In order to achieve the stated objective the authors use a theoretical analysis 

of the scientific literature, analytical methods, and comparative method with the aim to study the elements 

and functions of the risk management and Solvency II Directive requirements elements and functions. The 

1 

Darja Kaļiņina – Riga Technical University, Faculty of Engineering Economics and Management, the Associate member of 

Latvian Actuarial association. Scientific interest: risk management, risk measurement, financial analysis, Solvency II directive, 

Basel II. 

E-mail: darja_kalinina@inbox.lv 

Tel.: +371 221 466 83. 

2 

Irina Voronova – Riga Technical University, Faculty of Engineering Economics and Management, the Fellow of Latvian Actuarial 

association. Scientific interest: risk management, risk measurement, financial analysis, Solvency II, Basel II. 

E-mail: irina.voronova@rtu.lv 

Tel.: +371 263 303 55. 

48


authors also use expert evaluation and priority chart’s methods with the purpose to improve the insurance 

company’s reliability. 

The main problem resolved during the research was to interconnect the reliability of the insurance company 

with the risk management improvement possibilities like the establishment of the risk self – assessment 

principles. The article consists of five main sections. The overview of the risk management is presented in 

Section II. In Section III there is a brief review of the risk management function under the Solvency II regime 

presented. The risk self-assessment analysis is performed in Section IV to establish the principles of possible 

solutions for the insurance company’s reliability improvement. The final section summarizes the findings 

and conclusions of the study and assesses the role and significance of the risk management. 

1. Risk Management System 

Figure 1. Risk management system description 

Source: created by the authors 

Risk management is the process of organizing, planning, leading, and controlling the activities of an insurance 

company with the purpose to minimize the effect of possible risks on the insurance company’s activity, 

profit and development. The risk management expands all the processes to involve not only risks that are 

associated with possible and accidental losses but also operational, credit, underwriting, market risks. 

By risk management we also mean any kind of considerations which enable businesses to detect critical 

developments and to take countermeasures early enough (Henschel, 2007). Therefore risk management is the 

process of identification, analysis, assessment, control, elimination and evasion of unacceptable risks. The 

concept of the risk management system is presented in Figure 1. 

Effective risk management system is a base to establish strategic reliability program for every insurance 

company. Therefore risk management should include the following requirements: 

• y A documented process for developing requirements that meet customer needs: are realistic, reliable, 

and achievable within budget and schedule constraints. 

• y Actions directed at the consolidation of reliability. This includes a special form of the risk self-assessment 

development with user-friendly interface that can be performed in MS Excel program. 

49



• y Risk management should identify and analyse every insurance company’s weak points with the purpose 

to eliminate or minimize the effect of failures and to validate the specified requirements reliability. 

• y Risk management should include statistical process control and periodic testing in order to ensure the 

reliability of all the processes. 

Every insurance company’s risk management system should be promoted with the aim to control and 

manage the reliability of business strategy. 

2. Risk Management Function Under Solvency II Framework 

The Solvency II Directive is based on the three-pillar approach where each pillar fulfils its own function: 

quantitative requirements, qualitative and supervision requirements, disclosure requirements that mean prudential 

reporting and public disclosure (EC, 2009). In fact, risk management function under Solvency II 

framework should be fit and proper in order to identify, measure, monitor, manage and report the risk through 

the strategy and process development. 

Also according to Solvency II Directive requirements, every insurance company should establish better 

real risk coverage through more sensitive and sophisticated risk analysis. The Solvency II Directive requirements 

are presented in Figure 2. 

Risk management function goes under Pillar 2 that sets out risk management and measurement objectives 

to ensure adoption of robust risk management processes that are carried out across the entire organization 

and that form the basis for informing and directing the insurer’s decision-making (PricewaterhouseCoopers, 

2010). Risk management is about to define risk profile that goes to align with the stakeholder’s risk appetite 

and risk tolerance, likewise keeping risks and losses to within insurer’s risk tolerance. 

Solvency II framework principles that require improvement of the risk management in order to ensure every 

insurance company’s reliability should be established till 31 st December, 2014 therefore the authors more concentrate 

on practical issues of the research. Under the Solvency II Directive requirements the notion of the risk 

management system should be reviewed and focused on the key areas that are presented in Figure 3. 

The main idea of Solvency II framework is to place risk dimension in the heart of every insurance company 

in order to improve business strategy and capital management reliability. The following rules are to be 

set in order to provide better risk framework: 

Figure 2. Solvency II approach 

Source: PricewaterhouseCoopers 2010 with the authors’ changes 

50


Figure 3. Risk management key points 


• y risk appetite requires a company to consider what its overarching attitude is to risk taking and how this 

attitude relates to the expectations of its stakeholders (Towers Watson, 2010); 

• y risk limits require a company to consider at a more granular level how much risk individual managers 

throughout the organization should be allowed to take within their assigned responsibilities (Towers 

Watson, 2010); 

• y risk tolerance requires a company to consider in quantitative terms exactly how much of its capital it 

is prepared to put at risk (Towers Watson, 2010); 

• y mission clarity with the term long value creation proposition; 

• y real time risk budget that allows stress testing through different scenarios modelling. 

The point is that the main idea of the risk governance is to consider the most effective way for implementing 

the best risk management practice. Moreover, the risk governance elements help to develop risk 

management culture that emphasizes at all levels the significance of managing risk as a part of each person’s 

daily activities. Risk tools allow improving an internal risk and capital models which are the heart of risk 

management, by customizing risk dashboards and developing improved benchmark framework. 

Tower Watson Audit Company on 2010 has held the Financial Crisis Puts Spotlight on ERM study among 

233 insurance companies on core risk controls during the recent financial crisis. The main results of the study 


Figure 4. Core risk controls were the most effective techniques 

Source: Towers Watson with the authors’ changes 

51



Figure 5. Latvian insurance companies’ risk management techniques 

Source: Created by authors 

In addition, it was discovered during the study that the insurance companies also use as a part of risk 

management techniques economic capital in decision-making, allowances in risk, risk governance structure, 

risk recourses, skills and capabilities, stress or scenario testing as planning capabilities, risk appetite statement, 

economic capital modelling, risk optimization capabilities, different risk technologies or systems and 

other risk models. 

Insurance companies in Latvia also use different risk management techniques presented in Figure 5. 

The point is that Tower Watson study and the authors’ research presents useful information about the 

possible ways of improving risk management system’s reliability of the insurance company. 

All in all, the authors can conclude that it is really important to ensure risk management integration in all 

insurance company’s business processes. 

3. Risk Self-Assessment as part of Insurance Company’s Reliability 

The Latvian insurance market is rather narrow, therefore the development of the risk management system 

is a complicated process. 

The main figures of the Latvian market are presented in Figure 6. 


Source: Latvian Financial and Capital market commission with the authors’ changes 

52


The point is that because of the Latvian insurance market every insurance company’s reliability and 

activity depends on risk management system. The first step to improve every insurance company’s reliability 

within the risk management system development is to develop and integrate the risk self-assessment tool. 

The risk self-assessment is the risk management tool that increases every insurance company’s reliability 

by means of risk monitoring at each business unit level. The aim of the risk self-assessment framework is to 

identify, assess, control and mitigate insurance company’s risks and to champion effective reporting of risk 

and emerging risk issues. 

The risk self-assessment tool is also used to evaluate and map the most significant insurance company’s 

risks and their occurrence probability and possible losses. 

The main company’s risk should be included in the risk self-assessment process. The main insurance 

company’s risks according to Solvency II framework are based on the Solvency Capital Requirements and 


Solvency capital requirements standard formula includes the following main risk groups: 

• y Market risk is caused by changes in values caused by market prices or volatilities of market prices 

differing from their expected values (CEA and Groupe Consultatif, 2007). 

• y Operational risk is the risk of a change in value caused by the fact that actual losses, incurred for inadequate 

or failed internal processes, people and systems, or from external events (including legal risk), 

differ from the expected losses (CEA and Groupe Consultatif, 2007). 

• y Credit risk is the risk of a change in value due to actual credit losses deviating from expected credit 

losses due to the failure to meet contractual debt obligations (CEA and Groupe Consultatif, 2007). 

• y Life or non-life underwriting risk is caused by underwritten insurance contract. 

Therefore the risk self-assessment process is an excellent opportunity for every insurance company to 

coordinate risk management efforts and generally improve the understanding of risk management strategy. 

The most convenient and cheap way is to implement risk self-assessment tool into MS Excel form. The risk – 

self-assessment tool is based on the main positions and principles presented in Table 1. 


Source: European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority (EIOPA) with the authors’ changes 

53



Table 1. Risk self-assessment principles 

No. Heading Description 

1 Number Number of the line 

2 Identified main risk 

Description of the identified risk: situation analysis, risk factors that 

increase risk occurrence probability and possible looses 

3 Control system 

Description of exiting control system to avoid risk occurrence 

probability 

Risk probability in scale 1–5: 

1 – rare (less than 1 %); 

4 

Assessment result of risk occurrence 2 – unlikely (1.1 %–10 %); 

probability in scale 1–5 

3 – moderate (10.1 %–50 %); 

4 – almost possible (50.1 %–80 %); 

5 – possible (80.1 %–100 %) 

5 

6 

7 

Assessment result of risk possible 

losses in scale 1–5 (direct and indirect 

expenses) 

Assessment of existing risk final 

result in scale 1–25 

Risk trend (increasing, stable, 

decreasing) 

8 Risk ranking 

9 

10 

Evaluation of risk control system in 

scale 1–5 

Assessment of exiting risk control 

system effectiveness in scale 1–25 

11 Risk control ranking 

Risk occurrence impact in scale 1–5: 

1 – insignificant ( 100 000 EUR) 

Estimated risk occurrence probability multiplied by estimated risk 

possible losses 

Give indication or compare with previous year assessments 

20–25 points – very critical risks with the necessity of the immediate 

actions towards managing and controlling the risks; 

12–19 points – critical risk with the necessity of managing and 

controlling; 

Less than 12 points – normal risk with the minimal impact on 

company’s activity, therefore it is necessary to pay attention to their 

future development 

Risk control system in scale 1–5: 

1 – risk control system in implemented and provide maximum 

security; 

2 – risk control system is implemented but provide security at 

average level; 

3 – risk control system is implemented but provide low security level; 

4 – risk control system is in implementation process; 

5 – risk control system is not implemented 

Estimated risk occurrence probability multiplied by evaluation of 

risk control system 

20–25 points – risk control system need to be improved immediately; 

12–19 points – risk control system need to be improved as soon as 

possible; 

Less than 12 points – normal risk control system but it is necessary 

to pay attention to future development 

Source: Towers Watson, PricewaterhouseCoopers, created by authors 

Risk self-assessment can be performed and reviewed for every insurance company’s business line according 

to organizational structure monthly, quarterly or annually. Risk self-assessment is an excellent start 

point for Baltic insurance companies to improve their risk management system according to the Solvency II 

Directive with the aim to increase reliability. 

54


Conclusions 

Risk management according to the Solvency II Directive requirements is one of the most significant 

functions of every insurance company. First of all, with the effective risk management system it is possible 

to ensure every insurance company’s reliability, thus affecting the intent of insurance to provide the clients 

with a sense of protection. 

The Solvency II Directive requirements should establish common risk management principles that set many 

challenges and offer a new vision of business strategy implementation for every insurance company within the 

European Union. The Solvency II Directive framework requires risk management integration in all insurance 

company’s business processes. The authors suggest implementing risk self - assessment tool as a start point for 

improving every insurance company’s reliability that is performed for every business line according to the insurance 

company’s organizational structure in order to cover exiting risks according to the standard formula of 

Solvency capital requirements. Risks are assessed and evaluated taking into account an occurrence probability, 

a possible damage in case of a risk occurrence and the effectiveness of the control system. 

The suggested approach of risk management improvement will enable every insurance company to control 

trends within its development towards the sustainability, solvency, and growth, with the purpose to increase reliability. 

In the future the authors would seize the opportunity to continue the present research on the insurance 

company’s reliability increase by developing the possibilities of improving the risk management. 

References 

Bokans, J. (2011). Solvency II anatomy. Available from Internet: . 

Comité Européen des Assurances (CEA) and the Groupe Consultatif Actuariel Européen (Groupe Consultatif). (2007). 

Solvency II Glossary. Available from Internet: . 

Ernst & Young. (2008). Solvency-II design approach. Available from Internet: . 

Ernst & Young. (2011). Embrace the Solvency II internal model. Available from Internet: . 

Ernst & Young. (2011). Solvency II: Putting risk and governance at the heart of business. Available from Internet: 

. 

Ernst & Young. (2011). Solvency II Pillar – II. Available from Internet: . 

European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority. (2010). Slides for QIS 5. Available from Internet: . 

European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority (EIOPA). (2011). CEIOPS’ Report on its fifth Quantitative 

Impact Study (QIS5) for Solvency II. Available from Internet: . 

European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority (EIOPA). (2011). CEIOPS’ Report on its forth Quantitative 

Impact Study (QIS4) for Solvency II. Available from Internet: . 

European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority (EIOPA). (2010). Technical specification for Quantitative 

impact study 5. Available from Internet: . 

Groupe Consultatif Actuariel Europeen. (2011). The Actuarial function under Solvency II: survey on the role of the actuary 

in insurance. Available from Internet: . 

Helmane, I. (2011). Critical situation analyses. Available from Internet: . 

55



Henschel, T. (2007). Risk management practices in the main industries of German small to medium – sized enterprises 

an empirical investigation: An Empirical Investigation. School of Accounting, Economics and Statistics. Edinburgh, 

UK. 

International Actuarial Association (IAA). (2010). IAA Paper on Stress Testing and Scenario Analysis – Fourth DRAFT. 

Available from Internet: . 

International Association of Financial Engineers. (2011). Report of the Operational Risk Committee: Evaluating Operational 

Risk Controls. Available from Internet: . 

Latvian Financial and Capital market commission. (2012). Latvian insurance market statistic. Available from Internet: 

. 

Manion, M. (2007). Introduction. Ethical issues in risk assessment and management: a critical introduction. International 

Journal of Risk Assessment and Management, Vol. 7, p. 281–298. 

Official Journal of the European Union. (2009). Solvency II framework. Available from Internet: . 

Pfeifer, D., Strassburger, D. (2007). Solvency II: Stability problems with the SCR aggregation formula, Scandinavian 

actuarial journal, Vol. 1, p. 61–77. 

PricewaterhouseCoopers International Limited. (2010). Getting to grips with the shake up. Available from Internet: 

. 

PricewaterhouseCoopers International Limited. (2010). Solvency II – Impact on Organisation, Processes and Systems. 

Available from Internet: . 

PricewaterhouseCoopers International Limited. (2011). Countdown to Solvency II: Bridging risk and capital. Available 

from Internet: . 

PricewaterhouseCoopers International Limited. (2011). The survivors’ guide to Solvency II. Available from Internet: 

. 

PricewaterhouseCoopers International Limited. (2008). Gearing up for Solvency II: Making Solvency II work for the 

business. Available from Internet: . 

Towers Watson. (2010). Financial Crisis Puts Spotlight on ERM. Available from Internet: . 

Towers Watson. (2010). Risk Appetite: The Foundation of Enterprise Risk Management. Available from Internet: 

. 

Towers Watson. (2012). The Wrong Type of Snow. Risk revisited. Available from Internet: . 

Rizikos valdymas, kaip patikimumO didinIMO PRIEMONĖ: 

draudimo BENDROVĖS atvejo analizė 


Rygos technikos universitetas (Latvija) 

Santrauka 

Rizikos valdymas yra viena svarbiausių ir kritinių sričių, lemiančių draudimo bendrovės veiklą ir plėtrą. 

Šio tyrimo tikslas – nustatyti svarbiausias rizikos valdymo dalis, siekiant padidinti draudimo bendrovės patikimumą 

įvertinus riziką. Be to, rizikos valdymas yra viena pagrindinių Mokumo II direktyvoje numatytų 

funkcijų. Tyrimui atlikti pasirinkti šie metodai: literatūros analizė, lyginimas, modeliavimas, ekspertizė. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: rizikos valdymas, rizikos įvertinimas, Mokumo II direktyva. 

JEL klasifikacija: G22 

56


FINANSŲ KRIZIŲ TIPAI, 

JŲ PALYGINAMOJI ANALIZĖ LIETUVOJE 

Deimena Kiyak 1 , Daiva Labanauskaitė 2 , Tomas Reichenbachas 3 

Klaipėdos universitetas (Lietuva), Vilniaus universitetas (Lietuva) 

ANOTACIJA 

Straipsnyje nagrinėjama finansų krizių sąvoka, aptariami finansų krizių skirstymo teoriniai aspektai. Nustačius, kad finansų krizių 

klasifikavimas ir skirstymas pagal panašius požymius leistų jas geriau suprasti ir palengvintų jų poveikio ekonomikai analizę, sudaryta 

finansų krizių tipų klasifikacinė lentelė. Apibendrinamojoje finansų krizių tipų klasifikacinėje lentelėje pateikiami finansų 

krizių tipai, nurodomos pagrindinės jų kilimo priežastys, pristatyti pagrindiniai poveikio ekonomikai rodikliai bei išvardyti istoriniai 

šių finansų krizių tipų pavyzdžiai. Tyrimo metu nustatytos trys Lietuvos ekonomiką neigiamai paveikusios finansų krizės – „Bankų 

krizė“ (1995), „Rusijos finansų krizė“ (1998) ir „Globali finansų krizė“ (2008), apibrėžtos jų kilimo priežastys. Akcentuojant darnaus 

ekonominio vystymosi prielaidas Lietuvoje ir siekiant tyrimų pagrindu kurti regioninę politiką, šios finansų krizės suklasifikuotos 

pagal sudarytą tipologiją. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: finansų krizė, finansų krizių klasifikavimas, finansų krizių tipai. 

JEL klasifikacija: G000; G010. 

Įvadas 

Stabilus finansinis sektorius svarbus kiekvienos šalies ekonomikai. Jame kylančios problemos gali lemti 

šalies ekonominį nuosmukį. Pastaruosius kelis dešimtmečius pasaulyje vis daugiau pasitaiko finansinio nestabilumo 

apraiškų (bankų bankrotų, akcijų rinkų nuosmukių, valiutinių krizių ir t. t.). Dalis finansų krizių 

būna lokalios (Meksikos peso krizė [1995], Argentinos nemokumas ir peso devalvacija [2001]), kita dalis – 

regioninės (pietryčių Azijos finansų krizė [1997]), dar kitos finansų krizės peržengia šalies ir žemynų ribas 

ir tampa globaliomis (JAV antrarūšių būsto paskolų krizė [2007–2008]). Globalaus pasaulio šalių finansų 

sistemos glaudžiai susijusios, todėl finansinio sektoriaus problemos vienoje šalyje gali gerokai paveikti ir 

kitas šalis. Tačiau tiek vietinių, tiek regioninių, tiek globalių finansų krizių poveikis šalių ekonomikoms nėra 

vienodas. 

Problema. Mokslininkų finansų krizės gana dažnai tiriamos, tačiau tyrimų, kur būtų pateikti tikslūs 

finansų krizių apibrėžimai ar apibendrintos visos finansų krizės, yra labai nedaug, nėra ir finansų krizių 

klasifikavimo metodologijos. Lietuvos ekonomiką paveikusios finansų krizės apibendrintai nenagrinėjamos, 

1 

Deimena Kiyak – daktarė (socialiniai mokslai, ekonomika), docentė, Klaipėdos universiteto Ekonomikos katedra. Mokslinės 

veiklos kryptys: finansai, apskaita, kainodara, finansinė-ekonominė analizė. 

El. paštas: deimena@balticum-tv.lt 

Tel.: +370 682 202 53. 

2 

Daiva Labanauskaitė – daktarė (socialiniai mokslai, ekonomika), lektorė, Klaipėdos universiteto Ekonomikos katedra. Mokslinės 

veiklos kryptys: ekonomika, rinkodara, turizmas. 

El. paštas: daiva_labanauskaite@yahoo.com 

Tel.: +370 686 428 62. 

3 

Tomas Reichenbachas – ekonomikos magistrantas (socialiniai mokslai), Vilniaus universitetas. Mokslinės veiklos kryptys: 

ekonomika, finansai. 

El. paštas: treichenbachas@gmail.com 

Tel.: +370 620 514 03. 

57


FINANSŲ KRIZIŲ TIPAI, JŲ PALYGINAMOJI ANALIZĖ LIETUVOJE 

trūksta ir bendro sutarimo, kiek ir kokių tipų finansų krizių Lietuva patyrė. Kadangi esant finansų krizei keičiasi 

užimtumas, infliacijos ir gamybos tempai, gyventojų pajamos, verslo plėtra, žmonių socialinė gerovė, 

svarbu krizes tirti kompleksiškai. 

Tyrimo objektas – finansų krizės. 

Tyrimo tikslas: akcentuojant darnaus ekonominio vystymosi prielaidas Lietuvoje ir siekiant tyrimų 

pagrindu kurti regioninę politiką, apibrėžti bei suklasifikuoti Lietuvoje įvykusias finansų krizes. 

Tyrimo uždaviniai: 1. Išnagrinėti finansų krizių sampratų pagrindinius aspektus ir sugretinus mokslinėje 

literatūroje minimus finansų krizių apibrėžimus aptarti finansų krizių esmę. 2. Palyginti mokslinėje literatūroje 

pateikiamą finansų krizių klasifikavimą ir parengti išsamią finansų krizių tipų klasifikacinę lentelę. 

3. Identifikuoti ir priskirti nustatytam tipui Lietuvoje vykusias krizes 1990–2010 metų laikotarpiu. 

Tyrimo metodai: mokslinės literatūros analizė, sisteminimas, grupavimas, lyginimas, interpretavimas, 

apibendrinimas, sintezė, statistinių duomenų analizė, loginės išvados. 

1. Finansų krizių sąvokos esmė ir klasifikavimas 

Ekonominių ciklų teorija akcentuoja, kad egzistuoja nuolatinė ir nuspėjama ekonominio ciklo struktūra, 

kurios dėka galima paaiškinti pokyčius ekonomikoje. Skirtingi autoriai (Šakinienė, Kvainauskaitė, 2005: 

180; Stankevičius, 2010: 193; Urniežius, 2006: 41) ir skirtingos teorijos tokias nekintančias ekonominio 

ciklo fazes vadina skirtingai, tačiau jų esmė ta pati – ekonomikos ciklą sudaro 4 stadijos (smukimas, žemiausias 

taškas, arba depresija; pagyvėjimas ir pakilimas, arba bumas), kurios cikliškai seka viena paskui 

kitą. Kiekviena ciklo fazė apibūdinama atsižvelgiant į pokyčius, kurie vyksta pramonėje, darbo ir finansų 

rinkose, vartojimo pokyčių procesuose. R. Urniežiaus (2006: 41) teigimu, krizė yra pagrindinė ciklo fazė, o 

visos likusios fazės yra išvestinės iš krizės. Krizė, arba smukimas, sukelia sutrikimų daugelyje ekonomikos 

sektorių: mažėja gamybos ir prekybos apimtys, pajamos, gyventojų užimtumas, vartotojų perkamoji galia. 

Didėjantis nedarbas mažina visumines išlaidas, o tai lemia dar didesnį gamybos nuosmukį ir nedarbą. 

Terminas krizė abstrakčiai gali būti apibrėžiamas kaip sistemos būsena, kuri gresia jos pačios struktūriniam 

stabilumui ir gyvybingumui. Krizės gali būti visuomeninės ir asmeninės, gamtinės ir techninės-socialinės, 

ekonominės, politinės, karinės, sukeltos sausros ar liūčių, techninio susidėvėjimo ir kūrybinės ar 

psichologinės, įveikiamos išsprendžiant vidinius prieštaravimus ar išorinius konfliktus, vykdant struktūrines, 

sistemines permainas. XIX–XX amžiuje dauguma ekonominių krizių buvo susijusios su bankų panika, kuri 

sukeldavo ekonomikos recesiją, akcijų rinkų mažėjimą, finansinius burbulus, valiutų ir užsienio paskolų 

krizes, todėl dažnu atveju ekonominė krizė įvardijama kaip finansų krizė. 

Anot P. Honohan (2005), finansų krizės vyksta nuolat – nuo pat bankų ir kitų finansinių institucijų atsiradimo, 

jas patiria kiekviena žmonių karta. Viena iš finansų krizių kilimo priežasčių – neišmokstama ankstesnių 

finansų krizių pamokų, visuomenėje dažnai vyrauja nuomonė, kad naujas ekonomikos pakilimas bus 

kitoks negu prieš tai buvę ir niekada nesibaigs, o tai lemia neracionalių sprendimų priėmimą. Ši nuomonė 

labai paplitusi, daugelio autorių teigimu, XX a. kilo daugiau nei 200 finansų krizių. 

Mokslininkai (Reinhart ir kt., 2008; Harvey, 2010; Wyplosz, 1998) teigia, kad visos finansų krizės, nors 

ir turi panašių bruožų, yra skirtingos, t. y. kiekviena yra išskirtinė, todėl nagrinėja konkrečius jų bruožus 

ir skirtumus. Tačiau, nors ir pripažįsta, kad visos finansų krizės skirtingos, jas tirdami analizuoja loginius 

krizių susidarymo modelius, priežastis, akcentuoja finansų krizių panašumus ir teigia, kad ši analizė gali 

padėti suprasti, nuspėti ir sumažinti jų žalingą poveikį ekonomikai, galbūt net ir visai jo išvengti. Kadangi, 

mokslininkų nuomone, visos finansų krizės yra skirtingos ir akcentuotini vis kiti finansų krizių aspektai, nėra 

bendro, vieningo finansų krizių apibrėžimo. Vis kylančios finansų krizės įgauna naujų, savitų aspektų, todėl 

sukurti bendrą apibrėžimą, kuris apimtų visas buvusias ir būsimas finansų krizes, nepaprasta. Siekiant apibrėžti 

finansų krizės sąvoką, nagrinėti įvairių autorių (Račickas ir kt., 2010; Jickling, 2008; Calhoun, 2002; 

Mishkin, 1992) teiginiai. Apibendrinta nuomonė pateikta 1 lentelėje. Taip pat išskiriami pateikiamų finansų 

krizių apibrėžimų trūkumai. 

58


Lentelė 1. Finansų krizių apibrėžimai ir juose išskirti trūkumai 

Autorius Apibrėžimas Apibrėžimo trūkumai 

Račickas ir 

kt., 2010 

Calhoun, 

2002 

Jickling, 

2008 

Mishkin, 

1992 

Wyplosz, 

1998 

Finansų krizė – tai ekonominė situacija, susijusi su 

panika bankų sektoriuje, apimanti reikšmingus gamybos 

ir finansinio sektoriaus nuostolius, sukelianti sumaištį 

tarptautinėse finansų rinkose, akcijų rinkų nuosmukius, 

finansinius burbulus, valiutines krizes ar užsienio paskolų 

pasitraukimą, tai lemia staigų ekonomikos aktyvumo 

mažėjimą ir gali sukelti ekonominę recesiją 

Finansų krizė – tai staigus grupės finansinių rodiklių 

pablogėjimas: tokių kaip trumpo laikotarpio palūkanų 

normų kilimas ar turto kainų kritimas, galimai lydimas 

finansinių institucijų bankrotų 

Finansų krizė – tai sutrikimai finansų rinkose, kai 

suvaržomas kredito prieinamumas namų ūkiams ir 

įmonėms, o tai veikia realiąją ekonomiką 

Finansų krizė – tai sutrikimai finansų rinkose, kai jos 

negali veiksmingai nukreipti lėšų ten, kur jos geriausiai 

(produktyviausiai) būtų investuotos 

Finansų krizė (ekonominė) – ekonominė situacija, kai 

tam tikros finansinės institucijos ar turtas staigiai netenka 

didžiosios dalies savo vertės 

Šaltinis: sudaryta autorių 

Apibrėžimas nekonkretus; 

Tik išvardijami finansinių krizių tipai, 

kurie susiejami į vieną visumą; 

Akcentuojama daugelis aspektų, tačiau 

dalies jų vienoje finansų krizėje gali ir 

nebūti; 

Iš apibrėžimo sunku vieną ar kitą 

ekonominį reiškinį priskirti finansų krizei, 

tai labiau priklauso nuo interpretacijos 

Nepateikiama, kokių konkrečių rodiklių 

pablogėjimas galėtų būti traktuojamas 

kaip finansų krizė 

Akcentuojamas tik vienas kredito 

prieinamumo aspektas; 

Neanalizuojama, kaip konkrečiai turi 

pasireikšti šis kredito prieinamumo 

mažėjimas 

Akcentuojamas tik vienas aspektas – 

investicijų efektyvumas 

Akcentuojamas tik vienas aspektas – 

vertės praradimas 

Galima pastebėti, kad visi mokslininkai finansų krizes apibrėžia skirtingai, vieni apibrėžime akcentuoja 

tik kurį nors vieną finansų krizių kilimo apsektą ar konkretų tipą, kiti įvardija visus finansinių krizių tipus. 

Darytina išvada, kad finansų krizė – tai sutrikimai finansų rinkose, sukeliantys realiosios ekonomikos problemas 

ir galintys lemti ekonominę recesiją konkrečioje šalyje arba globaliu mastu. 

Analizuojant finansų krizes pastebima jų gausa ir skirtumai, kuriuos pabrėžia įvairūs autoriai (Račickas 

ir kt., 2010; Harvey, 2010; Kuodis ir kt., 2005; Mishkin, 1992; Krugman, 2008; Krugman, 2003). Nors, 

C. Wyplosz (1998) teigimu, 1973–1991 metų laikotarpiu besivystančiose šalyse įvyko 117 finansų krizių, o 

išsivysčiusiose – 62 (bendras skaičius – 179), vis dėlto mokslinėje literatūroje pasigendama panašių finansinių 

krizių klasifikavimo pagal jas siejančius požymius analizės. 

P. Honohan (2005) teigia, kad 1976–2000 metais pasaulyje įvyko daugiau nei 400 finansų krizių ir nors 

jos turi panašumų, skirtumų yra per daug, taigi krizės kils nuolatos ir bus nenuspėjamos. Tačiau, autorių nuomone, 

finansinių krizių klasifikavimas ir skirstymas pagal panašius požymius leistų jas geriau suprasti bei 

palengvintų jų poveikio ekonomikai analizę. Todėl sudaryta finansinių krizių klasifikacinė lentelė (2 lentelė), 

kurioje analizuojami finansų krizių tipai, jų poveikis ekonomikai, pateikiama istorinių šių finansų krizių tipų 

pavyzdžių (3 lentelė). 

1. Finansinės panikos sukeltos krizės. Prasidėjusi panika vienoje finansinio turto klasėje, gali 

sukelti labai didelį šio turto kainų kritimą, kartu ir dar didesnę paniką bei visišką vienos turto klasės likvidumo 

praradimą. Problemos gali būti dar didesnės, jei šis turtas perkamas skolintomis lėšomis ir naudojamas 

finansinis svertas. 

59



Finansų krizės 

tipas 

1. Finansinės 

panikos sukeltos 

krizės 

2. Sprogę finansų 

burbulai 

3. Finansinių 

garantijų krizė 

Lentelė 2. Finansų krizių klasifikavimas 

Finansų krizės kilimo priežastys 

1. Nepasitikėjimas. 

2. „Bandos jausmas“. 

3. Finansinis svertas įsigyjant turtą 

1. Pervertintas finansinis turtas. 

2. Finansinio sverto naudojimas 

perkant turtą. 

3. Perdėti lūkesčiai dėl turto kainos 

kilimo. 

4. Spekuliacija turtu (turto pirkimas 

siekiant brangiau jį parduoti) 

Neatsakingai suteiktos finansinės 

garantijos (dažniausiai valstybinės) 

4. Likvidumo Finansinių institucijų bankrotas 

išsekimas – priverstinių 

paskolų 

grąžinimo krizė 

5. Skolos krizė 1. Per didelis skolos augimas 

ekonominio pakilimo metais. 

2. Išaugusios skolų aptarnavimo 

sąnaudos. 

3. Per daug optimistinis skolos 

aptarnavimo sąnaudų vertinimas 

6. Bankų sistemos 

krizė 

7. Mokėjimo 

balanso krizė 

1. Nepasitikėjimas bankų sistema. 

2. Per didelė bankų sektoriaus 

ekspansija. 

3. Ekonomikos nuosmukis, 

padaugėjus „blogųjų“ paskolų. 

4. Finansinio turto burbulai ir su tuo 

susijusios blogosios paskolos. 

5. Indeksų fondų kritimas 

1. Fiksuotas valiutos kursas. 

2. Išorės kapitalo „ištekėjimas“. 

3. Šalies eksporto tarptautinio 

konkurencingumo mažėjimas. 

4. Investuotojų pasitraukimas iš šalies 

ar didelių įmonių 

8. Valiutos krizė 1. Valstybės biudžeto deficito finansavimas 

iš šalies tarptautinių atsargų. 

2. Spekuliacinės atakos prieš fiksuotą 

valiutos kursą. 

3. Dideli kapitalo srautai iš/ar į šalį. 

4. Einamosios sąskaitos deficitas 

9. Pasaulinės krizės Vyriausybių visuotinis užsienio 

emitentų vertybinių popierių 

išpardavimas 


Pirminis finansų krizės 

poveikis ekonomikai 

1. Nelikvidus turtas. 

2. Staigus turto kainų 

kritimas 

1. Nelikvidus turtas. 

2. Staigus turto kainų 

kritimas. 

3. Susijusio turto kainų 

kritimas 

Institucijos ar šalies, 

suteikusios garantijas, 

nuostoliai 

Likvidumo mažėjimas 

finansų rinkose (tarp bankų 

arba obligacijų) 

Finansinės institucijos 

ar šalies nemokumas / 

bankrotas 

1. Bankų nemokumas. 

2. Kreditavimo mažėjimas. 

3. Bendro bankų paskolų 

portfelio mažėjimas. 

4. Kapitalo „išėjimas“ iš 

šalies. 

5. Panika finansų rinkose, 

akcijų ir obligacijų nuvertėjimas 

1. Fiksuoto valiutos kurso 

atsisakymas. 

2. Valiutos kurso 

pasikeitimas. 

2. Ekonomikos nuosmukis 

1. Fiksuoto valiutos kurso 

atsisakymas. 

2. Valiutos kurso keitimas. 

3. Išsivysčiusių šalių nacionalinės 

valiutos nuvertėjimas. 

4. Fondų indeksų mažėjimas. 


Žlugimas visose – tiek 

prekybos, tiek pinigų ir 

fondų – pasaulio rinkose 

Galimas antrinis finansų 

krizės poveikis ekonomikai 

1. Bankų ir kitų finansinių 

institucijų bankrotai. 

2. Ekonominis nuosmukis 

1. Su atitinkamu turtu 

susijusių ekonominių vienetų 

nuostoliai ir bankrotas. 


Institucijos ar šalies, 

suteikusios garantijas, 

nemokumas 

1. Kitų finansų institucijų 

bankrotas. 

2. Kitų tipų finansų krizės 

(pvz., bankų panika) 

1. Įmonių nemokumo 

grandinė. 


1. Bankų bankrotų grandinė. 

2. Likvidumo problemos bankininkystės 

sistemoje. 


(masinė bedarbystė, gyventojų 

pajamų ir gamybos mažėjimas). 

4. Indėlininkų santaupų praradimas 

1. Bankų sistemos 

problemos dėl valiutos kurso 

pasikeitimo. 

2. Šalies nemokumas 

1. Kapitalo „ištekėjimas“ iš 

šalies. 

2. Ekonomikos nuosmukis. 

3. Šalies nemokumas 

1. Masiniai bendrovių 

bankrotai. 

2. Akcijų rinkos griūtis. 

3. Gamybos mažėjimas. 

4. Vartojimo mažėjimas 

5. Bedarbystė 

60


Lentelė 3. Tipinių finansų krizių pavyzdžiai 

Finansų krizės tipas 

Finansų krizių pavyzdžiai 

1. JAV 1907 m. kilusi bankų panika. 

1. Finansinės panikos 

2. 2007–2008 m. JAV su nekilnojamuoju turtu susijusių vertybinių popierių kainos 

sukeltos krizės 

kritimas 

1. „Tulpių karštligė“ (Olandija, 1593–1637 m.). 

2. Internetinių akcijų burbulo sprogimas JAV 2001 m. 

2. Sprogę finansų burbulai 3. Japonijos nekilnojamojo turto ir akcijų kainų burbulo sprogimas 1991 m. 

4. 2007–2008 m. JAV su nekilnojamuoju turtu susijusių vertybinių popierių kainų 

kritimas 

3. Finansinių garantijų 1. Islandija, 2008 m. bankams suteiktos garantijos 

krizė 

2. Airija 2008–2009 m. 

4. Likvidumo išsekimas – 1. Rizikos kapitalo investicinio fondo (angl. Long-Term Capital Management L.P.) 

priverstinių paskolų bankrotas 1998 m. 

grąžinimo krizė 2. „Lehman brothers“ banko bankrotas 2008 m. JAV. 

5. Skolos krizė Graikija, 2010 m. 

6. Bankų sistemos krizė 1. Skandinavijos valstybių (Danija, Norvegija, Švedija, Suomija) 1988–1992 m. 

2. Meksikos finansinė krizė 1994–1995 m. 

3. „Didžioji depresija“ JAV (1929–1932 m.) 

7. Mokėjimo balanso 

krizė 

1. Meksika, 1994–1995 m. 

2. Tailandas, 1997 m. 

3. 1987 m. „Juodasis penktadienis“: Dow Jones Industrial amerikietiškasis indeksas, 

kuris nukrito iš karto 22 %. Krito Australijos, Kanados ir Honkongo rinkos 

8. Valiutos krizė 1. Rusija, 1998 m. 

2. 1997–1998 m. Pasaulio krizė (Honkongas, Čekija, Malaizija, Tailandas, Indonezija, 

Pietų Korėja, Brazilija, Argentina) 

9. Pasaulinės krizės 1. Pirmoji pasaulio finansinė krizė 1857 m. JAV, Vokietijoje, Anglijoje ir Prancūzijoje. 

2. 1873 m. Pasaulio krizė, prasidėjusi Austrijoje ir Vokietijoje. 

3. 1914 m. tarptautinė finansų krizė (Pirmasis pasaulinis karas). 

4. 1957 m. pokario pasaulinė finansų krizė (apėmė JAV, Didžiąją Britaniją, Belgiją, 

Kanadą ir kai kurias kitas šalis) 


Tokiu atveju dalis turto turėtojų būna priversti parduoti šį turtą bet kokia kaina ir prisiimti finansinius 

nuostolius. Finansų panikos sukeltos krizės poveikis šaliai labai priklauso nuo to, kurią turto klasę ta panika 

apėmė ir kokia šios turto klasės reikšmė ekonomikai. Be to, svarbu suprasti, ar panika gali paveikti ir kitas 

turto rūšis. Galima tokia situacija, kai panika, prasidėjusi vienoje turto klasėje, gali sukelti paniką visoje 

finansų sistemoje ir lemti nepasitikėjimą visu finansiniu turtu. 

Anot A. Shleifer ir kt. (2011), šiam tipui taip pat galima priskirti 2007–2008 m. JAV su nekilnojamuoju 

turtu susijusių vertybinių popierių kainos kritimą. Sprogus nekilnojamojo turto burbului nekilnojamojo turto 

kainos pradėjo sparčiai mažėti, todėl dalis investavusiųjų į su šiuo turtu susijusius vertybinius popierius pradėjo 

šį turtą pardavinėti. Kadangi jo kaina sparčiai mažėjo, investuotojai (iš esmės bankai ir investiciniai fondai), 

investavę skolintas lėšas ir naudoję finansinį svertą, buvo priversti šį turtą parduoti ir grąžinti paskolas, 

neatsižvelgdami į esamą rinkos kainą. Toks staigus pasiūlos didėjimas lėmė dar didesnį kainos kritimą, kol 

galiausiai paklausos nebeliko ir turtas tapo nelikvidus. Todėl, L. Sinevičienės ir kt. (2009) teigimu, bankams 

prireikė papildomo kapitalo, o dalis investicinių fondų buvo priversti užšaldyti investuotojų lėšas, kol rinkoje 

bus įmanoma parduoti jų turimą turtą. Dėl finansų rinkos globalizacijos ir integracijos JAV prasidėjusi 

krizė peraugo į pasaulinę finansų krizę. 

2. Sprogę finansų burbulai. Pirmuosius finansinių burbulų sprogimus galima pastebėti jau XVII– 

XVIII amžiais. M. Hirschey (1998), P. Krugman (2008) viena pirmųjų tokio tipo finansinių krizių laiko 

garsiąją „Tulpių karštligę“ (Olandija 1593–1637 m.), kuri prasidėjo XVII amžiuje, kai tulpės tapo paklausios 

61



ir madingos daugelyje Europos šalių. Atsidarė „tulpių birža“, kur buvo pardavinėjamos gėlės ir būsimo derliaus 

vekseliai. Per piką vienas tulpių svogūnėlis, kainą išvertus į dabartinius JAV dolerius pagal perkamąją 

galią, kainavo apie 34 tūkst. JAV dolerių. Sustojo pramonė ir tai neigiamai paveikė daugelio Europos šalių 

ekonomikas. Finansų burbulų sprogimo įtaka ekonomikai priklauso nuo turto paplitimo, jo pervertinimo 

lygio, investicijų dydžio. 

3. Finansinių garantijų krizė. Šio tipo finansų krizės susijusios su valstybės garantijomis nepatikimoms 

paskoloms. Esant šioms garantijoms bankai nebesirūpina paskolų kokybe ir skolininko mokumu. Susidarius 

tokiai situacijai ir mažai prižiūrint finansinį sektorių, galima situacija, kai negrąžinamų paskolų dalis 

gerokai išauga ir tai sukelia finansinę krizę. Valstybė savo garantijas gali suteikti ne tik bankų paskoloms, bet ir 

įmonių obligacijoms, indėlininkų indėliams bankuose ir pan. Nuo to, kam ir kokio dydžio garantijos suteiktos, 

ir priklauso šio tipo krizės poveikis šalies ekonomikai. Anot J. Jackson (2010: 102–103), 2008 m. Islandijos 

bankams susidūrus su problemomis, kad išsklaidytų tvyrančią įtampą, Islandijos vyriausybė garantavo visus 

trijų didžiausių bankų įsipareigojimus, tačiau problemoms gilėjant ji buvo priversta nacionalizuoti bankus, o 

galiausiai ir pati valstybė tapo nemoki. Su panašiomis problemomis 2009 m. susidūrė ir Airija. 

4. Likvidumo išsekimas – priverstinių paskolų grąžinimo krizė. Bankrutuojanti finansinė 

institucija gali pareikalauti grąžinti savo išduotas paskolas anksčiau laiko. Jei šalies bankų sistema labai 

priklauso nuo vieno taupomojo banko finansavimo, jam bankrutavus gali kilti viso bankinio sektoriaus likvidumo 

krizė. Tai gali pasireikšti ir per tarpbankinių kreditų rinką. S. F. Mishkin (2011) teigimu, JAV 2008 m. 

bankrutavus „Lehman Brothers“ investiciniam bankui, o „AIG“ draudimo bendrovei susidūrus su likvidumo 

problemomis, kadangi abi šios bendrovės yra stambūs tarpbankinės rinkos dalyviai, jų problemos sukėlė nepasitikėjimą 

kitomis finansinėmis institucijomis, o tai savo ruožtu lėmė likvidumo mažėjimą tarpbankinėje 

rinkoje ir tarpbankinių paskolų kainos didėjimą. 

5. Skolos krizė. Tai situacija, kai šalis ar didelė finansinė institucija nebegali grąžinti skolų arba sumokėti 

palūkanų už paskolą. T. J. Harvey (2010) teigimu, taip atsitinka tik dėl to, kad ekonominio augimo laikotarpiu 

prisiimami nerealistiški įsipareigojimai ir tikimasi, kad tokią skolą bus įmanoma suvaldyti (mokėti 

palūkanas ir atėjus laikui refinansuoti). Ekonominiai vienetai ekonominio augimo metu mano, kad jie puikiai 

gali išlaikyti dabartinį skolų lygį, todėl skolinasi dar, taip mažėja jų skolų ir pajamų santykis. O pradėjus 

lėtėti ekonomikai dažnai šalis ar įmonė nebegali išmokėti ir suvaldyti savo skolų, o tai savo ruožtu sukelia 

bankrotų bangą. E. Antoni (2010) teigimu, situacija, kai ekonominis vienetas turi problemų dėl per didelio 

paskolų kiekio ir nebegali jų suvaldyti iš gaunamų pajamų, vadinama Minsky’io momentu. 

6. Bankų sistemos krizė. Kadangi daugelis banko paskolų išduodamos iš surinktų indėlių, staigus 

didžiosios dalies indėlininkų reikalavimas grąžinti visus indėlius lemia banko nemokumą. Kad apsisaugotų 

nuo tokio tipo finansų krizės, daugelis šalių priima valstybinius indėlių draudimo / apsaugos įstatymus, 

kurie turėtų apsaugoti indėlininkus. Galimos ir kitokios bankų krizės. Dėl per didelės paskolų ekspansijos 

prasidėjus ekonominiam nuosmukiui dalis paskolų negrąžinama, o šioms paskoloms pasiekus kritinę ribą 

bankai gali tapti nemokūs. S. Atle Berg ir kt. (2009) teigimu, tokio tipo krizė ištiko Skandinavijos šalis 

1988–1992 m. Esant šiai krizei galimi ir nepalankūs palūkanų normų pokyčiai: jei bankas skolinasi trumpam 

laikotarpiui kintamomis palūkanomis, o skolina ilgam laikotarpiui fiksuotomis palūkanomis, galima situacija, 

kad skolinimosi sąnaudos bankui bus aukštesnės, nei jis yra paskolinęs. Jei tokia situacija rinkoje tęstųsi 

ilgai, bankai gali tapti nemokūs. Bankų sistemos krizės specifika priklauso nuo šalies bankų sektoriaus: jo 

aktyvumo, koncentracijos, priklausomybės nuo užsienio. 

7. Mokėjimo balanso krizė. Vienas pirmųjų dar 1979 m. mokėjimo balanso krizes pradėjo analizuoti 

P. Krugman (2003). Jo nuomone, valstybė, stengdamasi išlaikyti fiksuotą savo valiutos kursą, gali kištis į 

valiutų rinką, riboti užsienio kapitalo srautus, keisti bankų sistemos reguliavimą (pavyzdžiui, privalomųjų 

rezervų dydį). Tačiau galima ir tokia situacija, kai šių priemonių neužtenka. Jei valstybė stengiasi apsaugoti 

savo valiutą nuo nuvertėjimo, ji gali prarasti savo užsienio atsargų rezervus. Jei valstybė nori apsaugoti savo 

valiutą nuo per didelio vertės augimo, ji gali susidurti su nepakeliamais infliacijos augimo tempais. Kai valstybė 

nebegali apsaugoti fiksuoto valiutos kurso mokėjimo balanso, susidaro situaciją, kurią galima vadinti 

krize. 

62


Mokėjimo balanso krizes gali sukelti ir didelė priklausomybė nuo išorės kapitalo įplaukų, A. Ghosh ir 

kt. (2008) teigimu, valstybė gali tapti priklausoma nuo užsienio finansavimo. Užsienio kapitalas gali būti 

skirtas dengti einamosios sąskaitos deficitą arba „karštas“ kapitalas gali ieškoti didesnių palūkanų normų 

investuojant į šalies valstybės vertybinius popierius. Nutrūkus šiam kapitalo srautui arba pasikeitus rinkos 

nuotaikoms ir kapitalui ištekant iš šalies ji gali susidurti su mokėjimo balanso krize. Šalį gali užgriūti ir mokėjimo 

balanso problemos, kai dėl kokių nors priežasčių pablogėja jos konkurencingumas užsienio prekybos 

partnerių atžvilgiu (pavyzdžiui, gretimos valstybės – svarbios prekybos partnerės – devalvuoja savo valiutą). 

Dalis autorių (Montes, 1998; Sachs ir kt., 1996) mano, kad mokėjimo balanso krizės glaudžiai susijusios su 

valiutos krizėmis. 

8. Valiutos krizė. Valiutos krizės dažnai suprantamos kaip staigus valiutos kurso mažėjimas, fiksuoto 

valiutos kurso atsisakymas ar staigus jo pakeitimas, kai valiutos kursas sumažėja 25 % ar daugiau procentų 

(Deksnytė ir kt., 2010; Lakehal, 2010). Tačiau, R. Kuodžio ir kt. (2005) nuomone, valiutos krize galima laikyti 

ir stiprų spaudimą fiksuotam valiutos kursui, nes dažnai tai padaro net dar didesnę žalą nei paprastas valiutos 

nuvertėjimas. Šalis, gindama savo fiksuotą valiutos kursą, gali būti priversta didinti palūkanų normas, 

imtis tiesioginių intervencijų valiutų rinkoje ar kapitalo kontrolės šalyje. O tai gali lemti šalies ekonominės 

situacijos pablogėjimą – padidėjusias palūkanas verslui bei fiziniams asmenims. Valiutų krizės gali kilti dėl 

daugelio priežasčių: dėl užsienio atsargų naudojimo finansuojant biudžeto deficitą, spekuliacinių atakų prieš 

fiksuotą valiutos kursą, mokėjimo balanso problemų, nepasitikėjimo šalies ekonomika, užsienio kapitalo 

pasitraukimo, didelės valdžios užsienio skolos (Kuodis, 2005; Montes, 1998). Staiga nukritus valiutos kursui 

ekonomika gali susidurti su problemomis: BVP kritimas, bankinio sektoriaus problemos ir kt. 

Antroje lentelėje pateiktas finansų krizių tipinis suskirstymas nėra baigtinis, dalis autorių skiria ir kitų 

tipų finansų krizių. Dažnai literatūroje minėta finansų krizė pavadinama kompleksiniu pavadinimu, išskiriant 

kelis specifinius finansų krizės aspektus (pvz., Reinhart [2008] mini antrarūšių būsto paskolų krizę), tačiau 

tokių finansų krizių negalima laikyti finansų krizių tipu, nes tai buvusių finansų krizių suformuoti pavadinimai. 

Taip pat verta paminėti, kad dalis finansų krizių persidengia, tai yra vienu metu gali kilti dviejų ar 

daugiau tipų krizės, arba viena krizė gali lemti kitos finansų krizės kilimą, tačiau mokslininkai tai traktuoja 

kaip vieną finansų krizę. Tokias finansų krizes jie (Račickas ir kt., 2010; Honohan, 2005) vadina sisteminėmis 

finansų krizėmis. 

Siekiant nustatyti finansų krizių poveikį konkrečios šalies ekonomikai, tipinio finansų krizių skirstymo 

nepakanka. Finansų krizė gali kilti šalies viduje ar gretimoje šalyje ir vis tiek neigiamai paveikti nagrinėjamos 

šalies ekonomiką. Analizuojant finansų krizės kilimo vietą ir jos poveikį konkrečios šalies ekonomikai 

galima skirti tris galimas situacijas: 1. Išorės finansų krizė (finansų krizė kilo ne šalies viduje, bet ji neigiamai 

veikia šalies ekonomiką). 2. Vidaus finansų krizė (finansų krizė kilo šalies viduje). 3. Kompleksinės finansų 

krizės (kai daugiau nei viena finansų krizė veikia šalies ekonomiką). 

Kompleksinės finansų krizės gali kilti keliais atvejais. Pirma, finansų krizė vienu arba labai panašiu laiku 

kyla tiek analizuojamoje šalyje, tiek tarptautinėje erdvėje (žr. 1 pav. 1 dalį). Antrasis galimas variantas, kai 

išorės krizė sukelia ne tik ekonomines problemas nagrinėjamos šalies ekonomikai, bet ir šalies finansų krizę 

(„užkrato“ efektas) (žr. 1 pav. 2 dalį). Galimas ir trečiasis variantas, kai vidinė šalies finansų krizė sukelia 

finansų krizes kitose šalyse, o šios neigiamai veikia šalies ekonomiką (1 pav. 3 dalis). 

Finansų krizes galima skirstyti ir pagal jų išplitimą: 1. Šalies finansų krizė, apimanti nedidelį regioną, paprastai 

vieną šalį. 2. Regiono finansų krizė, apimanti vieną konkretų regioną (pvz., Pietryčių Azijos finansų 

krizė). 3. Tarptautinė (globali) finansų krizė, apimanti keletą regionų. Toks finansų krizių skirstymas leidžia 

suprasti, kokie regionai nepaveikti finansų krizių ir į kuriuos regionus finansų krizių paveiktiems regionams 

reikėtų orientuotis, ieškant problemų sprendimo (finansinių paskolų, prekybos partnerių ar pan.). Tuo tarpu 

finansų krizės nepaveikti regionai galėtų suprasti, kokie regionai susiduria su problemomis ir kaip šios problemos 

galėtų paveikti finansų krizės dar nepaveiktus regionus. 

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1 pav. Kompleksinių finansų krizių poveikis šalies ekonomikai 


2. Finansų krizės Lietuvoje, jų tipai 

Lietuvai atgavus nepriklausomybę pasikeitė ne tik politinė santvarka, bet ir visa ekonominė sistema: 

atsisakyta planinės ekonomikos ir bandyta pereiti į rinkos ekonominę sistemą. Įvykę pokyčiai lėmė tai, kad 

Lietuvos ekonomikos struktūra ėmė panašėti į tradicinę ekonomikos struktūrą, kurios vienas pagrindinių 

bruožų yra cikliškas ekonomikos vystymasis. Atkūrus nepriklausomybę Lietuvai teko stiprinti valstybingumą, 

įgyvendinti valstybės valdymo reformą, kurti demokratinę teisinę sistemą. Šalyje pradėti taikyti rinkos 

ekonomikos principai: atsisakoma valstybinio ekonomikos planavimo, privatizuojamas turtas, taikomi laisvos 

konkurencijos principai, liberalizuota ekonomika atveriama tarptautinėms rinkoms, suteikiama galimybė 

kiekvienam asmeniui imtis verslo. Vienas svarbiausių uždavinių įtvirtinant rinkos ekonomiką Lietuvoje – 

pereiti prie šiuolaikinės finansų sistemos: sukurti bankų sistemą, finansų rinkas, pasirinkti savo monetarinės 

politikos modelį. Viena problemų kuriant finansų sistemą buvo ta, kad Lietuvai atgavus nepriklausomybę, 

rinkos ekonomiką reikėjo kurti neturint privataus kapitalo, savininkų sluoksnio ir būdų, kaip kapitalą galima 

būtų investuoti. Taigi natūralu, kad kuriant rinkos ekonomiką turėjo atsirasti privatus kapitalas ir būdai, kaip 

jis bus nukreipiamas į investicijas. Lietuvoje vienas pagrindinių kapitalo judėjimo kanalų jau pereinamuoju 

laikotarpiu buvo bankai. 

Nagrinėjant Lietuvos ekonomikos raidą 1990–2011 metais galima skirti tris Lietuvą paveikusias finansų 

krizes: Lietuvos bankų krizė 1995 m., Rusijos finansų krizė 1998 m., Globali finansų krizė 2008–2009 m. 

1995 m. ekonomikai dar atsigaunant nuo struktūrinių pertvarkymų, kai pereinama prie rinkos ekonomikos, 

Lietuvos finansų sistema išgyveno bankų krizę. Anot L. Šadžiaus (2004), 1994–1996 m. Lietuvoje 

bankrutavo net 12 (1994 m. iš viso veikė 31 komercinis bankas) komercinių bankų, dar keleto veikla buvo 

sustabdyta arba jie likviduoti savininkų sutarimu. Kadangi bankų krizė – tai bankų sistemos problemos, 

kurios sukelia finansų sistemos problemas, šį laikotarpį galima laikyti finansų krizės laikotarpiu. Šią finansų 

krizę galima priskirti šalies bankų sistemos krizei. 

Lietuvai 1997 m. atsigaunant po bankų krizės ir pirmosios šalies finansų krizės, susidurta su Rusijos finansų 

krize. R. Kuodžio (2008), I. Deksnytės ir kt. (2010) nuomone, devalvavus Rusijos rublį bei Rusijai paskelbus 

nemokumą, šalys, kurios turėjo užmezgusios glaudžius ekonominius ryšius su Rusija, taip pat patyrė 

problemų. Tai pirmiausia paveikė NVS valstybes. Kadangi Lietuva 1998 m. ekonomiškai buvo labai susijusi 

tiek su Rusijos, tiek su NVS valstybėmis, tai sukėlė šalyje ekonominių problemų. Šį laikotarpį galima laikyti 

Rusijos valiutinės krizės poveikio šaliai laikotarpiu. Nors ši finansų krizė labai paveikė šalies ekonomiką, 

šalies viduje finansų krizės ji nesukėlė. 

64


J. Stiglitz (2010), P. Krugman (2008) teigimu, 2007–2008 m. prasidėjo globali finansų krizė. Natūralu, 

kad ji labai paveikė ir Lietuvos ekonomiką. 2004–2007 m. Lietuvos ekonomika augo labai sparčiai, tačiau 

besiformuojantis nekilnojamojo turto burbulas, vyraujanti per didelė kredito ekspansija lėmė atitinkamus 

ekonominės krizės padarinius. Todėl 2008–2010 metus Lietuvos ekonomikoje galima vadinti kompleksinės 

globalios finansų krizės laikotarpiu. Šiuo atveju finansų krizė pagal tipologiją gali būti priskirta tiek išorės, 

tiek vidaus finansų krizėms. 

2.1. Lietuvos bankų krizė ir jos kilimo priežastys 

1990 m. kovo 11 d. Lietuva atkūrė savo nepriklausomybę. Jai teko stiprinti valstybingumą, įgyvendinti valstybės 

valdymo reformą, kurti demokratinę teisinę sistemą. Šalyje pradėti taikyti rinkos ekonomikos principai: atsisakoma 

valstybinio ekonomikos planavimo, privatizuojamas turtas, taikomi laisvosios konkurencijos principai, liberalizuota 

ekonomika atveriama tarptautinėms rinkoms. Kiekvienam asmeniui atsirado galimybė imtis savo verslo. 

Vienas svarbiausių uždavinių įtvirtinant rinkos ekonomiką Lietuvoje buvo pereiti prie šiuolaikinės finansų 

sistemos: sukurti bankų sistemą, finansų rinkas, pasirinkti savo monetarinės politikos modelį. Viena 

problemų šiuo atveju – kuriant rinkos ekonomikos finansų sistemą nebuvo privataus kapitalo, savininkų 

sluoksnio ir būdų, kaip kapitalas galėtų būti investuojamas. Taigi natūralu, kad kuriant rinkos ekonomiką 

turėjo atsirasti privatus kapitalas ir būdai, kaip jis būtų nukreipiamas į investicijas. 

Lietuvoje vienas pagrindinių kapitalo judėjimo kanalų jau pereinamuoju laikotarpiu buvo bankai. Komercinių 

bankų skaičius 1990–1993 m. (2 pav.) išaugo daugiau nei 4 kartus: nuo 6 (1990 m.) iki 27 (1993 m.). 

Tačiau nuo 1994 m. komercinių bankų skaičius sparčiai mažėjo. Apžvelgus bankrutavusių bankų statistiką 

(2 pav.), nepriklausomybės atkūrimo laikotarpiu (1990–2011 m.) bankrutavo 14 komercinių bankų. 1994– 

1996 m. iškelta 12 bankroto bylų, o tai sudaro net 44,44 % visų 1993 m. veikusių komercinių bankų. Dalis 

bankų uždaryta ir likviduota savininkų sutarimu bei grąžinus indėlius. 1997 m. Lietuvoje veikė tik 13 komercinių 

bankų, t. y. tik 48 % visų 1993 m. veikusių bankų. Taigi ši laikotarpį pagrįstai galima vadinti finansų 

krize, nes tai buvo didžiulis sukrėtimas besikuriančiai Lietuvos valstybei ir jos finansų sistemai. 

2 pav. Komercinių bankų skaičius Lietuvoje ir bankams iškeltų bankroto bylų skaičius 1990–1998 m. 

Šaltinis: http://www.stat.gov.lt/lt/ 

65



Ši bankų krizė kilo dėl daugelio priežasčių. Ekonomikos pereinamuoju laikotarpiu ekonominė ir politinė 

situacija buvo ypač nepastovi. O šalies bankų veikla ypač priklauso nuo šalies ekonominės būklės ir politinės 

padėties. Pagrindinės bankų finansinės krizės kilimo priežastys: valiutų Lietuvoje kaita 1992–2002 m. 

laikotarpiu; infliacija; bendrojo vidaus produkto (BVP) nestabilumas; privatizacija; kontrolės stoka. Valiutų 

kaita matyti 3 lentelėje. 

Lentelė 3. Lietuvoje naudota valiuta 1992–2002 m. laikotarpiu 

Piniginis vienetas 

Laikotarpis 

Rublis Iki 1992 m. spalio 1 d. 

Talonai Nuo 1992 m. spalio 1 d. iki 1993 m. birželio 25 d. 

Litas (be valiutos valdybos) Nuo 1993 m. birželio 25 d. iki 1994 m. kovo 1 d. 

Litas, susietas su USD Nuo 1994 m. kovo 1 d. iki 2002 m. vasario 2 d. 

Litas, susietas su euru 

Nuo 2002 m. vasario 2 d. ir dabar 


Dažna valiutos kaita lėmė nepastovumą, žmonių nepasitikėjimą finansų sistema ir sukėlė papildomų 

problemų bankams, keičiant valiutą. 

Infliacijos lygis 1990 m. siekė 39 %, 1991 m. – 382,7 %, 1992 m. – 1163,1 % ir pasiekė hiperinfliaciją, 

1993 m. – 188,7 %. Tokia didėjanti infliacija 1990–1993 m. (Kuodis, 2008; Šadžius, 2004; Vetlov, 2000) 

siejama su kainų liberalizavimu, pinigų kiekio pertekliumi, energijos išteklių kainų kilimu, infliacine TSRS 

rublio emisija ir infliacine inercija. Tik įvedus litą, nacionalinę valiutą, ir vykdant griežtą pinigų emisijos 

politiką infliacijos augimas sumažėjo. Nuo 1994 m. kovo 1 d. pradėtas taikyti valiutos valdybos modelis ir 

litas susietas su JAV dolerio kursu. 1994 m. infliacija siekė 45 %, 1995 m. – 35,7 %, 1996 m. – 13,1 %. 

Infliacijos lygio svyravimai neigiamai veikė ne tik Lietuvos ekonomiką, bet ir komercinių bankų veiklą. 

Staigus infliacijos mažėjimas lėmė komerciniuose bankuose 1994–1995 m. didėjančią „blogųjų“ paskolų 

dalį. Su infliacijos kaita glaudžiai susijusios paskolų ir indėlių palūkanų bei bankų maržos kaita (3 pav.). 

Mažėjant infliacijai komerciniai bankai laikėsi pelningos trumpalaikių paskolų politikos: 1994 m. paskolos 

iki vienerių metų sudarė 84 % visų išduotų paskolų (1995 m. atitinkamai 72,3 %) (Lietuvos bankas 1996). 

3 pav. Vidutinė Lietuvoje veikiančių komercinių bankų paskolų marža litais ir užsienio valiuta 1993–1996 m. 

Šaltinis: http://www.stat.gov.lt/lt/ 

66


Pakitus ekonominėms sąlygoms ir nutrūkus ekonominiams ryšiams su buvusiomis rinkomis Lietuvoje, 

smuko gamyba, todėl komerciniai bankai šiuo laikotarpiu susidūrė su dilema – skolinti verslui su neaiškiomis 

perspektyvomis bei rizika ir gauti didelį pelną ar riboti riziką, bei ūkio subjektų kreditavimą. 

Atkūrus nepriklausomybę Lietuvoje prasidėjo čekinė privatizacija. Privatizavus įmones dažnai jos buvo 

užstatomos bankams, o už gautus pinigus privatizuojamas naujas turtas (Koncerno EBSW). Privatizuotų 

įmonių valdymu nesirūpinta, todėl joms kilo sunkumų realizuojant produkciją. Bankrutavus šioms įmonėms, 

kaip užstatas bankams atitekdavo nelikvidus turtas (nekilnojamasis turtas, kurio pasiūla rinkoje sparčiai didėjo, 

gamybos priemonės ir t. t.). 

Dar viena besikuriančios bankininkystės sistemos problema – nenustatinėjama bankų klientų kokybė, jų 

verslo perspektyvos. Daugelis komercinių bankų klientų buvo įsteigtos naujos įmonės, todėl prognozuoti jų 

verslo perspektyvas tokioje nestabilioje verslo aplinkoje buvo ypač sudėtinga. Orientuotasi į užstatą ir kitų 

įmonių teikiamas garantijas išduodamoms paskoloms. 

L. Šadžiaus (2004) teigimu, pereinamuoju laikotarpiu bankų sistema menkai reguliuota. Tik 1992 m. 

priimtas komercinių bankų įstatymas (LRS, 1992, iki tol bankai veikė pagal akcinių bendrovių įstatymą). 

Lietuvos Bankas vykdė ne tik centrinio, bet ir komercinio banko funkcijas, tai yra išduodavo paskolas ūkio 

subjektams. Tik 1992 m. rugsėjo 1 d. ekspertų siūlymu Lietuvos Bankas atsisakė komercinio banko funkcijų 

ir perdavė jas naujam Lietuvos valstybiniam komerciniam bankui. 

1994 m. Lietuvos komercinių bankų raidoje įvyko esminis lūžis. Šiuos metus galima vadinti ekstensyvios 

komercinių bankų plėtros pabaiga. Keičiantis šalies makroekonominei padėčiai, mažėjant infliacijai, 

šalies ekonomikoje prasidėjo grandininė reakcija: vienų ūkio subjektų problemos (verslo pajamų mažėjimas) 

sukėlė kitų ūkio subjektų problemas (vėlavimą grąžinti paskolas, „blogųjų“ paskolų didėjimą). Susidarius 

nepalankioms ekonominėms aplinkybėms bankų skolininkams buvo sudėtinga vykdyti savo įsipareigojimus. 

Daugelis šalies bankų neįvertino galimų šalies ekonominių pokyčių ir susidūrė su problemomis. 1994 m. 

pradėjo bankrutuoti pirmieji komerciniai bankai. 

L. Šadžiaus (2004) nuomone, šalies komercinių bankų veiklai lemiamos įtakos turėjo 1995 m. gruodžio 

20–22 d. Lietuvos banko paskelbtas dviejų didelių bankų moratoriumas – AB Lietuvos akcinis inovacinis 

bankas ir AB „Litimpeks“ veiklos stabdymas. Lietuvos bankų sistemoje šie bankai užėmė svarbią vietą. Jų 

bendra dalis bankų sistemoje sudarė apie 30 %. Dalies bankų gelbėjimo veiksmų ėmėsi valstybė. 1995 m. 

viduryje „Aurabanką“ nutarė gelbėti Vyriausybė (jame indėlius laikė dauguma valstybės įstaigų, todėl jo 

bankrotas galėjo sukelti dar didesnį chaosą visoje finansų sistemoje). T. Garbaravičiaus ir kt. (2002), L. Šadžius 

(2004) teigia, kad bendros bankų sistemos restruktūrizavimo išlaidos sudarė maždaug 2,5 % BVP 

(apie 1,2 mlrd. Lt). 1996 m. veikė tik 13 komercinių bankų, tai yra 51,8 % mažiau nei jų veikė 1993 m. 

1995–1996 m. pradėta reformuoti teisinė bazė, siekiant išvengti dar didesnių problemų bei galimų tokio tipo 

krizių pasikartojimo ateityje. 1995 m. priimtas naujas komercinių bankų įstatymas (LRS 1995). 

Apibendrinant galima skirti šias pagrindines Lietuvos bankų krizės 1995 m. priežastis: sparčiai besikeičianti 

makroekonominė padėtis (infliacijos mažėjimas, BVP pokyčiai); silpnas ir nepakankamas bei tęstinumo 

neturintis bankų reguliavimas (menkas Lietuvos banko vaidmuo, neaiški bankų reguliavimo koncepcija); 

banko darbuotojų kompetencijos trūkumas (išduodamos paskolos neperspektyviam verslui, orientacija 

į trumpalaikį pelną); sukčiavimas (indėlių iššvaistymas, beprocentės paskolos su bankų savininkais susijusiems 

asmenims). 

2.2. Rusijos 1998 m. finansų krizė ir jos kilimo priežastys 

1998 m. Rusijoje kilusi finansų krizė turėjo didelę reikšmę su ja susijusių šalių ekonomikoms. 1998 m. 

rugpjūčio 17 d. devalvuotas Rusijos rublis. Finansų krizę dar apsunkino Rusijos federacijos nemokumas 

(atsisakymas vykdyti savo įsipareigojimus – išpirkti valstybės vertybinius popierius). 

67



J. Stiglitz (2010) teigimu, Rusijos krizė buvo 1997–1998 m. vykusios globalios finansų krizės dalis (finansų 

krizė, prasidėjusi Tailande, išplito į kitas Pietryčių Azijos valstybės, vėliau – ir į Lotynų Amerikos 

šalis [Argentiną] bei Rusiją). 1998 m. Rusijos skola užsieniui, padidėjusi dėl Azijos ekonomikų griūties, jau 

buvo „raudonoje zonoje“. Prasidėjo likvidumo krizė. Pagrindinę Rusijos eksporto dalį sudarė žaliavos, kurių 

kainos gerokai krito. Visa tai tapo pagrindinėmis Rusijos ekonomikos griūties priežastimis. 

Kiti autoriai (Barro, 2001; Corsetti ir kt., 2001) šios krizės globalia nevadina, ją traktuoja tiesiog kaip 

finansų krizę ir teigia, kad minėtos krizės menkai susijusios. I. Deksnytė ir kt. (2010), N. Šmeliov (1998) akcentuoja 

vidinės Rusijos finansų krizės kilimo priežastis ir užkrato efektą, nulemtą Pietryčių Azijos finansų 

krizės. Ją laiko tik viena, bet ne pagrindine finansų krizės Rusijoje priežastimi. 

Mokslinės literatūros analizė (Deksnytė ir kt., 2010; Šmeliov, 1998; Geralavičius, 1998; Popov, 1999) 

leidžia išskirti šias finansų krizės Rusijoje priežastis: 

• y Dirbtinai padidintas Rusijos rublio kursas (mažėjo šalies eksporto perspektyvos). 

• y Kapitalo pasitraukimas dėl Pietryčių Azijos finansų krizės 1997 m. (nuo 1997 m. spalio iki 1998 m. 

rugpjūčio mėnesio Rusijos akcijos nukrito daugiau kaip 10 kartų). 

• y Ekonominės politikos klaidos (didelis biudžeto deficitas 1995–1998 m.). 

• y 1997–1998 m. naftos kainų kritimas (iš naftos pardavimo gautos pajamos užsienio valiuta buvo labai 

svarbios išlaikant stabilų Rusijos rublio kursą). 

• y Trumpalaikių valstybės vertybinių popierių „piramidė“ (siekiant sumažinti pinigų kiekį rinkoje, taip 

mažinant infliaciją ir subalansuojant biudžetą, leisti trumpalaikiai valstybės vertybiniai popieriai). 

1998 m. gegužės mėnesį šių vertybinių popierių refinansavimo norma pasiekė 150 %, metinei šalies 

infliacijai nesiekiant net 10 %. Neatsakinga skolinimosi politika ir užsienio kapitalo pasitraukimas 

1998 m. lėmė šalies nemokumą – atsisakymą išpirkti savo išleistus valstybės vertybinius popierius. 

• y Komercinių bankų, kurie buvo vieni pagrindinių trumpalaikių vertybinių popierių pirkėjų, panika. Paskelbus 

šalies nemokumą, jiems kilo likvidumo problemų, kurias dar paaštrino prasidėjusi indėlininkų 

panika ir masiniai indėlių atsiėmimai bankuose. 

• y Maži užsienio valiutų rezervai (1997 m. jie siekė tik apie 6 % BVP, 1998 m. – tik 3 % BVP). 

Neatlaikiusi „ištekančio“ kapitalo spaudimo bei sparčiai mažėjant užsienio rezervams (1998 m. liepos 

mėnesį Rusija gavo 4 mlrd. JAV dolerių Tarptautinio valiutos fondo paskolą, skirtą tarptautinėms užsienio 

atsargoms papildyti, tačiau jos užteko tik trims savaitėms) Rusija buvo priversta devalvuoti rublį. 1998 m. 

rugsėjį Rusijos rublio kursas siekė 6,2 rublio už 1 JAV dolerį, tuo tarpu 1998 m. gruodžio mėnesį šis kursas 

jau siekė 20 rublių už 1 JAV dolerį. Pasak N. Šmeliovo (1998), dėl Rusijos rublio devalvavimo Rusijos gyventojų 

pajamos sumažėjo trečdaliu, santaupos taip pat nuvertėjo, o dėl bankuose kilusios likvidumo krizės 

atsiimti bankuose laikytas santaupas buvo nebeįmanoma. Daugelis autorių (Deksnytė ir kt., 2010; Šmeliov, 

1998; Geralavičius, 1998; Popov, 1999) sutaria, kad Rusijos finansų krizė – tai valiutinė krizė, tačiau jos 

pasekmė – tiek bankų, tiek valstybės skolų finansų krizės. 

1998 m. Rusijos finansų krizė turėjo neigiamos įtakos aplinkinėms šalims, ypač toms, kurios buvo užmezgusios 

glaudžius prekybinius ryšius su Rusija (bei kitomis NVS valstybėmis, kurias labai paveikė Rusijos 

problemos). Devalvavus Rusijos rublį sumažėjo Lietuvos (ir kitų šalių) prekių konkurencingumas Rusijoje, 

tai buvo netikėta tiek Lietuvos eksportuotojams, tiek valdžios institucijoms. Natūralu, kad gana didelis 

ekonomikos nuosmukis ir finansinė suirutė Rusijoje paveikė ir Lietuvos ekonomiką, kuri su Rusija (bei 

kitomis NVS valstybėmis) buvo glaudžiai susijusi prekybiniais saitais. Kadangi su kitomis problemomis 

Lietuvos ekonomika 1998–1999 m. nesusidūrė, galima daryti išvadą, kad visą neigiamą efektą ekonomikoje 

sukėlė Rusijos finansų krizė. 

Tačiau Rusijos finansų krizė lėmė struktūrinius Lietuvos tarptautinės prekybos pokyčius. Eksportuotojai 

pradėjo orientuotis į Vakarų rinkas, o priklausomybė nuo NVS šalių pradėjo mažėti. Akcentuotina tai, kad 

Rusijos finansų krizė nepaveikė Lietuvos finansų sistemos ir nesukėlė bankų sistemos krizės Lietuvoje. Finansinis 

sektorius nepatyrė sukrėtimų. 

68


2.3. Globali 2008 m. finansų krizė Lietuvoje, jos kilimo priežastys 

2007 m. pradėjusios kristi nekilnojamojo turto kainos JAV sukėlė globalią finansų krizę visame pasaulyje. 

Susidurta su Amerikos, Europos, Azijos šalių nemokumu, bankų krizėmis, kreditavimo mažėjimu, nepasitikėjimu 

finansinėmis institucijomis. 2008–2009 m. pasaulio ekonominė krizė labiausiai pasireiškė BVP 

mažėjimu, pagrindinės priežastys – ilgalaikiai pokyčiai naftos rinkos kainodaroje ir su ja susijusiose srityse 

(nesklandumai, kilę benzino, maisto produktų kainodaros, nekilnojamojo turto ir vertybinių popierių rinkų, 

bankininkystės sektoriuose). 

Anot J. Stiglitz (2010), šios globalios finansų krizės mastai įvertinti tik 2009 m. pradžioje, kai ekonomika 

jau išgyveno ilgiausią ir giliausią recesiją nuo „Didžiosios depresijos“ 1930 m. laikų. 

O. G. Rakauskienė ir kt. (2009: 117–118) teigia, kad būtų galima skirti tris pagrindines globalios finansų 

krizės priežasčių grupes. Pirmoji – pasaulio ekonomikos ir išsivysčiusių šalių nacionalinių ekonomikų 

ciklinis vystymasis. Akivaizdu, kad globalizacijos procesai trumpina ciklą ir globalinio ekonominio bumo 

bei stabilumo fazių trukmę. Antroji – susidariusi globalinė finansinė sistema neatitinka šiuolaikinių reikalavimų, 

bet atitinka esamas realijas. Globalizacija yra vienas sudėtingiausių pasaulinės ekonomikos reiškinių, 

menkai ištirta kaip finansų naujovė. Globalizacija pasitiki viena dominuojančia valiuta, t. y. JAV doleriu. Tai 

archajiška, nes ignoruojami net kardinalūs finansų sferos pakeitimai, nesugebama nei sutrukdyti didėjančiam 

finansų neproporcingumui ir asimetrijai, nei valdyti nuolat didėjančio spekuliatyvių (virtualių) operacijų 

pavojaus. Manoma, kad egzistuojanti finansinė sistema turi defektų, nes finansiniai procesai neatitinka ekonominių 

išteklių naudojimo. Trečia priežasčių grupė apima socialinius veiksnius, tokius kaip socialinės poliarizacijos, 

socialinės ekonominės nelygybės ir moralės, etikos ir dvasinių verčių krizės augimas. Daugelyje 

šalių liberalus požiūris į verslą lėmė socialinės nelygybės ir beprecedentės stratifikacijos net išsivysčiusiose 

šalyse didėjimą. Socialinė-ekonominė nelygybė lemia krizę. Europos Sąjungoje tai pastebėta anksčiau, todėl 

ji pasiskelbė esanti atsakinga už socialinę politiką globalizacijos procese. 

2008 m. globaliai finansų krizei peraugus į realiojo sektoriaus krizę, pasaulio ekonomikai buvo vieni 

sudėtingiausių per keletą praėjusių dešimtmečių. Gilėjanti krizė pakirto tiek verslo, tiek ir vartotojų pasitikėjimą, 

griežtėjant finansavimo sąlygoms mažėjo vartojimas ir investicijos, gerokai sumenko tarptautinės prekybos 

apimtys, toliau prastėjo situacija būsto rinkoje, menko daugelio ekonomikos sektorių, ypač pramonės, 

aktyvumas ir didėjo nedarbas. 

Lietuvos ekonomika 2002–2007 m. augo labai sparčiai, tačiau šio augimo negalima laikyti tvariu, nes 

buvo nulemtas privataus sektoriaus skolos didėjimo ir nekilnojamojo turto burbulo kilimo. Todėl ekonomika 

tapo labai priklausoma nuo paskolų sektoriaus. 2008 m. Lietuvos ekonomikos augimas pradėjo lėtėti ir 

2008 m. ketvirtąjį ketvirtį gerokai krito (tai tęsėsi net 6 ketvirčius iš eilės). 

Taigi 2008 m. galima laikyti kompleksine Lietuvos finansų krize. Lietuvos ekonomiką veikė ne tik globali 

finansų krizė, bet ir Lietuvoje prasidėjusi finansų krizė (nekilnojamojo turto burbulas, didelė kredito 

ekspansija, nuo bankinių kreditų priklausomas šalies ekonominis augimas). Visų šių neigiamų veiksnių rezultatas 

– BVP smukimas 2009 m. net 14,7 %, nedarbas išaugo iki 17,8 %. Tai didžiausi šių rodiklių svyravimai 

per dvidešimt metų. 

Išvados 

1. Išnagrinėjus pagrindinius finansų krizių sampratų teorinius aspektus ir palyginus mokslinėje literatūroje 

minimus finansų krizių apibrėžimus pastebėta, kad mokslininkai finansų krizes apibrėžia skirtingai. 

Vieni akcentuoja tik vieną kurį nors finansų krizių kilimo apsektą ar atskirą tipą, kiti pateikdami 

apibrėžimą stengiasi įvardyti visus finansinių krizių tipus. Darytina išvada, kad finansų krizė – tai 

sutrikimai finansų rinkose, sukeliantys realiosios ekonomikos problemas ir galintys lemti ekonominę 

recesiją konkrečioje šalyje arba globaliu mastu. Nors šis apibrėžimas nėra labai konkretus, jis gali 

apimti visų finansų krizių tipus. Autorių nuomone, apibrėžime akcentuoti finansinių krizių kilimo 

69



priežasčių neverta, nes jų yra labai daug, o vis kylančios naujos finansų krizės turi specifinių bruožų ir 

savybių. 

2. Palyginus mokslinėje literatūroje pateikiamą finansų krizių klasifikavimą, sudaryta išsami finansų krizių 

tipų klasifikacinė lentelė. Joje pateikti devyni finansinių krizių tipai, jų pagrindinės kilimo priežastys, 

apibendrintas pirminis ir galimas antrinis poveikis šalies ekonomikai bei pateikta pavyzdžių. 

Atkreiptinas dėmesys, kad mokslinėje literatūroje autoriai bendro skirstymo nepateikia. Analizuojant 

finansų krizių tipus pastebėta, kad jas galima ir būtina skirstyti ne tik pagal tipologiją, nes tipologinio 

skirstymo joms palyginti ne visada pakanka. Finansų krizes dar galima ir reikėtų skirstyti pagal jų 

kilimo vietą bei poveikį šalies ekonominiams rodikliams į išorės, vidaus ir kompleksines; pagal išplitimą 

– šalies, regiono ir globalias. 

3. Nagrinėjant Lietuvos ekonomikos raidą 1990–2011 m. laikotarpiu, nustatyta, kad Lietuvos ekonomiką 

veikė trys finansų krizės: Lietuvos bankų krizė 1994–1996 m.; Rusijos krizė 1998 m.; Globali finansų 

krizė 2008–2010 m. Kiekviena šių krizių priskirtina skirtingam tipui. 1994–1996 m. vykusi finansų 

krizė priskirtina vidinei šalies bankų sistemos krizei. 1998 m. Lietuvos ekonomiką veikė Rusijos rublio 

(valiutinė) išorės finansų krizė. 2008–2010 m. Lietuvos ekonomika išgyveno kompleksinę finansų 

krizę, kuri veikė tiek šalies viduje (nekilnojamojo turto burbulo sprogimas), tiek išorėje (vykstanti 

globali finansų krizė). 

4. Akcentuotina, kad mokslinėje literatūroje nepateikiamas bendras metodas, kuris leistų palyginti tarpusavyje 

skirtingus finansinių krizių, vykusių skirtinguose regionuose, šalyse ar skirtingais laiko tarpais, 

poveikio ekonominiams rodikliams modelio tipus. Jeigu finansų krizė apėmė dvi šalis, galima nustatyti, 

kuriai šaliai jos poveikis buvo didesnis (labiau sumažėjęs BVP, išaugęs nedarbas ir pan.). Tačiau jei 

finansų krizės poveikio duomenys prieštaringi (pavyzdžiui, vienoje šalyje labai sumažėjo BVP, tačiau 

nedarbas beveik nepakito, tuo tarpu kitoje šalyje gerokai pakilo nedarbo lygis, tačiau BVP beveik 

nesumažėjo), kyla finansų krizės poveikio įvertinimo ir palyginamumo problemų. Ši problema tampa 

dar aktualesnė, jei nagrinėjame daugiau ekonominių rodiklių. Kitas palyginamumo trūkumas išryškėja 

tarpusavyje lyginant besivystančių šalių ekonominius rodiklius, esant finansų krizei, su išsivysčiusių 

šalių ekonominiais rodikliais. Augant šalies ekonomikai BVP gali ne mažėti, o tiesiog sulėtėti augimo 

tempai, o kitoje šalyje (išsivysčiusioje) BVP gali mažėti, tada kyla šio BVP kitimo palyginamumo 

problema. Todėl finansų krizės poveikiui įvertinti reikia visas neigiamas poveikio „dalis“ sujungti į 

vieną visumą. 

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COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CRISIS TYPES 

IN LITHUANIA 


Klaipėda University (Lithuania) 

Summary 

Scientific aspects of the financial crisis is often studied, but researches with summarized types of financial 

crises are just few, there is a methodology for the classification of financial crises. Examination of the 

basic concepts of financial crises, the theoretical aspects and the comparison of the literature mentioned 

in the definition of financial crises are identified during the investigation, presented in terms of financial 

crises inaccuracies: definitions vague, usually only shall list the types and the financial crisis into a unified 

whole, the definition highlights many aspects, but some they may not be in a financial crisis, by definition, 

difficult to one or another phenomenon attributed to the economic and financial crisis is more dependent on 

the interpretation, not what specific indicators might be considered as a worsening financial crisis. It may be 

noted that all the scientists define the financial crisis in different ways, some emphasize only one definition 

of financial crises in the isolated country programming, or a separate type, the other follows the definition of 

the naming of types of financial crises. It follows that the financial crisis – the problems in financial markets, 

causing real economic problems and can lead to economic recession in a particular country or global level. 

The comparison of the literature contained in the typology of financial crises, it was found that differences 

exist only in a typical distribution of financial crises. However, analysis of financial crises on the economy 

of such a distribution is not enough. A crisis should be classified according to their site of origin, and the 

country’s economy (external, internal, complex), and according to their incidence (country, regional, global). 

Therefore, a comprehensive financial crises types of classification table. Synthesis financial crisis classificatory 

table contains the following types of financial crises: financial panic caused by the crisis, financial 

bubbles exploded, financial security crisis, a liquidity exhaustion – forced loans crisis, debt crisis, the banking 

system crisis, the balance of payments crisis, currency crisis. It was found that often one of the financial 

crisis is very similar to several types and it is difficult to assign it to one or another type. Also, there may be 

cases when the country faces a number of different types of financial crises at once, or one of the country’s 

financial crisis spreads to another country or the neighboring region. Concluded classificatory financial crisis 

typological table also identifies the main reasons for the rise, presenting the main indicators of the economic 

impact of these historic and listed in the Examples of the types of financial crises. Examining the economic 

development of Lithuania provides that the independent Lithuania there were three financial (economic) 

crisis. The first – the internal nature of the crisis caused by the collapse of the financial sector, took place in 

1996, the second – the 1999 crisis, seen as a consequence of the crisis in Russia took place and finally in 2007 

the financial system since the crisis began in the global economic crisis has affected the Lithuanian economy 

(the economic recession in Lithuania started in 2008 year). Since all the related crisis in the financial sector, 

they are called the frequent financial crises. Identification in Lithuania 1990–2010 period there were three Lithuanian 

economy negatively affected the financial crisis – the banking crisis (1995), “the Russian financial 

crisis (1998) and the Global Financial Crisis” (2008) found that generally they are not considered, there is no 

consensus on how many and what types of financial crises, Lithuania has experienced. The measures identified 

in 1995 “Banking Crisis” Causes: rapidly changing macro-economic situation (inflation decline, changes 

72


in GDP) is weak and the lack of continuity and no regulation of banks (Bank of Lithuania, the role of a weak, 

vague concept of banking regulation), the bank workers’ skills shortage (viable loans issued to businesses, 

the orientation the short-term profits) fraud (embezzlement of deposits, interest-free loans to owners of bankrelated 

entities). “Russia’s financial crisis” (1998) Causes of Lithuania can be regarded as originating in 

Russia’s currency and financial crisis to accompany the Russian debt crisis. Effect of this crisis, the Russian 

ruble fell, the income of the citizens fell, Russia’s GDP declined, the state refused to redeem their securities. 

This had a negative impact on the surrounding countries, especially those who had close trade relations with 

Russia. Russia devalued the ruble decreased competitiveness of Lithuanian goods in Russia. Granted, that a 

substantial economic downturn and financial turmoil in Russia and Lithuania hit the economy, which with 

Russia (and other CIS countries) were closely related trading links. It should be emphasized that the Russian 

financial crisis affected Lithuania’s financial system, banking and financial crisis did not result in Lithuania. 

The financial sector has suffered a loss. Lithuanian economy in 2002–2007 has grown very rapidly, but this 

growth cannot be sustained because it was destined to rise in private sector debt and property bubble in the 

carpet. Therefore, the economy has become heavily dependent on government loans. In 2008, Lithuania’s 

economic growth began to slow in 2008 and dropped sharply in the fourth quarter (a total of GDP figures 

declined for 6 consecutive quarters). So the year 2008 can be regarded as a complex system of Lithuania’s 

financial crisis. Lithuania’s economy had not only the global financial crisis in the world and in Lithuania 

but in the event of financial crisis. Real estate bubble, a large expansion of credit, bank credit depends on the 

country’s economic growth – all of which resulted in the formation of global financial crisis. The emphasis 

on sustainable economic development in Lithuania and assumptions in order to research the formation of regional 

policy in Lithuania took place in the financial crisis are grouped as follows: the banking crisis, which 

took place in 1995, placed inside the country’s financial crisis type, the Russian financial crisis, which took 

place in 1998 that Currency crisis that affected the surrounding region; Global financial crisis, which took 

place in 2008 – a complex financial crisis at the same time as the financial crisis originated in Lithuania and 

the world (is the global financial crisis had a negative impact on the economy of Lithuania). 

KEY WORDS: financial crisis, financial crisis classification, types of financial crises. 

JEL codes: G000; G010. 

73


INFLUENTIAL DETERMINANTS OF INNOVATION: CASE STUDY OF LATVIA AND GERMANY 

INFLUENTIAL DETERMINANTS OF INNOVATION: 

CASE STUDY OF LATVIA AND GERMANY 

Carolin Kuhn 1 , Ilona Dubra 2 , Erika Sumilo 3 


ABSTRACT 

Innovation is often recognized as a vital source of competitive advantage for business. Taking into account the conditions of increasing 

globalization at a high level of intensity as well as a rapidly changing technological landscape and also continuous customer 

demands for new products and services on the modern market, it is needed to assume that businesses have to innovate in order to 

survive and prosper in the contemporary environment. In the context of the paper at hand the main attention is given to the analysis 

of the theoretical and empirical aspects of the concept of innovation. There were applied such economic science research methods as 

monographic, grouping, reference, generalization, graphical analysis and content analysis. 

KEY WORDS: innovation, growth, Germany, Latvia, competitiveness, enterprise. 

JEL codes: A11; A12; A13; H52; M21; O16; O31; O32; O34; O38; O52 

Introduction 

Unfortunately, there is a lack of innovative entrepreneurial activity in the context of the Latvian economic 

sector. According to Eurostat latest data, Latvia counts with the poorest ratio of the innovative enterprises and 

this fact may result in low business environment at all and for sure in dramatic threats and hard national economic 

sector stroke. Taking into account Germany’s successful innovation policy and state leader positions in 

the sphere of innovation, it is useful to organize a deep research of German enterprises innovation experience 

in order to bring to light influential determinants on innovation creation and, in consequence, to apply these 

factors and make use of the research in order to foster innovative activities in Latvian enterprises. The object of 

the paper is the influencing factors of enterprise innovation in Germany and in Latvia. The purpose of this paper 

therefore is to determine these in general and then to compare the specific situation in Germany and Latvia. 

The main tasks of the paper are stated as follows: 

• y to investigate the key theoretical aspects of the concept of innovation; 

• y to provide a review of the empirical findings of factors impacting on innovation; 

• y to examine innovation determinants in Germany; 

• y to examine innovation determinants in Latvia. 

1 

Carolin Kuhn – University of Latvia, Economics and management faculty, PhD student, Dipl.-Wirt.-Ing. Scientistic interests: 

Organizational culture, organization theory, innovation management, marketing. 

E-mail: carolinkuhn@web.de 

Tel.: +49 177 8747249. 

2 

Ilona Dubra – University of Latvia, Economics and management faculty, PhD student, Mg. oec. Scientistic interests: human 

capital, organizational culture university industry linkages, innovation economics. 

E-mail: ilona.dubra@inbox.lv 

Tel.: +371 264 079 72. 

3 

Erika Sumilo – University of Latvia, Economics and management faculty, Dr. oec. Prof. Scientistic interests: Human development, 

economic history, international economics, international business, cross-cultural business relations. 

E-mail: sumilo@lu.lv 

74


In the context of the paper there were applied such economic science research methods as monographic, 

grouping, reference, generalization, graphical analysis and content analysis. In the first part, the paper reveals 

the wide range of a definition of innovation and why it is so important. Secondly, it stresses out the importance 

of an analysis of key factors that may have a high impact on the creation of enterprise innovation in 

general. In this section many different internal and external drivers for innovations in industrial organizations 

are explained based on a deep literature research. In the final two parts, this paper reveals the very different 

situations about innovation in Germany and Latvia. Whereas more than 2/3 of annual funding invested in 

research in Germany comes from the private sector and these funds are spent on the companies’ own research 

as well as on joint projects with partners from science, there is not any appropriate national innovation 

system in Latvia. Total government budget appropriations or outlays on R&D and expenditures on R&D as 

a per cent of GDP in Latvia stand at a dramatically low level. There is a lack of scientists in entrepreneurial 

activities in Latvia. Besides, there is a systematic lack of support actions and financial support for innovation 

development in Latvia. In Germany, on the other hand, the high standard of technical expertise is the most 

important driver for innovation. To sum up, this paper helps to get a deeper understanding of the differences 

between the two countries investigated. However, it is designed be an inspiration of how to improve innovation 

power for both countries and finally, of course, suggests further research on the topic of innovation. 

1. Innovation – what it is and why it matters 

In many terms innovation is a very commonly used word today. You can find it in the news on TV, in the 

papers, or even on the radio, quite regularly. However, it is not always clear what this term really means. 

This certainly needs clarification, because not every new idea or product is naturally an innovation. On the 

contrary, out of 100 ideas only 13 make it to a fully developed product that is launched on the market and 

only 6 actually become a product success here as 0 shows. 

“One of the problems in innovation is the variation in what people understand by the term, often confusing 

it with invention” (Tidd, Bessant, 2009: 16). The word innovation originates in the Latin vocabulary 

“innovare” – to make something new (Langenscheidt, 2001: 653). Invention on the other hand goes back to 

“invenire”, also Latin – to discover something (Langenscheidt, 2001: 684). Still, this does not clearly explain 

the difference between the two. As Thomas A. Edison (1847–1931), the US-American inventor of the light 

bulb, once put it: “Anything that won’t sell, I don’t want to invent. Its sale is proof of utility, and utility is 

success” (Tidd, Bessant, 2009: 20). Only a successfully marketed invention can be defined as an innovation. 

It has to be successful on the market and money must be gained from it. Innovation is the “process of turning 

opportunity into new ideas and of putting these into widely used practice” (Tidd, Bessant, 2009: 16). There- 

Figure 1. Percentage of ideas becoming a product success 

Source: Kerka &Kriegesmann, 2010: 3 

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fore, for profit-oriented organizations it is innovation, not only invention that helps them to gain economic 

growth. Being a good inventor is never a guarantee of commercial success (Tidd, Bessant, 2009: 17). However, 

innovation is not only about products. It may also be found in the means for creating or delivering it 

(Amabile, 1996: 3) and basically describes the implantation of creative ideas within an organization. 

Innovation is a fundamental element of long-term success (Davila et al., 2006: 16). Today, it matters not 

only at the level of the individual enterprise but also increasingly as the origin for national economic growth 

(Tidd, Bessant, 2009: 5). There are enough analyses that prove a mutual dependency between innovation and 

success of companies. Statistics Canada for example identified in 2006 that innovation is consistently found to 

be the most important characteristic associated with success in companies. Besides, innovative enterprises typically 

achieve stronger growth or are more successful than those that do not innovate (Statistics Canada, 2006). 

In fact, innovation has become a core driver of growth, performance, and valuation (Barsh et al., 2008: 37). 

70 % of organizations with a positive attitude towards innovation declare that they outperform their 

competitors and it is those companies that have seen an increase in profits over the past years (Von Stamm, 

2008: 480). Furthermore, you can find analyses revealing that there is a clear connection between the technological 

position of a business area, its market position, its earnings and the extent to which it can safeguard 

jobs and even expand its workforce (Eberl, Puma, 2007: 15). Therefore, it goes without doubt that the ability 

to continuously innovate is of critical importance to the long-term success of any organization (Terziovski, 

2007: 19). The need to innovate in order to keep competitive advantages is already known to be crucial for 

sustainable success in many companies. In the future, the only reliable security for any company is the ability 

to innovate better and longer than competitors. And, “organizations (…) cannot expect to survive without 

innovation” (Davila et al., 2006: 28). 

2. External and internal drivers for innovation power of industrial companies 

Depending on the industries, of course, there are a number of different sources where innovative ideas 

can come from. In general, companies need to be able to see connections, to spot opportunities and to take 

advantage of them (Tidd, Bessant, 2009: 3). Nevertheless, customers, competitors, partners, and even new 

governmental or environmental regulations can bring inspiration. New regulations or users who become innovators 

can be as much of an inspiration and therefore the beginning of an innovation as a knowledge push 

in the research and development department or as challenging competition. A 2010 research for Wirtschaftswoche 

found that companies themselves admit getting their best ideas for innovation up to 40 % from their 

customers as 0 shows. According to this, the internal innovation management plays only a minor role (13 %). 

Figure 2. Where companies get their best ideas from 

Source: Engeser, 2010: 96 

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Figure 3. Proximity to customers of companies with different market performance 

Source: Wentz, 2008: 112 

Wentz confirms this by stating that even though it is a lot of work to search for consumer insights in detail, 

it is what makes innovation successful in the end. Innovation projects with regular customer input have 

a success probability that is twice as high and a market share that is 70 % higher than projects with insufficient 

market input (Wentz, 2008: 111). Besides, the most successful companies in the market work together 

with customers much more closely to get to know their needs and problems than those companies being less 

successful (Wentz, 2008: 112). 0 shows the results of a study regarding the proximity to customers. It reveals 

that the best performing company works together with customers very closely in every aspect and phase of 

the innovation process. 

Probably this is the biggest challenge about innovation: It is essentially about learning and an open-minded 

attitude (Tidd, Bessant, 2009: 101). It cannot be forced. For every innovation, there is a right time and 

a right place, and companies need patience on the one hand and vigilance on the other (Eberl, Puma, 2007: 

102), to make value out of opportunities. It does not work by pushing a button. Ideas are generated and formed 

through inspiration – a little bit like music (Eberl, Puma, 2007: 237). 

Another very important key characteristic of innovative organizations is their willingness to experiment 

and to challenge the status quo (Von Stamm, 2008: 476). It requires curiosity and openness to change (Deschamps, 

2008: 9), even though this might be risky, costly and success cannot be promised in the beginning. 

So, apart from many external drivers that this part has explained, there still seems to be much more about 

a company’s philosophy, strategy and state of mind to make innovation work. This brings us to the internal 

influences on innovation, which will be discussed in the following section. 

The Boston Consulting Group annually publishes a list of the most innovative companies which shows 

that they come from all branches, sizes, and backgrounds (McGregor, 2007: 3). Besides, every country has a 

lot of very small, local companies that live on innovation, too. Therefore, you can probably not suggest the 

one and only organizational model for a company to be innovative. What seems to be much more important 

is that a company is flexible and fast in reaction to changed market needs. Most importantly, companies need 

to be able to learn very quickly and to manage their processes according to customers’ and employees’ needs 

(Wildemann, 2010: 12). A constantly learning organization that rewards innovation and gives free space for 

developing ideas and being creative must be the vision for today’s companies (Wildemann, 2010: 12). 

Since innovation becomes more and more a corporate-wide task, involving production, marketing, administration, 

purchasing and many other functions, this does provide pressure to set up more organic models 

77



(Tidd, Bessant, 2009: 107). Generally, a flexible organizational structure can be a successful stimulus to the 

development of innovation capability because it allows different work practices (Terziovski, 2007: 206). 

Innovative companies are committed to their course of innovation (Von Stamm, 2008: 480) and believe 

in the long-term success and sustainability that will make it pay-off. 

“The difference between success and failure in innovation is leadership.” 

Marc Benioff, CEO salesforce.com 4 (Davila et al., 2006: 259) 

This quote alone states the important role that leadership and management play in innovative companies. 

Even though discovery and creative thought cannot be planned by a leader (Klemm, 2001: 452), there 

is scientific proof that innovation management depends on the leadership at the top. The team at the top 

must want it to happen and trust their people to make it happen (Davila et al., 2006: 13). As always, the 

way leaders behave sends strong signals to employees. The McKinsey survey from 2007 found that the top 

two motivators of behaviour to promote innovation are strong leaders who encourage and protect it and top 

executives who spend their time actively managing and driving it (Barsh et al., 2008: 39). Besides, the orientation 

toward innovation must come, primarily, from the highest level of management (Amabile, 1996: 8), 

because every innovation requires the support of a manager to survive (Davila et al., 2006: 114). There are 

cases enough, showing that ideas which challenge the status quo, face an uphill struggle to gain acceptance 

(Tidd, Bessant, 2009: 99) – sometimes just because they are new and things have never been done like this 

before in the organization. What is done and how it is done in an organization is strongly influenced by leaders 

and managers (Terziovski, 2007: 31). 

Another important und controversial point in innovation is the issue of rewards and incentives. Whereas 

Klemm points out that workers will try to generate new ideas when they know that management rewards them 

(Klemm, 2001: 455), Barsh et al. clearly state that an environment where people understand that their ideas are 

valued, trust that it is safe to express those ideas, and oversee risks collectively, together with their managers, 

can be much more effective than monetary incentives in sustaining innovation (Barsh et al., 2008: 37–47). 

Another important issue, in the authors’ point of view, is satisfaction and emotional engagement at work. 

In 2010, a study for Gallup Inc. in Germany revealed that only 14 % of German employees feel highly committed 

to their companies. 63 % have a low commitment and another 23 % feel they have no commitment 

at all to their employer (Nink, 2012: 10). The study estimates that the so-called “inner notice” of so many 

employees doing work-to-rule only, causes an economic damage in Germany of around 124 billion Euros 

per year (Nink, 2012: 11). According to the study, the emotional engagement of employees also has a very 

high impact on innovation power. As 0 shows, employees with a high commitment to their company bring 

in many more new ideas to discuss with their leader than employees who do not really feel committed. Their 

contribution to innovation power, in fact, is 197.8 % higher than the one of employees with no emotional 

engagement. So, it must be in the interest of innovative companies to make their employees emotionally 

involved and ensure high commitment at work. 

Furthermore, topics such as environmental responsibility, sustainability in company success, growing 

internationality even of small and mid-sized companies, and corporate social responsibility might influence 

a company’s innovation power. In the end, it is hard to limit the innovation influencers to special, concrete 

aspects. They all seem to be linked to each other somehow and can hardly be prioritized. 

Studies have shown that innovation is extremely complex and involves the effective management of a 

variety of different activities (Trott, 2008: 25). The key findings of a survey from 2006 by Business Week 

and Boston Consulting Group of over 1.000 senior managers in 0 reveal how different the explanations for a 

company to be innovative can be. 

4 

Salesforce.com is a cloud computing enterprise established only in 2004. It offers sales and marketing business applications 

for companies of any size and provides these via a server. The customers therefore only pay a monthly fee for 

downloads and do not need any software installations. Salesforce.com serves approximately two million users today. 

78


Figure 4. Number of ideas that employees explicitly brought to discussion with their leaders in the last 6 months 

Source: Nink, 2012: 18 

Table 1. Explanation for innovative capability 

Innovative firm 

Apple 

Google 

Samsung 

Procter & Gamble 

IBM 

BMW 

Starbucks 

Toyota 

Explanation for innovative capability 

Innovative chief executive 

Scientific freedom for employees 

Speed of product development 

Utilisation of external sources of technology 

Share patents with collaborators 

Design 

In-depth understanding of customers and their cultures 

Close cooperation with suppliers 

Source: Trott, 2008: 25 

Having shown this, it still does not become obvious what a company has to do to increase innovation 

power. However, there is scientific research showing that, in general, there are many different influencing 

factors. While some studies claim a certain group of factors being crucial, other studies ignore the very same 

factors and claim very different factors to be decisive (Van der Panne et al., 2003: 310). 

To sum up, there is no general definition of success factors for innovation power that all experts would 

agree on. Although this makes the topic hard to grasp there is a common consent in scientific research that innovation 

culture is a very important factor. Company culture is undisputedly considered crucial to the firm’s 

technological capabilities in the long term (Van der Panne et al., 2003: 312). Other authors can also reconfirm 

this. Von Stamm, for example, states that creating an innovative organization requires a people-centred 

approach; after all, it is people who come up with new ideas and transform them into innovative products or 

services, not processes (Von Stamm, 2008: 329). Davila explains that innovation needs to be an integral part 

of the way a company operates every day and of the whole business mentality (Davila et al., 2006: 11). A 

McKinsey Quarterly study from 2008 found that senior executives almost unanimously – 94 per cent – say 

that people and corporate culture are the most important drivers for innovation (Barsh et al., 2008: 38). After 

all, a culture of innovation is the fertile ground in which tomorrow’s innovations will bear rich fruit and make 

the company grow sustainably in the end (Eberl & Puma, 2007: 6). Thus, the capability of an organization to 

create value out of innovation heavily depends on a strong innovation culture (Terziovski, 2007: 213). Von 

Stamm reconfirms that creating the right culture is key to innovation (Von Stamm, 2008: 475). The literature 

on organizational innovation, both anecdotal and empirical, emphasizes the importance of culture as a major 

determinant (Prajogo, Ahmed, 2006: 501). 

79



3. Innovation determinants in Germany 

In Germany, innovation has a very long history. It is a land of ideas where education, science and research 

play a central role (German Center for Research and Innovation, 2012). In addition to that, research and innovation 

are among the German government’s highest priorities, and there are a variety of public and private 

institutions conducting research (German Center for Research and Innovation, 2012). The Max-Planck-Gesellschaft 

or the Fraunhofer Institute for example gain acceptance worldwide. Moreover, the industry plays 

a very important role in the German research landscape. More than two-thirds of annual funding invested in 

research in Germany comes from the private sector and these funds are spent on the companies’ own research 

as well as on joint projects with partners from science (German Center for Research and Innovation, 2012). 

In German companies, engineering excellence is still the best way to get ahead in a career (Knowledge 

@ Wharton, 2009: 2). Maybe that is why, historically, the high standard of technical expertise is the most 

important driver of German innovation. Germany actually registers more patents per capita than any other 

nation (Knowledge @ Wharton, 2009: 1). 

However, a survey for the Centre for European Economic Research in 2005 found out that there is no clear 

overall trend in innovation. Even though the expenditure on innovation rose strongly, by 2 %, the proportion 

of all firms that implemented innovations did not increase (Aschhoff et al., 2006: 2). Besides, the share 

of revenue from new products also remained constant on average across all sectors. Germany has a very high 

level of innovation though: In 2004, 60 % of manufacturing firms successfully brought new products to the 

market or introduced new processes (Aschhoff et al., 2006: 2). 

Prof. Dr. Annette Schavan, member of the German Bundestag and Federal Minister of Education and Research 

announced in 2009 that further investments in education, science and research are necessary to make 

a commitment to a path of growth and economic success after the crisis for Germany (Federal Ministry of 

Education and Research, 2009: foreword). A report for the very same Ministry claims that the financial and 

economic crisis of 2009 will not stop the global race for knowledge from re-accelerating. International competition 

for talent, technology superiority and market leadership will continue to grow. In countries relatively 

poor in natural resources, such as Germany, enhanced innovation will provide the decisive basis for growth, 

new jobs and prosperity (Federal Ministry of Education and Research, 2009: 4). Therefore, innovation was 

the key to a rapid recovery in Germany and both, politics and industries, understood that at the time. Porter 

and Stern reconfirm this in their report on global competitiveness. Especially advanced nations, with relatively 

high labour costs and equal access to global markets, such as Germany, will not sustain competitive if 

they produce standard products and use standard methods only. Instead, advantage must come from the ability 

to create and then commercialize new products and processes (Porter & Stern, 2001b: 2). Thus, innovation 

in Germany, is not only historically natural – today, it is much more a necessity to survive! Furthermore, 

Porter and Stern state that competitiveness advances when the public and private sectors together promote 

a favorable environment for innovation (Porter, Stern, 2001b: 2). Germany ranks 3rd in Porter’s and Stern’s 

overall innovative capacity index (Latvia: 41st) with rank 7 regarding the innovation policy subindex (Latvia: 

rank 51) (Porter, Stern, 2001b: 4). The report firstly indicates that there are very different preconditions 

depending on geographic locations. The findings reveal the striking degree to which the national environment 

matters for success in innovative activity, indeed. Actually, building innovative capacity has a strong 

relationship to a country’s overall competitiveness and level of prosperity and it must be seen as one of the 

biggest challenges for many countries in Latin America, Southern and Eastern Europe for the years to come 

(Porter, Stern, 2001b: 15). 

In another article about the topic, the authors state that even though the United States and Switzerland 

maintain the top positions regarding innovative capacity of the OECD countries, other nations such as Japan 

and Germany have invested heavily in the conditions underpinning national innovative capacity and improved 

their relative standing as innovators (Porter, Stern, 2001a: 32). So, regardless the already impressive 

innovation performance Germany has, it is known for improvement. On the global innovation index 2011, 

Germany ranked 12 th (Dutta, 2011: xviii). Considering that very small countries, such as Iceland for exam- 

80


ple, overtake Germany here it goes without saying that there actually is room for improvement in Germany. 

However, a score of 88 out of 100 indicates that the political environment is very innovation friendly (Dutta, 

2011b: 103). 

4. Innovation determinants in Latvia 

The Ministry of Economics of the Republic of Latvia worked out and Latvia investment and development 

agency managed a wide range of EU structural funds co-financing innovation support programs. In the 

context of such programs firms would have a chance to receive financial support on all stages of innovation 

development, namely, from idea to new product and theology creation and implementation in the production 

processes (Ministry of Economics of Republic of Latvia, 2011). Innovation support activities carried out 

through popularization of the concept of innovation among young and experienced entrepreneurs, through 

education and motivation to start innovative entrepreneurship. The Ministry of Economics of the Republic 

of Latvia announced that support activities are devoted to the private sector and science sector in order to 

promote collaboration activities between the academic society and industry representatives in the context of 

joint project implementation. In addition to this, the Ministry of Economics of the Republic of Latvia argues 

that support activities are also devoted to creation of new technologies and products, and its implementation 

into production processes. 

Support activities are devoted to huge projects of production facility creation with the purpose to simulate 

local entrepreneurs to invest in science and technology projects as well as to attract foreign investments 

to the high added value sector. Plenty of activities were undertaken in order to provide entrepreneurs with 

access to finance for the implementation of innovative projects. On the parallel basis the Ministry of Economics 

in cooperation with the Latvia investment and development agency develop new support tools for 

innovation promotion in Latvia. The Ministry of Economics of the Republic of Latvia summarises main 

innovation support programs within which projects are being implemented: Technology transformation contact 

points; competence centres – promotion of joint scientists; business incubators; creation of new products 

and technologies; creation of new products and technologies; high added value investments. Never the less, 

according to the latest Eurostat data the lowest hare of innovative enterprises, meaning enterprises with 

innovation activity (product, process, ongoing or abandoned, organisational and marketing innovation),was 

recorded in Latvia (Eurostat, 2012: 74). According to the latest data provided by Central Statistical Bureau 

it must be admitted that the number of innovatively active enterprises in industry in total in Latvia increased 

since the period of 2004–2006 from 379 (or 14.6 % of all enterprises in Latvia) enterprises to 707 (26.9 % of 

all enterprises in Latvia) innovative enterprises in the time period of 2006–2008 (Tab. 2). 

Table 2. Number of innovative enterprises by kind of activity 

Innovatively active enterprises Innovatively active enterprises as per cent of the 

total number of enterprises 

2004–2006 2006–2008 2004–2006 2006–2008 

Industry – total 

Total 379 707 14.6 26.9 

10–49 184 457 9.8 23.5 

50–249 155 201 24.3 33.4 

>250 40 49 44.0 64.5 

…manufacturing 

Total 366 658 15.0 28.1 

10–49 180 427 10.3 24.4 

50–249 152 189 25.4 35.7 

>250 34 42 41.0 66.7 

Source: Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia, Innovation data, accessed on 01.05.2012 

81



The highest share of innovative enterprises was depicted especially in small enterprises with the number 

of employees from 10 to 49: 184 (or 9.8 % of all enterprises in Latvia) innovative enterprises in time period 

of 2004–2006 and 457 (or 23.5 % of all enterprises in Latvia) in 2006–2008 respectively. The lowest share 

of innovative enterprises was depicted especially in large enterprises with the number of employees from 

250: 40 (or 44.0 % of all enterprises in Latvia) innovative enterprises in time period of 2004–2006 and 49 (or 

64.5 % of all enterprises in Latvia) in 2006–2008 respectively. However, it must be admitted that there were 

few large enterprises in Latvia at all in the industry in total. The number of innovatively active enterprises 

in manufacturing in total in Latvia increased since the period of 2004–2006 from 366 (or 15.0 % of all enterprises 

in Latvia) enterprises to 658 (28.1 % of all enterprises in Latvia) innovative enterprises in the time 

period of 2006–2008. As well as in the industry, the highest share of innovative enterprises in manufacturing 

was depicted especially in small enterprises with the number of employees from 10 till 49: 180 (or 10.3 % 

of all enterprises in Latvia) innovative enterprises in time period of 2004–2006 and 427 (or 24.4 % of all 

enterprises in Latvia) in 2006–2008 respectively. The lowest share of innovative enterprises was depicted 

especially in large enterprises with the number of employees from 250: 34 (or 44.1 % of all enterprises in 

Latvia) innovative enterprises in time period of 2004–2006 and 42 (or 66.7 % of all enterprises in Latvia) in 

2006–2008 respectively. Actually, there were few large enterprises in Latvia at all in manufacture in total. 

Latvian experts from the high education sector, entrepreneurship sector, economics and finance sector, 

research institutions, governmental and non-governmental sector as well as policy makers took part in an 

expert discussion on “Education. Innovation. Entrepreneurship”. In the context of the expert discussion there 

were announced key issues related with innovation, education and state competitiveness. The experts admitted 

that there is no actual innovation state policy in Latvia. 

The experts admitted that there is a lack of understanding about the creation capabilities of effective innovation 

system. These facts have a high negative impact on education sector, science and entrepreneurship 

activities. Respectively, coherent and targeted efforts are missing in the context of achieving sustainable public 

welfare and stable economy development. There are no specific institutions in Latvia which main responsibility 

area relies on innovation policy creation as well as effective innovation system creation and development. 

Also there is scarce cooperation between enterprises and the academic society, which results in a delay of 

innovation creation. There is a lack not only of information but also of interest about a probable cooperation 

with researchers in the sphere of innovation. However, plenty of documents are created in order to force 

Latvian innovation policy but, in fact, the realization of the plan goes on quite slowly (Dubra, 2011: 101). 

According to the latest innovation related data provided by the Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia (see 

tab. 3) it must be announced that there was depicted a positive trend in expenditure on research and development 

by business enterprise sector. Namely, business enterprise sector expenditure on research and development 

increased from 24.9 million till 28.5 million during the period of 2008–2010. Expenditure on research 

and development by higher education sector decreased from 47.2 million till 30.8 million during the period 

of 2008–2010. Gross domestic expenditure on R&D decreased from 99.5 million till 77.0 million during the 

period of 2008–2010. As a positive trend, it should be announced that total enterprise funding for research 

and development increased a little bit and reached 29.9 million in 2010. It is a pity to announce that the total 

state funding for research and development decreased dramatically from 47.1 million till 20.3 during the 

period of 2008–2010. 

The R&D expenditure as per cent of GDP slightly decreased from 0.62 % till 0.60 % during the period 

of 2008–2010. Although the business enterprises’ funds in the government sector as expenditure on research 

and development increased from 2.7 million to 4.0 million, nevertheless, whole the government sector 

expenditure on research and development decreased from 27.4 million to 17.7 million during the period of 

2008–2010. Public funding for science and research run behind other developed countries of the European 

Union. There is a poor and insufficient state financing of scientific-research institutions that result in poor 

invention commercialization, lack of motivation to build an adequate infrastructure for technological innovation 

creation and difficulties in attraction of EU funds in the context of project developments. 

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Table 3. Expenditure on research and development by sector and its financing (mln LVL) 

2008 2009 2010 

BUSINESS ENTERPRISE SECTOR 24.9 21.8 28.5 

Business enterprises’ funds in business enterprise sector 20.4 18.2 23.5 

Government funds in business enterprise sector 0.8 0.8 1.0 

Foreign funds in business enterprise sector 3.7 2.8 4.0 

GOVERNMENT SECTOR 27.4 14.8 17.7 

Business enterprises‘ funds in government sector 2.7 3.2 4.0 

Government funds in government sector 15.9 8.5 6.4 

Foreign funds in government sector 8.8 3.1 7.3 

HIGHER EDUCATION SECTOR 47.2 23.3 30.8 

Business enterprises’ funds in higher education sector 3.8 0.7 2.4 

Subtotal government funds in higher education sector 30.4 17.5 12.9 

Funding of higher education 2.5 1.8 1.1 

Foreign funds in higher education funds 10.5 3.3 14.4 

GROSS DOMESTIC EXPENDITURE ON R&D (GERD) 99.5 59.9 77.0 

Total enterprise funding for research and development 26.9 22.1 29.9 

Total state funding for research and development 47.1 26.8 20.3 

Total higher education funding for research and development 2.5 1.8 1.1 

Total funding for research and development by foreign countries 23.0 9.2 25.7 

R&D EXPENDITURE AS PER CENT OF GDP 0.62 0.46 0.60 

Source: Central Statistical Bureau of Latvia, Innovation data, accessed on 01.05.2012 

Conclusions 

Firstly, and as a key theoretical aspect of the concept on innovation this paper reveals that innovation is 

a fundamental element of long-term success. It matters not only at the level of the individual enterprise but 

also at industry level and finally at the national economic level. 

Secondly, this paper provides different findings of factors that have a high impact on innovation. Customers, 

R&D department, employees, competitors, business partners, external developers and even new governmental, 

environmental regulations inspire enterprises to be more innovative. Another key prerequisite 

of innovation relies on enterprise willingness to experiment and to adopt itself to the modern challenging 

environment. Leadership intensity, innovation oriented organization culture, management style as well as rewards 

and incentives lead to the increase of enterprise innovation power through employee’s satisfaction and 

emotional engagement at work. Environmental responsibility, sustainability in company success, growing 

internationality even of small and mid-sized companies, and corporate social responsibility might influence 

a company’s innovation power. 

Then, as a third point of this paper, the situation about innovation determinants in Germany is highlighted. 

Of course, Germany does have a high level of innovation already, but, taking into account the innovation 

activities of India and China for example, the challenge to continuously innovate will not become any 

easier in the years to come. Therefore, it must be stated as a conclusion that there is room for improvement in 

Germany as well. However, the German situation can be valuable for broadening the innovation theory and 

improving innovation-related practices in Latvia. 

Innovation activities of Latvian enterprises are not on a satisfactory level, as the fourth part of this paper 

reveals when examining the innovation determinants for Latvia. Never the less, plenty of documents were 

worked out in order to force the Latvian innovation policy but in fact, and the realization of the plan goes 

on quite slowly. It must be admitted that an R&D expenditure rate of 0,60 % of the GDP is still below the 

Lisboan strategy of 3 %.There is a specific need to ensure the growth of Latvia’s national economy through 

the creation of added value products/services and increase of work efficiency throughout the whole innovation 

process promotion. Therefore, gaining insights on factors that have supported or unfortunately have not 

83



supported enterprises’ innovation activities in transition economies of Central Europe like Germany can be 

an inspiration. 

Finally and to sum up, for both countries the authors state that innovation is most important to survive 

and grow sustainably. Further research should explore other modes of analysis of influential factors on innovation 

creation that reflects on the enterprise capacity to achieve competitive advantage. Also it is needed to 

extend the methodology of evaluation of influential factors on the creation of innovation. Research in other 

industries will probably contribute to validation of the relationships explored in this research. 

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Svarbūs Inovacijos VEIKSNIai: latvijos ir vokietijos 

atvejų analizė 

Carolin Kuhn, IlonaDubra, Erika Sumilo 


Santrauka 

Straipsnyje aptariami veiksniai, darantys įtaką organizacijų inovacinei veiklai. Straipsnio tikslas – nustatyti 

svarbius inovacinę veiklą lemiančius veiksnius Vokietijoje ir Latvijoje. Pateikiama lyginamoji inovacinės 

galios Vokietijoje ir Latvijoje analizė. Pirmoje straipsnio dalyje nagrinėjami teoriniai inovacijos koncepcijos 

aspektai. Antroje dalyje atskleidžiama svarbių inovacijos veiksnių gamybos organizacijose esmė. 

Trečioje ir ketvirtoje dalyse pateikiama empirinė Latvijos ir Vokietijos atvejų analizė. Palyginę naujausius 

abiejų šalių statistinius duomenis autoriai padarė išvadą, kad inovacinė veikla Latvijos organizacijose yra 

nepakankamo lygio. Teigiama, kad Latvijoje nėra tinkamos inovacinės veiklos politikos. Tuo tarpu Vokietijoje 

inovacinė veikla buvo viena esminių priežasčių, lėmusių greitą Vokietijos ekonomikos atsigavimą po 

ekonominės krizės, valstybė ir verslas bendradarbiavo siekdami šio tikslo. Inovacija Vokietijoje turi istorinį 

pagrindą, Vokietija nemažai investavo siekdama sudaryti sąlygas, kurios nulėmė šalies inovacinius pajėgumus, 

ir taip sustiprino savo, kaip inovatoriaus, reputaciją. Todėl Latvijai, tokiai pat Europos Sąjungos nariai 

kaip ir Vokietija, ypač svarbu pasinaudoti sėkminga Vokietijos patirtimi inovacijų srityje. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: inovacija, augimas, Vokietija, Latvija, konkurencingumas, organizacija. 

JEL klasifikacija: A11; A12; A13; H52; M21; O16; O31; O32; O34; O38; O52 

85


RELATIONSHIPSHIP BETWEEN THE POPULATION AGING AND THE SUPPLY OF SERVICES IN DIFFERENT REGIONS IN LITHUANIA 

RELATIONSHIPSHIP BETWEEN THE POPULATION AGING 

AND THE SUPPLY OF SERVICES IN DIFFERENT REGIONS 

IN LITHUANIA 

Daiva Labanauskaitė 1 , Laura Astrauskaitė 2 , Deimena Kiyak 3 


ABSTRACT 

An aging population is defined in the scientific literature as changes in the structural age composition of the population, which leads 

to growth in the population of those who are 60 years and older. The aging of population is a social and economic problem that needs 

to be understood and addressed. Aging of the population has a significant impact on national economies, as well as within individual 

regions of the country. The old age index has a significant impact on regional supply of services. It is worth stressing that in order 

to improve a community’s quality of life and reduce disparities between regions, it is necessary to continually assess the level of 

development and regional development opportunities. Evaluation of the regional socio-economic situation should be performed 

periodically, so that regional policy measures can be directed to the areas of greatest need. 

KEY WORDS: population aging, regional development, supply of services. 

JEL codes: R11, R12 

Introduction 

An aging population is one of the most relevant phenomena that have caused a lot of problems in recent 

years. The aging of population has had a significant impact on national economies, particularly the growth of 

the economic recession: the growing number of retired older people increases the cost of their maintenance, 

while the well-employed people have to indirectly maintain these retired people more and more. There is no 

doubt that the aging of society has an influence in many different ways, not only on individual countries, but 

also on each country’s different regions. 

The problem of the research: the aging of a population and its impact for regional development in 

Lithuania has not been widely researched. P. Dicken (2007) analyzed the changes of society’s structure in 

the global economy. A. Ignasiak-Szulc, W. Kosiedowski (2007) discussed the state’s role in the solution of 

problems caused by population aging in the research “Meaning of the Cohesion Policy of European Union 

in the development of countries and regions of Central and Eastern Europe”. V. Podvezko and R. Ginevičius 

(2007) analyzed the changes in the Evaluating of economic and social development of Lithuanian counties 

by multiple criteria methods. 

1 

Daiva Labanauskaitė – Klaipėda University, Social Science Faculty, Department of Economics, associate professor, social sciences, 

economy. Scientific interests: economics, marketing, turism 

E-mail: daiva_labanauskaite@yahoo.com 

Tel.: +370 686 428 62. 

2 

Laura Astrauskaitė – Klaipėda University, Social Science Faculty, Department of Economics, master student. Scientific interests: 

economics, marketing. 

3 

Deimena Kiyak – Klaipėda University, Social Science Faculty, Department of Economics, associate professor. Scientific interests: 

finance, accounting, pricing, financial and economic analysis. 

E-mail: deimena@balticum-tv.lt 

Tel.: +370 682 202 53. 

86


T. Medaiskis, B. Gruževskis and S. Mikulionienė (2007) analyzed the aging process and its consequences 

for Lithuania, especially for the labor market in the research “The effects of an aging population on the labor 

market and enterprises: Trends and Challenges”. This study was carried out without a separate research of 

each individual region in Lithuania, so it did not compare which regions have the most rapidly aging societies, 

and what had the biggest impact. Meanwhile, the aging of society is changing its social power and increasing 

the demand for health and social services. This trend means that the health insurance and other social 

security institutions will have higher costs, which in turn creates conditions that require the need to revise 

and adapt to these new needs for public resources in the areas of the economy (the possibility to participate in 

the labor market, plus income and savings rates), politics (power in political and public organizations), social 

security (social security), health (meeting the requirements for service development) and human ecology 

(meeting the needs of housing, the environment, village infrastructure, transport and so on). 

The object of the research: the relationship between the aging population and the supply of services 

in Lithuanian regions. 

The aim of the research: to analyze the relationship between the aging population and the supply of 

services in Lithuanian regions. 

The tasks of the research: 

• y to define the concept of aging; 

• y to determine the factors that have contributed to the aging of the population; 

• y to analyze the relationship between the aging population and the supply of services within Lithuania; 

• y to make a forecast of changes in society aging and service supply in Lithuanian regions. 

Methods of the research: the article has been prepared by structuring and generalizing the content of 

studies carried out by different authors and scholars, by analysis of documents to codify a synthesis of descriptive 

statistical methods, time series analysis, correlationship analysis, and the conclusions arising from 

the generation thereof. 

1. The concept of aging and its causes 

The aging of population is one of major processes occurring in Europe. The aging of population has a 

profound impact on European economies, welfare and development, including prosperity and well-being, so 

it is necessary to gather and deepen the knowledge about how to promote older people’s health and quality of 

life, and how to avoid the costly consequences of this process, which affect the entire population (Švedijos 

visuomenės sveikatos institutas, 2007). L. Kligytė (2008: 9) adds that the aging population is one of the most 

important problems of our century, which has a significant impact on our economy and social policy. The 

author (ibid.) argues that a person can treat his/her aging differently, because it depends on the individual’s 

character and ability to continue an active, fulfilling style of life. 

According to O. G. Rakauskienė (2006: 19), the current process of aging is becoming a problem. The 

progress in addressing the aging process has had medical breakthroughs and is the result of wealth increases, 

but it is also one of the major public concerns. The search for a balance of social benefits and taxes is one of 

priorities in the government’s policy. 

In this article, only one aspect of this problem will be analyzed – the influence of an aging population on 

the development of regions in Lithuania. In order to clarify the meaning of this phenomenon, it is necessary 

to understand the concept of aging value. 

In particular, one should separate the two concepts – the old-age population and the aging population level 

(public). In essence, both cases refer to the same phenomenon, but the first term only refers to a temporal 

snapshot of the population age structure of the state, while the second term requires at least two points of 

time comparisons of measurements, it presents the dynamics of the phenomenon (Mikulionienė, 2002: 45). 

The aging of society is understood as structural population changes; the increasing number of older people 

and their percentage of the total population (Čepinskis, Kanišiauskienė, 2009: 20). However, A. Jurgelė- 

87



nas, A. Juozulynas, M. Butikis and K. Greičiūtė (2007: 94) say that aging is a complex process, consisting of 

elderly people in their relationship with society and the trend of an increase in life expectancy. According to 

the authors (ibid.), aging is a social phenomenon, but in this article this phenomenon can be seen as a social, 

economic or marketing phenomenon. 

From an economics point of view, the aging of the population can be explained as structural population 

changes with the increase in the retirement age and declining working-age population. As such, it has a negative 

impact on the social insurance budget, where the percentage of citizens making payments is decreasing 

while that percentage receiving allowances is increasing. 

S. Mikulionienė (2002: 45) distinguishes four basic old-age population-level indices: 

• y the level of old age – ratio of old people to the population; 

• y the average age of the population; 

• y age of the population – sex pyramid; 

• y the index age – old and young population ratio. 

The author (ibid.) highlights that in order to find the pace of population aging, it is sufficient to perform 

any of the above age-level indices for measuring at least two different time points or a relatively older population 

and the population growth over a period of time. An increasing value of the indicator suggests that 

the present society is facing or will soon face the process of aging. Of course, it is necessary to accurately 

define the age increase in the number of people regarded as an aging population. Various sources identify 

the concept of an elderly man in different ways. V. Kanopienė and S. Mikulionienė (2006: 189) argue that 

an old age limit is negotiable, and is selected depending on the purpose of analysis. The most common are: 

• y The United Nations (UN) recommendation – 60 years old and older people; 

• y World Health Organization (WHO) recommendation – 65 years old and older people. 

It is important to note the demographics of a society considered as being old, which is one-fifth of elderly 

people to a quarter (20 to 25 percent.) of the population. 

In conclusion, it should be emphasized that for people who have reached 60 or 65 years, the threshold of 

falling within the old category is conditional and based largely on economic factors such as those identified 

with the upper and lower limit of the working age. 

No phenomenon happens for no reason – no exceptions, including aging. J. Bagdanavičius (2008: 168) 

considers that the population age structure is related to the basic demographic processes – fertility, mortality, 

family formation and composition. 

A group of authors (Medaiskis, Gruževskis, Mikulionienė, 2007: 243) have distinguished two basic determinants 

of aging: 

• y the expected increase in life expectancy; 

• y the decline in fertility. 

Recently, an increasing number of researchers have drawn attention to another important factor leading to 

the aging of a population – emigration. Emigration accelerates aging. This is especially important for smaller 

nations such as Lithuania (younger compatriots dispersed throughout the world, resulting in a substantial 

change in the relative composition of the population in Lithuania). Of course, immigration has the opposite 

meaning: it slows the aging of a population, since immigrants are generally younger and have more children 

(Balsevičienė, 2008: 37). 

S. Mikulionienė (2002: 48), in discussing the causes of aging, emphasizes that the greatest influence 

on this phenomenon is seen with a decline in fertility and mortality, while with the other two factors – migration 

and population age structure, their effects on an aging population are characterized by a relatively 

modest and short period of time. It is worth highlighting that the author does not mention their effects on life 

expectancy and aging, but instead, the language of the previous century on the population structure in play 

at that time. The author (ibid.) argues that the earlier age structure affects the formation of the demographic 

impact caused by the waves of migration 

88


It is interesting that in Lithuania, this aging has mainly been due to a significant decline in the birth rate 

and the emigration of the younger population (Grabauskas, Gaižauskienė et al., 2007: 10). In accordance 

with the information provided, it can be said that the main factors affecting the aging of population are the 

demographics of mortality, declining birth rates and emigration. Of course, there has been some influence by 

scientific and technological achievements in the fields of health and medicine. 

2. Aging effects on the country and its regions 

The aging of a society is a complex phenomenon, which leads to various social and economic impacts 

for each region, no matter what size it is. R. Suzmanas from the National Institute of Gerontology says that 

aging affects every country in every part of the world. Although there are important differences between 

developed and developing countries, global aging changes the social and economic nature of the planet and 

provides a serious challenge (Pasaulis sparčiai sensta, 2009: 3). S. Mikulionienė (2002: 49) points out that 

demographers first drew attention to the implications of aging. It is agreed that in scale and irreversibility, it 

changes the demographics of a society and the social structure of production, distribution and consumption 

systems, and also has an impact on practically all the social groups and layers of social interaction. 

According to the authors (Čepinskis, Kanišauskienė, 2009: 29) aging affects different sectors of society, 

therefore, this must be taken into account when addressing the need to create old-age policies, setting targets 

and creating measures for this area: 

• y Social impacts of the concept of old age and aging, performance status of old people, relationships 

between generations, households and families including their formation / break-up cycles, income, 

savings, consumption and distribution, education, village infrastructure, housing requirements, and 

the requirements for the pension system. 

• y Economic impact areas of social protection, the labor market and employment, and health care. 

Of course, the impact areas are closely related and mutually influence each other. It should be emphasized 

that the impacts that the authors identified of the aging process are not the only ones, and this model could 

still be complemented by other ones that authors have mentioned in the impact areas. 

L. Žalimienė (2002: 247) argues that with old age and social risk factors giving rise to the need for social 

protection, that social protection policies need to ensure income and compensation for withdrawing from the 

labor market due to old age, as well as the specific services needed for personal and social needs (housing, 

home help, transport facilities, etc.). 

Lithuania, like the other EU Member States, has an increasing proportion of elderly each year, 60 years of 

age and older people (Lietuvos apskritys, 2008: 4). All of this means that a decreasing proportion of working 

age people will be able to withdraw to retirement. If the number of people who cease to work exceeds the 

number of those entering the work market, a shortage of skilled workers will emerge (the Swedish National 

Institute of Public Health, 2007). For this reason, many European countries are faced with the challenge of 

financing a pension system for an aging and shrinking labor force. 

Other authors (Jurgelėnas, Juozulynas, Butikis, Greičiūtė, 2007: 92) identify one more problematic character 

of an aging population: an aging society is changing in its social power, with its increasing demand for 

health and social services. This feature means that the health insurance and other social security institutions 

will have higher costs because chronic heart disease and cancer remain the leading causes of death, particularly 

among older people. This will lead to huge costs for health systems. 

S. Mikulionienė (2002: 50) says that the number of older people is forcing an increase in time to review 

and adapt to the new needs of public resources in areas such as the economy (the possibility to participate in 

the labor market, plus income and savings rates), politics (power in political and public organizations), social 

security (social security), health (meeting the needs of service development) and human ecology (meeting 

the needs of housing, the environment, village infrastructure, transport and so on). 

89



With this point of view, and according to a group of authors (Medaiskis, Gruževskis, Mikulionienė, 2007: 249), 

it may be argued that in an aging society facing labor, consumption and investment savings through structural 

change, there will be new requirements for the pension system, the need to develop and optimize the social services 

system, to modernize health care, and for older people take part in their own spiritual and psychological welfare. 

An aging population will increase pension and health care spending, and this will increase public expenditures. 

In 2006, the European Commission announced that the member states will greatly increase spending 

on pensions, health care and long-term care, and that this will slow gross domestic product (GDP) growth. If 

policies remain unchanged, the potential of the European Union’s economic growth rate will decrease by half 

by 2030 (Pasaulis sparčiai sensta, 2009). It is worthwhile to emphasize that the increase in public spending 

is leading to a higher cost level in different regions, and that slowing the country’s GDP growth is leading to 

a slowing regional GDP growth. 

The ruling of the National Science program “Social challenges to national security” funded by the Research 

Council of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybė, 2009) briefly and clearly states that the aging population 

increases the strain on the social security system and puts new demands on the labor market and labor 

resources, including personnel management. The older (60 years old and over) population has more impact on 

the functioning of society, but this factor was underestimated for the work environment and the public. 

Summing up the analyses of the scientific literature, it’s noted that most authors argue that the aging of 

society has the greatest influence on the labor market and the regional budget expenditures: with the increasing 

number of people who need to be paid pensions and other benefits increasing the state budget expenditures. 

Another area that may be affected by the increasing number of older people is the need to expand 

social services. The aging population has a strong influence on the tax system and to the country’s economic 

performance. It should be noted that with the aging of society, one of the main challenges is the need to provide 

a comprehensive solution to the problems arising. 

3. Statistical relationship between indices of resident aging and service sector 

In order to find out the influence of a growing total number and a part between all 60 year old and older 

residents on the economic entities (especially in the field of services) operating in Lithuanian districts, a 

correlationship analysis was carried out and a method of a total of places of multicriteria assessment was 

applied, both of which reveal the interrelationship between indices of old age and the number of service 

companies operating in the regions, as well as assess in which districts the influence of society aging is the 

biggest. The possible trends of old age level and the number of economic entities operating in districts in the 

future are provided while applying regression analysis. 

Aging of society has distinct consequences on economic and social system of every country and region. 

One of the ways to assess the influence of this process on the distribution of service companies in Lithuanian 

districts – is to carry out a correlationship analysis, which assesses interrelationship between the two phenomena. 

Author (Stumbrys, 2006: 14) emphasizes, that the method of correlationship analysis measures the 

strength of relationship only quantitatively and doesn’t determine their reasons. 

According to the performed calculations, the obtained results (see table 1) show, that there is a strong or 

a very strong direct relationship between the level of aging and the number of companies supplying electricity, 

gas and water in Lithuanian regions, only in Marijampolė district the interface between these indices is 

average. It is interesting that the same correlationship meanings link the level of aging with business entities 

engaged in real estate, rent and other business activity, i.e. the relationshipship in all regions is direct strong 

or very strong and in Marijampolė – average. 

It should be emphasized that a relationship between level of old age and the number of business entities 

operating in construction field is direct in all districts, and the level of unity slightly fluctuates, i.e. from average 

in Marijampolė, Šiauliai, Tauragė and Utena districts to strong in the rest regions. The same meanings 

of correlationship coefficient are between level of old age and the subjects of post and telecommunication: a 

direct strong or average relationship predominates. 

90


Table 1. Correlationship coefficient between the number of service companies and the level of old age 

Relationship of old age with: 

Electricity, 

gas and 

water 

supply 

Construction 

Wholesale 

and retail 

and etc. 

Hotels and 

restaurants 

Transport, 

warehousing 

Post and 

telecommunications 

Alytus district 0,9017 0,7840 -0,9982 0,9086 -0,4562 0,7965 

Kaunas district 0,9499 0,8674 -0,9634 0,0247 0,6666 0,8802 

Klaipėda district 0,9266 0,7490 -0,3873 0,4563 0,3672 0,8030 

Marijampolė district 0,5396 0,4963 -0,9294 -0,8700 0,2619 0,6742 

Panevėžys district 0,9334 0,7843 -0,9706 -0,2494 0,5091 0,8671 

Šiauliai district 0,8453 0,6879 -0,8960 0,2140 0,6778 0,8472 

Tauragė district 0,8899 0,6692 -0,2096 -0,6822 0,8892 0,6876 

Telšiai district 0,8124 0,7708 -0,8924 0,1457 0,4867 0,8281 

Utena district 0,9220 0,5729 -0,8874 -0,1760 -0,9182 0,7626 

Vilnius district 0,8423 0,8066 0,1813 -0,0658 0,4207 0,8518 

Lithuania 0,8928 0,7971 -0,7319 -0,0718 0,4801 0,8549 

Relationship of old age with: 

Financial 

mediation 

Real estate, 

rent and 

other business 

activity 

Public administration 

Other types 

of activity 

Total of 

operating 

business 

entities 

Alytus district -0,8857 0,8619 -0,8857 -0,7794 0,3964 

Kaunas district -0,9194 0,9084 -0,9192 -0,6485 0,8396 

Klaipėda district -0,9649 0,8482 -0,8375 -0,7373 0,6767 

Marijampolė district -0,7444 0,5945 -0,4368 -0,6283 -0,2202 

Panevėžys district -0,9703 0,8837 -0,8886 -0,8143 0,1199 

Šiauliai district -0,7123 0,8571 -0,9236 -0,7513 0,5849 

Tauragė district -0,9602 0,8605 -0,8642 -0,7330 0,4225 

Telšiai district -0,8421 0,8319 -0,8527 -0,8041 0,6170 

Utena district -0,9906 0,8283 -0,8802 -0,7990 0,0508 

Vilnius district 0,0048 0,8694 -0,8573 -0,7552 0,7507 

Lithuania -0,9690 0,8725 -0,8995 -0,7549 0,6951 

While analyzing data (see table 1) it is noticeable, that the number of business entities in wholesale and 

retail trade, financial mediation, public administration and other type of activity is related to the level of 

aging in a negative, i.e. reverse relationship. Relationship of unity between these indices is also similar: it 

fluctuates everywhere from strong to very strong, only the relationship between the level of old age and business 

entities of other type of activity is slightly weaker, i.e. strong or average. However, several exceptions 

are noticeable: there is a direct very weak relationship between the level of aging and the number of financial 

mediation companies in Vilnius district; correlationship relationship unity is weak between the level of 

old age and retail and wholesale trade in Klaipėda and Tauragė districts, and in Vilnius district not only the 

strength of unity is different, but direction as well – here the relationship is very weak and direct. 

According to the data provided above (see table 1) it can be seen that there is no equal relationship 

between the level of old age and the number of business entities of hotels and restaurants, transport and 

warehousing. The relationship between these indices fluctuates from very weak to very strong, from direct 

91



to reverse. It is worth noticing that all districts (except Marijampolė) have a direct relationship between the 

level of old age and the total number of business entities operating in the district. However the unity of relationship 

is different: these indices in Kaunas and Vilnius districts have a strong unity, in Klaipėda, Šiauliai, 

Tauragė and Telšiai districts – average, in Alytus and Marijampolė – weak, Panevėžys and Utena – very 

weak. Summarizing the results of relationships of this group indices a conclusion can be made that the aging 

society (according to the level of old age) has a different influence on the distribution of service companies 

in separate regions. 

It is worth emphasizing that the level of reliability of most above mentioned correlation coefficients is 

lower than 5 per cent. Reliability which is higher than 70 per cent is: in Vilnius district determining the relationship 

between the level of old age and the number of business entities in financial mediation, in Kaunas, 

Telšiai and Vilnius district and generally in Lithuania – between the level of old age and the number of hotels 

and restaurants, in Panevėžys and Utena districts when correlation is calculated between the level of old age 

and the created value of GDP, and Marijampolė district – between the level of old age and the total number of 

operating business entities. It should be emphasized that correlation link between the previously mentioned 

index groups is weak or very weak therefore reliability coefficient is high, i.e. the obtained correlation link 

is unreliable. Nevertheless, there is a noticeable trend that mostly reliability is low, therefore correlation link 

is reliable. 

4. Assessment of the influence of aging on the distribution of service companies 

Having found, that the aging society is quite closely related to the distribution of service companies in 

Lithuanian regions, it is important to assess in which field the influence of aging is the highest. A method 

of the total of places of multicriteria assessment helps to carry out this assessment, which according to all 

correlation meanings helps to rank Lithuanian districts based on the size of the aging influence starting with 

the region where the influence is the biggest and to the region where the influence of society aging is the 

smallest. It should be emphasized, that while assigning one or another place to each region, the trend of 

relationship (direct or indirect relationship) is not taken into account because it is not very important. While 

dividing Lithuanian districts according to the size of the impact of aging, the most important is the strength 

of correlation coefficient. 

The table 2 below gives places of districts according to the meanings of correlation coefficient among the 

number of service companies and the level of aging as well as index of old age. Seeking general results while 

using the same method of total of places, the obtained results are connected into one final ranking of districts 

where in the first place is a district, where society aging has the strongest influence and in the tenth – the one 

having the weakest. 

According to the provided data (see table 2) it can be seen, that according to the correlation coefficient, 

which was calculated between the level of aging and the number of service companies which operated in 

the districts, the aging society has the strongest influence in Panevėžys district and the smallest – in that of 

Marijampolė. According to correlation, which was calculated between the index of old age and the number of 

service companies, which operated in the districts, Kaunas district appears in the first place and Vilnius – in 

the last place. It is necessary to emphasize that according to different indices of aging, the places taken by 

districts are quite similar. The biggest difference of places is that of Marijampolė district: according to the 

level of aging Marijampolė district is in the tenth place and according to the index of old age – in the second. 

The difference of places taken by other districts in accordance with different indices of aging are only places 

from 2 to 4. 

92


Table 2. Places of Lithuanian districts based on the method of multicriteria assessment of the total of places 

According to the level of 

aging 

According to the index of 

old age 

Alytus district 3 4–6 3 

Kaunas district 2 1 1 

Klaipėda district 6 3 4–5 

Marijampolė district 10 2 6 

Panevėžys district 1 4–6 2 

Šiauliai district 4 4–6 4–5 

Tauragė district 7 9 8 

Telšiai district 9 7–8 9 

Utena district 5 7–8 7 

Vilnius district 8 10 10 

Total 

The final places of Lithuanian districts according to the assessment of the influence of society aging on 

the distribution of service companies in regions are provided above (see table 2). Having combined all calculations 

it was obtained that: Kaunas district is in the first place and that of Vilnius – in the tenth. It is worth 

emphasizing that the first places are taken by the districts which are in the central part of the country, districts 

of eastern Lithuania are at the bottom of the list, and the districts of the western part are in the middle. It 

should be stressed that there is no relationship between the place occupied and whether there is one of the 

cities of Lithuania in that district, e.g. Vilnius district takes only the tenth place, though the country’s capital 

belongs to the district, however Kaunas district with the second biggest Lithuanian city (Kaunas) takes 

the first place. Nevertheless we can see a small relationship between the place taken and the level of aging, 

because districts, where the level of aging is low, take the last places, and those where the level of aging is 

high – the first places. 

While summarizing the obtained results we can state that the strength of influence of society aging on 

region partly depends on the level of aging, which is in that region. For this reason it should be emphasized 

that in those regions where the level of aging is extremely big, businessmen (or their marketers) should pay 

a lot of attention to the satisfaction of the needs of persons over 60 years old. 

5. The trends of a change of aging process and the number of operating business 

entities in the future 

While forecasting the level of aging (see picture 6), determination coefficient equals 75.8 percent, i.e. the 

model sufficiently describes the event, though doing bigger research it is recommended to revise the model. 

Trends of the level of aging are equivalent, but they are not good: presently still “young” districts will soon 

surpass the 20 % limit. The level of aging in Klaipėda district already in 2012 will be 20.07 percent, and 

Vilnius and Telšiai districts will cross the limit of “an old” society in 2020 and will reach the level of aging 

respectively 21.02 percent and 20.92 percent. Nevertheless, Klaipėda, Telšiai and Vilnius districts will remain 

the youngest and the oldest societies will continue to be in Alytus, Panevėžys and Utena districts. It is 

forecasted that in 2020 the level of aging in Alytus and Utena districts will exceed the limit of 25 percent and 

will respectively be 25.18 percent and 25.59 percent. 

Having reviewed the forecasted trends of the level of society aging and old age coefficient, it was noticed 

that this negative phenomenon of a society will also take place in the future and its pace will not be slow. 

For this reason it is necessary to find out how will the number of business entities operating in Lithuanian 

districts change with the aging of society. 

It is worth emphasizing that though in 2010 if compared to 2009 the number of operating business entities 

decreased in all districts, according to forecasts (see table 3) in 2011, 2012 and 2020 the number of operating 

93



business entities will increase in all regions. It should be stressed that every year the number of business 

entities will increase only slightly, but in ten years time the total number of business entities operating all 

over Lithuania should increase by even 30 percent., similar trends are noticeable in separate regions as well. 

While forecasting, a determination coefficient was calculated and its obtained meaning equals 69.6 percent, 

therefore it can be stated that regression equation for forecasts is reliable. 

Table 3. The number of business entities operating in Lithuania and its regions in 2009–2020 m. 

2009 2010 2011* 2012* 2020* 

Alytus district 3234 3130 3247 3291 3643 

Kaunas district 16989 16846 17565 18024 21693 

Klaipėda district 10403 10254 10803 11128 13732 

Marijampolė district 3004 2964 3014 3034 3192 

Panevėžys district 6227 5952 6105 6127 6299 

Šiauliai district 6825 6665 6898 7010 7904 

Tauragė district 2037 1973 2060 2097 2396 

Telšiai district 3312 3260 3397 3473 4088 

Utena district 2873 2811 2871 2891 3047 

Vilnius district 29670 29347 31273 32483 42169 

Lithuania 84574 83202 87231 89557 108161 

Summarizing the forecasts of the indices of regions it should be emphasized that the growing coefficient 

of old age and the level of aging can strongly influence the number of business entities operating in districts. 

Of course, it cannot be forgotten that the number of business entities is influenced not only by aging society, 

but also by other criteria, which can distort the forecasts obtained in this work. 

Having carried out correlation analysis the data obtained revealed that aging of residents is closely related 

to the number of service companies operating in Lithuanian districts. While performing calculations with 

both indices of aging, an average, strong or very strong relationship predominates in all districts. While performing 

calculations with indices of both the level of aging and the index of old age, the results are obtained 

that a reverse relationship connects these indices with the number of the type of companies of wholesale 

and retail trade, financial mediation, public administration and other activity. The number of the companies 

of other activities is directly influenced by the aging of society, therefore with the growth in the number of 

people of old age, the number of companies of these activities should grow. 

The calculations of the method of the amount of places of multicriteria assessment has revealed, that the 

aging society has the strongest influence on the distribution of service companies in Kaunas, Panevėžys and 

Alytus districts, and the smallest influence of the analyzed process is in Vilnius, Telšiai and Tauragė districts. 

Regression analysis has revealed pessimistic forecasts: the number of 60 year olds and older persons will 

grow markedly in the future, which has a negative influence on the country and on every region separately. 

A positive forecast is only for the number of jointly operating business entities, because the forecasts show 

that the number of companies should grow in the future. The growing number of companies means more 

workplaces, better living conditions and other positive economic processes. 

Conclusions 

1. The aging of society is the changes of the structure of inhabitants which determines the increase of 60 

years and older people. The aging of society is both social and economical problem and it is necessary 

to understand and solve it. Misunderstanding or wrong understanding of a problem may be one of the 

reasons why nation (and regions) experience negative consequences. 

94


2. The aging of society determines many factors. A birthrate and mortality, growing number of elder people 

and their part in a total population, emigration, the growing relationship between old people and 

children under 15-year-old are the main factors. 

3. Having assessed the influence of the aging of society on the economics of Lithuanian regions according 

to two indices of aging – level of old age and index (coefficient) of old age – it was noticed: 

• y The relationship of the level of old age with indices of service companies is quite various. The 

strength of relationship fluctuates very strongly though mostly closeness of relationship is strong 

or very strong. Also it is revealed that the strongest relationship of this index of most Lithuanian 

regions is with the number of operating electricity, gas and water supply as well as financial mediation 

companies. It is important to emphasize that the level of old age and the number of wholesale 

and retail trade, financial mediation, public administration companies and those of other types of 

activity is joined by an adverse relationship. 

• y The relationship of the coefficient of old age with the number of operating business entities based 

on a district – is quite similar to the relationship of the level of old age with the analyzed indices. 

Index (coefficient) of old age has a considerable influence on the number of service companies in 

all regions. The weakest relationship is between the coefficient of old age and the number of hotels 

and restaurants. It is important to emphasize that index of old age is reversely related to the same 

groups of service companies as the level of old age. 

3. The method of the total of places of a multicriteria assessment has revealed that the aging society has the 

biggest influence in Kaunas district and the least – in Vilnius district. The obtained results showed that 

there is a relationship between the level of aging and the influence of society aging: the higher the level 

of aging in a region, the bigger influence on the business activity of that region the aging society has. 

4. Results of regression analysis have shown that aging of society in both Lithuania and in separate 

districts will take place in the future (at least the next 10 years) as well. In the near future the districts 

which haven’t yet reached the limit of “an old” society, will cross it, i.e. the level of aging will exceed 

the limit of 20 percent in all districts. Contrary to the indices of society aging, forecasts for the number 

of operating business entities are positive. Based on the results of regression equation it is noticeable, 

that the number of companies operating in all districts and generally in all Lithuania will only grow 

in the future. For this reason in the future, businessmen (or persons working in business field) before 

taking new activities or continuing the already started ones, have to assess the changing needs of a 

changing society: the process of aging influences such fields as requirements for housing, settlement 

infrastructure, distribution and usage of income and savings, health security and etc. In front of the 

structure of a changing society when the number of old people increases there must be an inevitable 

change in the availability, uniqueness of the supplied services, methods of supplying and other actions 

of marketing. 

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studijos. Visuomenės darni plėtra: problemos ir perspektyvos. Mokslinių straipsnių rinkinys (V). Vilnius: Vilniaus 

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tyrimai, Nr. 49, p. 19–35. Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto leidykla. 

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Ignasiak-Szulc, A., Kosiedowski, W. (2007). The meaning of cohesion policy of European Union in the development of 

countries and regions of central and Eastern Europe. The recent development of the EU: challenges and experience. 

The 3rd scientific volume, p. 79–87. Klaipėda. 

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[žiūrėta 2010-02-22]. 

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Nr. 7 (4), p. 188–200. Vilnius: Lietuvos gerontologų ir geriatrų draugija. 

Kligytė, L. (2008). Senų ir pagyvenusių asmenų socialinių ryšių kaita: senelių vaidmenys [interaktyvus]. Vilnius: 

Mykolo Romerio universitetas Prieiga internetu: [žiūrėta 2010-02-22]. 

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tendencijos ir iššūkiai. Lietuvos ekonomika Europoje ir globalioje erdvėje. Straipsnių rinkinys. Vilnius: VšĮ 

„Ekonominių tyrimų centras“, p. 241–266. 

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Didžiojo universiteto leidykla, p. 42–60. 

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[interaktyvus]. Švedija. Prieiga internetu: [žiūrėta 2010-02-22]. 

Žalimienė, L. (2002). Socialinė politika ir pagyvenusių žmonių socialinė apsauga. Socialinė gerontologija: ištakos ir 

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VISUOMENĖS SENĖJIMO IR PASLAUGŲ PASIŪLOS RYŠYS 

LIETUVOS REGIONUOSE 


Klaipėdos universitetas (Lietuva) 

Santrauka 

Visuomenės senėjimas yra vienas aktualiausių reiškinių, pastaraisiais metais keliančių nemažai problemų. 

Didėjantis pagyvenusių žmonių skaičius veikia šalių ekonomiką, ypač augant ekonomikos recesijai: 

augantis senyvo amžiaus žmonių skaičius didina valstybių išlaidas jiems išlaikyti, dirbantys asmenys netiesiogiai 

turi išlaikyti vis daugiau į užtarnautą poilsį išėjusių žmonių. Neabejojama, kad visuomenės senėjimas 

skirtingai veikia ne tik konkrečias valstybes, bet ir kiekvienos šalies konkrečius regionus. 

Tyrimo problema: mažai ištirtas visuomenės senėjimo procesas Lietuvos regionuose ir šio proceso 

įtaka regionams. T. Medaiskis, B. Gruževskis ir S. Mikulionienė 2007 metų tyrime „Visuomenės senėjimo 

padariniai darbo rinkai ir įmonėms: tendencijos ir iššūkiai“ analizavo visuomenės senėjimo procesą ir pa- 

96


darinius visai Lietuvai, ypač darbo rinkai. Šis tyrimas atliktas netiriant atskirai kiekvieno Lietuvos regiono, 

todėl neleidžia palyginti, kuriuose regionuose visuomenės senėjimas vyksta sparčiausiai ir kur stebima didžiausia 

minėto proceso įtaka ekonominei raidai. Tuo tarpu senstant visuomenei, keičiasi jos socialinė galia, 

didėja sveikatos ir socialinių paslaugų poreikis. Tai reiškia, kad valstybių ligonių kasos ir kitos socialinio 

draudimo įstaigos turės daugiau išlaidų, tai savo ruožtu lems būtinybę peržiūrėti ir naujiems poreikiams 

pritaikyti visuomenės išteklius ekonomikos (galimybės dalyvauti darbo rinkoje, pajamų ir santaupų lygis), 

politikos (galia politinėse ir visuomeninėse organizacijose), socialinio saugumo (socialinės garantijos), sveikatos 

apsaugos (poreikius atitinkančių paslaugų plėtra) ir žmogaus ekologijos (poreikius atitinkantys būstai, 

aplinka, gyvenvietės infrastruktūra, susisiekimas ir pan.) srityse. 

Tyrimo objektas: visuomenės senėjimo įtaka Lietuvos regionų plėtrai. 

Tyrimo tikslas: išanalizuoti visuomenės senėjimo įtaką Lietuvos regionams. 

Tikslui pasiekti išsikelti šie uždaviniai: 

• y apibrėžti visuomenės senėjimo sampratą; 

• y nustatyti veiksnius, kurie lemia visuomenės senėjimą; 

• y nustatyti visuomenės senėjimo įtakos regionams sritis; 

• y išanalizuoti senstančios visuomenės įtaką Lietuvos regionų plėtrai. 

Atliekant visuomenės senėjimo poveikio regionų plėtrai tyrimą taikyti mokslinės literatūros ir teisinių 

dokumentų analizės, sisteminės analizės, sintezės, aprašomosios statistikos metodai, laiko eilučių ir koreliacinė 

analizė. 

Apibendrinus įvairių autorių nuomones, visuomenės senėjimas gali būti apibūdinamas kaip gyventojų 

struktūros pokyčiai, kurie lemia 60 metų ir vyresnių gyventojų skaičiaus augimą. Visuomenės senėjimas – 

tiek socialinė, tiek ekonominė problema, kurią būtina suprasti ir spręsti. Nesupratimas ar blogas problemos 

supratimas gali būti viena priežasčių, kodėl valstybė (ir regionai) patiria su regionų plėtra susijusių sunkumų. 

Visuomenės senėjimą lemia daugelis veiksnių. Pagrindiniai jų: gimstamumas ir mirtingumas, didėjantis 

senyvo amžiaus žmonių skaičius ir jų dalis bendrame gyventojų skaičiuje, emigracija, senyvo amžiaus ir 

vaikų iki 15 metų santykio didėjimas. Senstanti visuomenė labiausiai veikia regionų biudžeto išlaidas, nes 

didina išlaidas socialinei apsaugai: pensijoms, sveikatos apsaugai ir pan. Mokslinės literatūros apžvalga atskleidė, 

kad visuomenės senėjimas nemažai įtakos turi darbo rinkai (užimtumui ir nedarbui), BVP ir regionų 

plėtros rodikliams. 

Visame pasaulyje vyrauja netolygumai tarp regionų. Akcentuotina, kad regionų skirtumai lemia ne tik 

nevienareikšmę sąvokos regionas prasmę, bet ir skirtingus regionų plėtros, augimo bei vystymosi tempus. 

Regionų išsivystymas suprantamas kaip vientisas bendruomenės gyvenimo lygis socialiniu, ekonominiu, 

aplinkosaugos, sveikatos apsaugos, technologijos, kultūros ir rekreacijos aspektais tam tikroje teritorijoje 

tam tikru momentu. 

Verta pabrėžti, kad siekiant gerinti bendruomenės gyvenimo kokybę ir mažinti skirtumus tarp regionų, 

būtina nuolat vertinti regionų išsivystymo lygį bei plėtros galimybes. Regionų socialinė-ekonominė padėtis 

turėtų būti vertinama periodiškai, kad regioninės politikos priemones būtų galima nukreipti į tuos regionus, 

kuriems jų labiausiai reikia. Periodiškai atliekamas esamos situacijos vertinimas leidžia kontroliuoti lėšas, 

kurios skiriamos regionų ekonominei ir kitų sričių darniai plėtrai. 

Regionų išsivystymo lygiui ar plėtrai įvertinti įvairūs autoriai pateikia skirtingas metodikas, t. y. skirtingus 

rodiklių rinkinius. Reikia paminėti, kad nė vienoje regionų plėtrą ir išsivystymą vertinančių metodikų 

neišskiriami rodikliai / rodiklių grupė, pagal kurią būtų galima palyginti regionus visuomenės senėjimo 

aspektu, taip pat nesukurta metodika (rodiklių rinkinys), kurią pasitelkus būtų galima įvertinti šio reiškinio 

poveikį regionams. 

Įvertinus visuomenės senėjimo įtaką Lietuvos regionų ekonomikai pagal du senėjimo rodiklius – senatvės 

lygį ir senatvės koeficientą – pastebėta: senatvės lygis su regionų ekonomikos rodikliais susijęs skirtingai, 

o senatvės koeficientas pagal apskritis ganėtinai panašus. Senatvės indeksas (koeficientas) daro didelę 

įtaką visų regionų užimtumo ir nedarbo lygiams, biudžetų pajamoms ir išlaidoms, silpnas ryšys yra tarp 

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regionų sukuriamos BVP vertės, BVP, tenkančio vienam gyventojui, bei užimtųjų skaičiaus. Taigi daroma 

išvada, kad demografinis gyventojų senėjimas didžiausią poveikį turi darbo rinkai ir apskričių biudžetams. 

Svarbu pabrėžti, kad senėjimo procesas atvirkščiai susijęs su užimtųjų skaičiumi, užimtumo lygiu ir išlaidomis 

socialinei apsaugai, o su kitais analizuojamais rodikliais ryšys yra tiesioginis. 

PAGRINDiniai žodžiai: visuomenės senėjimas, regionų plėtra, socialiniai ir ekonominiai visuomenės 

senėjimo padariniai. 

JEL kodai: R11, R12 

98


PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES IN PENSION SYSTEM: 

CASE OF BALTIC STATES 

Olga Ličmane 1 , Irina Voronova 2 

Riga Technical University (Latvia) 

ABSTRACT 

In all states of European Union reforms in pension system are being made, likewise in Latvia. Demographic and economic problems 

that are occurred forces pension reforms to be made. New developed pension reform includes different processes, like – formation of 

financial equilibrium between incomes and costs, limit performance in going early in pension, increasing of age of going in pension, 

rebalancing between men and women. Simultaneous formation of state and private pension systems could prevent some of the major 

drawback in system of pension that undermines the pension system of nowadays. Unfortunately the high social security contributions 

of state sector persons lacks of money, for deposit in private pension funds. Using method of logic synthesis, as the target authors 

nominated to examine problems of pension systems in the Baltic States, as well as similarities and divergences in problems and 

perspectives, with the status of private pension funds in accumulating pension system. 

KEY WORDS: labour market, pension system, pension funds, the Baltic States. 

JEL codes: G230, H750, H550, J260, J320. 

Introduction 

Pension is most important income source within aging. Working for long years, human hopes he is going 

to enjoy worthy and economical independent life in time of pension, but unfortunately it does not happen so 

often. Receiving only pension from state, man receives only 50 % from previous income. But complementing 

it with accumulation of private pension fund, man can reach 70 – 80 % from previous income while 

being in labor market. Respectively, in order to receive higher income, it would be worth to invest in private 

pension funds. In conclusion of previously said it can be taken into account that the aim of pension system is 

to obtain adequate and sustainable pension. 

The aim of the research is to study establishment of the pension system in the Baltic States, as well as 

show the problems in pension system existing in constitution. Identify possible actions in order to prevent 

existing problems. Summarize the number of people in age of pension, dividing it in the groups according 

to age, as well as measure the interest of young people in investing their funds in pension they will reach in 

aging, according to practice of Latvia. 

Hypothesis of the article is that private pension funds could become a compulsory investment element in 

pension system. In the first part of research Estonia’s, Lithuania’s and Latvia’s pension systems are overlooked. 

Problems existing in pension system nowadays in the Baltic States are being defined, for instance, aging 

1 

Olga Ličmane – Riga Technical University, Faculty of Engineering Economics and Management, master’s degree in Economics. 

Scientific interests: investment and financial management. 

E-mail: olga_licmane@inbox.lv 

Tel.: +371 267 395 91. 

2 

Irina Voronova – Riga Technical University, Faculty of Engineering Economics and Management, Dr. oec, Assoc. professor. 

Scientific interests: investment and financial management. 

E-mail: irina.voronova@rtu.lv 

Tel.: +371 263 303 55. 

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PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES IN PENSION SYSTEM: CASE OF BALTIC STATES 

of society and high unemployment rates. In the second part the structural allocation, according to age, in 

private pension funds are being analyzed and interest in new generation in investment in their pension funds 

are being overlooked, under the statutes of Republic of Latvia. Further the conclusions of analyze was made. 

Research was made under the methods of quality and quantity – graphical analyses and comparison. 

1. Challenges in existing pension system in the Baltic States 

Since the end of 2009 economic systems of the Baltic States begun to recover after the rapid impact of the 

crisis. It is more common to behold positive tendencies after the downfall in each sector of economy. Along 

with the growth of activities in economic sector situation in labor market got better 2011 became the most 

successful of the Baltic States. There are positive changes in GDP – the growth of rate in GDP of Latvia is 

5.5 %, in Estonia – for 7.6 % and in Lithuania – for 5.9 %. In 2011 more rapid growth in GDP was noted in 

Latvia. But not all sectors in economy grow as fast. It comes as – there are sectors in economy that will take 

years to recover in many states of the EU. 

It is sure that positive tendencies can also been seen in the pension system, but under the demographic 

and economic circumstances, sustainability of it is endangered. That is why European Commission is developing 

reforms in pension system that anticipate in – limit performance in going early in pension, increasing 

of age of going in pension, rebalancing between men and women, adjustment people in aging period to the 

conditions of labor market, as well as supplementary support for the establishment of savings. 

Speaking about the aging pensions, the meaning of significance can be measured. Firstly, aging pension is 

the main income source that is being guaranteed to people in aging, which is why it has essential role in every 

human’s life. Reaching the age of pension the rest of life is being planned under this income. Unfortunately, 

youngsters are not keen on investing in their pensions and tax paying. Main part of then either supports illegal 

receiving of salaries, or goes for profit to foreign countries. For example, significant reduction of inhabitants 

can be seen in Latvia. In the time period between two censuses, the number of inhabitants decreased 

for 309 thousand or 13 % (Vegis, 2012). 

Apart from the high rates of unemployment in the EU, the reduction of unemployment rates was seen in 

eight EU counties, including the Baltic States. The biggest fall in unemployment sector in 20 years was seen 

in Estonia. Comparing with 2010 the rate of unemployment fall for 4.4 % and compiled in 12.5 % in 2011, 

as well as the rate approached to the acceptable level. The rate of unemployment in Lithuania and Latvia 

was similar – 15.4 % from economically active residents (CSB 2012; Statistic Estonia, 2012: 95; Statistics 

Lithuania, 2012). 

The highest rates in unemployment in the Baltic States are in the age of youngsters – ageing from 15 to 

25. Under the system that pension system is based on principles of solidarity of generation, it means – employees 

provide aging residents with pensions. People in young age must be employed to ensure the pensions 

for aging people now and in the future. 

It results that the main problem is aging society that impacts the pension system nowadays. Furthermore 

it can impact the stability of financial system, because it draws up big part from public expenditures. Under 

the growth of aging people, that will be guaranteed from aging society, knowing the high rates of unemployment 

the lack of funds in pension system could occur. In the existing pension system the balance on incomes 

and revenues should be in balance, in other words – between employed part society and number of aging 

people. That leads to the fact if people will go in pension age under the rules being in force nowadays state 

will not be able to ensure pensions from earned sums. 

Unfortunately the planned pension system will not be able to disclose all existing problems. All innovations 

have their own plusses and minuses, let’s try to analyze them. In this time period demographic and economic 

system could improve and this problem may lose its importance. But taking into account that average 

life span in Latvia for men is 67.3 and 77.7 for women, in Lithuania – 67.5 for men and 78.3 for women, 

in Estonia – 65.9 for men and 76.8 for women (Eurostat, 2011). While the pension age limit in Lithuania is 

60 for women and 62 years and 6 month for men, in Latvia – 62 for women and men, in Estonia – 60.5 for 

100


women and 63 for men. In comparison the middle life span and the pension aging it may be concluded that 

main part of men being residents of the Baltic States does not live till pension aging, and it sounds rather sad. 

The restrictions of pre aging going in pension that is included in the new reform can be overview from 

different points of view. In the last ten years the tendency of pre aging going in pension grew in EU that 

is why the restrictions in pension system could have significant role. It could result in that the elder people 

would take part in labor market for longer period of time if it was motivated. But the working abilities and 

health conditions that specifies for each individual must be taken into account. 

The balance in aging could give some impact. People will not receive their earned pension but they will 

be able to preserve their work. But the youngsters, under the unemployment rates within age category of 

young people, will not be able to gain work place that would free in situation when elder people would go 

into pension. That could promote departure in order to look for a job abroad. 

Since regaining of independence several reforms in the Baltic States in pension system have occurred in 

Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania. Nowadays three pillar pension systems are in Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania. 

Latvia was first to introduce it, followed by Lithuania and Estonia. More similarities than differences are in 

the pension systems in the Baltic States. Pension systems of Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania will be overlooked 

further on. 

Three pillar pension systems in Estonia are being in force since 2002. It is compiled by – I pillar state 

pensions, II pillar mandatory pension and III pillar supplementary pension. In 2012 social contributions 

draws up 33 %, from which 20 % are involved in budget of pension system and 13 % – in budget for special 

social security. From 20 % involved in budget of pension system, 18 % are diverted into pensions of 

nowadays and 2 % – in II pension level. Summing with 4 % of state it sums up 6 % per year that is diverted 

into second pension level. Since the world’s economic crisis, payments in II pension level were stopped in 

time period from June of 2009 till the end of 2010. Although starting from 2010 people were able to make 

payments voluntarily. Since 2011 payments in the second pension level were divided by half summing up 

1 % and 2 % from the state. In this year payments are being made in the level before the stopping. As well as 

1 % of parenting benefit is being offset in one of the parent’s second pension funds for each child. All capital 

saved up in second pension fund can be inherited. In order to receive I pension level that is guaranteed by 

the state one is needed to have minimum insurance record of 15 years. All information can be found in the 

website of CSD (Central Depository). Second pension level in Estonia are provided by 6 intuitions that offers 

23 pension plans with four risk strategies – conservative, balanced, progressive and aggressive. But the third 

pension level is provided by 7 institutions that offers 13 different pension plans. 

Latvia’s pension system is the oldest and is being in force since 2001. It is being made from three pillar 

pension system – 1 st trier mandatory stated non funded pension scheme, 2 nd trier mandatory stated funded 

pension scheme and 3 rd trier private voluntary pension scheme. The level of social contributions in 2012 is 

35.09 %, from which 20 % sums up into budget of pension system and the rest – in other insurance budgets. 

Division between first and second level pensions in Latvia is similar to Estonia – 18 % sums up into pensions 

of nowadays and 2 % into second pension level, but no extra payments are being made in it. Minimum insurance 

record for aging pension is 10 years. Progress of levels can be seen in home pages of FCMC (Financial 

and Capital Market Commission) and ACBL (Association of Commercial Banks of Latvia). The second 

pension level in Latvia is provided by 9 institutions that provides 26 investment plans with three strategies – 

conservative, active and balanced. Third pension level is provided in 7 private pension funds – 6 public and 

1 closed. Private pension funds provide 21 pension plans. Government under the influence of economic crisis 

overlooked the draft law in order to stop depositing in second pension fund, but it was not accepted, although 

the indexation of pension is stopped till 2013. In authors view the stopping of depositing was not possible 

due to that it could endanger the future of people in age 30 to 40 years. Mostly these residents do not have 

work experience before 1996 and that would lead to fact their pensions would be based on only capitals saved 

up in first and second pension level. 

Three pillar pension systems in Lithuania is the youngest between the Baltic States, it is being in force 

since 2004. Pension levels are – I pillar statutory mandatory social insurance, II pillar quasi/mandatory fun- 

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ded pension scheme, III pillar voluntary funded pension scheme. Social contributions level in 2012 compiles 

26.3 %. Deposit in second pension level in 2012 compile 1.5 %. Capital saved up in second pension level 

can be inherited. One must have minimum insurance record of 15 years to receive aging pension. Second and 

third pension level provides 9 institutions. 

From the information above one can identify the main similarities and differences. From the overview 

of Latvia’s and Estonia’s the essences of pension systems are similar. First level is provided by the state, 

second – is provided by the state through fund manager and third – is voluntary saved up by recipient with 

mediation of private pension funds. But the pension system of Lithuania slightly differs from Latvia’s and 

Estonia’s; first level is provided by the state, second and third – is voluntary saved up by recipient with mediation 

of private pension funds. The second biggest difference is the distinction between levels of social 

contributions in first and second pension levels. In second pension level in Latvia 2 % are offset, in Lithuania 

– 1.5 %, and in Estonia – 6 %. As the third comes, as it had been said before, the age in which resident 

can go into aging pension differs in all states. As well as the minimum insurance record that provides one 

with aging pension differs, in Estonia and Lithuania it is similar and compiles 15 years, although in Latvia 

it is in minimum level of 10 years. As the forth difference is that the capital saved up in the second pension 

level can be inherited, but it is not allowed in Latvia so far. One more similar feature is the relief on income 

tax that is being applied within investing in private pension funds. That means if one is making a deposit in 

private pension fund once a year one can fill in declaration and receive relief on income tax. 

Several books, articles and publications are connected with the pension systems and their reforms. Problems 

and the results of reforms carried out in Estonia are being studied by many authors, including Leppik 

and Vork, Paas, Hinnosaar, Masso and Szirko. Leppik and Vork (2006) have deepened their publications with 

studying reforms made in pension system since 1990’s and showing success of second pension level as it was 

in the beginning. Some authors also mention reforms carried out in pension system and have studied three 

pillar pension systems. T. Paas et al. (2004) have made comparison between pension systems levels within 

those being in force in Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania. 

After economic downfall the main reforms in pension systems in Lithuania were made in 1995 and 2003. 

The latest reform in pension system in Lithuania will be carried out in 2012 and this issue is being researched 

by A. Bitinas (2011). In his publications he defined and evaluated occurring social changes that developed 

under the force of economic crisis, as well as evaluated the perspectives of new pension system. 

In the scientific literature of Latvia in field of pension sphere there can be found qualitative works, including 

works from V. Voļskis (2004, 2011), I. Voronova (2011) and J. Jakubāne (2004). V. Voļskis (2011) 

researched the basic principles of the structure of the pension system, its importance and its place in social 

security system. This book gives opportunity to get acquainted with reformed pension system, as well as 

practical examples of pension calculation. In the article of I. Voronova analysis of many benchmarks of 

pension funds in Latvia can be overlooked. But in the article of J. Jakubāne one can get acquainted with the 

analysis and indexes of work of the pension funds that are being in force in Latvia. 

Very pessimistic opinion of the future of pension system occurred in the society, for instance, according 

to Ķīlis in time period of five years there will be no pension system in Latvia. “In the future there will be 

renunciation of pension system, and the skip to the benefit of poverty will emerge, that is that people starting 

from some age limit will be said – “we doubt there will be any possibility for us to ensure pension for you”, 

in that place only benefit of poverty will be ensured,” says R. Ķīlis (2011). 

But there also are one not so pessimistic opinion where D. Smirnovs does not agree with R. Ķīlis arguments 

and forecasts about the nearest future of pension system of Latvia. He is considering the possibility 

of economic growth realization and introduced the product in growth of the economy; he also considers the 

further development of pension system. He has also concluded that the main reasons of budget deficit are the 

growth of unemployment and reduction of minimum wage. But in 2007 there was surplus of budget when it 

was redirected to other needs of the state. Authors combined comments of the article “Why there will not be 

any pensions in Latvia?” (Smirnovs, 2011), in total they were 112 and under them made the conclusion of 

societies view to this situation. In overall readers are divided in – about one third of readers thinks that the ar- 

102


ticle is good, fair and full with arguments, but rest of the readers does not support the opinion of D. Smirnovs 

and thinks that the pension system will be abolished and there will be no pensions or it does not exist even 

now and that relying on the state pension funding is no longer possible. Mainly supporters are in one thought 

with D. Smirnovs in the subject of growth in productivity of labor and not automatized but with attracting 

new labor forces that would facilitate the growth of social contributions. 

In the nearest future the Saeima will evaluate the possibility of inheriting saved up interests in the second 

pension funds (Delfi, 2012). 

2. Private pension funds as an instrument for improving of savings: case Latvia 

Every economical active person deserves aging pension. This amount grows every year in Latvia but 

the extent of it shrunken in some of the cases failing to meet even half of the previous incomes. In 2011 the 

average paid in pension reached 178.18 LVL in month, in comparison with 2010 it grew for 2.30 LVL, from 

175.88 LVL. In comparison with 2006 and 2003 the growth was even significant under fact that the average 

paid in pension in 2006 was 95.95 LVL but in 2003 it reached only 64.34 LVL (Latvijas Centrālais Depozitārijs, 

2012). Despite these positive tendencies, in nowadays one must make additional provisions. One of 

the possible ways is private pension funds where people can make contributions in time of tears and after 

reaching age of 55 one can receive additional pension. 

First licensed private pension funds emerged in Latvia in 1998. Under the unfavorable economic circumstances 

in that tie as well as the fact of distrust to commercial bank, the evolution of private pension 

funds was very slow. But in 2004 already four private pension funds had been in work – 3 opened and one 

closed pension fund. Those were – BAS “Opened pension fund of Parekss, BAS Opened pension fund Baltikums”, 

that was founded in 1998, JSC [Joint Stock Company] “Closed pension fund”, that was founded in 

1999, and JSC “Unipension” – founded in 2000. These pension funds offered 9 pension plans. 

Nowadays 7 private pension funds are working in Latvia – 6 opened and 1 closed pension funds. Those 

are – Nordea Latvia opened pension fund, Ge-Money opened pension fund, Swedbank opened pension fund, 

Citadele opened pension fund, Finasta opened pension fund, SEB opened pension fund and first closed pension 

fund that provides 21 pension plans. In general 198575 inhabitants have acceded to determined plan 

of pension funds in 2011 that is 3.8 % more comparing to last year. As well as total contributions in 2011 

reached 18.3 million LVL, this made 15.9 % growth comparing with 2010. In the same time 6.6 million LVL 

were paid out in pensions under the reach of pension or death of the inhabitant. Under this fact we can conclude 

that work of pension funds are developing. 

In view of the fact that in second pension level in 2011 was registered 1 156 743 inhabitants or 100 % 

of economical active inhabitants and 878.4 million LVL were saved up, including 17 % of them in private 

pension funds. Measures saved up in private pension funds at the end of 2011 draw up 120.4 million LVL, 

overreaching index of 2010 by 7 %. 

In analysis of general information authors concluded that the biggest concurrent of Latvia’s private pension 

funds are SEB opened pension fund (P1), Swedbank opened pension fund (P3) and Citadele opened 

pension fund (P3) (shown in figure 1). The largest in comparison within number of participants is SEB opened 

pension fund. Number of participants in this pension fund in 2011 was 73633 overreaching the number 

of 2010 by 1192. 

SEB opened pension fund is being in lead for years. The amount of deposits in biggest private pension 

funds compiles 96.9 % of all members of private pension funds, meanwhile compiling 98.30 % of capital in 

field of private pension fund system. The second biggest private pension fund in Latvia is divided between 

Citadele opened pension fund and Swedbank opened pension fund. Till 2010 second place belonged to Citadele 

opened pension fund but since 2010 Swedbank opened pension fund has taken this place. In 2011 in 

Swedbank opened pension fund were registered 56 488 members, in Citadele opened pension fund – 50797 

as well as 5795 members were in others funds. 

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Figure 1. Members of biggest private pension funds 

Source: Association of Commercial Banks of Latvia 

Figure 2. Saved up capital of private pension funds in 2011 

Source: Association of Commercial Banks of Latvia 

In SEB opened pension fund together with Citadele opened pension fund and Swedbank opened pension 

fund in 2011 there was a capital in amount of 85737 thousand LVL (see figure 2), in comparison with 2010 

there was growth in amount of 3390 thousand LVL or 7.07 %. Capitals saved up in Citadele opened pension 

fund and Swedbank opened pension fund are significantly lower. In 2011 saved up capital in Citadele opened 

pension fund was in amount of 17411 thousand lats making downfall of 716 thousand LVL in comparison 

with last period. Capital saved up in Swedbank opened pension fund in 2011 was in amount of 19751 thousand 

LVL making growth of 2475 thousand LVL in comparison with 2010. 

Since the lack of publically available information, authors overlooked only age structure within Swedbank 

opened pension plan. In this pension plan there are 10 age groups; starting from group over 20 years 

and ending with the group of members over 61 (see figure3). 

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Figure 3. Structure of members by age groups in 2011 

Source: Swedbank opened pension fund 

The most active groups are those in the age from 31 to 50 years. The biggest group of member amount was 

in the age from 41 to 45 years, in the end of 2011 the member amount in this group’s was 10564. It may be elucidated 

with the fact that members of this group has only 10 to 15 years till they legally can go into aging pension, 

that starts from age of 55. And this age period is the right moment to make bigger investments in order to 

serve in better gaining. In 2011 the second most active group was in the ages between 46 to 55 compiling 9887 

members. But also inactive and not interested inhabitants are. In 2011 there were only 76 members in the age 

group to 21 year. That indicates of the fact that youngsters are still not interested or they have not got enough 

financial possibilities to make deposits. In the view of authors the slow development of private pension funds is 

due to financial problems of inhabitants, as well as ambiguity of members of the private pension fund system in 

ensuring stabilization. Inhabitants of Latvia in age period of 20 to 40 years are ones to be most hurt in situation 

nowadays, because in this time’s solidatory pension system they need to pay tax to provide aging pensions to 

people in aging pension, as well as accumulate in new insurance system to provide aging pension to themselves. 

Sure that members, capital saved up and incurred costs are the main things describing pension system. 

But it is also to analyze all features of pension system before investing in one of the pension plans. Important 

factor showing growth of investments is yield. In the study authors compared yields of second and third 

pension levels in biggest pension funds (see table 1). 

Pension system funded by the state in Latvia offers pension plans with active and balanced strategy of 

investments, but voluntarily private pension scheme – with conservative, active and balanced strategies of 

investments. In 2011 the yield of second pension level varied from -3.12 % to 4.51 %. 

Since its founding Citadele active pension plan of second level pension has showed the biggest yield in 

amount of 5.50 %. Pension plan with the highest yield in 2011 was “Swedbank” pension plan “Stability” 

[“Stabilitāte”]. Pension system funded by the state in Latvia in third level of pension offers pension plans 

with active and balanced strategy of investment, but voluntarily private scheme – with conservative, active 

and balanced strategies of investments. Choosing pension plans and strategies of investments pension funds 

offers two strategies. First strategy intends sticking to the plan of investment that has been intended in the 

beginning and do not make any significant changes. This pension fund is based on historically made strategy 

– average particular stock yield and lays one’s account on maximum incomes. The second strategy is 

based on pursuance of changes in market and changing strategy of investments. It does not attain maximum 

of profit but in the case of losses it will not be big and will be merited in no time. 

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Table 1. Yield of plans of first and second pension pillars 

Funded pension scheme or second pillar Private voluntary pension scheme or third pillar 

Pension plans Yield, % Pension plans Yield, % 

2011 From the begin 

of working 

2011 From the begin 

of working 

Citadele opened pension fund 

Citadele opened pension fund 

Citadele Universal PP 3.80% 4.70% Citadele Balanced -2.75% 5.72% 

Citadele Active PP 1.24% 5.50% Citadele Active -4.35% 5.18% 

Citadele Active USD -3.06% 4.49% 

Citadele Active EUR -3.60% 1.81% 

SEB opened pension fund 

SEB opened pension fund 

SEB Latvian plan 4.21% 5.03% SEB – Balanced -2.18% 3.70% 

SEB balanced plan 1.17% 4.29% SEB – Eiropension -5.08% 0.93% 

SEB active plan -0.60% 4.10% SEB – Active -4.35% 2.40% 

SEB Eiropas plan -3.12% 3.73% 

Swedbank opened pension fund 

Swedbank opened pension fund 

Swedbank pension IP 4.51% 3.80% Swedbank pension plan -0.95% 2.40% 

“Stability” 

Stability +25 

Swedbank pension IP 1.60% 3.16% Swedbank pension plan -5.12% 2.82% 

“Dinamika” 

Dinamika +60 

Swedbank pension plan -12.99% -9.38% 

Dinamika +100 

Swedbank pension plan 

Dinamika +(USD) 

-2.79% 2.24% 

Source: Association of Commercial Banks of Latvia, Central Depository 

In 2011 the yield of second pension level varied from -3.12 % to 4.51 %. Since its founding Citadele 

active pension plan of second level pension has showed the biggest yield in amount of 5.50 %. Pension plan 

with the highest yield in 2011 was “Swedbank” pension plan “Stability”. But the yield of third level pension 

in 2011 was negative varying from -12.99 % to -0.95 %. But since foundation the level of yield for pension 

level varies from -9.38% to 5.72%. Leading position in third level pension belongs to Citadele active pension 

fund’s pension plan with yield level of 5.72 %, 5.18 %, 4.49 % and 1.81 %. 

Under the yield levels of second and third pension level it can be concluded that second pension plan 

has bigger level of yields. It can be based of successful experience on strategy of investments. Third pension 

level this far cannot satisfy accumulations, due to its investment plans are still in process of development. 

Authors are not capable in verify their hypothesis, due to the fact that third level pension this far cannot 

supply the aimed result. 

Conclusions 

Pension reforms are being made in all Baltic States. Lithuania is planning to divide solidarity pensions 

and other social securities, work out strategies for attracting new labor and enlarge the efficiency of accumulative 

system, including improving efficiency of adjustment of pension system and integration in state. Reform 

of pension system has already started in Lithuania, meanwhile Latvia and Estonia sticks to the strategy 

actions developed by European Union and have not still worked out their own. 

Pension reform developed by European Union commission in order to preclude the problems in existing 

pension system, including elevation of age within one is possible to gain aging pension, as well as balancing 

in ages, deposits and costs within males and females, that is one of the crucial point in nowadays. 

Pension system of Latvia is going through hard times, it is being ensured by several points. High unemployment 

rates between young people, making deficit in social budget, is the main point that does not allow 

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aging society to go into aging pension. Youngsters are not interested and cannot afford to pay deposits into 

pension funds; it can be based on the lack of perspectives. Under this circumstance stability pension will not 

be able to exist further and will be closed unless some important changes will be made. Prognosis shows 

that maybe solidarity pension will be able to transform into accrual pension system. According to authors 

thoughts one of the main arguments that could develop operation of pension system would be motivation of 

labor, for instance, possibilities of interest inheritance from capital in second pension level. 

Notwithstanding that second pension levels are more profitable in Latvia; final conclusions of third pension 

level cannot be made. Strategies of profitability of investments in third pension level are being developed, 

that is why expected results have not been reached. 

Accumulation life insurance companies are alternatives for private pension funds. Life insurance should 

be more detailed examined in order to determine and get more detailed view to pension systems position. In 

2011 life insurance was the most popular insurance pattern, with and without accumulation possibilities, that 

in Latvia is provided by 7 life insurance enterprises. Under the pension system in Latvia authors examined 

existing problems and potential perspectives, considering private pension funds as an instrument of pension 

accumulation. 

References 

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internet: 

Bitinas, A. (2011). Modern pension system reforms in Lithuania: Impact of crisis and ageing. Mykolas Romeris 

University. Available from internet: 

BALTĀ GRĀMATA. Atbilstīgu, drošu un noturīgu pensiju programma. (2012). Eiropas Komisija. Available from internet: 

 

Delfi. (2011). Saeima vērtēs iespēju ļaut mantot pensiju otrajā līmenī nopelnīto. Available from internet: 

Ekonomiskas aktivitātes, nodarbinātības līmenis, darba meklētāju īpatsvars (2011). Centrālās statistikas pārvaldes datu 

bāzes. Available from internet: 

Fultz, E. (2006). Pension reform in the Baltic States: Budapest. International Labour Office. Available from internet: 

 

Funded pension scheme. (2012). Ministry of Social Security and Labour of Lithuania. Available from internet: 

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Jakubāne, J. (2003). Private pension fund development in Latvia. Available from internet: 

Ķīlis, R. (2011). Ķīlis par pensijām: 1.4 cilvēki gadā, lai ir ko maksāt vienam. Available from internet: 

Latvijas tautsaimniecība: Makroekonomikas apskats No. 3(48). (2011). Latvijas Republikas Ekonomikas ministrija. 

Latvijas Republikas Centrālā Statistikas pārvalde. Available from internet: 

Leppik, L., Võrk, A. (2006). Pension reform in Estonia. E. Fultz (Ed.). Pension Reform in the Baltic States (17–141). 

Budapest: International Labour Office. 

Most requested statistics – unemployment rate. (2012). Statistics Estonia. Available from internet: 

Paas, T. Hinnosaar, M., Masso, J., Szirko, O. (2004). Social protection systems in the Baltic States. Tartu University 

Press. Available from internet: 

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Pārskats par dzīvības apdrošināšanas sabiedrību darbības rezultātiem Latvijā 2011. gadā. (2012). Latvijas Apdrošinātāju 

Asociācija. Available from internet: 

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from internet: 

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Shiff, A., Hobdari, N., Schimmelpfennig, A., Zytek, R. (2000). Pension reform in the Baltics. International Monetary 

Fund. Available from internet: 

Smirnovs, D. (2011). Dmitrijs Smirnovs: Kāpēc Latvijā nebūs pensijas. Available from internet: 

Social Protection in Lithuania. (2012). Lietuvos statistikos departamentas. Available from internet: 

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Upleja, I. (2012). Par pensiju sistēmas otrā un trešā līmeņa darbības rādītājiem 2011. gadā 4. ceturksnī: Finanšu 

un kapitāla tirgus komisija. Available from internet: 

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Available from internet: 

Voronova, I. (2011). Latvian Pension Funds: Multi-Criteria Analysis and Consumer Assessment. Mykolo Romerio 

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internet: http://www.em.gov.lv/images/modules/items/tsdep/zin_2011_2/ zin_2011_dec.pdf 

PENSIJŲ SISTEMOS PROBLEMOS IR PERSPEKTYVOS: BALTIJOS 

ŠALIŲ ATVEJO ANALIZĖ 


Rygos technikos universitetas (Latvija) 

Santrauka 

Latvijoje, kaip ir kitose Europos Sąjungos šalyse, atliekama pensijų sistemos reforma, tai nulemia demografinės 

ir ekonominės problemos, su kuriomis susiduria šios šalys. Pensijos reforma apima įvairius procesus: 

pajamų ir išlaidų derinimas, ankstyvo išėjimo į pensiją ribojimas, pensinio amžiaus ilginimas, vyrų 

ir moterų pensinio amžiaus vienodinimas. Valstybinės ir privačios pensijų sistemos derinimas gali padėti 

išspręsti daugumą dabartinę pensijų sistemą kamuojančių problemų. Deja, dėl didelės valstybinio sektoriaus 

108


dalies pensijų sistemoje trūksta pinigų pervesti į privačius pensijų fondus. Taikydami loginės sintezės metodą 

autoriai išsikėlė tikslą ištirti Baltijos šalių pensijų sistemos problemas ir perspektyvas, jų panašumus ir 

skirtumus, privačių pensijų fondų statusą bendroje pensijų sistemoje. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: darbo rinka, pensijų sistema, pensijų fondai, Baltijos šalys. 

JEL klasifikacija: G230, H750, H550, J260, J320. 

109


Influence of Marketing Communications on the Processes of Consumers’ Decisions 

Influence of Marketing Communications 

on the Processes of Consumers’ Decisions 

Valērijs Praude 1 , Santa Bormane 2 


ABSTRACT 

The article covers the essence and the key role of marketing communications in the market and business of nowadays, the trends of 

development of marketing communications – the growing popularity of the Internet, changes in the consumers’ communications, the 

increased importance of direct marketing, as well as the selection of marketing communications based on the stages of product life 

cycle. Attention is devoted to the types of marketing communications at a particular stage of buyers’ behaviour. The authors availed 

of the results of their piece of research of 2011 where they used data of companies, polled consumers with the sample totality of 417 

respondents, as well as performed an examination. 

key words: marketing communications, current trends of development, buyers’ behaviour in the market. 

JEL code: M310 

Introduction 

One of the key problems in selling goods and services is efficient marketing communications with the 

buyers and the society in general to entail interaction with all participants involved in the process of selling 

and buying, thus promoting feedback. 

The goal of marketing communications at the first stage is to attract the buyers’ attention by stirring interest 

in the products offered and the company, whereas at the second stage marketing communications are 

supposed to help the company achieve that the buyers make a repeated purchase and become regular consumers 

of the product or loyal customers of the particular company. 

In order for the company to build its image and promote its products in the market, a variety of types 

of marketing communications – advertising, sales promotion, public relations, personal selling and direct 

marketing – are engaged. These days, companies frequently implement marketing communications inconsiderately, 

without prior market research and analysis of the target audience and its needs. Due to not analysing 

the efficiency of marketing communications they make mistakes in selecting the type of marketing communications 

with the buyers, which result in a reduced competitiveness, a negative public attitude towards the 

company and losses in the long term. Such a situation in the market stems not only from the lack of funds, 

but also from poor professional knowledge and skills of the management of marketing specialists. The purpose 

of the article is to explore the development of marketing communications and to assess the influence 

of marketing communications on the buyers’ behaviour in the market. The authors investigated a variety of 

objects of marketing communications – advertising, sales promotion, public relations, personal selling and 

1 

Valērijs Praude – University of Latvia, Head of Marketing Department. Scientific interests: marketing, management. 

E-mail: valerijs.praude@lu.lv 

Tel.: +371 672 223 25. 

2 

Santa Bormane – University of Latvia, Mg. oec. Scientific interests: marketing, management. 

E-mail: santa.bormane@gmail.com 

Tel.: +371 265 824 23. 

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direct marketing – as methods of promoting products in the market. The tasks of research were to analyse 

and assess the trends of development of marketing communications, to draw up a questionnaire for polling 

respondents and evaluating the influence of marketing communications on the stages of buyers’ behaviour 

in the market using common quantitative and qualitative research methods of economics – survey, comparison, 

grouping. The study is based on scientific papers by Latvian and foreign scholars, general and special 

literature and periodicals. The authors conducted evaluation, market research, comparative analysis, survey 

and used SPSS and MS Excel for the processing and analysis of data. 

1. Current trends of development of marketing communications 

Marketing communications can be defined as: “Means for directly and indirectly notifying, persuading 

and/or reminding people” (Praude, 2011: 188). There are multiple types of marketing communications or 

methods of product promotion in the market, namely advertising, sales promotion, public relations, personal 

selling and direct marketing. 

In order for the process of marketing communications to be efficient, it is crucial to determine the desired 

target audience, i. e., whom to address the message or, from the market point of view, who the potential 

buyers will be. In order to succeed, it is important to understand what the company expects from the potential 

buyers after communication with them. When selecting the communication channel, an analysis of media 

efficiency and target audience is recommended. It should be kept in mind that not every channel of information 

delivery is available to the target audience. 

The objective of marketing communications is to attract the potential buyers’ attention by arousing interest 

in the product offered. If the communication has been comprehensible and the idea has been perceived, it 

should arouse a need for the product, and the potential buyer will most probably act and purchase it. After the 

first time of purchase, the next step must be taken – to achieve via marketing communications that the buyer 

makes a repeated purchase of the product and becomes a regular consumer or loyal customer. For that purpose, 

all the afore-mentioned types of marketing communications are used. The types are not interchangeable, 

hence it is important to know that, for instance, “the tasks of direct selling cannot be fulfilled via advertising, 

just as public relations cannot be replaced by sales promotion. Promoting a product in the market means 

conveying information on the product to the buyer and consumer as efficiently as possible” (Blaits, 2004: 

175). Thus, when it comes to promoting products in the market, all types of marketing communications are 

used by joining them in a variety of combinations and practically applying them as a complex of marketing 

communications. 

Based on an analysis of scientific literature, the authors concluded that the following trends of development 

are present in marketing communications: 

1. The rise in popularity of the Internet as marketing communication environment. 

2. Extensive communication possibilities among consumers. 

3. The increasing role of direct marketing. 

4. The selection of marketing communications based on the stages of product life cycle. 

5. The strengthening of link between marketing communications and the stages of buyers’ behaviour in 

the market (Praude, 2011: 192–194; Egan, 2007: 150; Smith, Zook, 2011: 175). 

1.1. The rise in popularity of the Internet as marketing communication environment. 

One of the most popular types of marketing communications is advertising. It is: “A paid and non-personalized 

way of marketing communications, implemented by identified advertisers by using various techniques 

of development and means of distribution to influence the buyers’ behaviour in the market and reach 

the goals of communications” (Praude, 2005: 20). 

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Currently there is a lot of ways of placing advertisement in the media. The question is which of them is 

the most efficient, as the medium chosen by the company for conveying their advertising message will be a 

key condition of its success or failure (see Table 1). As shown, over the period from 2006 thru 2011, the share 

of Internet advertising in the total advertising costs grew from 4.3 % to 13.3 %. 

This is most probably due to the Internet being a cheaper way of communication distribution than television 

or newspapers and magazines. Moreover, in the circumstances of economic globalization, with e-commerce 

and other services having become a prominent branch of business, the Internet is an integral part of 

business rather than merely a way to spend one’s spare time. 

Table 1. Shares of media groups in the Latvian advertising market by years (turnover ths, %, LVL) 

Medium 

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 

Amnt. % Amnt. % Amnt. % Amnt. % Amnt. % Amnt. % 

Newspapers 18 927 24.9 20 669 22.0 17 654 18.2 7 542 14.3 5 154 11.2 5 154 10.8 

Magazines 11 189 14.7 16 264 17.3 15 557 16.0 5 809 11.0 4 078 8.9 4 078 9.9 

TV 27 112 35.7 32 783 34.9 34 684 35.7 20 752 39.2 20 536 44.7 20 536 45.9 

Radio 8 531 11.2 9 764 10.4 10 606 10.9 6 520 12.3 5 294 11.5 5 294 10.9 

Outdoors 6 535 8.6 8 076 8.6 9 470 9.8 5 881 11.1 4 607 10.0 4 607 8.7 

Internet* 3 263 4.3 5 889 6.3 8 491 8.7 6 019 11.4 5 906 12.9 5 906 13.3 

Cinema 453 0.6 494 0.5 635 0.7 355 0.7 317 0.7 317 0.5 

Total 76 010 100 93 939 100 97 097 100 52 878 100 45 892 100 45 892 100 

*Includes advertising data of foreign internet resources 

Source: created by the authors according to data of Mediju reklāmas tirgus dati 

(online). Accessed on 08.05.2012. Available from http://www.lra.lv/main.php?item=134 

Not only mass advertising, but also other types of marketing communications are developing on the 

Internet. For instance, many new websites designed to offer various coupons have emerged. This is most 

probably due to the economic situation and the importance of price nowadays, as well as the idea that “Latvia 

follows the European trends, as in Europe the collective bargaining sites saw an audience increase by 162 % 

in 2010” (Bērziņš, 2011). Considering the overall decline of consumers’ purchasing power, the price or an 

opportunity to get more for the same money becomes the primary factor during the buying decision. There 

already exist groups of consumers who regularly shop on the Internet and follow the news about discounts 

and coupons on the specialised websites with a view to save as much as possible on all their needs. However, 

it should be noted that such websites are unlikely to make the buyers loyal to a particular product. The distribution 

of coupons implies a high risk that the buyer will take advantage of the special offer and then keep 

looking for coupons offered by other companies. 

1.2. Extensive communication possibilities among consumers 

Taking into account the development of information technologies and the Internet as a mass communication 

medium, there is an increasing popularity of such social websites as facebook.com, twitter.com, 

draugiem.lv etc. in public relations. These are virtual communication networks where members can exchange 

with both information and experience, and, with the growing public interest, companies also pay more 

attention to communication with the society via these means. They provide information on products, events, 

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campaigns etc. in a brief form for the site users to be able to notify their friends, relatives and acquaintances, 

and the information is by all means passed further as recommendations to other people resulting in an exact 

delivery to the desired target audience. It enables the company to save resources and time and build a positive 

image, whereas the buyer can learn and follow any relevant information from anywhere in the world, discuss 

it with friends, seek for opinions, comments, complaints. 

Figure 1 reveals the communication between a company (the message sender) and customers through 

an opinion leader in a classic variant where companies choose a publicly known person, adviser etc. as the 

opinion leader. Figure 2, for its part, demonstrates the stage of communications among consumers when they 

communicate with each other rather than rely only on an opinion leader. 

Figure 1. Communication of company 

with customer through opinion leader 

Source: Smith, Zook, 2011: 175–176 

Figure 2. Communication among consumers 

regarding company’s products 

Source: Smith, Zook, 2011: 175–176 

Comparing the Figures 1 and 2, the authors conclude that: 

• y when communicating with the consumers, the companies should reckon with the fact that the consumers 

will communicate among themselves, so both successes and failures of the companies will be 

discussed. Information should be unambiguous, with no room for varied interpretations; 

• y the consumers are able to establish interest groups, while the companies should know that insiders, 

interested persons or competitors may comment on a company’s failure or offer and distribute the 

news further; 

• y the companies should be aware that information regarding them and their products will quickly spread 

over large masses of consumers. Incorrect product or service information provided by a company may 

affect its image and reputation. 

The authors agree with the well-known communications researcher D. Watts that “influential opinion 

leaders do not manage communication. We all do it” (Gleizde, 2012: 27). 

1.3. The increasing role of direct marketing 

In literature, direct marketing is defined as: “Direct connections with carefully targeted individual consumers 

to both obtain an immediate response and cultivate lasting costumer relationships” (Armstrong, Kotler, 

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2009: 447), Direct marketing means sending messages to a customer (direct mail, telemarketing, interactive 

marketing) and impelling for action, including the use of positive customer feedback in marketing activities. 

This means that any technology used in business nowadays – the Internet, e-mail, mobile phone, mail etc. – 

can be used as a channel for conveying information. In order to communicate with the buyer, it is necessary 

to segment the market and arrange buyers by target groups, thus facilitating a positive influence on a particular 

consumer. 

“Direct marketing is beneficial to customers in multiple ways: 

• y shopping at home can be pleasant, convenient and care-free; 

• y it saves time and acquaints consumers with a broader assortment; 

• y consumers can do comparative shopping by exploring mail-in catalogues and online shopping sites; 

• y consumers can order goods for themselves or other persons; 

• y business customers benefit from obtaining information on the available products without spending 

time on communication with sales personnel” (Kotler, 2006: 604). 

Apart from the advantages mentioned, companies benefit from direct marketing with the possibility to 

compile lists and databases of customers, sorting them by various criteria, for instance, the level of income, 

gender, education etc., thus automatically composing target audiences. Consequently, it is possible to work 

with particular customers individually. Moreover, direct marketing activities are less apparent to competitors, 

thus enabling companies to be individual in their operation as far as sale is concerned. 

The authors conclude that direct marketing techniques are of good use when a company already possesses 

information on the range of buyers because it is necessary to conduct a market study and compile a marketing 

database where the buyers would be sorted by certain criteria, thus composing the target audience. On 

that basis it becomes possible to attract buyers and work with them in a personalized way. For instance, if a 

company develops databases of customer service and relation management, it is possible not only to serve a 

particular target audience, but also to attract loyal buyers by offering a system of volume discounts, flexible 

terms of delivery etc. 

1.4. The selection of marketing communications based on the stages of product life cycle 

In literature, marketing communications are frequently related to the product life cycle. Therefore, different 

stages of product life cycle require different types of marketing communications. Figure 3 is an illustration 

with a relevant example. 

Figure 3 shows that at the first stage of life cycle of a product it is necessary to inform the potential buyer 

via advertising in the media. At the second stage when the objective is to remind the buyer of the product, 

its features and quality, personal selling is a good choice, whereas at the stage of maturity advertising should 

be used to remind the buyers of the product’s existence and sometimes the product should be sold, e. g., for 

a lower price, as if to attract both the consumers’ and the potential buyers’ attention. At the last stage of the 

product’s life cycle, it is useful to opt for sales promotion techniques. The authors would like to stress the 

importance of selecting marketing communications depending on the stage of product life cycle since there 

is a vast assortment of products and many alternatives in the market, with new products and services entering 

the market every year. 

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Figure 3. Company’s marketing communications at the stages of product life cycle 

Source: Berkowitz, Kerin, Rudelius, 1989: 442 

1.5. The strengthening of link between marketing communications and the stages of buyers’ behaviour 

in the market 

When planning and implementing marketing communications, companies should take into account at 

what stage of behaviour in the market the target audience currently is. Figure 4 presents the level of efficiency 

of various marketing communications depending on the buyers’ behaviour in the process of purchase. 

As shown in Figure 4, each stage of buyers’ behaviour has a different order of priority of marketing communications, 

but there is a persistent tendency of direct marketing being the most universal at all stages of 

buyers’ behaviour, reaching high efficiency. Although advertising is also effective at every stage of buyers’ 

behaviour (except for buying), its role has become less prominent, as it follows from Figure 4 that advertising 

reaches a high level of efficiency only at the stage of emergence of need when a lot of information 

regarding the product is necessary. 

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Figure 4. Efficiency of marketing communications depending on the stage of buyers’ behaviour in the purchase process 

Source: Egan, 2007: 150 

2. Study of marketing communications at the stages of buyers’ behaviour in the 

market 

Essentially agreeing with the conclusions on the peculiarities of marketing communications in the present 

conditions, the authors proposed a hypothesis that the peculiarities show as a tendency, but in a particular 

situation one must reckon with the factors of external environment and the specific character of communication 

objects – the industry, the company, the product. In order to either approve or reject the hypothesis, 

the authors researched marketing communications in the market of construction supplies in Latvia. 

In order to evaluate the influence of marketing communications on the behaviour of buyers in the market 

– the emergence of need for construction supplies, the search of information on construction supplies and 

assessment of alternatives, the making of decision upon buying construction supplies and the purchase – a 

questionnaire for consumers was drawn up. The usage of products as a stage of buyers’ behaviour in the 

market was not researched because it is considered a post-purchase action and would thus require a different 

target audience. The questionnaire was distributed to consumers on the Internet by sending invitations to 

participate in the poll. The inquiry took place in December 2011, and people from all major cities of Latvia 

were invited. Overall, 417 respondents – 183 women and 234 men of different ages, education levels and 

occupations – were polled. Such computer software as MS Excel and SPSS was used in the summarization 

and analysis of poll data. The goal of the survey was to explore marketing communications in particular 

stages of buyers’ behaviour. 

The respondents’ assessment of the influence of marketing communications on different stages of buyers’ 

behaviour has been summarized in Tables 2 to 5, with the numbers of types of MC representing the following: 

1 – advertisement on television, 2 – advertisement in newspapers and magazines, 3 – advertisement on 

the Internet, 4 – advertisement on radio, 5 – environment advertisement, 6 – direct marketing, 7 – advertisement 

stands, 8 – competitions and lotteries, 9 – price discounts, 10 – coupons, 11 – souvenirs, 12 – personal 

selling, 13 – sponsorship and support in public events. 

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Table 2. Consumers’ evaluation of marketing communications upon emergence of need for construction supplies 

Number of respondents, % 

Type of MC 

Significantly 

Does not 

Influences Indifferent 

influences 

influence 

1 15.5 42.0 21.1 15.8 5.7 

2 8.8 45.4 30.3 13.2 2.2 

3 12.6 41.6 28.4 13.2 4.1 

4 12.3 32.5 31.2 18.9 5.0 

5 9.8 41.6 31.2 14.5 2.8 

6 12.6 46.4 26.2 12.3 2.5 

7 10.1 38.5 36.9 12.3 2.2 

8 22.7 33.8 26.8 14.5 2.2 

9 56.5 35.6 5.0 1.6 1.3 

10 36.6 34.1 21.8 6.0 1.6 

11 25.2 24.3 34.1 14.2 2.2 

12 40.1 39.1 14.2 6.0 0.6 

13 25.2 28.4 31.9 13.2 1.3 


Negatively 

influences 

As shown in Table 2.92 % (the aggregate percentage of both ratings) of the people polled have admitted 

being influenced and positively influenced by price discounts at the moment of emergence of a need for 

construction supplies. 5 % are indifferent to price discounts, and as little as 2.9 % of the respondents consider 

there is no or negative influence of price discounts during the emergence of a need for construction supplies. 

Price discounts as a factor is the most influential upon the need for construction supplies. 

Coupons also show good indices upon the emergence of a need for construction supplies, as 70 % of the 

respondents have admitted being influenced or significantly influenced by coupons. 20 % are indifferent to 

coupons, while 7.6 % of the people polled are either not influenced or negatively influenced. This mostly 

likely stems from the fact that coupons are informative materials that need to be read, reviewed and studied, 

but consumers frequently do not wish to spend time on it, hence, for instance, price discounts are rated higher 

due to not requiring time, reading and searching. According to Table 2.79.2 % of the respondents believe that 

personal selling either influences or significantly influences them when there is a need for construction supplies. 

14.2 % have marked that they are indifferent to personal selling. Consumers are not always interested 

in the opinions or knowledge of vendors regarding certain products. Such consumers choose construction 

supplies on their own and search for relevant information themselves. 

The summary of results indicates that direct marketing has a positive influence during the emergence of 

a need for construction supplies, as 59 % of the respondents have admitted this. A relatively small number of 

people consider direct marketing being of no influence, hence the authors conclude that direct marketing is 

important right at the moment of emergence of a need for construction supplies. 

Competitions and lotteries either influence of significantly influence 56.5 % of the respondents (the aggregate 

percentage of both ratings). Only 16.7 % of the respondents consider that competitions and lotteries 

have no or negative influence during the emergence of a need for construction supplies. 26.8 %, i.e., less 

than a third of the respondents, are indifferent to competitions and lotteries. This stems from the fact that the 

essence of competitions and lotteries is the possibility for consumers to obtain additional benefit from what 

they as if intend to buy. 

Table 2 shows that advertisements on television, in newspapers and magazines still have a prominent 

role. Companies trading construction supplies still use specialized magazines and newspapers to discuss new 

products, new technologies and topical issues. 

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Table 2 also shows that 54.2 % are influenced by advertisements on the Internet during the emergence 

of a need for construction supplies. Indifference is probably the case with those respondents who note at 

the beginning of the survey that they have neither seen nor heard advertisements on construction supplies 

merchants and the products offered in the market, and have not purchased construction supplies this year. 

Radio advertisements are less influential on the people than other types of advertisement during the 

emergence of a need for construction supplies. This probably relates to the fact that a radio advertisement is 

limited to hearing, whereas a televised advertisement is both heard and seen, thus reinforcing emotions and 

the message the advertiser intends to convey. Hence, the importance of radio is lower than that of television 

upon the emergence of a need for construction supplies. 

31.9 % of the people polled are indifferent to sponsorship, while 14.5 % believe it has no or even negative 

influence. This is probably linked to the way a company communicates with the society and renders support 

to publicly significant events. Such kind of marketing activity will only promote a positive attitude towards 

and remembrance of construction supplies merchants, but will not necessarily arouse a need for construction 

supplies. 

Overall, the results of the poll suggest that sales promotion measures (price discounts, coupons etc.), 

personal selling, direct marketing and advertisements on television, the Internet and in press have the most 

influence on consumers during the emergence of a need for construction supplies. 

The next stage of buyers’ behaviour in the market involves the search of information and the assessment 

of alternatives. The study is conducted with a view to find out which of the marketing communication is the 

most influential upon buyers at the moment when they already have a need for construction supplies and it is 

necessary to choose a particular product and obtain additional information thereon. 

Table 3. Consumers’ evaluation of marketing communications upon searching information and assessing alternatives 


Type of MC 

Significantly 

influences 

Influences Indifferent Does not influence 

1 15.8 38.2 26.8 15.8 3.5 

2 11.0 39.4 31.2 15.5 2.8 

3 15.8 46.4 24.3 10.7 2.8 

4 11.0 30.9 33.4 21.5 3.2 

5 9.8 35.0 37.9 14.8 2.5 

6 17.0 47.9 24.0 8.8 2.2 

7 13.2 38.2 32.5 14.8 1.3 

8 22.7 33.4 26.2 16.1 1.6 

9 55.8 34.7 6.0 2.8 0.6 

10 35.0 34.4 18.6 10.7 1.3 

11 21.8 25.2 32.8 18.3 1.9 

12 39.4 40.1 14.5 5.7 0.3 

13 22.7 30.3 30.6 15.5 0.9 

Negatively 

influences 


The data of Table 3 show that 53.9 % of the respondents are influenced or significantly influenced by 

advertisements on television while searching information on products and assessing alternatives (calculated 

by summing up the percentages of both evaluations). 15.8 % are not influenced by televised advertisements, 

and 3.5 % of the respondents admit negative influence during the search of information on products and the 

weighing of alternatives. 26.8 %, for their part, are indifferent to television advertisements when looking for 

information. This might be related to the tendency of consumers searching information on the products of 

interest in the market themselves, on the Internet or in catalogues. 

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For 50.5 % of the respondents, advertisements in newspapers and magazines have influence or significant 

influence on their behaviour while searching information on construction supplies and assessing alternatives. 

The percentage is slightly lower than in the case of television, which is indicative of the reduced popularity 

of newspapers and magazines. The authors addressed this popularity rating among the trends of development 

of marketing communications. 

The data suggest that one can opt for cheaper means of marketing communications to inform consumers 

of products and features, giving them sufficient information to compare the product alternatives available in 

the market. For instance, various product descriptions in specialized magazines might cost for the company 

much less than an advertisement on television, besides the target audience of such magazines is direct and 

unambiguous as those are only read by people for whom the issue is topical because the specialized magazines 

are relatively expensive. 

62.1 % of the people polled have marked the Internet as a means of communication with influence or 

significant influence on their behaviour in the market (the aggregate percentage of both ratings). This stems 

from the increased popularity of the Internet among consumers over the recent years as far as searching for 

information is concerned. For companies it means a much cheaper means of communication to inform consumers 

of products, merchants etc. 10.7 % who have marked that the Internet does not influence them in the 

search of information on products are probably those without regular access to the Internet as such. 24.3 % 

of the respondents have stated indifference to the Internet. The authors would attribute the latter group to 

either infrequent access to the Internet, insufficient skills or the lack of resources, for instance, computers. It 

is also possible that these respondents have not had a need for construction supplies and are unlikely to have 

one soon, therefore they do not look for information on this matter. 

According to Table 3, the popularity of radio advertisements as far as searching for product information 

is concerned is much lower than, for instance, that of the Internet. It is equal to the respective indices 

concerning the emergence of a need for construction supplies. This suggests that radio is behind other mass 

media in terms of popularity. 33 % of indifferent respondents is the higher percentage so far with regard to 

the importance of mass media in the search of product information. 

As can be seen in Table 3.65 % of the respondents are influenced (47.9 %) and significantly influenced 

(17 %) by direct marketing while searching information on products. The result is higher than for the Internet 

suggesting that the role of direct marketing in providing information on products is prominent and event 

necessary for consumers. 

Price discounts, just as at the stage of emergence of a need for construction supplies, have substantial 

influence on the buyers’ behaviour in the market, as 34.7 % are influenced and 55.8 % are significantly influenced 

by price discounts when weighing alternatives, resulting in a total of 90.5 %. This suggests that sales 

promotion would be efficient in the cases when the buyer already has a need for construction supplies and is 

looking for options in terms of products, pricing and quality. 

Coupons are also popular and influential on searching alternatives and product information, still they are 

slightly behind price discounts, as 34.4 % of the respondents have admitted influence and 35 % have admitted 

significant influence of coupons. Curiously, there are three times more indifferent respondents than in the 

case of price discounts, amounting to 18.6 %. This illustrates the trend that only certain groups of consumers 

use coupons, although the influence is considerable against the background of other means of marketing 


Competitions and lotteries influence or significantly influence 56.2 % of the respondents when information 

is sought for and alternatives are assessed. Both price and gain are important factors for consumers, and 

competitions and lotteries may affect their selection among alternatives. At this stage of buyers’ behaviour, 

there are almost twice less indifferent respondents that upon emergence of a need for construction supplies, 

approving the conclusion that, when looking for alternatives, consumers need an incentive, for instance, a 

competition or lottery. 

A relatively large share of respondents (32.8 %) are indifferent to souvenirs in the search of products and 

assessment of alternatives. 18.3% consider that there is no influence, which is the second highest percentage 

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behind radio among mass media for product information searches. Consequently, the use of souvenirs would 

be less efficient if consumers only searched product information or assessed alternatives. 

As shown in Table 3, personal selling influences the majority of respondents upon searching product 

information and assessing alternatives. 40.1 % have selected influence and 39.4 % have selected significant 

influence, resulting in a total of 79.5 %. This indicates that personal selling, which includes consultations 

by salesmen, is the second most important means of communication behind price discounts. Consequently, 

companies should pay attention to how salesmen communicate with buyers, how much and how professionally 

they can tell about the products offered and how to present their company in general. 

Sponsorship and public relations influence and significantly influence 53 % or the respondents (calculated 

as the aggregate percentage of both ratings), while 30.6 % are indifferent. 15.5 % of the respondents consider 

that sponsorship and public relations are of no influence and 0.9 % – that they are of negative influence. The 

indifferent and those with no influence and negative influence together make 47 %, i.e., for almost half of 

the people polled sponsorship or support of public events does not affect the process of product assessment. 

Overall, we can conclude that at the stage of buyers’ behaviour featuring the search of information and 

the assessment of alternatives the major marketing communications are price discounts, personal selling, 

direct marketing and advertising on the Internet. 

Further we will analyse how the same marketing communications affect the buyers’ behaviour when they 

make decisions of buying construction supplies. 

Table 4. Consumers’ evaluation of marketing communications upon buying decision 


Type of MC 

Significantly 

Does not Negatively 


influences 

influence influences 

1 11.4 32.2 30.9 22.4 3.2 

2 8.2 30.9 35.3 23.7 1.9 

3 12.9 36.3 28.7 19.6 2.5 

4 9.1 26.8 37.2 24.3 2.5 

5 7.6 27.1 39.7 23.7 1.9 

6 13.2 41.6 28.7 15.5 0.9 

7 10.1 30.6 37.2 20.5 1.6 

8 19.9 30.6 29.7 18.3 1.6 

9 51.1 34.7 8.2 5.4 0.6 

10 30.9 35.3 19.9 12.9 0.9 

11 17.0 24.6 35.0 22.4 0.9 

12 36.6 39.1 13.9 9.8 0.6 

13 19.6 24.0 31.5 23.7 1.3 


Televised advertisements influence or significantly influence 43.5 % of the respondents upon buying 

decision, whereas almost twice less or 22.4 % feel they are not influenced by advertisements on television. 

Since 56.5 % of the respondents are indifferent to or unaffected by televised advertisements, we can conclude 

that the influence of television as a mass medium on making the decision of purchase is less substantial 

than, for instance, on the search of information and the assessment of alternatives. 

The same trend at this stage of buyers’ behaviour applies to advertisements in newspapers and magazines. 

Only 39.1 % of the people polled admit possible influence of advertisements in newspapers and magazines 

on their decision of a purchase of construction supplies. Accordingly, for 60.9 % the buying decision is 

unaffected by advertisements in these media. Consequently, there is not much sense for companies to spend 

funds on advertising unless it is designed to simply inform consumers. 

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As indicated by Table 4, the influence of advertisements on the Internet is merely by 10% higher than that 

of newspaper and magazine advertisements and does not even reach a half of the respondents. 37.2 % are 

indifferent to radio advertisements at this stage. These indices again suggest that radio, television, newspapers 

and the Internet are useful for a general notification of consumers, the promotion of recognisability, the 

building of attitude, confidence and a company’s image, whereas, in order for the consumers to decide upon 

a purchase of construction supplies, other means of marketing communications are required. 

The influence of environment advertisements on buying decisions is not higher than that of advertisements 

in other media analysed afore. 65.3 % of the respondents (the aggregate percentage of the three 

ratings) are indifferent to, not influenced or negatively influenced by environment advertisements, and such 

a high percentage testifies to the low popularity of this type of marketing communications among buyers. 

Thus, companies should be cautious as to the significance of environment advertisements, as those were not 

rated high at the previous stages of buyers’ behaviour either. 

In comparison with the earlier analysed types of marketing communications, direct marketing shows a 

positive tendency, as 54.9 % (the aggregate percentage of both ratings) have been influenced or significantly 

influenced by this type of marketing communications during the buying decision. 

Advertisement stands, just as advertisements in mass media, are not very popular at this stage of buyers’ 

behaviour, as 59.3 % of the respondents are either indifferent to, not influenced or negatively influenced by 

this means of marketing communications when it comes to a buying decision. Since at the previous stage 

of buyers’ behaviour 51.4 % of the respondents considered advertisement stands influential, this type of 

marketing communications is obviously more efficient on those buyers who are yet only searching product 

information and analysing the alternatives available in the market. 

Competitions and lotteries have influence for 30.6 % and significant influence for 19.9 % of the people 

polled as to their buying decisions, thus can be considered rather influential. Price discounts, for their part, 

retain their prominent role gained at the previous stages of buyers’ behaviour, as 34.7 % of the respondents 

have marked influence and 51.1 % have marked significant influence, resulting in an aggregate of 85.8 %, 

which makes price discounts the main factor of influence on the buyers’ behaviour at this stage. 

According to Table 4, coupons are more influential than, for instance, advertisements in mass media. The 

total percentage of respondents admitting the influence of coupons upon their buying decisions is 66.2 %, 

surpassing that of competitions and lotteries even though coupons are usually valid for a limited period of 

time. For companies it suggests that, considering the popularity of this means of marketing communications, 

the number of buyers within a certain timeframe can be predicted. 

Souvenirs enjoy less acknowledgment than other types of sales promotion, as the percentages of influenced 

and significantly influenced respondents are 24.6 % and 17 % respectively. 

There is a persistent tendency, with Table 4 indicating the significance of personal selling at this stage of 

buyers’ behaviour – it has influenced or significantly influenced 75.7 % of the people polled (the aggregate 

percentage of both ratings). Only 13.9 % of the respondents are indifferent to personal selling, and 10.4 % 

believe it is of no or negative influence on their decision of buying construction supplies. At the previous 

stage of buyers’ behaviour, less than 10% rated personal selling as non-influential. Hence, personal selling 

tends to be substantial at almost all stages of buyers’ behaviour. 

Sponsorship and support for public events, just as environment advertisements and advertisement stands, 

are less influential as far as buying decisions are concerned. Less than 43.5% of the respondents admitted 

influence or significant influence of sponsorship and support for public events, most probably due to the fact 

that public relations are single events and might not be memorized by buyers at the time of buying decision. 

The role of public relations, as note before, is the promotion of communications and positive attitude rather 

than influence on the buyers’ behaviour. However, public relations could be one among several factors 

influencing buyers, therefore companies should consider joining public relations with some other means of 

marketing communications to reach their goals in communicating with the audience. 

Overall, following the trend of the previously analysed stages of buyers’ behaviour, such types of marketing 

communications as sales promotion, including price discounts and coupons, personal selling, including 

121



consultations by salesmen, and direct marketing take the leading roles. These types of marketing communications 

can be used both individually and jointly. 

Further we will analyse the influence of means of marketing communications on the next stage of buyers’ 

behaviour – the purchase at the place of sale. 

Table 5. Consumers’ evaluation of marketing communications upon the stage of purchase 


Type of MC 

Significantly 

Does not Negatively 


influences 

influence influences 

1 12.9 30.6 27.1 25.6 3.8 

2 7.9 32.5 30.6 26.5 2.5 

3 11.7 34.7 26.2 24.9 2.5 

4 10.1 24.6 33.1 29.3 2.8 

5 7.3 27.8 34.1 28.7 2.2 

6 13.2 42.6 23.3 19.6 1.3 

7 11.0 29.3 33.1 24.6 1.9 

8 18.9 27.1 26.5 25.6 1.9 

9 34.7 34.1 12.9 17.7 17.7 

10 22.1 31.9 21.8 23.0 1.3 

11 15.8 22.1 29.3 30.9 1.9 

12 34.7 39.4 12.6 12.3 0.9 

13 19.2 23.7 30.0 25.2 1.9 


The data of Table 5 show that 30.6 % of the respondents are influenced and 12.9 % are significantly 

influenced by televised advertisements during the process of product purchase. However, overall less than 

half (43.5 %) feel influenced by television advertisements upon product purchases. There is only 2 % of 

difference between those who are not influenced by television advertisements and those who are indifferent. 

A similar trend of not much influence applies to advertisement in newspapers and magazines. While televised 

advertisements significantly influenced 12.9 % of the people polled, newspaper and magazine advertisements 

have significant influence on as little as 7.9 %, i.e., less than a tenth of the respondents. 

Advertisements on the Internet influence 46.4 % of the respondents, surpassing the percentages of television 

and radio by 3 % and 6 % respectively. However, these indices do not deserve very much attention as 

they are relevant to less than a half to the people polled. 

Radio advertisements have less influence on consumers than the other types of advertisements in the 

mass media, with the total percentage reaching 34.7 % or barely above one third of the respondents. This 

once again testifies to the reduced popularity of radio as mass medium. 

Direct marketing influences the product purchase for 42.6 % of the respondents and significantly influences 

for 13.2 %. Overall, direct marketing could be regarded as a substantial means of communication at 

this stage of buyers’ behaviour, as 55.8 % or more than a half of the respondents admitted being influenced 

by direct marketing. This suggests that a marketing data base is useful as assistance for home-based buyers 

and has become relatively popular. 

Advertisement stands, similarly to mass media advertisements, have had less influence on buyers during 

product purchases. Competitions and lotteries have influenced less than a half of the people polled, i.e., 46.1 %. 

Thus, at this stage of buyers’ behaviour the analysed means of marketing communications split into groups, and 

they do not yield the expected efficiency at all stages of buyers’ behaviour. Quite logically, 68.8 % of the respondents 

have admitted having been influenced by price discounts in product purchases. The role of coupons, 

122


according to Table 5, is also prominent. The authors conclude that, just as with price discounts previously, it is 

a result of positive contentment, with the buyer thinking that he/she has purchased products for a good price. 

Perhaps coupons have enabled the respondents to buy more products for the price of single or obtain other bonuses 

resulting in positive emotions upon purchase. Hence, more than a half of the respondents (53.9 %) admit 

that coupons have influenced them in the process of purchase of construction supplies. 

Personal selling has influenced 39.4 % of the people polled and their behaviour upon purchase, and 

34.7 % admit significant influence. These indices prove that personal selling is highly important at all stages 

of buyers’ behaviour in the market and affects the vast majority of buyers. 

Sponsorship and souvenirs have relatively little influence on product purchases, which means that sponsorship, 

just as any advertisement, is a substantial means of communication to a certain extent and the building 

of dialogue between the buyer and the seller, but not at this stage of buyers’ behaviour. Thus, as the 

author’s have previously concluded, sponsorship serves for building mutual relationship rather than solving 

technical issues concerning the purchase of a particular product. 

Overall, the results of the authors’ study approve the proposed hypothesis that the peculiarities of marketing 

communications show as trends and their development is influenced by factors of external environment 

and particular communication objects – the industry, the company, the products etc. 

At the first stage of buyers’ behaviour – the emergence of need – the highest influence is essentially that 

of advertising, direct marketing and public relations (see Figure 4). According to the authors’ research, sales 

promotion, personal selling, direct marketing and certain types of advertising stand out. 

At the second stage of buyers’ behaviour – the search of information and the assessment of alternatives – the 

highest influence is essentially that of direct marketing, advertising and public relations (see Figure 4). According to 

the authors’ research, sales promotion, personal selling, direct marketing and certain types of advertising stand out. 

At the third stage of buyers’ behaviour – the buying decision – the highest influence is essentially that of 

direct marketing, advertising and public relations (see Figure 4). According to the authors’ research, sales 

promotion, personal selling and direct marketing stand out. 

At the fourth stage of buyers’ behaviour – the purchase – the highest influence is essentially that of personal 

selling, direct marketing and sales promotion (see Figure 4). The authors’ research emphasizes the same 

types of marketing communications. 

As it can be seen, the defined trends of development of marketing communications were essentially 

approved by the authors’ research, but there were such distinctions as the significant role of product sales 

promotion and the weak role of public relations. 

In the authors’ opinion, the influence of sales promotion measures (incl. price discounts) on the buyers’ 

behaviour can be explained with external environment factors – the relatively low purchasing power of people 

and the fierce competition in the construction supplies market. The weak influence of public relations (incl. 

sponsorship) on the buyers’ behaviour in the market stems from the specific character of construction supplies 

market, the lack of knowledge in the preparation of public events and the high implementation costs thereof. 

By using each type of marketing communications separately, it is possible to achieve a goal in short term, 

whereas by using different types in combination and by integrating them it is possible to attain long-term 

efficiency – increase the sales amounts, the number of customers and loyal purchasers, improve the communicative 

efficiency in the company’s dialogue and relationship with the customers and society. If a company 

uses a complex of marketing communications or integrated marketing communications in communication 

with consumers and product promotion, it can work with the existing and potential buyer continuously rather 

than in campaigns. Without doubt, there are peculiarities of product selling and service provision in each 

industry, but there are also common market trends that apply to all industries. 

Conclusions / Recommendations 

1. The trends of development of marketing communications nowadays are the rise in popularity of the 

Internet as an advertising medium; extensive communication possibilities among consumers; the in- 

123



crease of importance of direct marketing; the strengthening of link between marketing communications 

and the stages of buyers’ behaviour in the market; the selection of marketing communications 

based on the stages of product life cycle. 

2. The said peculiarities of development of marketing communications show as tendencies are subject to 

the influence of factors of external environment, objects of communication, the specific character of 

industry, companies and products. 

3. The research conducted in the construction suppliers market confirmed both the objective trends of development 

of marketing communications and the influence of external environment and other factors. 

4. The companies should increase the part of marketing communications budget related to direct marketing 

and personal selling, thus enhancing the role of personalized communications. 

5. When planning communication with the buyers, their behaviour in the market at the relevant stage 

should be taken into account. 

References 

Armstrong, G., Kotler, P. (2009). Marketing: an introduction. 9th edition. USA: Prentice Hall, 656 p. 

Berkowitz, E. N., Kerin, R., Rudelius, W. (1989). Marketing. 2nd edition. USA: Irwin, 752 p. 

Bērziņš, D. (2011). Pārdoto kuponu skaits (online). G. Marta kolektīvā iepirkšanās – Atlaizuklubs dominē pēc kupona 

skaita, bet Perkamkopa audzē ieņēmumus 05.04.2011 (accessed on 07.05.2012). Available from: http://www.digitalaisbizness.lv/tag/kuponi/ 

Blaits, Dž. (2004). Mārketings, Rokasgrāmata. Rīga: Apgāds Zvaigzne ABC, 284 p. 

Egan, J. (2007). Marketing Communications. London: Thomson Learning, 467 p. 

Gleizde, G. (2012). Viedokļu līderi – nenovērtēti vai pārvērtēti. Lietišķā diena, No. 17(258), 38 p. 

Kotlers, F. (2006). Mārketinga pamati. Rīga: Jumava, 647 p. 

Latvijas reklāmas asociācija – Mediju reklāmas tirgus dati (online). Accessed on 08.05.2012. Available from http:// 

www.lra.lv/main.php?item=134 

Praude, V. (2011). Mārketings, 2. grāmata, 3. izdevums. Rīga: Burtene, 340 p. 

Praude, V., Šalkovska, J. (2005). Mārketinga komunikācijas, 1.sēj. Rīga: Vaidelote, 485 p. 

Smith, P. R., Zook Ze. (2011). Marketing Communications (integrating offline and online with social media). Philadelphia, 

PA: Kogan Page, 483 p. 

RINKODAROS komunikacijos įtaka vartotojų sprendimo 

priėmimo procesui 



Santrauka 

Straipsnyje apžvelgiama rinkodaros komunikacijos esmė ir svarba šiuolaikinėje rinkoje bei versle, rinkodaros 

komunikacijos vystymosi tendencijos: didėjantis interneto populiarumas, vartotojų komunikacijos 

pokyčiai, tiesioginės rinkodaros svarba, rinkodaros komunikacijos priklausomumas nuo produkto gyvavimo 

ciklo. Atkreipiamas dėmesys į rinkodaros komunikacijos rūšis, taikomas skirtingose pirkėjo elgsenos stadijose. 

Autoriai pateikia savo tyrimo, kuris atliktas 2011 metais, rezultatus. Šiame tyrime autoriai naudojo 

organizacijų duomenis, apklausė 417 respondentų ir išanalizavo gautus rezultatus. 

Pagrindiniai žodžiai: rinkodaros komunikacija, vystymosi tendencijos, pirkėjo elgsena rinkoje. 

JEL klasifikacija: M310 

124


KOORDINAVIMO SISTEMOS ORGANIZACIJŲ TINKLUOSE 

MODELIS 

Edgaras Ribačonka 1 , Darius Burgis 2 

Klaipėdos universitetas (Lietuva) 

ANOTACIJA 

Straipsnyje susieti autorių pateikti organizacijų, turinčių tinklines struktūras, suvokimo lygiai ir pagrindiniai tinklinių struktūrų tipai. 

Pastebėta, kad ne kiekvieną tinklinę organizaciją galima pavadinti organizacijų tinklu. Tai lemia du skirtingus požiūrius į tinklines 

struktūras. Organizacijų tinklas vienareikšmiškai susieja kelias juridiškai nepriklausomas organizacijas, kurios siekia sudaryti naudingą 

sąjungą, užtikrinančią sėkmingą organizacijos veiklą greitai kintančiomis sąlygomis. Šių tinklų, kaip verslo organizavimo formų, 

koordinavimo sistema gali iš esmės skirtis. Straipsnyje parodoma koordinavimo sistemos organizacijų tinkle svarba, užtikrinant 

organizacijos veiklos efektyvumą, išnagrinėtas koordinavimo sistemos CPFR modelis ir priemonės, būtinos užtikrinti šio modelio 

funkcionavimą. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: tinklinė organizacija, organizacijų tinklas, koordinavimas. 

JEL klasifikacija: L14, M10. 

Įvadas 

Pastaraisiais dešimtmečiais pastebima vertikalių, biurokratinių organizacijų krizė, siekiama kurti lankstesnes 

tinklines struktūras. Šiuolaikinėje ekonomikoje vyksta globalizacijos procesai, kuriuos lydi didėjantys 

informacijos srautai ir besiplečiantys ūkio ryšiai. Šiomis sąlygomis atsiranda objektyvus poreikis sujungti 

organizacijų išteklius, siekiant sustiprinti konkurencines pozicijas rinkose ir efektyviai išnaudoti investicinius 

išteklius. Tad savaime suprantama, kad išauga tinklinių organizacijų, kaip realių galimybių garantijos, 

skatinančios investicijų pritraukimą ir efektyvų jų naudojimą ūkio procesuose, vaidmuo. Vykstant pokyčiams 

verslo subjektai, remdamiesi tam tikrais kriterijais, buria aplink save panašių subjektų „bendriją“. Visa 

tai galima paaiškinti, kaip organizacijos norą ginti savo interesus ir padidinti savų išteklių efektyvumą. Taip 

susikuria tvarios ekonomikos subjektų grupės, sujungtos pačiais įvairiausiais tinklais. Pagrindiniai tinklo 

dalyvius siejantys elementai: istoriškai susiklostę įsipareigojimai ir abipusis suinteresuotumas, galimybės 

dalyvauti bendrovės veikloje ir naudotis jos ištekliais, rinkos ir technologijų priklausomybė, administravimo 

išteklių prieiga ir t. t. Organizacijų tinklas – tai vertės kūrimo sistema, kurioje kelios organizacijos, pasižyminčios 

viena kitą papildančiomis stiprybėmis, sudaro visiems dalyviams naudingą sąjungą, kuri užtikrina 

sėkmingą organizacijos veiklą sparčiai kintančiomis sąlygomis (Castells, 2005; Issakson, 2010; Staniulie- 

1 

Edgaras Ribačonka – asistentas, Klaipėdos universiteto Socialinių mokslų fakulteto Vadybos katedra; doktorantas, Vytauto 

Didžiojo universiteto Ekonomikos ir vadybos fakulteto Vadybos katedra. Mokslinės veiklos kryptys: gamybos valdymas, derybų 

technika, vadyba. 

El. paštas: edgaras.rib@gmail.com 

Tel.: +370 698 131 61. 

2 

Darius Burgis – asistentas, Klaipėdos universiteto Socialinių mokslų fakulteto Vadybos katedra; doktorantas, Vytauto Didžiojo 

universiteto Ekonomikos ir vadybos fakulteto Vadybos katedra. Mokslinės veiklos kryptys: krizinių situacijų valdymas, 

informacinių technologijų taikymas valdyme. 

El. paštas: darius@itinovacijos.lt 

Tel.: +370 46 398 666. 

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KOORDINAVIMO SISTEMOS ORGANIZACIJŲ TINKLUOSE MODELIS 

nė, 2006; Zakarevičius, 2002). Organizacijų tinkluose vienas svarbiausių darbų – koordinavimo sistemos 

tarp jos narių sukūrimas, kurios paskirtis – suderinti ir sinchronizuoti tinklą sudarančių organizacijų veiksmus. 

Tinklinių struktūrų koordinavimo sistemos funkcionavimo problemas tyrė nemažai mokslininkų (Кущ, 

2006; Danese, 2006 Kumar, 2001; Seifert, 2003; Rudberg, 2009). 

Problema – sunkumai, kylantys koordinuojant tinklo narių veiklą siekiant bendro tikslo. 

Tyrimo objektas: koordinavimo sistema organizacijų tinkluose. 

Tyrimo tikslas: pateikti koordinavimo sistemą organizacijų tinkluose iliustruojantį modelį. 

Tyrimo uždaviniai: 1. Pateikti požiūrius į tinklines struktūras 2. Nustatyti koordinavimo sistemos 

organizacijų tinkluose sandarą. 3. Pateikti koordinavimo sistemos organizacijų tinkluose modelį. 

Tyrimo metodai: straipsnis parašytas taikant mokslinės literatūros analizės, sintezės ir apibendrinimo 

metodus. Išanalizuota ir apibendrinta tinklinių organizacijų (Castells, 2005; Issakson ir kt., 2010; Staniulienė, 

2006; Zakarevičius, 2002) bei koordinavimo procesų (Кущ, 2006; Danese, 2006; Kumar, 2001; Seifert, 

2003; Rudberg, 2009) mokslinė literatūra. Taikant sintezės metodą, sukurtas koordinavimo sistemą organizacijų 

tinkluose iliustruojantis modelis. 

1. Požiūrių į tinklines struktūras analizė 

Didėjanti konkurencija pasaulinėse rinkose ir revoliuciniai pokyčiai informacinėse technologijose nulėmė 

diskretinių santykių tarp organizacijų transformavimąsi į daug glaudesnius ilgalaikius tarpusavio santykius 

(Кущ, 2006). Galima kalbėti apie organizacinių sienų skaidrėjimą ir tinklinių strukūrų formavimąsi. 

Anot M. Castells (2005), tinklinė organizacija – tai specifinė organizacijos forma, kurios priemonių sistemą 

sudaro savarankiškų tikslų sistemų segmentų sankirta. Taigi tinklo sudedamosios dalys yra ir savarankiškos 

jo atžvilgiu ir nuo jo priklausomos, jos taip pat gali būti kitų tinklų, orientuotų į kitus tikslus, dalis. 

D. Bukantaitė, apibendrindama mokslininkų pateiktus tinklinės organizacijos apibrėžimus, teigia, kad 

„įvairūs autoriai skirtingai apibrėžia tinklines organizacijas, akcentuodami kelių organizacijų valdymą, bendrą 

strategiją ar veiklą tam tikroje srityje ar sferoje bei įtakos turėjimą, atskirų narių resursų ir gebėjimų 

svarbą, abipusį bendradarbiavimą ir mainus, nehierarchines struktūras, bendro tikslo ir naudos siekį, ryšius, 

ilgalaikiškumo ir konkurencingumo užtikrinimą, saugumą ir socialinius santykius“ (Bukantaitė, 2006: 27). 

Kaip teigia R. Haggins (2000), tinkline struktūra vadinama struktūra, apimanti dvi ir daugiau organizacijų, 

kurios kelia tuos pačius tikslus ir veikia spręsdamos bendras problemas, bendradarbiaudamos ilgą laiką. 

F. Webster (1995) tinklinę struktūrą įvardija kaip laisvą ir lanksčią koaliciją, valdomą iš vieningo centro, 

kuris imasi tokių svarbių funkcijų, kaip aljansų sudarymas ir jų valdymas, technologijų ir finansinių išteklių 

koordinavimas, kompetencijų ir strategijos ribų nustatymas, taip pat sprendžia klausimus, kurie susiję su 

informacijos išteklių sutelkimu vientisoje sistemoje. 

Kaip teigia S. Staniulienė (2006), organizacijas, kurios turi tinklinę struktūrą, galima suvokti skirtingais 

lygiais: 

• y organizacijos lygis (kai vienos organizacijos valdymo struktūra yra tinklinė); 

• y tarporganizacinio tinklo lygis (kai kelios ar daugiau organizacijų susijusios tinkliniais ryšiais, tuo tarpu 

pačios gali būti valdomos įvairaus tipo hierarchinių struktūrų); 

• y globalaus tinklo lygis (kai visa iš organizacijų susidedanti visuomenė yra globalus tinklas, kuriame 

kiekviena organizacija, turėdama tinklinę struktūrą, su kitomis yra susijusi tinkliniais ryšiai ir sunku 

atskirti, kur baigiasi vienos organizacijos tinklinė struktūra ir prasideda globalus organizacijų tinklas). 

Mokslininkai C. C. Snow, R. E. Miles, H. J. Coleman (1992) pirmieji pasiūlė tinklinių struktūrų klasifikaciją 

ir aprašė jų veikimo mechanizmą, jie skyrė tris pagrindinius tinklinių struktūrų tipus: vidinis, stabilus 

ir dinaminis. 

Vidinis tinklas nesiejamas su esminiu veiklų iškėlimu už organizacijos ribų, bet čia būtinos rinkos sąlygos. 

Vidinio tinklo logika tokia: jeigu organizacijos padaliniai dirbs pagal nustatytus (esamus) rinkos įkainius 

(kainas), o ne orientuosis tik į užduotis, planus bei juose nurodomą planinę savikainą, jie nuolat sieks 

126


didinti savo darbo efektyvumą. Puikus pavyzdys – automobilius gaminanti kompanija „General Motors“ ir 

Švedijos koncernas „ABB“. 

Stabilus tinklas laikosi struktūrinių principų ir vadovaujasi funkcine operacijų valdymo logika. Tokio 

tipo tinklo tikslas – konkurencinio pranašumo įgijimas naudojant retus išteklius, nuoseklus vystymasis ir 

apsikeitimas vadybiniais bei technologiniais „žinau, kaip“. Stabilus tinklas iš dalies naudojasi paslaugomis 

ir/ar užsako prekes išorėje, taip suteikiama lankstumo vertės kūrimo grandinei. Tokio organizacijų tinklo 

aktyvai dažniausiai priklauso kelioms organizacijoms, kurios specializuojasi vienoje veiklos srityje. Dažnai 

veiklos partneriai „susitelkia“ ties viena iš dominuojančių organizacijų, teikdami jai savo išteklius arba tapdami 

jos gaminamos produkcijos atstovais. Kaip tokio tinklo pavyzdį galime nurodyti automobilių gamintojus 

„Toyota“, „BMW“, kurių gaminamos produkcijos vertę sudaro net 70 procentų šalies įsigytų dalių ar 

mazgų. Didžioji dalis „BMW“ įmonės veiklos gali būti pakeista užsakymais iš išorės. Įmonė kontroliuoja 

tik keturias savo veiklos sritis: naujų medžiagų kūrimą, naujas gamybos technologijas, elektroniką ir naujus 

mokslinius tyrimus kai kuriose susijusiose srityse. Prie stabilaus tinklo privalumų galima būtų priskirti tiekimo 

ir distribucijos stabilumą, glaudžių gamybos grafikų, siekiant kuo geriau išnaudoti įrenginius ir kokybės 

kontrolės kooperacijos ryšį, sudarymą. Trūkumas – didelė priklausomybė. 

Dinaminiai tinklai artimi divizinei valdymo struktūrai, siekiantys prisitaikyti verslo aplinkoje sutelkdami 

veiklą savarankiškai valdomuose padaliniuose įvairiose rinkose. Dinaminiai tinklai plačiai išplito 

siuvimo pramonėje, žaislų gamybos, biotechnologijų pramonėje ir kompiuterių versle. Čia dominuojanti 

(centrinė) tinklo organizacija surenka į visumą reikalingus aktyvus, kurie priklauso kitoms organizacijoms. 

Paprastai šio tinklo branduolys yra tik verslo idėjos (supratimo, kaip viskas turi vykti) šerdis. Dinaminiai 

tinklai yra palankūs tiek specializacijai, tiek lankstumui, ypač ten, kur nepriklausomos organizacijos siekia 

įgyvendinti vienetinius ar trumpalaikius investicinius projektus su mažiausiomis operacinio laiko ir išteklių 

sąnaudomis. 

Pateikta tinklinių organizacijų klasifikacija padeda įvertinti dalyvavimo vienoje iš tinklo struktūrų ekonominę 

naudą organizacijai, kuo ypatingas gamybos organizacijų tinklų valdymas, nustatyti dalyvių bendradarbiavimo 

ekonominių ir socialinių aspektų santykį tinklo veikimo mechanizme, įvertinti konkurenciją 

organizacijų tinklo viduje, nustatyti globalių, vertikaliai integruotų korporacijų vietą pasaulinėje rinkoje, 

tinklų išplitimo priklausomybę nuo nacionalinės socialinės-ekonominės aplinkos. 

Išanalizavus autorių pateiktus organizacijų, turinčių tinklinių struktūrų, suvokimo lygius ir pagrindinius 

tinklinių struktūrų tipus, galima pastebėti, kad ne kiekvieną tinklinę organizaciją galime vadinti organizacijų 

tinklu (1 pav.). Organizacijų tinklas vienareikšmiškai apima kelias juridiškai nepriklausomas organizacijas. 

Šių tinklų, kaip verslo organizavimo formų, koordinavimo sistema gali iš esmės skirtis. 

1 POŽIŪRIS TINKLINĖ ORGANIZACIJA 

TINKLO LYGIAI ORGANIZACIJOS LYGIS TARPORGANIZACINIS LYGIS 

TINKLŲ TIPAI VIDINIS STABILUS DINAMINIS 

2 POŽIŪRIS TINKLINĖ ORGANIZACIJA ORGANIZACIJŲ TINKLAS 

1 pav. Požiūriai į tinklines struktūras 


Nagrinėdami koordinavimo sistemos sandarą ir kurdami koordinavimo sistemos modelį remsimės pateiktu 

antruoju požiūriu, prioritetą teikdami organizacijų tinklams. 

2. Koordinavimo sistemos organizacijų tinkluose sandara 

Organizacijų tinklo valdymo problema sulaukia vis didesnio mokslininkų dėmesio. Organizacijų tinklo 

valdymas suprantamas dvejopai. Ekonominės sociologijos atstovai į tinklus žvelgia kaip į saviorganizuojančias 

sistemas, kurios kyla „iš apačios“, vietinės (lokalios) sąveikos lygyje (Hakansson, Ford, 2002; Hakansson, 

Snehota, 1989). Strateginio valdymo atstovai (jų dauguma) pripažįsta sąmoningai sukurtus strateginius 

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tinklus (angl. strategic networks) arba vertybių kūrimo tinklus (angl. value nets). Šie tinklai sutelkia jų dalyvius 

iš anksto nustatant jų vaidmenį (Jarillo, 1988; Moller, Svahn, 2003; Parolini, 1999). 

Kaip reikėtų organizacijų tinklą valdyti? Nagrinėdami konkrečią organizaciją, kelsime tokius klausimus: 

kokie jos vystymosi dėsningumai, valdymo ypatumai, atsižvelgiant į esamą vidinę aplinką ir organizacijos 

gebėjimą ją keisti? Nagrinėjant sąveikaujančių organizacijų tinklą pagrindiniu klausimu tampa sąveikos tarp 

jų dėsningumai, kitaip tariant, visų dalyvių veiksmų koordinavimas, o ne pavienio tinklo dalyvio valdymas. 

Organizacijos procesų koordinavimas yra viena svarbių vadybos mokslo nagrinėjamų temų. Koordinavimo 

tyrimų vadybos moksle kryptys pateikiamos 1 lentelėje. 

1 lentelė. Procesų koordinavimo tyrimų vadybos moksle kryptys 

Rodikliai 

Koordinavimo 

objektai 

Koordinavimo 

būdai ir 

„technologijos“ 

Procesų koordinavimas 

organizacijos viduje 

Verslo vienetai 

Skyriai 

Įvairūs valdymo lygiai 

Organizacijų susijungimo ir 

susiliejimo tyrimas 

Organizacijos išteklių 

planavimas (angl. Enterprise 

Resurce Planning – ERP) 

Visuotinė kokybės vadyba 

(angl. Total Quality 

management – TQM) 

Koordinavimo tipas 

Tarporganizacinis procesų koordinavimas 

Savarankiškos organizacijos 

Didelių organizacijų padaliniai (veiklos vienetai, skyriai) 

Organizacijų grupės 

Valstybės valdymo institucijos 

Tiekimas laiku (angl. Just in time – JIT) 

Efektyvus atsakymas į užsakovų užklausimus (angl. Efficient 

Consumer Response – ECR) 

Bendras planavimas, prognozavimas ir atsargų papildymas 

(angl. Collaborative Planning, Forescasting and 

Replenishment – CPFR) 


Anot T. Choi ir Y. Hong (2002), valdymas tinklinėse struktūrose lemia tam tikrą koordinavimo sistemą, 

kurios paskirtis – suderinti ir sinchronizuoti tinklą sudarančių organizacijų veiksmus. Reikia pažymėti, kad 

tarporganizacinis koordinavimas apima du vienas kitam iš esmės priešingus mechanizmus – rinkos (nematoma 

rinkos „ranka“) ir hierarchinį (panašų į organizacijos vidaus valdymo mechanizmą). Paprastai tinklinę 

koordinavimo formą priskiriame prie hibridinių (mišrių), ji užima tarpinę vietą tarp rinkos ir hierarchinės 

formų, paremtų interaktyvia koordinacija. Tačiau tai nepaaiškina koordinavimo sampratos, juolab kad verslo 

praktikoje gausu įvairių koordinavimo formų ir metodų, skiriasi ir koordinavimo proceso dalyvių tikslai. Be 

to, mokslininkų skiriami idealūs koordinavimo tipai (rinkos, hierarchinis ir interaktyvus) verslo praktikoje 

yra sumišę (Bradch, Eccles, 1989). Manytina, kad paprastesnis yra rinkos koordinavimo tipas, paremtas 

rinkos santykiais, kurie natūraliai susiklosto tarp verslo partnerių. Hierarchinis koordinavimo tipas dominuoja 

tinklinėse organizacijose, kurios pavaldumo struktūra jau susiformavusi, tuo tarpu organizacijų tinklai, 

kuriuos sudarančios organizacijos yra juridiškai nepriklausomos, dažniausiai priverstos remtis kitais koordinavimo 

mechanizmais. Valdymo požiūriu įdomiausias yra interaktyvus koordinavimo tipas, kurį taikant 

bandoma suderinti hierarchiškai nepriklausomų tinklo narių veiksmus ir pasiekti didesnį efektyvumą, nei 

leistų vien kliovimasis rinkos mechanizmu. 

P. Danese (2006) kaip koordinavimo mechanizmą įvardija visų tinklo narių veiksmų derinimą visuose 

tarp šių organizacijų vykstančiuose veiklos procesuose. T. Malone (1987) tarporganizacinį koordinavimą 

supranta kaip sprendimų priėmimo ir komunikacijos principų, siekiant bendrų tinklo tikslų, nustatymą. Mūsų 

supratimu, koordinavimo sistema tinklinėje organizacijoje yra veiksmų, priemonių ir komunikacijos kanalų 

visuma, leidžianti suderinti visų tinklo elementų tarpusavio santykius, struktūras, procesus ir kompleksiškai 

juos valdyti, siekiant iš anksto suderintų tikslų. 

Siekiant detaliau išanalizuoti koordinavimo sistemos taikymą organizacijų tinkluose, tikslinga remtis 

Bendro planavimo, prognozavimo ir užsakymų formavimo modeliu (angl. Collaborative Planning, Forecas- 

128


ting and Replenishment, toliau – CPFR), kuris sietinas su interaktyviu koordinavimo tipu. CPFR – tai bendradarbiavimas 

dviejų ar daugiau tinklo narių, kurie siekia kurti bendrus planus, remdamiesi sinchronizuotomis 

prognozėmis, kurių pagrindu nustatomi gamybos ir atsargų papildymo principai (Danese, 2006). CPFR 

modelis siekia suderinti tarporganizacinius veiksmus ir padidinti jų efektyvumą, jį sudaro trys posistemiai, 

kiekvienas kurių apima visą kompleksą veiksmų (2 pav.). 

2 pav. Bendro planavimo, prognozavimo ir užsakymų formavimo modelis 

Šaltinis: Danese, 2006 

Realiai CPFR gali įgauti keletą formų, tai priklauso nuo IKT (informacinių, komunikacinių technologijų), 

veiksmingų koordinavimo priemonių ir tinklo integracijos laipsnio. Taikant skirtingas priemones, įgyvendinant 

modelį, gaunami skirtingi rezultatai, tačiau kiekvienu atveju vadovai turėtų nuspręsti, ar verta 

investuoti į pažangias koordinavimo priemones, siekiant pagerinti koordinavimo procesą, ar užtenka naudoti 

paprastas priemones (faksas, elektroninis paštas, susitikimai „akis į akį“). Reikėtų atkreipti dėmesį, kad net ir 

kai kurios pažangiomis technologijomis besiremiančios priemonės, tokios kaip tradicinis organizacijos išteklių 

planavimas (angl. Enterprise Resource Planning – ERP), orientuotos į verslo procesų koordinavimą organizacijos 

viduje, ne visada gali būti sėkmingai pritaikytos koordinuojant tinklinės organizacijos procesus. 

Anot D. Seifert (2003), visapusiškai išplėtota koordinavimo sistema tinklinėje organizacijoje turėtų pasižymėti 

šiomis galimybėmis: 

• y internetinis bendradarbiavimas, skirtas dalijimuisi informacija (atsargų planai, transporto poreikis, 

pakeitimai ir kt.) tarp tinklo partnerių; 

• y išimčių valdymas ir analizė: nustačius netikėtų nukrypimų, priemonė automatiškai išsiunčia pranešimą 

atitinkamam tinklo nariui, kad jis galėtų prisijungti prie sistemos, įvertinti išimtį ir priimti atitinkamus 

sprendimus; 

• y priežiūra ir ataskaitos suteikia galimybę analizuoti veiklos rezultatus pagal pasirinktus esminius rodiklius, 

rengti valdymui būtinas ataskaitas. 

Šiuo metu tinklinėse organizacijose siekiant didesnio efektyvumo paprastai diegiamos pažangios planavimo 

sistemos (angl. Advanced Planning System – APS) priemonės, kurios atitinka visus D. Seifert (2003) 

suformuluotus koordinavimo sistemos reikalavimus ir yra viena esminių priemonių norint užtikrinti efektyvų 

CPFR modelio taikymą sudėtingose tinklinėse organizacijose. 

Priešingai nei ERP, APS nedaroma prielaida, kad pajėgumai yra begaliniai, visi klientai, produktai ir 

žaliavos yra vienodai svarbūs, o gamybos laikas – nekintamas (Rudberg, Thulin, 2009). APS sutelkta ties 

paklausos netikrumo valdymu, atsargų lygio, transportavimo sąnaudų mažinimu ir/ar gamybos ciklo trumpinimu 

taikant optimizavimo priemones. APS teikia paramą priimant sprendimus, padeda analizuoti ir optimizuoti 

informacijos ir vertybių srautus tinklinėje organizacijoje. Tam APS naudoja prognozavimą, optimizavimo 

algoritmus, rengia scenarijus ir simuliacijas (Kumar, 2001). APS padeda parengti realų ir kuo artimesnį 

optimaliam planą visai tinklinei organizacijai, įvertinus „butelio kakliukus“ (angl. Bottleneck) konkrečiose 

tinklo vietose, bei koordinuoti tinklo partnerių veiksmus įgyvendinant patvirtintą ir suderintą planą (Rudberg, 

2009). Taigi APS galima laikyti CPFR koordinavimo centru, kuris susieja koordinavimo mazguose 

veikiančias ERP ir kitas priemones į vieningą tinklinės organizacijos koordinavimo sistemą. 

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Apibendrinant galima teigti, kad APS leidžia pagerinti paslaugų kokybę, sumažinti atsargų kiekį visuose 

vertės grandinės lygiuose, pateikia tinklo vaizdą ir užtikrina efektyvesnį ribotų išteklių naudojimą. Taigi APS 

yra vienas svarbiausių koordinavimo sistemos elementų, lemiančių šios sistemos, kartu ir visos tinklinės 

organizacijos veiklos efektyvumą (3 pav.). 

3 pav. Koordinavimo sistemos organizacijų tinkluose modelis 


Šiame modelyje apskritimas (APS) vaizduoja organizacijų tinklo koordinavimo sistemos centrą, komunikaciniais 

ryšiais susietą su koordinavimo mazgais (ERP), kurie kartu sudaro organizacijų tinklo koordinavimo 

sistemą, sukurtą taikant CPFR modelį. 

Išvados 

Išanalizavus autorių pateiktus organizacijų, turinčių tinklinių struktūrų, suvokimo lygius ir pagrindinius 

tinklinių struktūrų tipus, galima pastebėti, kad ne kiekvieną tinklinę organizaciją galime vadinti organizacijų 

tinklu. Organizacijų tinklas vienareikšmiškai sujungia kelias juridiškai nepriklausomas organizacijas. Šių 

tinklų, kaip verslo organizavimo formų, koordinavimo sistema gali iš esmės skirtis. 

Koordinavimo sistemą tinklinėje organizacijoje sudaro veiksmų (procesų, struktūrų, tikslų derinimas), 

priemonių (ERP, APS) ir komunikacinių kanalų visuma, leidžianti suderinti visų tinklo elementų tarpusavio 

santykius. Organizacijų tinklo koordinavimo sistemoje naudojant pažangias koordinavimo priemones 

galima sumažinti atsargų kiekį visuose vertės grandinės lygiuose, veiklos sąnaudas, pagerinti paslaugų ir/ar 

produkcijos kokybę, užtikrinti efektyvesnį ribotų išteklių naudojimą. 

Pateiktas modelis iliustruoja organizacijų tinklo koordinavimo sistemą, kurią sudaro koordinavimo centras 

ir koordinavimo mazgai, susieti komunikaciniais ryšiais ir paremti CPFR modeliu, kuris padeda derinti 

veiksmus tarp organizacijų. Reikėtų atkreipti dėmesį, kad net ir kai kurios pažangiomis technologijomis be- 

130


siremiančios priemonės, tokios kaip tradicinis organizacijos išteklių planavimas, orientuotos į verslo procesų 

koordinavimą organizacijos viduje, ne visada gali būti sėkmingai pritaikytos koordinuojant organizacijų 

tinkle vykstančius procesus. 

Literatūra 

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Sociology, Vol. 15, p. 97–118. 

Bukantaitė, D. (2006). Besimokančios tinklinės organizacijos modelis. Organizacijų vadyba: sisteminiai tyrimai, 

Nr. 40, p. 23–39. 

Castells, M. (2005). Tinklaveikos visuomenės raida. Kaunas: Poligrafija ir informatika. 

Choi, T., Hong Y. (2002). Unveiling the structure of supply networks: case studies in Honda, Acura, and DaimlerChrysler. 

Journal of Operations Management, Vol. 20 (5), p. 469–493. 

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CPFR. International Journal of Production Research, Vol. 44(16), p. 3207–3226. 

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Haggins, R. (2000). The Success and Failure of Policy-Implanted Iner-Firm Network Initiatives: Motivations, Processes 

and Structure. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, No. 12, p. 111–135. 

Hakansson, H., Ford, D. (2002). How should companies interact in business enviroments. Journal of Business Research, 

Vol. 55 (2), p. 133–139. 

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Journal of Managment, Vol. 5 (3), p. 256–270. 

Kumar, K. (2001).Technology for supporting supply chain management. Communications of the ACM, Vol. 44 (6), p. 58–61. 

Malone, T. (1987). Modelling coordination in organizations and markes. Management Science, Vol. 33 (10), p. 1317–1332. 

Moeller, K., Svahn, S. (2003). Managing strategic nets: A capability perspective. Managing Theory, Vol. 3 (2). 

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Rudberg, M., Thulin, J. (2009). Centralised supply chain master planning employing advanced planning systems. Production 

Planning & Control, Vol. 20 (2), p. 158–167. 

Seifert, D. (2003). Collaborative Planning, Forecasting and Replenishment: How to Create a Supply Chain Advantage. 

New York: AMACOM. 

Snow, C. C., Milesm, R. E., Coleman, H. J. (1992). Managing 21st century network organizations. Organization Dynamics, 

Vol. 20 (3), p. 4–20. 

Staniulienė, S. (2006). Organizavimas ir orgprojektavimas. Mokomoji knyga. Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto 

leidykla. 

Webster, J. (1995). Networks of Collaboration or Conflict? Electronic Data Interchange and Power in the Supply Chain. 

The Journal of Strategic Information Systems, Vol. 4(1), p. 31–42. 

Zakarevičius, P. (2002). Vadyba: genezė dabartis tendencijos. Kaunas: Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas. 

Кущ, С. П. (2006). Подходы к разработке механизма координации управления взаимоотношениями 

промышленной компании с партнерами. Prieiga internetu: http://vestnikmanagement.pu.ru/archive/pdf/264.pdf 

[žiūrėta 2011 02 20]. 

MODEL OF SYSTEM FOR COORDINATION IN NETWORKS 

OF ORGANIZATIONS 



During the last decades the crisis of bureaucratic organizations became evident, we can see the movement 

towards more flexible network structures. Modern economy is dominated by the process of globalization 

that is followed by the increase of informational flows and economic relations. In these circumstances the 

need for organizations to pool resources for the strengthening of competitive position in the market becomes 

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essential. Evidently the importance of network organizations as a means for attraction of investment and 

its effective use can only grow. In the face of these changes various subjects of business create a certain 

“community” around them that is shaped by selected criteria. This process could be explained by the need 

of the organization to protect its interest and to increase the effectiveness of the use of its resources. In such 

a way sustainable groups of business subjects are formed, they become interlinked by a variety of networks. 

The key elements that unite the participants of the network are historically formed commitments and mutual 

interest, the opportunity to participate in the activities of the company and use its resources, markets and 

technology, accessibility of administrative resource and so on. A network of organizations is a system of value 

creation, in which several organizations that have complementary strengths form an alliance that is beneficial 

to all of the participants; this alliance allows organizations to be successful in the environment of rapid 

change (Castells, 2003; Issakson, 2010; Staniulienė, 2006; Zakarevičius, 2002). One of the most important 

activities in a network is the creation of coordination system that would regulate the relations and activities 

between the member organizations (Кущ, 2006; Danese, 2005; Kumar, 2001; Seifert, 2003; Rudberg, 2008). 

The problem of this article is the difficulty of coordination of the activities of members or the network 

of organizations. 

The object of the article is the coordination system in the network of organizations. 

The goal of the article is to provide the model for coordination in the network of organizations. 

The tasks of the research are: 1. To analyse the approaches to the network structures; 2. To determine the 

structure of the system of coordination in the network of organizations; 3. To provide a model of coordination 

system in the network of organizations. 

The article is written using the methods of analysis and synthesis of scientific literature. The literature 

regarding network organizations and organizational networks (Castells, 2003; Issakson ir kt., 2010; Staniulienė, 

2006; Zakarevičius, 2002), the processes of coordination (Кущ, 2006; Danese, 2005; Kumar, 2001; 

Seifert, 2003; Rudberg, 2008) was analysed, and synthesis method was used to create the model of coordination 

system in network of organizations. 

We came to conclusion that there are two dominant views on network structures, one holds that a network 

inside of organization, and that connects several organizations should be considered a network organization; 

another view separates network organization from the network of organizations. We think that the network 

of organizations is comprised by de jure independent organizations that are collaborating in the achievement 

of a common goal. The coordination system in these networks of organizations is different and more straightforward 

than in a network organization. 

The system of coordination in network of organizations is comprised by totality of actions (adjustment 

of processes, structures and goals), means (ERP, APS) and canals of communication that allows adjusting all 

of the relations between elements of the network. The use of advanced coordination systems in the network 

of organizations could lead to the improvement of quality of production or services, reduction of inventory 

in all of the levels of value chain, could reduce the cost of activity and ensure more effective use of limited 

resources. 

We provided a model that illustrates the coordination system in the network of organizations, this system 

is formed by the coordination centre and coordination nods that are linked by the communication links 

an is based on the model of Collaborative Planning, Forecasting and Replenishment (CPFR), that is meant 

for the adjustment of inter-organizational activities. We also note that even advanced technological means 

such as ERP that are oriented to the coordination of processes inside of organization, could not always be 

successfully adapted for the coordination of networks of organizations. 

KEY WORDS: Network organization, network of organizations, coordination. 

JEL codes: L14, M10. 

132


OPERATIONS STRATEGIES 

Roland Schmuck 1 

University of Pécs (Hungary) 

ABSTRACT 

Strategic management and operations management are widely used concepts. The role of operations management in planning and implementation 

the strategy is shown in this article. After a deep literature review the author presents those ideas which are crucial for the long-term 

planning of a modern company. Next to the change of the external environment the time factor is also considered as an important issue. The 

goal of companies within the framework of these conditions is to gain competitive advantage. The author shows ideas how to achieve this. 

KEY WORDS: strategy, operations, management. 

JEL CODES: L100, M110, O320 

Introduction 

The purpose of this paper is to search for the answer what kind of operational strategies successful 

companies may follow. 

The object of the research is to clarify which operational strategies can be useful in today’s complex environment 

and what strategies successful companies may use. It is a current topic nowadays. During the 20 th 

century there were several shifts in the focus of operational management (Barakonyi, 2000) which outlines 

the main problem why this article was borned. The paper aims to discuss the current trends in the topic. 

The objectives of the current research are to distinguish current working operations management methods 

from outdated solutions and to give ideas of what a successful company should use or not use from the 

common solutions of operations management. 

The tasks done in this paper are the following. The author first overviews what strategy and operations 

strategy is, than discusses the mainstream opinions of the topic. Finally, as a conclusion, answers the question 

what moderns companies should consider when planning their operations strategy. 

The research methods are based on deep literature review of those articles and books that are considered 

relevant on the topic by mainstream economists. The articles and books were systematically chosen to cover 

the most important issues of current operations management including the following: strategic management, 

aggregate planning, inventory management, just-in-time, TQM, competing through manufacturing, service 

management and supply chain management. 

1. Strategies 

In the 21 st century the environment changes faster than ever. New technologies evolves day-by-day, 

which grow extremely fast or disappear. The organizations are uncertain in this world. Multinational compa- 

1 

Roland Schmuck – University of Pécs, Faculty of Economics, Strategic Studies Department, assistant professor. Scientific interests: 

management and economics. 

E-mail: schmuck@ktk.pte.hu 

Tel.: +36 72 501 599 / 23265. 

133



nies collapse and disappear in short time. In this globalized world new competitors may appear at any time. 

The role of strategy is more important than ever before. 

Strategy is to plan and reach the long-term goals of the organization. Nokia is going toward mobile information 

techniques from mobile phones, Disney from cartoons to the entertainment industry (Johnson et al., 

2011). For both companies to reach their goals they need their own strategies. By another concept, strategy 

is a behaviour of a series of decisions (Mintzberg, 2007). Strategy is to define the long-term goals, adapt the 

appropriate methods to do this and ensure the necessary resources (Chandler, 1963). J. Vörös (2010) claims 

that strategy is to use core competencies in order to create sustainable competitive advantage. 

Figure 1. The hierarchy of corporate objectives and management levels in an ordinary view 

Source: Bartek-Lesi et al., 2007: 45. 

Today’s successful companies use integrated strategies, which means various functional strategies are 

consistent; strategic planning for each department are parallel of each other (Vörös, 2010). 

In order for companies to remain in the leading positions, they have to quickly respond to market changes, 

gain access to the newest and best technologies, be efficient and continuously improve their key competencies 

(Porter, 1996). The company meets five forces 2 in the market; all of them affect its competitiveness 

(Porter, 2008). 

Competitive strategy is based on differentiation, which may happen with unique operations or distinctive 

offers giving individual values. Gaining strategic position can rely on three areas. Variety-based positioning 

is based on the choice of product or service varieties. It can be used when a company produces particular 

products or services using distinctive sets of activities. The needs-based positioning is about targeting a 

customer segment and to serve them fully. It can be used if a customer group has the same needs or customers 

have different needs in different situations. The goal of the access-based positioning is to serve customers 

who are accessible in the same way (Porter, 1996) 

The generic strategies defined by M. E. Porter (1980) determine the possible strategic alternatives based 

on competitive advantage. Porter distinguishes cost leadership and differentiation strategies, both types of 

strategies can be focused on market segmentation. A company following the cost leadership strategy tries to 

operate at low costs and use the advantages of economies of scale. The differentiation strategy means that 

the company tries to outperform its competitors by better product features and quality, so it can use higher 

profit margins. The segmentation strategy focuses on a specific group of customers and attempts to better 

meet their needs (Porter, 1980). 

2 

The five forces are the following: bargaining power of customers, bargaining power of suppliers, threat of substitute products, 

threat of new entrants, competitive rivalry within an industry (Porter, 2008). 

134


2. Operations strategies 

The operations strategy is all actions aimed at creating a production system that serves the implementation 

of business strategy (Vörös, 2010: 40). The connection of operations strategy and business strategy can 

be illustrated by the case of the first laptops. The laptop product development, the necessary research and the 

development of the manufacturing process were carried out in parallel by Toshiba (Vörös, 2010). Operations 

strategy is a series of decisions. At the strategic level the operations managers are interested in developing 

new skills and better use of the existing capabilities to better serve the needs of the customers (Krajewsky 

et al., 2010). 

Companies react the changes in the environment differently; the related operation strategy can be determined 

by the production task and the available competencies. Miller and Roth (1994) distinguish three 

different operations strategies: 

• y Caretakers, who do not care about the development of their competencies, they rather focus on price. 

• y Marketers, who are mainly focused on the customer requirements and satisfying them. 

• y Innovators, whose competitive advantage comes from the fast that they can quickly develop new products 

and launch them fast (Miller, Roth, 1994). 

M. Hammer (2004) claims that it is not enough to focus on the innovative products. Important area of the 

innovation is the functional innovation, improving internal operations resulting in competitive advantage. 

Toyota gained competitive advantage in this way (Hammer, 2004). 

The modern conception of the operations management is to interpret a company as an open system which 

is highly dependent on its environment. Organizations have to be open enough to allow their strategies to be 

affected by customer requirements (Dawar-Frost, 1999). In the 1990s inter-company relations became the 

focus of the operations management next to the company operation. World Class Manufacturing (Flynn et 

al., 1999), lean thinking and agile manufacturing systems each focused on coordinating external and internal 

processes and operations networks management. A number of strategies emerged, such as outsourcing or the 

effective management of production networks. These have to be in accordance with the internal operations 

management systems such as the just-in-time or TQM (Brown et al., 2001). 

L. J. Krajewski et al. (2010) distinguish three operations and inventory strategies. Make-to-order strategy 

can be used in case of unique, small series products. The assemble-to-order strategy is useful to quickly 

assemble products from the same raw materials or components. Products do not have to be the same, for 

example a sawmill makes different, sometimes even unique furniture from the same raw materials. This strategy 

can be the base of mass customization as well. When using the make-to-stock strategy the manufacturer 

produces into inventory, from which the product may be sold at any time. This strategy can be used for such 

standardized products as soft drinks or garden equipment (Krajewski et al., 2010). 

In the 1980s the role of time as a factor of competitive advantage increased which appeared in many form 

of economic activity. Cycles, development, lead, waiting periods and other capabilities that can be expressed 

in time bring competitive advantages to companies. However, time became a trap as well: companies using 

the even faster, market dictated development pattern did not get in better positions compared to their competitors 

(Stalk, Weber, 1993). 

Next to time, companies have to focus on developing capabilities as well nowadays. Using its capabilities 

Wal-Mart defeated the previously market-leader Kmart in the United States of America (Stalk et al., 1992). 

Developing core competencies can cause such a competitive advantage that is hard to replicate (Ellis and 

Williams, 1995). In the rapidly changing markets it is not enough to make and follow strategic plans. New 

approaches came to light which connect the company performance to its resources. This is called the resource-based 

approach (Collis, Montgomery, 1995). 

The operation strategy itself does not cause competitive advantage, because some companies can use 

them better, some worse. Operational efficiency is when a company realizes higher performance with the 

same activity (Porter, 1996). With operational innovation the company can operate more efficient with lower 

135



costs, which may lead to higher market share (Hammer, 2004). Japanese companies like Toyota owed their 

operational efficiency that they could have high-quality products at lower prices in the 1980s. If a company 

improves its operational efficiency, it moves to the upper limit of marginal productivity which is the maximal 

possible value produced at a given cost level. Improving efficiency is needed to be competitive but 

not enough; the ever-faster imitation by the competitors causes that they continuously become closer and 

closer to the market position of the company (Porter, 1996). By extending the efficiency to cross-company 

processes the company can reach the level of super-efficiency. Hewlett-Packard integrated its whole monitor 

production supply chain into a computer system which caused lower costs and faster lead times (Hammer, 

2001). With this method they could solve the problems caused by the lack of information and unknown 

partner operations which were the most important issues in the production network (Narayanan et al., 2004). 

3. Implementation of operations strategies 

There are two groups of products, functional and innovative products (Fisher, 1997). Operation network 

have physical and market intermediary role. The market of functional products is well estimable, the demand 

is predictable, production can be well-scheduled. The goal in case of these products is usually to decrease 

costs. In contrast, the demand of innovative products is hardly predictable so emphasis is put on the market 

mediator role of the production network. The network should be built accordingly. Sport Obermeyer launches 

a new, fashionable skiwear on the market, demands estimations can show 200 % error in some cases. 

In contrast, functional products manufacturer Campbell Soup Company has much more reliable forecasts 

(Fisher, 1997). 

Any products can be customized within certain limits, even products made in mass production. Mass 

customization is an efficient distinction of a customer allowed by the production network as much as possible 

(Chase, 2006). Based on R. S. Kaplan and M. Haenlein (2006) this is such a value-creating strategy that is 

based on the connection of the company and the customer. More value is created through the manufacturing 

and assembling processes at the same price level than a usual product (Kaplan, Haenlein, 2006). Several 

companies tried to take advantage of this method in the 1990s including major car manufacturers (Nissan, 

Toyota, etc.) without success. Costs and inventory increased, customers were confused by the huge range of 

options. Nissan offered 87 different steering wheels for its cars, but customers wanted only a fraction of these 

(Pine, 1993). Despite the failure the method is still used in many industries. 

R. Wise and P. Baumgartner (1999) claims that a broader horizon should be applied, so the company 

should not only take care of production and sales, but it has to move into the direction of downstream. In 

many industries customers spend much more money during the use of the products than the original price 

of them. For example, the average American family spends only 20 % of the total price of the car to buy it; 

the remaining is spent during the usage. Strategy based on this can be implemented in various ways: integrating 

value-added services into the product, offering full service, offering integrated services which focus on 

customer requirements. A good example for integration value-added services is the iTunes online software in 

Apple products from where users can add new functions to their device. Volkswagen Group offers financial 

services to its customers in Hungary through Porsche Bank, which is a way to offer an integrated service. 

The fourth method is the distribution control, which can be considered as a shift in the value chain. Coca- 

Cola used this method in the 1990s when it started directing its bottling plants, which resulted in a significant 

profit improvement (Wise, Baumgartner, 1999). 

During services the most contribution is provided by those workers who are directly in connection with 

the customers. For service-sector companies their market share and profit are not the most important things; 

but their investment in human capital. This new philosophy requires new management principles and techniques 

which should use new measurement methods, for example employee satisfaction, loyalty or productivity. 

If the indicators are appropriate, customer loyalty and satisfaction will be good as well. By management 

expression, instead of hard factors, soft factors become emphasized (Heskett et al., 1994). Globalization has 

a huge effect not only on traditional manufacturing but providing services as well. Standardized services are 

136


Figure 2. Methods of going downstream with some examples 

Source: own edition 

increasingly outsourced to countries with cheaper labour force. There is a growing demand for end-to-end 

services. Companies should focus on selling service chains rather than individual services. Virgin Atlantic 

airline company acts like this, it offers limousine service to passengers with business class tickets. 

For successful strategy implementation we should know the relationship of strategy and the instruments 

used (Kaplan, Norton, 2008). There is a very wide range of instruments. R. H. Hayes and S. C. Wheelwright 

(1984) defined six instruments 3 ; B. B. Flynn et al. (1999) added quality management and just-in-time to even 

more increase the efficiency. Furthermore, operations network management became a major competitive 

factor in the 2000s (Vörös, 2010). 

After the Second World War big US companies did not really deal with quality issues as long as the 

Japanese companies entered the US market with their high quality products. While a product is considered 

high quality in a manufacturer’s view if it meets the designed parameters, customers rather think the product 

needs to perform well the functions given to it (Vörös, 2010). D. A. Garvin (1987) defined eight dimensions 

which must comply with a quality product. The eight dimensions are the following: performance, features, 

reliability, conformance, durability, serviceability, aesthetics, perceived quality (Garvin, 1987). TQM is a 

method to improve the operations and the quality. Implementing TQM may improve the efficiency of companies, 

reduce their costs and increase their incomes. Companies using TQM grow faster (Hendricks, Singha, 

1997). With the emergence of new technologies the competition increases. Due to the high customer requirements 

companies should have competitive advantage based on their strategies. Quality inflates with time, so 

continuous quality improvement activities must be carried out in order to retain the competitive advantage 

independent from the pricing policy (Vörös, 2002). 

S. Sakakibara et al. (1997) claim that competitive advantage e.g. level of flexibility, delivery time, quality 

and cost performance are based on the manufacturing performance which consists of inventory turnover, ontime 

delivery, lead time and cycle time. Manufacturing performance is based on infrastructure practices and 

3 

(1) competencies and capabilities of the workforce, (2) professional competence of the management, (3) competitive advantage 

based on quality, (4) participation of the workers, (5) redesigning the manufacturing process, (6) incremental improvements 

137



just-in-time practices. The first consists of quality management, work force management, manufacturing strategy, 

organizational characteristics and product design. The later consists of set-up time reduction, schedule 

flexibility, maintenance, equipment layout, kanban and just-in-time supplier relationship. The introduction 

of just-in-time is often considered difficult and problematic, but R. Walleigh (1986) clearly demonstrates that 

the issues can be eliminated. The introduction process is time and energy consuming; however the real value 

lies in the fact that it is not only a production system, but an operating philosophy (Walleigh, 1986). 

The accelerated competition makes even subsistence a hard thing, but companies may gain competitive 

advantage with simple changes, e.g. better planning, marketing or changing the financial background. Unfortunately 

beside these factors companies often neglect production facilities where most of the employees 

work. Production needs to be converted into the strength of the company; all production function should 

work well-oiled. In the four-level system of S. Wheelwright and R. Hayes (1985) there are long-term development 

programs to increase the competitiveness, so the company can move up in the four-level model. The 

majority of companies move from one level to another by external pressure, because they feel comfortable 

and safe to maintain the lower levels where there is not so much need for high knowledge and managerial 

skills as on the more advanced levels. In the fourth and most advanced stage there is continuous process improvement, 

and high care that the product development and the process design are in accordance with each 

other (Wheelwright, Hayes, 1985). 

The ever-increasing product variety and shortening product life cycles increase the uncertainty of the 

estimations. In the accurate response method the costs of lack of products are calculated, the products are divided 

into estimable and not estimable demanded categories. It is recommended to manufacture products in 

the first category earlier and later with more available information those products where it is hard to estimate 

the exact demand. Sport Obermayer skiwear manufacturing company could reduce cost from inaccurate 

forecast by half with this method. 

Conclusions 

During the 20 th century there were several shifts in the most important success factors. It can be seen that 

all factors are still important, but the basic of competitive advantage changes from time to time. 

Figure 3. Changes in the operational management focus since the beginning of the 1900s 


The author claims that all of the above competitiveness factors are still important nowadays except one. 

The mass customization theory did not fulfil the expectations so it is not used widely nowadays. Companies 

are in a tough competition nowadays. Operations are becoming more and more complex and time also 

became an issue. In today’s world a successful company should take into account during strategic planning 

the continuing strengthening of the global competition, the constantly changing environment, shortening 

life-cycles and the growth of risks. The author suggests as an answer to these questions is to build core com- 

138


petencies which are hard to copy for the competitors. One other possible solution of this is to join strategic 

alliances and to increase the size of the company with acquisitions or internal growth. As time factor is very 

important, successful companies should rather make acquisitions to save time. Acquisitions are cheaper as 

well in the long-term. 

Successful companies should not only be efficient with the complex use of operations management methods, 

but they should always continuously improve the effectiveness as well, including the use of new 

technologies and methods. This is the only way to maintain competitive advantage because competitors are 

doing the same way. If the company can not increase its efficiency, it will lag behind from the competitors 

and eventually may even disappear from the market. Its products, services and operations should be improved, 

have to be innovative in these fields and also in the internal operation ways. Furthermore it needs to be 

cost effective as well. The author’s opinion is that there is no best solution, a complex view is needed. The 

following table shows some real world solutions to the operational issues. 

Table 1. Case study examples mentioned in this paper with related success factors 

Company 

Apple 

Coca-Cola 

Disney 

Hewlett-Packard 

Sport Obermeyer 

Toshiba 

Toyota 

Virgin Atlantic 

Volkswagen 

Wal-Mart 

Success factor 

Offering value-added services 

Distribution control 

Long-term planning of strategy 

Supply chain integration with IT solutions 

Accurate response method 

Connecting operations strategy with business strategy 

Operational efficiency (just-in-time) 

Offering full service 

Offering integrated services 

Developing capabilities 


Environment should be taken into consideration as well. The age when a company could be successful 

only by efficient working methods without considering external factors is over. Good relations with the 

partners is utmost important. The company has to be able to manage its operation network well; the entire 

system must operate smoothly and quickly. 

To succeed an appropriate corporate culture should be developed, as well as hard to copy core competencies, 

which can bring competitive advantage to the company. These competencies should be utilized and 

maintained; furthermore they should be available to all departments of the company. 

Lately, but not lastly companies should be able to assess and meet the potential needs of customers and 

make them loyal. The really successful companies can even influence consumers’ needs and find and serve 

latent needs. In order to achieve higher profits, all needs should be covered with products or services including 

the needs during the whole lifetime of the product. 

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140


OPERACIJŲ STRATEGIJOS 


Pécs universitetas (Vengrija) 

Santrauka 

Strateginis valdymas ir operacijų valdymas yra plačiai vartojamos sąvokos. Straipsnyje atskleistas operacijų 

valdymo vaidmuo kuriant ir įgyvendinant strategiją. Atlikęs literatūros apžvalgą, autorius aptaria ilgalaikį 

šiuolaikinės bendrovės veiklos planavimą. Be šorinės aplinkos pokyčių, kaip svarbus veiksnys skiriamas 

laikas. Dabartinėmis sąlygomis veikiančių organizacijų tikslas – įgyti konkurencinį pranašumą, todėl straipsnio 

autorius aptaria, kaip tai galima būtų pasiekti. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: strategija, operacijos, valdymas. 

JEL klasifikacija: L100, M110, O320 

141


ASSESSMENT OF FACTORS AFFECTING THE AMOUNT OF IMMOVABLE PROPERTY TAX IN LATVIA 

ASSESSMENT OF FACTORS AFFECTING THE AMOUNT 

OF IMMOVABLE PROPERTY TAX IN LATVIA 

Sandra Stucere 1 , Gunita Mazure 2 

Latvia University of Agriculture (Latvia) 

ABSTRACT 

The research aim is to analyse the peculiarities for application of immovable property tax in Latvia and to assess the main factors 

affecting the amount of immovable property tax and contradicting the basic principles for imposing taxes. It is essential to review the 

methods how the State Land Service determines cadastral values for real estate, since the cadastral value is the base for calculation of 

immovable property tax. The revision is required as the establishment of a fair tax system is impossible without adequate and comparable 

cadastral values. In the future, land shall be valued pursuant to lease and not to expropriation transactions in Latvia, while 

the cadastral valuation of buildings might be done consistent with the method of expenses by determining construction expenses of 

buildings. The issue on mass inspection of physical condition of buildings and data updating shall be solved in Latvia. In addition, an 

issue on possibilities to apply the most fair procedure for tax calculation shall be solved on the governmental level, i.e. to calculate 

taxes consistent with procedure for the use of immovable property registered in the Land Register as well as to cancel the limitation 

for increase of immovable property tax stated by the municipality and to regulate the tax burden through tax rates. 

KEY WORDS: immovable property tax, limitation for the tax increase, property structure, cadastral value. 

JEL codes: H29 

Introduction 

Tax administration efficiency is one of the key factors influencing successful development of the state 

economy, since the implementation of governmental functions greatly depends on the state tax policy and 

the amount of collected taxes. Regular and sufficient tax collection ensures financing of the governmental 

expenditure and economic development in the short- and long-term. 

Issues on the role of immovable property tax and the alignment and development perspectives of immovable 

property tax sphere have been frequently discussed in Latvia within the past years. Much larger 

attention has been paid to the regulating function of taxes – to promote efficient use of immovable property 

to gain maximum benefit from the immovable property item for the entire society. 

Research object is immovable property tax in Latvia. 

Topicality of the research theme is based on the wish to study problems and to analyse the main factors 

affecting the amount of immovable property tax in Latvia as well as to provide solutions in the sphere of 

immovable tax development. 

1 

Sandra Stucere – Latvia University of Agriculture, Faculty of Economics, Mg. oec., PhD student; Riga City Council, Municipal 

Revenue Administration, Head of taxpayers service department. Scientific interests: municipal tax, regions economics. 

E-mail: Sandra.Stucere@riga.lv 

Tel.: +371 292 639 24. 

2 

Gunita Mazūre – Latvia University of Agriculture, Faculty of Economics, Dr. oec., assoc. professor. Scientific interest: financial 

support, crediting, investments, rural development. 

E-mail: Gunita.Mazure@llu.lv 

Tel.: +371 298 446 28. 

142


The research is done based on the hypothesis that in Latvia, individual factors affecting the amount of 

immovable property tax contradict the basic principles for imposing taxes. 

To verify the hypothesis, the following research aim is set: to analyse the peculiarities for application of 

immovable property tax and to assess the main factors affecting the amount of immovable property tax in 

Latvia. 

The following tasks are advanced to achieve the set aim: 

• y to analyse the application of immovable property tax and tax revenues in Latvia; 

• y to study the main factors affecting the amount of immovable property tax in Latvia and to provide 

possible solutions in the sphere of immovable tax development. 

The monographic descriptive method as well as the methods of economic analysis and statistical data 

analysis is applied to achieve the set research aim. 

Legal and regulatory enactments of the Republic of Latvia and documents related with immovable property 

tax as well as data of the Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Latvia on tax revenues for the period 

of 2006–2011 are used for the research purposes to analyse the application of immovable property tax and 

tax revenues in Latvia. 

Personal experience of one of the authors (S. Štucere) and data of the information system of Immovable 

Property Tax Administration of Riga City Council are used to analyse factors affecting the amount of immovable 

property tax. 

1. Application of immovable property tax in Latvia 

At present, the tax system of Latvia is not sufficiently directed towards ensuring a sustainable development 

of the state socio-economic development. The tax system of Latvia may be characterised as unstable 

as it is essentially changed on a relatively frequent basis. The tax system of Latvia is mainly directed towards 

employment taxes, i.e. taxes that are paid from work payment by employees and their employers and not 

towards consumption taxes or capital taxes. It is also shown by the breakdown of the general government 

consolidated tax revenues by types of taxes in 2011. According to the data of Figure 1, the majority or 52.9 % 

of tax revenues are constituted of employment taxes, 27.2 % – consumption taxes, 12.2 % – resource taxes, 

and only 7.7 % – capital taxes. Immovable property tax is included into the group of capital taxes and its 

share equals to 2.8 % (Kopsavilkums par budžeta ieņēmumu daļas izpildi, 2011). 

Figure 1. Breakdown of the general government consolidated budget tax revenues by types of taxes in 2011 

Source: Kopsavilkums par budžeta ieņēmumu daļas izpildi, 2011 

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Immovable property tax is administered by municipalities and it is the only tax, which is paid to the municipal 

budget for 100 %. Immovable property tax, which is more neutral towards the general economic system 

compared with other taxes, is most directly related with the territorial management and socio-economic 

development of particular local government. Its items – land and buildings are localised, relatively stable, 

and explorable, thus, facilitating the tax administration. 

Items taxable by immovable property tax and tax rates in Latvia are outlined in Table 1. In Latvia, the 

cadastral value serves as the basis for immovable property tax. Latvia has a large set of taxable objects and 

different tax rates. Land, buildings, and engineering constructions are levied at 1.5 % of the property cadastral 

value, while a proportional rate within 0.2 %–0.6 % is imposed on residential buildings. Immovable 

property tax is imposed on unutilised agricultural areas and ruinous environment degrading constructions at 

a rate of 3 % of the cadastral value (Likums Par nekustamā īpašuma nodokli, 2011). 

Table 1. Application of immovable property tax in Latvia in 2012 

Tax base Taxable item Tax rate 

Cadastral value 

Land 

Buildings 

Engineering constructions 

Residential buildings 

Unutilised agricultural area* 

Ruinous environment degrading constructions ** 

1.5 % 

1.5 % 

1.5 % 

0.2–0.6 % 

3 % 

3 % 

* excluding land, the area of which does not exceed one hectare or which has restrictions for agricultural activities stated by regulatory enactments 

** Binding Regulations issued by every municipality prescribe procedure for the calculation of immovable property tax 

Source: Likums par nekustamā īpašuma nodokli, 2011 

An essential novelty in the administration process of immovable property tax has been introduced in Latvia 

from 2012. Local governments have the rights to issue Binding Regulations, which prescribe the rights 

to apply the increase of tax rate limitation in 2012 or retain the amount of tax at the rate of 2011 as well as 

to state whether the immovable property tax is imposed on auxiliary buildings and environment degrading 

constructions (Likums par nekustamā īpašuma nodokli, 2011). 

Immovable property tax has a significant share in municipal budgets, since it is the second largest tax in 

terms of revenues. The analysis of immovable property tax revenues (Figure 2) for the period of 2006–2011 

shows that they have an increasing tendency. In 2011, immovable property tax revenues have increased by 

LVL 43.8 million or 66 % compared with 2006. 

Figure 2. Immovable property tax revenues from 2006 to 2011, million LVL 

Source: Par tautsaimniecības attīstību un kopbudžeta izpildes gaitu, 2007; Kopsavilkums par 

budžeta ieņēmumu daļas izpildi, 2010; Makroekonomikas un budžeta apskats, 2011 

144


The increase of immovable property tax base (cadastral value) as well as changes in tax rates and expansion 

of the set of items taxable by immovable property tax may explain the growth of immovable property 

tax revenues. The immovable property tax rate was raised from 2010 for land and non-residential buildings 

to 1.5 % of the cadastral value (instead of a 1 % rate set earlier). Taxation of engineering constructions (1.5 % 

of the cadastral value) and residential buildings within the range of 0.1 %–0.3 % of the cadastral value was 

started at the same time. Immovable property tax rate for residential buildings was doubled to 0.2–0.6 % 

from 2011. Hence, in 2011, these changes resulted in the largest immovable property tax revenues in Latvia 

amounting to LVL 110.2 million. 

Lately, the possibility to increase exactly the immovable property tax rate is being emphasised in Latvia. 

The expansion of items taxable by the immovable property tax and increase of tax rates are based on simpler 

and easier administration of this tax compared with other taxes. The government of Latvia prefers those types 

of taxes, which reduce the possibility to avoid paying of taxes, thus, reducing the share of shadow economy. 

The government of Latvia has envisaged supporting changes in the sphere of immovable property tax 

also in 2013. Therefore, the government will ensure greater participation of municipalities in the determination 

of tax rates (within the range of 0.2 %–3 % set by the central government), more precise compliance 

of tax burden with the property value and additional revenues (Likumprojekta “Grozījumi likumā Par nekustamā 

īpašuma nodokli”, 2012). 

2. Factors affecting the amount of immovable property tax in Latvia 

Contemporary economic literature earmarks the following basic principles of tax policy: 

1) economic efficiency – tax system shall not distort efficient distribution of resources in the national 

economy; 

2) simple administration – tax system shall be as much as possible easy and cheap to administer. It is 

required to assess the procedure and mechanism of administration by evaluating the necessary expenses 

for tax collection; 

3) flexibility – tax system shall react fast on the changes of economic conditions. Tax system shall be 

established so that tax revenues increase simultaneously with the improvement of economic development 

without increasing tax rates, tax base or changing other conditions in tax legislation; 

4) uniformity and justice – tax system shall be properly related to different taxpayers. It shall be fair and 

equally cover all the taxpayers (Ketners, Titova, 2009: 34). 

Based on the key principles of tax imposition, the research studies and analyses the main factors affecting 

the amount of immovable property tax in Latvia, and provides solutions in the sphere of immovable property 

tax development. 

2.1. Impact of the limitation for increase of immovable property tax on the tax amount 

In Latvia, the law “On Immovable Property Tax” prescribes the norm that the amount of immovable 

property tax is limited from 2008 upon the condition that after updating of the cadastral value of immovable 

property tax, the amount of immovable property tax shall not exceed the amount of tax calculated for the 

previous taxation year (not taking into account the abatements) by more than 25 % for each unit of land and 

each building separately (condition that the purpose for use of the immovable property does not change was 

in force till 2011) (Likuma “Par nekustamā īpašuma nodokli” normu piemērošanas kārtība”, 2011). 

At present, this principle contradicts the following principle of tax imposition – uniformity and justice. 

At the end of 2007, the mentioned condition was stipulated for the situation when cadastral values of immovable 

property sharply increased in 2008 and considerable changes were not envisaged in the real estate 

145



market. However, the situation has changed from 2010 – activity of the real estate market and prices has 

fallen dramatically, thus, essentially affecting cadastral values of properties (Fridriksone, 2009: 5). 

To provide an insight in the changes of cadastral values and specificity for calculation of immovable 

property tax, the authors will analyse (Table 2) a sample for the calculation of immovable property tax for 

the land area behoving to the shop building on Gobas iela 14 in Riga for the period of 2007–2012. The data 

of Table 2 show that in 2008 (cadastral value – LVL 67646) the cadastral value has increased by LVL 57698 

or almost six times compared with 2007 (cadastral value – LVL 9948). A considerable growth in the amount 

of immovable property tax (in 2008 – LVL 676.46) was also forecasted due to these changes. However, applying 

limitation for the tax increase the amount of immovable property tax grew by 25 % compared with 

2007 and equalled to LVL 186.53. In 2009, it grew by 25 % compared with 2008 and comprised LVL 233.16. 

Therefore, in 2008 and 2009, limitation for the tax increase adopted by the government of Latvia substantially 

protected taxpayers from the fast increase of immovable property tax. On the contrary, the cadastral 

value had an annual tendency to decrease for the period of 2010–2012, while the amount of tax continued to 

increase annually by 25 % compared with the previous year and comprised LVL 455.39 in 2012. However, 

the amount of tax would be LVL 746.10, if the tax were calculated according to the cadastral value (without 

applying the limitation for the tax increase). 

Table 2. The calculation of immovable property tax applying limitation for the increase in 2007–2012 

Shop building (Gobas iela 14, Riga) behoving land area 2487 m 2 

Year Calculation of immovable property tax Calculation of immovable property tax Real tax rate 

by the cadastral value 

applying limitation for the tax increase 

2007 LVL 9948 (cadastral value) x 1.5 % (tax 

_ 1.5 % 

rate) = LVL 149.22 

2008 LVL 67646 (cadastral value) x 1 % (tax 

rate) = LVL 676.46 

LVL 149.22 (tax amount in 2007) +25 % 

(limitation for the increase, 25 % of LVL 

149.22) = LVL 186.53 

0.3 % 

2009 LVL 67646 (cadastral value) x 1 % (tax 

rate) = LVL 676.46 

2010 LVL 62175 (cadastral value) 

X 1.5% (tax rate) = LVL 932.63 

2011 LVL 54714 (cadastral value) x 1.5 %( tax 

rate) = LVL 820.71 

2012 LVL 49740 (cadastral value) x 1.5 % (tax 

rate) = LVL 746.10 



186.53) = LVL 233.16 



233.16) = LVL 291.45 



291.45) = LVL 364.31 

LVL 364.31(tax amount in 2011) +25 % 


364.31) = LVL 455.39 

Source: authors’ construction based on data of the Immovable Property 

Tax Administration Program of Riga City Council 

0.4 % 

0.5 % 

0.7 % 

0.9 % 

The sample shows that calculating the amount of immovable property tax by applying the limitation of 

the tax increase, the amount of tax is substantially reduced and the real tax rate ranges from 0.3 % (in 2008) 

to 0.9 % (in 2012). Therefore, the decision of the Latvian government to increase the immovable property tax 

rate to 1.5 % of cadastral value (instead of the previous 1 %) in 2010 is incomprehensible. The rate is useless, 

if the limitation for the tax increase is retained, since the tax increases by 25 % compared with the previous 

year. Similarly, taxpayers are confused in the situation when the cadastral value of immovable property decreases 

from 2010 but the amount of immovable property tax continues to increase. 

The analysed sample allows concluding that it was more efficient to regulate tax burden in Latvia through 

tax rates (from 2010) – reducing immovable property tax rates and calculating the amount of immovable pro- 

146


perty tax pursuant to the cadastral values. It would facilitate work for tax administration and tax calculation 

would be more understandable for taxpayers. Thus, the basic principle for the imposition of taxes – simple 

administration – would be observed thanks to these changes and simultaneously ensuring the response to 

economic changes in the country consistent with the basic principle for the imposition of taxes (flexibility). 

2.2. Impact of tax structure on the amount of tax 

The administration of immovable property tax has revealed material shortcomings in the legal and regulatory 

enactments of Latvia regulating the registration of immovable property data in the Immovable Property 

State Cadastre Information System and the Land Register. Hence, persons having the joint ownership 

on immovable property, which includes both residential premises and premises used for economic activity 

but having only residential premises under the use, are forced to pay disproportionately large immovable 

property tax due to these shortcomings. 

At present, Section 44 of the National Real Estate Cadastre Law does not prescribe registering the information 

on the procedure for use of immovable property, which is determined pursuant to the civil agreement 

of joint owners (Nekustamā īpašuma valsts kadastra likums, 2011). On the contrary, the procedure for use 

registered in the Land Register is not related with the structure of immovable property registered in the Cadastre 

Register – groups of premises, as it is not stipulated by the regulatory enactments. Hence, it is impossible 

to identify properly premises used by each joint owner (Zemesgrāmatu likums, 2011). 

Therefore, municipalities presently have no access to the data necessary for the tax calculations to calculate 

taxes consistent with the procedure registered in the Land Register. 

At present, different immovable property tax rates are determined in Latvia for residential buildings (0.2– 

0.6 %) and buildings and their parts used for economic activity (1.5 %). Thereby, applying the mentioned 

rates of the regulatory enactments in cases when a building simultaneously has residential premises and premises 

used for economic activity leads to the situation when joint owners, who use only residential premises 

proportionally ideal units of property they have ownership rights on, are forced to pay tax for both the owned 

unit of residential premises and unit of premises used for economic activity for which, as already mentioned, 

owners have to pay an increased tax rate. The immovable property tax calculated in the aforementioned way 

is considerably higher for the joint owner who has ownership rights for use only to residential premises than 

in case the building is split into apartment properties consistent with the procedure stipulated by the law “On 

Apartment Property” when each owner has individual ownership rights on apartment property (Dzīvokļa 

īpašuma likums, 2011). 

To have an idea on the difference in the amount of immovable property tax, the authors will analyse a 

sample for the calculation of immovable property tax (Table 3) for an immovable property with the area of 

1451 m 2 located on Krišjāņa Barona iela 28/28a in Riga. The property consists of one 6-storeyed building on 

Krišjāņa Barona iela 28 and one 4-storeyed building on Krišjāņa Barona iela 28a. Pursuant to the data of the 

Cadastre Register, a natural entity possesses 1/36 undivided shares, while a legal entity possesses 2/36 dundivided 

shares of the immovable property with the area of 1451 m 2 located on Krišjāņa Barona iela 28/28A 

in Riga. However, pursuant to the procedure for use prescribed by the Land Register, the natural entity has 

in use an apartment in the 4-storeyed building on Krišjāņa Barona iela 28a, while the legal entity has in use 

shop premises in the 6-storeyed building on Krišjāņa Barona iela 28. Considering the fact that two buildings 

are located on the analysed land area and the building has both residential and non-residential (used for economic 

activity) premises, the tax is calculated proportionally to the possessed undivided shares of residential 

and non-residential premises. The calculation of immovable property tax ignores really possessed residential 

or non-residential area. According to the data of Table 3, the amount of immovable property tax for the owner 

possessing the apartment in this case equals LVL 145.44, while for the owner possessing shop premises – 

LVL 290.88. Yet, if the immovable property tax is calculated consistent with the procedure for use registered 

147



in the Land Register, the amount of immovable property tax for the owner possessing the apartment would 

be only LVL 37.87, which is LVL 107.57 or 65.8 % less. In contrast, the owner possessing shop premises 

should pay LVL 568.04, which is LVL 277.16 or 48.8 % more. 

Table 3. The calculation of immovable property tax consistent with the data registered in the Cadastre Register and 

the procedure for use registered in the Land Register 

Taxable item 

Tax calculation consistent 

with the data registered in the 

Cadastre Register 

Tax calculation consistent 

with the procedure for 

use registered in the Land 

Register 

Building on Krišjāņa Barona iela 28 (6-storeys) 

Residential area (tax rate 0.2 %) 

Non-residential area (tax rate 1.5 %) 

Building on Krišjāņa Barona iela 28a (4-storeys) 

Residential area (tax rate 0.2 %) 

Non-residential area (tax rate 1.5 %) 

Owner 

possesses an 

apartment 

LVL 6.69 

LVL 30.45 

Owner 

possesses 

shop premises 

LVL 13.38 

LVL 60.9 

Owner 

possesses an 

apartment 

– 

– 

Owner 

possesses shop 

premises 

– 

LVL 568.04 

LVL 14.63 LVL 29.26 LVL 37.87 – 

LVL 93.67 LVL 187.34 – 

– 

TOTAL Ls 145.44 Ls 290.88 Ls 37.87 Ls 568.04 



This allows concluding that the basic principle for tax imposition – uniformity and justice – is materially 

violated when calculating immovable property tax consistent with the possessed undivided shares (proportionally 

to behoving residential and non-residential premises) and ignoring the actual procedure for use of 

immovable property. For taxpayers who actually use only residential premises, the immovable property tax is 

calculated proportionally also to the undivided share behooving to non-residential premises, thus, significantly 

increasing the amount of immovable property tax (tax rate 1.5 %). In contrast, for taxpayers who actually use 

only non-residential premises, the amount of immovable property tax is considerably reduced, since the tax is 

calculated proportionally also to the undivided share behooving to residential premises (tax rate 0.2–0.6 %). 

It shall be noted that there are many such properties in Latvia, especially in Riga. Predominantly such 

joint properties are established in cases when a house owner has not actually separated his/her denationalised 

property but s/he has expropriated its undivided shares through the agreement of the procedure for use, thus, 

avoiding additional expenses necessary for separation of property into apartments. At present, many developers 

of new projects continue to follow this practice, thus, causing the mentioned problems for purchasers of 

undivided property shares in the future. 

The solution might be the recommendation to separate immovable property into apartment properties, 

which is the competence of owners themselves. However, most frequently the properties are not being separated 

due to the fact that property separation expenses shall be covered by the owners themselves and difficulties 

of joint owners to agree upon the separation of the joint property into apartments properties. 

To solve this problem on the state level, state and municipal institutions should be invited to start a discussion 

on the possible solutions and legal regulation with the aim to ensure municipalities with the necessary 

data allowing to apply the most fair procedure for tax calculation, i.e. to calculate tax consistent with 

the procedure for use registered in the Land Register. Certainly, it shall be taken into account that state and 

municipal institutions should perform a voluminous preparation work to ensure the appropriate registers with 

the necessary data and to modify software. This means that the procedure for property use registered in the 

Land Register shall be appropriately registered also in the Cadastre Register, from which the data on the pro- 

148


perty composition are used for the tax calculation. Therefore, one should take account of material additional 

resources and required time for the implementation of the possible changes. However, these difficulties may 

not be justified by the system when unfair and incomprehensible to taxpayers procedure for the calculation 

of immovable property tax should be maintained in Latvia due to non-existent mutual tieback between two 

institutions and information systems subjected to one ministry. 

2.3. Impact of the cadastral value on the tax amount 

In Latvia, the cadastral value is the base for immovable property tax. The cadastral value is the value 

of land and constructions, which is calculated consistent with internationally recognised, unified, and state 

approved criteria in the entire country, considering the place of property location, registered data on qualitative 

condition of property, type of use, encumbrances, and other criteria. Formulae for calculating the cadastral 

value are made so that the cadastral value of every property would be to the utmost close to its market value 

without an individual evaluation of each property (Viss par kadastrālo vērtību, 2012). 

Considering that the cadastral value is the base for immovable property tax leading to the tax calculation, 

it is very essentially to review ways how the State Land Service determines the cadastral values of properties, 

since it is impossible to establish a fair tax system without adequate and inter-comparable cadastral values. 

Cadastral valuation may not be based only on real estate market information on the cases of expropriation, 

as they are affected by many additional factors – investment of cash of unknown origin, availability of loans, 

speculative transactions etc. (Štucere, 2010:136). The present determination of cadastral value mainly 

applying the market price of individual sold objects in a region leads to the situation that the amount of cadastral 

value considerably increases in individual regions (Jūrmala), while it decreases in other regions. The 

practice of some highly developed countries to use the price of market transactions for the determination of 

cadastral value is not applicable in Latvia. This method is suited for closed economies, basically, in large 

countries, which have established stable society and real estate purchasers are mainly the state residents. 

Nevertheless, land lease or revenues gained from the use of immovable property are the classically recognised 

source of immovable property tax, the cadastral value in Latvia is never related with these revenues. 

Therefore, the value of immovable property in the future shall be determined by analysing revenues that 

might be gained from the lease of immovable property. This method for the determination of cadastral value 

would be fairer and it would characterise the real value of immovable property. At present, the property value 

depends on the place of location and the number of transactions in particular territory, thus, causing an artificial 

increase of cadastral value in the regions experiencing high demand for properties (Jūrmala, Mežaparks). 

The system of cadastral valuation should be revised in the future: land should be evaluated by expropriation 

and not lease transactions. The method of capitalisation might be applied for the cadastral evaluation of 

land. It analyses and determines the income, which the owner may gain from property lease or rent within a 

year. This approach is widespread in the Western countries (Sweden, Denmark), since these countries have 

strictly determined procedure for accounting of lease income (Štucere, 2010: 136). 

Latvia should address an issue on the establishment of mechanism for accrual of immovable property 

lease data. A single register could be one of the possibilities; the register could contain information on lease 

transactions performed by natural and legal entities. The cadastral value of buildings should be derived from 

the renovation costs and not the cadastral value of land. The method of costs could be applied for the cadastral 

evaluation of buildings simultaneously calculating the construction costs of buildings. At present, the 

Construction Information System is under the process of development in Latvia and it is envisaged to include 

information on construction costs into this system (Štucere, 2010: 136). 

Latvia should also address the issue of impact of physical condition and age of buildings on the cadastral 

value, since very many concrete examples show a considerable mutual discrepancy among cadastral values, 

149



i.e. adjacent buildings have similar cadastral values irrespective of the age and physical depreciation of 

buildings. 

Samples summarised in Table 4 outline that 5-storeyed residential buildings located in one zone differ by 

the years of construction and physical depreciation. However, cadastral values of one bedroom apartments 

located in these buildings and hence, the amount of immovable property tax differ only slightly. For example, 

the cadastral value of one bedroom apartment located in the building (built in 1962) on Brīvības gatve 367 

in Riga is LVL 9734. Though, the cadastral value of one bedroom apartment located in the building (built 

in 2006) on Brīvības gatve 386 in Riga is LVL 12392, which is only LVL 2658 or 27 % more. The cadastral 

value for apartments is determined irrespective of the fact that the State Land Service has fixed a depreciation 

of 35 % for the building constructed in 1962 and the building on Brīvības gatve 367 is built 44 years earlier 

than the building on Brīvības gatve 386. Yet, it should be mentioned that multi-storeyed buildings constructed 

earlier were inspected at the time when buildings were privatised and inventory or cadastral survey of 

apartments was done. The table shows that the building on Brīvības iela 386 in Riga is inspected in 2000. 

The inspection of physical condition of buildings shall be required by an owner and the owner has to pay the 

inspection price stated by the State Land Service. At present, the government of Latvia has not envisaged to 

cover expenses of mass inspection of buildings and updating of data. 

Table 4. The comparison of cadastral value and amount of immovable property tax for residential buildings in 2012 

Address of building 

Year of 

construction 

Latest 

inspection of 

building 

Cadastral value 

of one bedroom 

apartment, LVL 

Amount of 

immovable 

property tax, 

LVL 

Brīvības gatve 386, Riga 2006 2006 12392 24.78 – 

Brīvības gatve 367, Riga 1962 2000 9734 19.47 35% 



Depreciation 

of building 

The analysis of the calculated immovable property tax in 2012 (Table 4) outlines that the amount of immovable 

property tax (LVL 24.78) for one bedroom apartment in the building located on Brīvības gatve 386 

is only LVL Ls 5.31 more than the amount of immovable property tax (LVL 19.47) for one bedroom apartment 

in the building located on Brīvības gatve 367. The analysed sample allows concluding that it is almost 

impossible to ensure a fair tax calculation applying such cadastral values for the calculation of immovable 

property tax. Therefore, the process for determination of cadastral value in Latvia needs changes, as tax determination 

should be based on the principles of legal confidence and commensurability. 

In addition, the procedure for revaluation of immovable property and forecasting of changes in cadastral 

values on the beginning of the taxation period should be revised in Latvia. At present, there is a problem that 

the annual changes of the base of cadastral value force a payer of immovable property tax to consider also 

annual changes in cadastral values and taxes, thus, hindering planning of expenses in the medium term and 

causing a tension in the society. Similarly, the regulatory enactments do not prescribe the time and the society 

has no knowledge on the time when the cadastral values should correspond to the market situation; thus, allowing 

the way for interpretation on the compliance in different periods – on the moment of approval, or the 

beginning or end of the taxation period. On the conditions of downward market, the regulatory enactments 

prescribe to determine the base indicators of values on the moment when the base of values becomes efficient 

(to evaluate the price drop forecast one year ahead). Unfortunately, forecasts done one year ahead 

not always allow precise evaluation, thus, causing necessity to make corrections in the following year and 

causing dissatisfaction and incomprehension of the society, especially in case of increasing cadastral values. 

Here, the possible solution could be mass revaluation once in two years if the data describing the item have 

not changed and determining a fixed reporting date for the base of cadastral values (concrete situation on 

150


the real estate market) without forecasting of the real estate market on the beginning of the taxation period. 

Simultaneously, the necessity for forecasting in cases of extremely radical decline in the values of real estate 

market should be envisaged in Latvia. Therefore, the State Land Service would have the possibility to prepare 

a qualitative and extended report on the changes in the base of cadastral values and payers of immovable 

property tax will have certain stability in planning of tax payments. 

Conclusions 

1. The tax system of Latvia may be described as unstable due to its frequent and considerable changes and 

expressed direction towards employment taxes (52.9 % of the total tax revenues in 2011). The immovable 

property tax is included into capital taxes and its share equalled 2.8 % of total tax revenues in 2011. 

2. Lately, the set of items taxable with immovable property tax has been expanded in Latvia – taxation of 

residential buildings with immovable property tax has been started from 2010 and tax rates have been 

increased from 2011, thus, the largest immovable property tax revenues amounting to LVL 110.2 million 

were collected in Latvia. It is envisaged to ensure the rights to local governments to determine the 

immovable property tax rates from 2013 within the range of 0.2 %–3 % set by the central government. 

3. Since the real estate market activities and prices have rapidly declined from 2010 considerably affecting 

the cadastral values of properties, it would be more efficient to cancel the limitation set by the 

state for the tax increase and regulate tax burden through tax rates. It would facilitate work for tax 

administration and tax calculation would be more understandable to taxpayers. 

4. The state and municipal institutions should be invited to start a discussion on the possible solutions 

and legal regulation with the aim to ensure municipalities with the necessary data allowing to apply 

the most fair procedure for tax calculation, i.e. to calculate tax consistent with the procedure for use 

registered in the Land Register. It should be done on the state level. 

5. The system of cadastral valuation should be revised in Latvia: land should be evaluated by expropriation 

and not lease transactions. The method of costs could be applied for the cadastral evaluation of 

buildings simultaneously calculating the construction costs of buildings. The issue of mass inspection 

of buildings and updating of data should be addressed in Latvia. 

6. Mass revaluation of the cadastral value should be ensured in Latvia once in two years if the data 

describing the item have not changed and determining a fixed reporting date for the base of cadastral 

values. Therefore, the State Land Service would have the possibility to prepare a qualitative and extended 

report on the changes in the base of cadastral values and payers of immovable property tax will 

have certain stability in planning of tax payments. 

References 

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php?id=221382. 

Fridriksone, M. (2009). Kadastrālās vērtības ir ievērojami kritušās (Cadastral Values have Considerably Decreased). 

Dienas bizness, Saldo Nr. 13, gada augusts, p. 4–8. 

Ketners, K., Titova, S. (2009). Nodokļu politika Eiropas Savienības vidē (Tax Policy in the European Union Environment). 

Banku augstskola, Biznesa un finanšu pētniecības centrs, p. 127. 

Kopsavilkums par budžeta ieņēmumu daļas izpildi 2011.gada 12 mēnešos (Summary on the Performance of Budget 

Revenues in 2011). Available at: http://www.vid.gov.lv/dokumenti/noderigi/statistika/nodoklu%20ienemumi/kopsavilkums_ien_2011g.pdf. 

Kopsavilkums par budžeta ieņēmumu daļas izpildi 2010.gada 12 mēnešos (Summary on the Performance of Budget 

Revenues in 12 Months of 2010). Available at: http://www.vid.gov.lv/dokumenti/noderigi/statistika/nodoklu%20 

ienemumi/ien_12_2010.pdf. 

Likuma „Par nekustamā īpašuma nodokli” normu piemērošanas kārtība (Procedure for Applications of Norms Stipulated 

by the Law on Immovable Property Tax), MK noteikumi Nr.495. (2011). Available at: http://www.likumi.lv/ 

doc.php?id=138366. 

151



Likumprojekta „Grozījumi likumā „Par nekustamā īpašuma nodokli” sākotnējās ietekmes novērtējuma ziņojums (Report 

on Initial Impact Assessment of the draft Law “Amendments to the Law on Immovable Property Tax”). (2012). 

Available at: www.mk.gov.lv/doc/2005/FManot_150312_NIN_2013.303.doc. 

Makroekonomikas un budžeta apskats (Survey on Macroeconomics and Budget). (2011). LR Finanšu ministrija. Available 

at: http://fm.gov.lv/files/files/4C05BC220873001328083638827981.pdf. 

Nekustamā īpašuma valsts kadastra likums (Law on Immovable Property State Cadastre): LR likums. (2011). Available 

at: http://www.likumi.lv/doc.php?id=124247. 

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lv/doc.php?id=43913. 

Par tautsaimniecības attīstību un kopbudžeta izpildes gaitu (On Progress of Economic Development and Performance 

of Consolidated Budget). (2007). LR Finanšu ministrija. Available at: http://www.fm.gov.lv/files/files/2007_IV.pdf. 

Rīgas domes Nekustamā īpašuma nodokļa administrēšanas sistēmas dati (Data of the Immovable Property Tax Administration 

System of Riga City Council). 

Štucere, S. (2010). Samērīga nekustamā īpašuma nodokļa piemērošanas problēmas Latvijā (Problems for Application 

of Commensurate Immovable Property Tax in Latvia). RTU Zinātniskie raksti. Ekonomika un uzņēmējdarbība, 

Sērija 3, Sējums 20, p. 133–139. 

Viss par kadastrālo vērtību (Everything on Cadastral Value). (2012). Valsts Zemes dienests. Available at: http://kadastralavertiba.lv/vienkarsi-par-kadastralo-vertibu/. 

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LATVIJOS NEKILNOJAMOJO TURO MOKESČIŲ DYDŽIUI ĮTAKOS 

TURINČIŲ VEIKSNIŲ VERTINIMAS 


Latvijos žemės ūkio universitetas (Latvija) 

Santrauka 

Šiuo tyrimu siekta išanalizuoti Latvijos nekilnojamojo turto mokesčio ypatumus ir įvertinti veiksnius, 

kurie daro įtaką jų dydžiui, pagrindinius mokesčių skyrimo principus. Svarbu aptarti metodus, kuriais remdamasi 

Valstybinė žemės tarnyba nustato kadastrinę nekilnojamojo turto vertę, kuri yra nekilnojamojo turto 

mokesčio apskaičiavimo pagrindas. Būtina revizija, nes neįmanoma be tinkamų ir palyginamų kadastrinių 

verčių sukurti sąžiningos mokesčių sistemos. 

Ateityje žemė bus vertinama remiantis nuomos, o ne pirkimo sandoriais Latvijoje, tuo tarpu statinių kadastrinė 

vertė gali būti nustatoma panašiais metodais, kuriais nustatomos statinių statybos sąnaudos. Latvijoje 

būtina masinė statinių fizinės būklės inspekcija ir duomenų atnaujinimas. Valstybiniu lygmeniu siekiama 

nustatyti sąžiningą mokesčių skaičiavimo procedūrą (mokesčiai skaičiuojami remiantis nekilnojamojo turto 

panaudojimo procedūra Žemės registre), panaikinti vietinių savivaldybių nustatytus apribojimus nekilnojamojo 

turto mokesčio didėjimui, reguliuoti mokesčių naštą keičiant jų dydį. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: nekilnojamojo turto mokestis, mokesčio didėjimui ribojimai, nuosavybės 

struktūra, kadastrinė vertė. 

JEL klasifikacija: H29 

152


THE FEATURES OF MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS 

IN THE CONDITIONS OF ECONOMIC CRISIS 

Jeļena Šalkovska 1 


ABSTRACT 

The article contains the analysis of features of marketing communications of companies in the conditions of economic crisis, when, 

from one side, the financial capabilities of companies are limited, but, from the other side, this is also the period when the necessity 

of retaining the market share and changing the strategies of companies’ marketing communication increases. The article contains the 

analysis of the changes in consumers’ behaviour in the conditions of crisis. The results of interrogation of representatives of Latvian 

companies, conducted under the guidance of the author of the article in order to reveal the directions of changes in their marketing 

strategies in the conditions of crisis, are also analysed in the article. 

KEY WORDS: marketing communications, marketing communications strategy, integrated approach, crisis, consumers’ behaviour. 

JEL codes: M31. 

Introduction 

In the conditions of economic crisis the companies, operating in the market, need to continue to maintain 

interrelations with the consumers in order to reveal changes in their demands and their behaviour, as only 

based on information about these changes it is possible to develop company’s marketing communication 

strategy, corresponding to the changeable marketing environment. In the conditions of economic crisis not 

only economic factors of consumers’ behaviour, but also social, psychological and other factors are exposed 

to significant changes. Most of consumers start to follow a more rational behaviour stereotype that lead to 

making more efficient, from consumers’ point of view, purchases, i.e., the purchases that enable to maximize 

consumer’s benefit and to minimize his or her expenses that, as a result, lead to the increase of consumer value 

of purchases. In the condition of crisis consumers tend to minimize the risk, related to the decisions, taken 

about the purchase, i.e., informational role of marketing communications, as well as the role of credibility of 

the brand and the company increase. The strategy and content of marketing communications should correspond 

to the new conditions of consumers’ behavior. Nearly in all companies, operating in the market, both 

planned and forced changes in marketing communications strategy, related to economic crisis, take place. 

Research problem, novelty and relevance. The research problem is related to the determination 

of the features of marketing communications of companies in the conditions of economic crisis, when 

both consumers’ behaviour and the financial capabilities of most of companies change. In this situation 

the companies face difficulties in determining the directions of adjusting marketing communications to the 

changeable marketing environment. The novelty of this research is the determination of factual direction of 

marketing communications strategy of companies – the subjects of Latvian market as well as the analysis of 

1 

Jeļena Šalkovska – University of Latvia, Economics and Management Faculty (Latvia), M. oec., lecturer. Scientistic interests: 

marketing. 

E-mail: lenand@btv.lv, jelena.salkovska@lu.lv 

Tel.: +371 296 159 33. 

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THE FEATURES OF MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS IN THE CONDITIONS OF ECONOMIC CRISIS 

correspondence of these changes to the market situation, that is nowadays a very topical issue not only for 

the Latvian market, but also for the markets of other countries that to a greater or lesser extent experience 

economic problems. 

Research object: marketing communications of Latvian companies in the conditions of crisis. 

Research purpose: to analyse the features of marketing communications of Latvian companies in the 

conditions of crisis, to evaluate the correspondence of their strategy to marketing environment and to develop 

recommendations, aimed at the improvement of marketing communications in modern economic conditions. 

Research tasks: 

1. To analyse the changes in consumers’ behaviour in the conditions of crisis and to ground the necessity 

of changes in marketing communications strategy of companies; 

2. To analyse the necessary changes in marketing communications strategy in the conditions of crisis that 

would contribute to the maintenance of company’s market position; 

3. To ground the methodology and to interrogate marketing specialists of Latvian companies in order 

to reveal the directions of changes in their marketing communication strategies and to evaluate the 

correspondence of these changes to economic situation; 

4. To develop recommendations for companies, aimed at the improvement of marketing communications 

in modern economic conditions. 

Research methods: abstractive analysis of literature, interrogation. 

1. The Change of Consumers’ Behaviour in the Conditions of Crisis as the Most 

Important Factor of Improvement of Marketing Communications of Companies 

Nowadays economic situation is the factor that determines the development of marketing communications. 

However, the influence of the other factors of marketing communications remains significant. The 

following factors can be emphasized amongst them: the development of science and techniques, the development 

of new means of marketing communications, globalization processes. Overall marketing environment 

of companies today is unstable as the result of impact of various factors that impedes marketing communications 

management, as the consumer constantly corrects his or her behavior, adjusting it to the new conditions. 

In economic crisis situation the family budget of most of consumers decreases, but, at the same time, 

their requirements to the quality of goods and services and the content of marketing communications remain 

high; moreover, the consumers try to make even more efficient purchases. 

In the buying process consumer’s behaviour is always oriented on getting the maximum consumption 

value (Kaynama, Smith, 1994; Berger, Nasr, 1998; Bolton, 1998; Rust, Lemon, Zeithaml, 2004). This value 

is the difference between the consumption benefits and total consumption costs. 

Consumption benefits include (Vankatesen, Kumar, 2004): 

• y Product quality (technical characteristics, design, package etc.); 

• y Quality of service (guarantees, supply etc.); 

• y Brand value (placement in the market, prestige etc.); 

• y Company image in the society (reputation, guarantee of quality etc.). 

Total consumption costs include: 

• y Product purchase price; 

• y Service price; 

• y The time, spent for the purchase; 

• y Product supply costs; 

• y Other costs (moral, consumption risk etc.). 

154


Let us assume that a consumer, when choosing a product that he or she needs, compares the alternatives by 

quality, level of service, brand prestige and company reputation, that shows product recognition by the society. 

It relates to consumption benefits. However, at the same time the consumer evaluates also possible consumption 

costs, including the product price, supply costs, the time to be spent for search and evaluation of the product etc. 

and compares it to his or her budget. This process takes place both in consumption market and business market, 

taking into account the particularities of consumption benefits and total consumption costs of both markets. 

Each company can increase the consumption value, offered in the market, using the following methods: 

• y First, it can increase consumption benefits, that is, to improve the quality of goods and services, to 

enhance the brand value and/or company reputation, for example, by offering attractive marketing 

events in the target market; 

• y Second, it can reduce total consumption costs, that is, to offer discounts, free supply, to develop and 

realize the methods of saving consumers’ time (Praude, Shalkovska, 2009). 

The model of influence of consumers’ behaviour to marketing communications strategy of companies is 

shown in Figure 1: 

Figure 1. The Model of Influence of Consumers’ Behaviour to Marketing Communications Strategy of Companies 

Source: author. 

In the conditions of crisis the following changes of consumers’ behavior take place: 

1. Tendency to save the family budget even in case the level of incomes of the family members remained 

the same; 

2. The decrease of quantity of the purchased goods and services that influences the aggregated demand 

in the market; 

3. The decrease of frequency of purchase of durable goods and services; 

4. Changes in the structure of households’ consumption; 

5. The decrease of value of each purchase; 

6. More grounded choice of goods and services, i.e., the reduction of the number of impulsive; 

155



7. Purchases and the increase of depth and length of collection of preliminary information on the available 

alternatives of the goods and services; 

8. Changes in the choice of mass media that serve as means of marketing communications, for example, 

the refuse to purchase some prints and a more frequent use of Internet as a source of information. 

Economic crisis is the factor that determines financial capabilities of companies and the ones of the 

households; consequently, as the result of crisis, changes will occur both in consumers’ behaviour and in 

competitors’ marketing strategy. In order to develop marketing communications strategy, the company needs 

to make appropriate marketing researches that would enable to make an optimal choice of the means of distribution 

of marketing communications as well as to determine their frequency, budget and content. 

In the conditions of crisis the consumers prefer marketing communications that help them to make an 

efficient choice of a good or service, i.e., provide sufficient information on consumption value. Therefore the 

companies should change their marketing communications strategy, putting accent on the consumption benefits 

that are important for the consumer in the conditions of crisis that would enable to maintain and even to 

enhance the efficiency of marketing communications. The possibility to enhance the efficiency of marketing 

communications is explained by the fact that the total intensity of marketing communications declines, i.e., the 

consumers have a less frequent contact with advertisements and other types of marketing communications. In 

these conditions any marketing message has a higher probability of feedback. The main directions of improvement 

of companies’ marketing communications in the conditions of crisis will be considered below. 

2. The Directions of Improvement of Marketing Communications of Companies 

in the Conditions of Crisis 

In the conditions of crisis, in spite of limited financial capabilities, the companies should not only to 

continue to realize communications with the consumers, but also to provide the correspondence of marketing 

communications to the changes in consumers’ behaviour. Therefore the improvement of market communications 

in the conditions of crisis should meet the following two requirements: 

1. Optimality and effective spending of marketing communications budget; 

2. Correspondence of the content, frequency and the means of distribution of marketing communications 

to the new model of consumers’ behaviour in the conditions of crisis. 

In scope of these requirements the following directions of improvement of marketing communications of 

companies in the conditions of crisis could be recommended: 

• y The use of integrated approach to marketing communications (Burnett, 2001; Smith, 2004; Belch, 

Belch, 2007; Shalkovska, 2008); 

• y The use of the major and auxiliary means of marketing communications in order to cover different 

consumers’ segments and to minimize expenses as well as the replacement of the main means with 

cheaper auxiliary means; 

• y Activation of the use of Internet as a means of distribution of marketing communications (Hanson, 

2000; Hanson, Kalyanam 2007); 

• y Calculation of the minimal efficient frequency of contact with the target audience; 

• y Emphasizing of cost effectiveness, efficiency and other consumption benefits in the contents of marketing 


Integrated marketing communications can be defined as the use of all kinds of marketing communications, 

coordinating and adjusting them with the other marketing (marketing mix activities) and participants 

of the market (Praude, Shalkovska, 2005: 44). Integrated approach to marketing communications can 

be used in order to achieve synergy effect (Ansoff, 1987: 18–72; Novikov, Ribchenko, 2006; Arshinov, 

Budanov, 2007: 84) from the combination of different types of marketing communications, from carrying 

156


out mutual marketing campaigns, from the combination of different means of distribution of marketing communications, 

that would enable to enhance the total final effect of marketing communications and to reduce 

marketing communications budget per one consumer. 

In the process of development and distribution of marketing communications usually 1–2 major means that 

about one-half of the total budget is spent for are used, as well as a number of auxiliary means, the number of 

which depend on the coverage of the target audience and the total budget, are applied (Praude, Shalkovska, 

2010). The major means of marketing communications can independently and efficiently achieve the objectives 

of communications and the desired consumers’ behaviour. The auxiliary means of marketing communications 

supplement the major means to enhance the efficiency of communications (Praude, Shalkovska, 2006: 258). In 

the conditions of crisis it makes sense to put accent on primary use of auxiliary marketing communications, as 

they enable to save marketing communications budget. However, the analysis of possibility to replace the major 

means with auxiliary means is mandatory. For example, such replacement will be efficient if a considerable part 

of the target audience are Internet users (not obligatory active ones), in this case Internet could be well used as 

an auxiliary means of distribution of communications. The use of auxiliary means is especially efficient in the 

beginning and in the end of marketing communications campaign before and after the use of major means of 

distribution of communications (Pelsmacker, Geuens, Bergh, 2007: 73–92). 

One more direction of improvement of marketing communications in the conditions of crisis is related to 

the use of minimal efficient frequency of contact with the target audience. The efficient frequency of marketing 

communications can be defined as a sufficient number of marketing communication messages to inform 

each member of the target audience and to cause a feedback (Praude, Shalkovska, 2006: 286). To determine 

the efficient frequency of marketing communications one should calculate the minimal and maximal necessary 

frequency. It makes sense to determine the minimal necessary frequency as not all representatives of the 

target audience will see the first message at once. It is possible that the first marketing communication message 

they see will be actually the fourth one. The importance of maximal efficient frequency is as follows: if a 

certain frequency of contacts is exceeded, their efficiency will not only stop exceeding, it will even cause an 

opposite action. As the result, marketing communications budget is exceeded, but the efficiency of marketing 

communications declines that is unacceptable in the conditions of crisis. 

Activation of the use of Internet as a means of distribution of marketing communications is fully grounded 

in the conditions of crisis as it enables to reduce marketing communications budget. Marketing communications 

in Internet have the following advantages: 

• y Unlimited working time (they are available 24 hours a day 7 days a week). 

• y It is possible to provide extended information on the product as well as to demonstrate the product’s 

appearance at the same time. 

• y Easy and fast to replace, it is also possible to have an automated replacement (for example, one banner 

in the morning and the other one in the evening). 

• y It enables to reach the target audience that do not use other medias – young people. 

• y It is possible to aim at some certain target audience (for example, by placing an advertisement in some parts 

of a homepage, or to show to the registered users only the advertisements that correspond to their interests). 

• y Appropriate for advertising of trademarks of internationally spread goods. 

• y Enables to implement widely new communications, messages, ideas, games etc. 

• y Is suitable for companies’ market as it reaches the managers in the middle of the day, when they take 

decisions, related to the purchase of necessary goods. 

• y Advertisers can follow the marketing campaign on-line and make changes in case of necessity (Praude, 

Shalkovska, 2006: 222). 

The choice of the specific directions of changes in marketing communications strategy of a company in 

the conditions of crisis depend on the following factors: 

1) The intensity and efficiency of company’s marketing communications in pre-crisis period, as the final 

effect of marketing communications can appear with a delay; 

157



2) Elasticity of demand for the good, as the demand for prime necessity goods in the conditions of crisis 

practically remains the same, only the structure of consumption of these goods changes; 

3) The correspondence of the elements of company’s marketing mix to each other, as in the conditions of 

crisis any discrepancies of these elements can appear very fast while being passive in pre-crisis period. 

The consumers change their behaviour in the conditions of crisis, reacting to the conformities and 

discrepancies of marketing mix elements as they tend to a more efficient choice of goods and services. 

The elements of marketing mix, corresponding to crisis situation, should be accented in the content of 

marketing communications. 

Further the author of the article will ground the methodology and analyse the results of interrogation of 

marketing specialists of Latvian companies in order to reveal the directions of changes in their marketing 

communications strategies ant to evaluate the correspondence of these changes to economic situation. 

3. Research methodology 

In March–April 2011 an interrogation of marketing specialists of Latvian companies was carried out under the 

guidance of the author in order to reveal the directions of changes in their marketing communications strategies ant 

to evaluate the correspondence of these changes to economic situation. To make a selection, the quota method was 

used. The quotation was carried out on the base of company’s size, location and sphere of activity. Interrogation 

was carried out both in big and small companies in 6 Latvian cities: Riga, Jelgava, Liepaja, Ventspils, Valmiera and 

Daugavpils. The selection scope included 426 companies, functioning in Latvian market. Based on the methodology 

of Elizabeth Noel, with probability 0.954 we can affirm that the selection is representative. The dependence of 

selection scope on the general multitude, based on Noel’s methodology, is shown in Table 1: 

Table 1. Dependence of Selection Scope on the General Multitude 

Volume of general multitude 

500 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 10000 100000 

8 

Selection scope 222 286 333 350 360 370 385 398 400 

Source: Noel, 1993: 94. 

As we can see in the table, a selection scope of 222 respondents is sufficient for the general multitude of 

500 units etc. If we have an endless general multitude then a selection scope of 400 respondents would be 

sufficient. Therefore we can conclude that after the volume of general multitude achieves a certain level, its 

further increase does not have any significant impact on the increase of the selection scope. 

4. The Results of Research of Latvian Companies on the Directions of Changes in 

their Marketing Communication Strategies in the Conditions of Crisis 

Nearly all interrogated marketing specialists (95 %) mentioned that the behavior of the consumers of 

their target audience had changed: 54 % of consumers absolutely changed their behaviour and habits while 

27 % of consumers changed their behaviour significantly. Marketing specialists explain it with the changes 

in consumers’ incomes and their thinking stereotypes. Due to such significant changes in behaviour of the 

target audience the companies need to make extended researches of the new demands of the consumers, their 

preferences and other consumers’ characteristics, however, limited financial resources of the companies do 

not enable to create an appropriate information basis. 

158


Due to limited financial capabilities 84 % of Latvian companies cut their marketing communications 

budget in connection with economic crisis: 19 % of companies cut their budget by 75 % and more, 25 % 

of companies cut their budget by 30–40 % and 40 % of companies cut their budget by 50 % and more. We 

can conclude that most of Latvian companies in the conditions of crisis are forced to cut their expenses on 

the account of marketing communications, however, in real life it is realized simply by cutting marketing 

communications budget while the major approach remains the same, not by enhancing the efficiency of the 

reduced communications budget that would be more expedient. 

A comparative evaluation of the frequency of use of different types of marketing communications by 

Latvian companies before economic crisis and in economic crisis situation is shown in Table 2. 

Table 2. Comparative Evaluation of the Frequency of Use of Different Types of Marketing Communications by Latvian 

Companies before Economic Crisis and in Economic Crisis Situation 

Types of marketing 

communications 

Frequency of use of marketing 

communications before economic 

crisis 

Frequency of use of marketing 

communications in economic crisis 

situation 

Very 

often 

Rather 

often 

From 

time to 

time 

Rather 

seldom 

Never 

Very 

often 

Rather 

often 

From 

time to 

time 

Rather 

seldom 

Never 

Advertisement 5 % 74 % 21 % 39 % 57 % 4 % 

Sales stimulation methods 18 % 20 % 50 % 12 % 16 % 49 % 27 % 8 % 

Public relations 22 % 19 % 11 % 25 % 23 % 9 % 18 % 13 % 29 % 31 % 

Direct communications 29 % 23 % 18 % 12 % 18 % 45 % 24 % 19 % 12 % 

As we can see in Table 2, in economic crisis situation the frequency of use of advertisement considerably 

decreased (before crisis 79 % of companies often used advertisements, but at the time of crisis 61 % of companies 

started to use advertisement seldom or even never); the frequency of use of public relations as a type 

of marketing communications also decreased (instead of 41 % of companies that often used public relations 

before, now only 27 % of companies use public relations often). The growth of the frequency of use in the conditions 

of crisis is typical for such types of marketing communications as sales stimulation methods (instead of 

38 % of companies that often used sales stimulation methods before, nowadays 65 % of companies often use sales 

stimulation methods) and direct communications (instead of 52 % of companies that often used direct communications 

earlier, nowadays 69 % of companies often use direct communications). Such dynamics of change 

in frequency of use of different types of marketing communications is explained with the fact that companies 

choose less expensive types of communications. The accent on sales stimulation methods is connected with 

the features of consumers’ behavior in the conditions of crisis as they started to react even more to discounts 

and other sales stimulation methods. Such dynamics conforms to the present economic situation in the country. 

Amongst the means of distribution of marketing communications the following ones are the most popular 

in the conditions of crisis: 

1. Internet – 69 % of companies (before crisis 45 % of companies preferred this means of distribution of 

marketing communications). 

2. Outdoor advertisement – 56 % of companies (before crisis 39 % of companies preferred this means of 

distribution of marketing communications). 

3. Newspapers – 41 % of companies (before crisis 37 % of companies preferred this means of distribution 

of marketing communications). 

159



4. Radio – 37 % of companies (before crisis 32 % of companies preferred this means of distribution of 


5. TV – 18 % of companies (before crisis 34 % of companies preferred this means of distribution of 


Most frequent use of Internet, outdoor advertisement and newspapers is explained with the tendency of 

companies to save marketing communications budget. 24 % of companies noted that in the conditions of 

crisis they could even abandon marketing communications at all. Based on the results of interrogation, the 

rating of criteria of choice of the means of marketing communications by Latvian companies in the conditions 

of crisis has been made: 

1. Minimal total distribution costs – 7.8 scores from 10 possible. 

2. Maximal coverage of target audience – 6.9 scores from 10 possible. 

3. Minimal distribution costs per one covered potential buyer – 6.2 scores from 10 possible. 

From the point of view of the author of the article, even in the conditions of crisis the criterion “minimal 

distribution costs per one covered potential buyer” should be the most significant one, as this is the case when 

the most efficient expenditure of marketing communications budget is provided. 

In the opinion of the interrogated marketing specialists of Latvian companies, there are the following options 

to save marketing communications budget while keeping the efficiency of marketing communications 

in the conditions of economic crisis: 

1. To combine different means of marketing communications – 37 % of companies. 

2. To cooperate with manufacturers and sellers by carrying out joint mutually beneficial marketing campaigns 

– 19 % of companies. 

3. To cooperate with the competitors by carrying out joint mutually beneficial marketing campaigns – 

17 % of companies. 

4. To combine different types of marketing communications – 15 % of companies. 

5. It is impossible – 12 % of companies. 

Negative fact is that 12 % of all companies underestimate opportunities to enhance the efficiency of marketing 

communications by realizing integrated approach and 15 % of companies underestimate the opportunities to 

enhance the efficiency of marketing communications by combining different types of marketing communications. 

One more factor that has a negative impact on the efficiency of marketing communications is the reduction 

of frequency of pursuance of marketing researches by Latvian companies in the conditions of crisis: 

1. Once in a 2-year period – 29 % of companies (before economic crisis – 19 % of companies). 

2. Once a year – 53 % of companies (before economic crisis – 48 % of companies). 

3. 2–3 times a year – 8 % of companies (before economic crisis – 33 % of companies). 

4. Do not conduct marketing researches at all – 10 % of companies (there were no such companies before 

economic crisis). 

The feature of crisis situation is the contradiction: from one side, marketing researches are necessary as 

consumers’ behavior changed and the companies need to investigate it, but from the other side, the companies 

lack financial resources to conduct researches. It impedes the development of companies’ marketing 

communications strategy. 

The forced overall reduction of marketing activity is also a negative factor for the development of companies. 

For example, the interrogated marketing specialists of Latvian companies think that: 

1. Marketing activities considerably decreased in economic crisis situation – 61 %. 

2. Marketing activities remained on the same level in economic crisis situation – 34 %. 

3. The use of marketing measures became even more important for the development o 

4. Companies in economic crisis situation and, therefore, marketing activities increased – 5 %. 

160


In the conditions of overall decrease of marketing activity of the most of companies the intensity of 

marketing communications also declines, but marketing communications strategy becomes not sufficiently 

grounded due to the absence of necessary information basis and limited marketing communications budget. 

Therefore nowadays the existing environment is negative for the development of marketing communications 

of Latvian companies, however, the companies that are trying to maintain their position in the market, cannot 

achieve it without marketing communications with the consumers. 

Conclusions 

As the result of the conducted research, the following conclusions have been made: 

1. Nowadays economic situation is the factor that determines the development of marketing communications. 

In the conditions of economic crisis the consumers try to make more efficient purchases by trying to increase 

consumption benefits and to minimize the expenses on consumption of goods and services. 

2. In the conditions of crisis the consumers reduce the quantity of purchased goods and services, reduce the 

frequency of consumption of durable goods and services, change the structure of households’ consumption, 

reduce the value of each purchase as well as make a more grounded choice of goods and services. 

3. In the conditions of crisis the consumers prefer marketing communications that help to make an efficient 

choice of a good or service, i.e., provide sufficient information on consumption value. 

4. Nearly all Latvian companies note considerable changes in the behaviour of the consumers of their 

target audience and acknowledge the importance of conducting marketing researches of the new demands 

of the consumers; however, they are forced to reduce the intensity of their marketing activity 

due to limited financial resources. 

5. 84% of Latvian companies cut their marketing communications budget by considerably reducing their 

expenses on advertisements and public relations and preferring such means of distribution of marketing 

communications as Internet and outdoor advertisement. 

6. Latvian companies use minimization of total expenses on distribution of marketing communications as 

the main criterion of choice of the means of marketing communications in the conditions of crisis instead 

the more efficient criterion – minimization of distribution expenses per one potential consumer. 

7. Latvian companies underestimate opportunities to use integrated approach to marketing communications 

as the means to enhance their efficiency and to reduce expenses per one covered representative 

of the target audience. 

8. The choice of the specific direction of changes in company’s marketing communications strategy in 

the conditions of crisis depends on the intensity and efficiency of company’s marketing communications 

in pre-crisis period, on the elasticity of demand for the good and on the correspondence of 

company’s marketing mix elements to each other. 

Therefore, nowadays the companies need to put accent on the use of integrated approach to marketing 

communications, on activation of the use of auxiliary marketing communications, on activation on the use 

of Internet as a means of distribution of marketing communications and on determination of minimal efficient 

frequency of contact with the target audience when planning marketing communications. The companies 

need to change their marketing communications strategy, emphasizing the consumption benefits that 

are significant for the consumer in the conditions of crisis. These directions of improvement of marketing 

communications in the conditions of crisis will enable the company to keep its position in the market and to 

continue its development. 

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Strategy. Journal of Marketing, Vol. 68, p. 106–125. 

RINKODAROS komunikacijos ekonominėS 

krizėS LAIKOTARPIU bruožai 



Santrauka 

Straipsnyje analizuojami organizacijų, veikiančių ekonominės krizės sąlygomis, rinkodaros komunikacijos 

bruožai, kai, viena vertus, finansiniai organizacijos pajėgumai yra apriboti, kita vertus, šiuo laikotarpiu 

padidėja poreikis išlaikyti turimą rinkos dalį ir keisti organizacijos rinkodaros komunikacijos strategiją. 

Straipsnyje pateikiama vartotojų elgsenos ekonominės krizės laikotarpiu pokyčių analizė. Pateikiami autoriaus 

vykdytos Latvijos organizacijų atstovų apklausos rezultatai, kuriais siekiama parodyti šių bendrovių 

rinkodaros strategijų pokyčių kryptis esant ekonominei krizei. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: rinkodaros komunikacija, rinkodaros komunikacijos strategija, integruota 

prieiga, krizė, vartotojų elgsena. 

JEL klasifikacija: M31. 

162


INTENSIFICATON OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT 

SYSTEM WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF ADULT LEARNING 

FOR EFFECTIVE REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT 

Inessa Vorontchuk 1 , Irina Lando 2 


ABSTRACT 

The article analyzes the possibilities of use of innovative methods of instruction for adult learning in the regions with the purpose 

to intensify the knowledge management system and ensure the principle of equal opportunity for the inhabitants of the regions. The 

data were acquired in the course of implementation of the national programme Support for Vocational Education with the Aim to Develop 

Professional Skills and Competences of People Involved in Agriculture and Forestry within the project Vocational Education 

2005–2006. The project was being implemented in the time period from 2006 to 2008 inclusive. In the course of project implementation, 

trainings in 21 regions of the Republic of Latvia had been carried out. All in all, 2,562 people in 119 groups had been trained. 

KEY WORDS: adult learning, knowledge management, regional development. 

JEL codes: H250, O110. 

Introduction 

The modern knowledge-based economy established the human capital as the key factor for the successful 

development and increased competitiveness not only for the organizations, but also for countries. For example, 

the Latvia’s Sustainable Development Strategy 2030 states that “Our main capital is people – their skills, 

knowledge and talents”. Development of adults through training can reduce the gaps in knowledge distribution 

and speed of knowledge delivery between regions and cities. 

Development of regions is one of the key priorities of the republic of Latvia. Thus, development of human 

capital in regions requires introduction of innovative training approaches targeted at processing newly 

acquired knowledge. 

During the past decades, considerable changes occurred in the sphere of the adult training. These changes 

are mostly caused by a few new tendencies: globalization, migration, creation of the common European 

labour market, consequences of the global economic crisis, ageing of the nations in Europe. During an informal 

meeting among the heads of the EU member states in Hampton Court (UK) in October 2005 it has 

been noted that ageing of the nations has become one of the major problems that should be resolved in the 

nearest future. The negative demographic tendencies related to ageing of population and, consequently, to 

the labour market, will inevitably affect quality of workers and will require more robust trainings aimed at 

1 

Inessa Vorontchuk – Prof. dr. oec., University of Latvia, Faculty of Economics and Management. Scientific interest: public administration. 

E-mail: Inessa.Vorontchuk@lu.lv 

Tel.: +371 670 347 40. 

2 

Irina Lando – the University of Latvia, Faculty of Economics and Management. The applicant for scientific degree. Scientific 

interest: Innovative training methods for personnel, speed reading. 

E-mail: info@lando.lv 

Tel.: +371 294 335 53. 

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INTENSIFICATON OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF ADULT LEARNING FOR EFFECTIVE REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT 

improvement of the professional abilities and skills, as well as professional qualifications which are widely 

available in the cities, but not the regions. 

As a result, new approaches and tendencies are required for educational activities conducted in the regions. 

These new approaches should be focused on improvement of professional qualifications in line with the 

concept of lifelong learning. 

The EU member states have established state policies identifying knowledge as a basis of development 

in the society and highlighting importance of the concept of lifelong learning. The lifelong learning concept 

reflects the potential and key tasks of the informal training approaches. These are the informal training approaches 

that actively use new forms and methods of training. Mostly, these are numerous methods of active 

trainings. 

The object of the research is training and development of adults in the regions. 

The paper aims to determine and evaluate the possibilities of intensification of the knowledge management 

system using adult training in Latvia for regional development. 

The objectives set for the research are: 

• y To investigate characteristic features of the knowledge management system in the regions; 

• y To investigate the possibilities for intensification of knowledge management through training and 

development of adults. 

The research methods applied are: scientific literature analysis, an experiment carried out with the aim 

to provide trainings to adults in the regions, the data collected in the course of training that were then statistically 

processed. 

After trainings in each group, the trainees filled out questionnaires to evaluate the results obtained in 

the course of such instruction as well as to express their points of view on the organization of said trainings 

and the topicality of the themes covered and also assessed the possibility to apply the acquired knowledge 

in practice. The obtained data were then collected and analyzed after which the comparison of the results 

of trainings across regions was conducted, and, finally, common features were revealed and differences determined. 

In this article, the results are given in abridged form, since special features of development of 21 

regions are of interest only to the domestic market taking into account the small area of Latvia. In this article, 

the authors present the general results which may be of interest to the wider public and can be used for the 

assessment of regional development. 

1. Research Topicality 

In the European Union, increasingly more attention is given to regional development. From the point of 

view of the authors, it is necessary to pay more attention to the specific nature of regional development in 

each individual country taking into account cultural and national peculiarities. For instance, people living in 

the old EU countries would find it difficult to imagine that in the new member states of the European Union 

there are regions in which the Internet is not available, that there are regions in which people do not have 

rudimentary knowledge of how to learn, search for and work with information. In fact, information becomes 

knowledge only after it has been processed by a person. 

Growth and emergence of new technologies requires steady development of new competences in people, 

since any strategic development which assigns an independent part even to the most contemporary technologies 

will be doomed to failure if labour potential development is not taken into consideration (Lundvall and 

Tomlinson, 2001). 

In this day and age, it is worth considering not only human capital, but also social capital as an integral 

part thereof (Corredoira and Rosenkopf, 2010), since an important part of knowledge exists in the connections 

between people (Blackler, 1995). 

Flexible thinking, the rate of adaptation to new conditions and flexibility, i.e. skills which can help with 

the transfer of knowledge from one context to another, become even more popular (Argote and Ingram, 

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2000). In the regions, people are known to hold quite conservative points of view, and the degree to which 

people are prepared to change limits the introduction of innovations and changes (Fisher and Torbert, 2000). 

Today, people must learn faster than the environment changes and should constantly search for new fields of 

study (Joy-Matthews and others, 2004). 

People must know how to be oriented in the information flow and introduce innovative changes into 

behavior facilitating steady spread of knowledge. The question of increase in the capacity of acquisition of 

new knowledge becomes topical (Uhlaner and others, 2007). 

2. Description of the issue 

As noted in the EU 2020 – the Lisbon Council report, it is necessary to define skills that adults should 

possess to increase their competitiveness. The core skills are those that can be demanded for a long period of 

time and abilities of analytical thinking, not the routine work skills (Hofheinz, 2009). 

The European Commission has been actively involved in the development of the Smart Growth concept 

in order to increase employees’ motivation towards acquiring new skills and improvement of professional 

abilities. The European Commission has also been developing the Inclusive Growth strategy aimed to increase 

the number of efficient and trained employees that will ensure economic, social and territorial development 

and growth. 

In Latvia, the program of training of adult people with objective of increase in the competitiveness of 

adult people in regions has been completed in 2006–2008. The program was developed and put into practice 

within the scope of the “Vocational Education 2005–2006” project. In total, over 2,562 people in 119 groups 

in 21 regions of Latvia have been trained within the scope of this program. 

All project materials gave been recorded and made available to government bodies and the bodies of the 

European Union within the Lifelong Learning program. 

3. Novelty 

During implementation of this project, the approach was used for the first time which, instead of conforming 

to the project regulations, attempted to make this project actually useful for those who complete 

training. In this case, trainers were selected with great care and considerable attention was paid to preparation 

of materials. 

Such approach allowed building a good reputation of the facilitator and, as a result, at the end of project 

implementation strong relationships with the regions were established. 

The European Union implements excellent initiatives in the sphere of regional development. But at places 

these initiatives are often given a cautious welcome. The basic obstacles are alerted attitude to external 

trainers, lack of skills necessary for learning, incomprehension of the need to learn and develop, and inability 

to apply the acquired skills in practice. 

In the course of implementation of this project, the attempts to eliminate these non-conformities and obstacles 

by means of intensification of the knowledge management system were undertaken. 

4. Results 

For implementation of the national programme Support for Vocational Education with the Aim to Develop 

Professional Skills and Competences of People Involved in Agriculture and Forestry, the project Vocational 

Education 2005–2006 was implemented. In the course of project implementation, the availability 

of on-site trainings and uniform distribution of the training programmes on the territory of the Republic of 

Latvia was a must in order to ensure the principle of equal opportunities for people from different regions, 

which facilitated the reduction in the differences in information accessibility for people from the regions in 

comparison with people from the cities. For implementation of the project, groups were formed on a vo- 

165



luntary basis in 21 regions of Latvia. Groups were formed under the principle of openness and accessibility 

to all comers. For this purpose, the opportunity to pass free education was advertised in local newspapers, 

on the Internet portals and in rural service centres. At the initial stage of project implementation one of the 

authors of this article – Irina Lando – personally organized and conducted trainings on Project Management, 

Company Management, and Contemporary Ways of Working with Information. In the course of instruction 

of first groups, corrections were made to the processes of instruction. 

In the course of project implementation training modules were used for the instruction of adults. After 

trainings in each group, questionnaire of all the adults who completed training was conducted as well as a 

random sample of people who participated in trainings were surveyed. 

It is important to note that during implementation of the project there was a prerequisite that in each group 

the quantity of women who completed training would be not less than 50 %. Since the project was co-financed 

by the EU funds, the principle of equal opportunity for the least protected population strata was thus ensured. 

In trainings conducted in the regions insufficiently qualified trainers are quite often involved. Therefore, 

people in the regions do not trust trainings conducted by external trainers. In the course of project implementation, 

considerable attention was paid to the qualification of trainers and preparation of handouts so that the 

skills acquired in the course of training could be reinforced and repeated after the end of training (see Table 1). 

The majority of the trainees assessed the quality of training as high (see Figure 1). It made organizing 

further on-site training possible. Since people in the regions unwillingly attend even free trainings, maintaining 

a reputation which guarantees the quality of training is essential to make implementation of long-term 

projects in the regions possible. 

As a rule, people living in the regions quite often make a decision to start learning based on the opinions 

and recommendations of their acquaintances or neighbours. 

Table 1. Project Assessment “Vocational education 2005–2006” 

Assessment Criteria 

Number of trainees answered 

“good” or “very good” 

% out of the total number of 

trainees 

Overall training assessment 2 353 92 

Facilitator’s assessment 

Ability to explain complex concepts / tasks 2 341 91 

Use of practical examples 2 117 85 

Work with trainees 2 098 82 

Training Materials 

Content 2 128 83 

Quality of Handouts 2 094 82 

Practical Use of Handouts 2 345 92 

Learning Environment 2 315 90 

Key “A-Ha!” Moments 

New knowledge and skills 2 472 97 

Training materials can be used for self-study 1 896 74 

Source: authors research, 2008, n = 2562 

For implementation of the Bologna process, the quality of teaching must ensure interest in the process 

of learning. In this context, the trainer must not only act as an expert, but should also know how to flexibly 

react to the need of the audience. 

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Figure 1. Overall Training Assessment 


One and the same theme had to be explained differently in different regions using the examples which 

corresponded to the local specifics. Judging by the opinions, this principle was successfully applied (see 

Figure 2). 

Figure 2. Facilitator’s Assessment 


The most complicated in this context is adhering to the programme described in the project. The project 

has a clear structure and the trainer must follow it; at the same time, people in the regions are simple and 

open-hearted and if they find a theme unnecessary, they will simply not learn it. 

The project strictly regulated the requirements for the handouts, the design and information content thereof. 

It was important for the trainees in the regions that after trainings they could keep the materials using 

which they can repeat the material covered during their training. Material preparation involved solving a 

number of tasks which seemed mutually excluding. On the one hand, all the materials had to be brief and 

informative, and, on the other hand, people in the regions often do not have the faintest idea of the disciplines 

which others may find elementary. To ensure that the entire group could use identical terminology and 

employ the same definitions, it was necessary to prepare additional materials that were not paid for by the 

project. 

At the places where trainings were conducted, trainees often complained about rather formal approach to 

teaching in the regions, that the trainers from the cities did not understand the specifics of work in the rural 

area and thus were telling about some book-learned things. 

In the course of project implementation this problem was successfully solved by means of the knowledge 

management system which made it possible to react to the specific character of training in each group as 

quick as possible. If in the course of the first hour of instruction it was apparent that the trainees needed an 

easier mode of delivery of the material, the trainer during the first break informed the project manager of it 

and the latter made sure that all the necessary changes were made and on the next day the trainees could get 

the materials meeting their demands (see Figure 3). 

167



1 – Content; 2 – Quality of Handouts; 3 – Practical Use of Handouts 

Figure 3. Assessment of Training Materials 

Source: authors research, 2008, n=2562 

Instruction in the regions strongly differs from instruction in the capital. For many people it is not only 

an opportunity to acquire new knowledge, but also a possibility to meet their acquaintances, to socialize; for 

many people it is a real holiday. Therefore, considerable attention should be paid to the Learning Environment 

(see Figure 4). Creation of a specific environment contributes to the process of knowledge transmission 

and can help in the intensification of this process and make it more effective. 

Figure 4. Learning Environment 


Organizing trainings in the regions, not only the disciplines stated in the project should be explained to 

people, but also the need for the very process of learning and self-development should be emphasized. People 

who do not know what they do not know will not search for the information about the existence of which 

they simply do not know. It widens the gap between the regions and the centre (see Figure 5). Therefore, it 

is important that a trainer is also an inspirer for those who learn. 

168


Figure 5. Key “A-ha!” Moments 


Instruction in the regions requires the trainers to be more flexible, since they are the representatives of 

the facilitating organization and people associate such training with the EU funds which ensure its on-site 

implementation. 

At the end of trainings, questioning of every adult who completed the instruction was conducted. In 

addition, expert surveys about the quality of instruction were conducted every day of trainings and necessary 

changes in the process of instruction were introduced on the basis of feedback. Sometimes it caused 

difficulties, since all the projects co-financed by the EU funds have a very rigid formal structure and it was 

complicated for the facilitators to introduce changes in the already adopted procedures of instruction. On 

the other hand, it is worthwhile to remember that working with people implies commitment to the result, i.e. 

the opinion of the trainees must be taken into account. Besides, the project aims at giving the trainees the 

knowledge which they can then apply in their work. 

5. Discussion 

According to the Pan-European Strategy 2020 and the Bologna process, it is necessary to ensure equal 

access to knowledge in the regions. 

From the point of view of the authors, considerable attention should be paid to preparedness of the trainees 

to the very process of learning. 

People in the regions are not always ready to stand constant strain during learning. The rigidity of thinking 

and inability to use knowledge in different contexts is frequently observed. 

The very crucial aspect which was noted during the work in the regions was strong influence of the 

human factor. People in the regions rely on the opinion of their neighbours or acquaintances much more 

willingly than on the opinion of experts or trainers. 

Due to lack of information, adults in the regions often do not know about the existence of new trends in 

the management science, frequently do not know how to connect theory to practice, and cannot trace logical 

connections between formal requirements for learning and implementation of such learning in practice. 

It is possible that during implementation of training in the regions it is necessary to approach the needs 

of trainees living in the regions more flexibly, discover their needs and plan instruction being oriented on the 

possibility of applying the acquired knowledge in practice. 

Conclusions and Proposals 

In the regions, instruction should involve wider strata of society. Such instruction allows broadening 

one’s outlook, determine the directions in which new information should be searched for and organize the 

knowledge management system. For the information taught by outside trainers to be perceived, it is neces- 

169



sary to prepare thoroughly and think through everything down to the smallest detail. In terms of teaching in 

the regions, the human factor becomes especially important. The ability of a trainer to establish contact with 

the trainees has a direct effect on the result of learning. In the regions, knowledge management can be spoken 

about not as the system inside an organization, but as acquisition, mastering, renewal and exchange of 

knowledge between separate economies, adjacent farms, and acquaintances. Such formations appear according 

to the rule of geographical distribution, and in this case it seems appropriate to recall clusters described 

by Porter (Porter, 2000). But in this context, similar clusters not only protect their own interests, but also 

prevent new external information from being disseminated. Absence of information about everything new in 

the field of management or knowledge management does not contribute to shaping of demand for search for 

such information and, thus, impedes regional development. 

Organizing training at the high level and involving experienced trainers as well as serious attitude to 

preparation of handouts can change the attitude in the regions to the process of learning and create culture 

oriented towards the exchange of knowledge. 

Of considerable importance is the experience of a trainer who can not only explain the theoretical bases 

of his/her subject, such as project management, management or marketing, but who, on the examples clear 

to the trainees, can show the practical value of these theories. 

Qualitative on-site training can change in the regions the long-standing vision of learning as something 

book-learned having no practical benefit. 

Planning such instruction, it is necessary to take into consideration that the level of educational attainment 

of people in groups will be completely different. Also, the fact that people are not accustomed to studying 

for a long time and are not able to perceive a lot of information at a time should be taken into consideration. 

This work has been supported by the European Social Fund within the project “Support for Doctoral 

Studies at University of Latvia”. 

References 

Porter, M. (2000). Location, Competition, and Economic Development: Local Clusters in a Global Economy. Economic 

Development Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 1, February, p. 15–34. 

Drucker, P. F. (1999). Management Challenges for the 21st Century. Harper Business, p. 207. 

Corredoira, R. A., Rosenkopf, L. (2010). Should Auld Acquaintance Be Forgot? The Reverse Transfer of Knowledge 

through Mobility Ties. Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 31, No. 2, p. 159–181. 

The Lisbon Council. EU 2020: Why Skills are Key for Europe’s Future By Paul Hofheinz. (2009). Website: http://www. 

lisboncouncil.net/initiatives/human-capital.html [skat. janv. 2012]. 

Oertenblad, A. (2001). On differences between organizational learning and learning organization. Learning Organization 

MCB University Press, Vol. 8, No. 3, p. 125–133. 

Argote, L., Ingram, P. (2000). Knowledge transfer: A Basis for Competitive Advantage in Firms. Organizational Behavior 

and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 82, No. 1, p. 150–169. 

Harrington, H. J., Voehl, F. (2008). Knowledge Management Excellence. The Art of Excelling in Knowledge Management, 

p. 269. 

Joy-Matthews, J., Megginson, D., Surtees, M. (2004). Human resource development. 3-rd ed. London: Kogan Page, 

p. 565. 

Uhlaner, L., Van Stel, A., Meijaard, J., Folkeringa, M. (2007). The relationship between knowledge management, innovation 

and firm performance: evidence from Dutch SMEs. 

Lundvall, B. A., Tomlinson, M. (2001). Learning by comparing: reflection on use and abuse of benchmarking. In: 

G. Sweeney (ed.). Innovation, Economic Progress and Quality of Life. London: Edward Elgar. 

Blackler, F. (1995). Knowledge, Knowledge Work and Organizations: An Overview and Interpretation. Organization 

Studies, No. 6, p. 1021–1046. 

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žinių valdymo sistemos suaugusiųjų mokymo PROCESE 

TOBULINImas, SIEKIANT efektyviOS regionų PLĖTROS 



Santrauka 

Pirmą kartą žmonijos istorijoje išgyvename situaciją, kai dėl labai išaugusio informacijos kiekio žmonės 

nebesugeba jos apdoroti, be to, nebesugeba paversti šios informacijos žiniomis. Ne visa informacija yra 

vertinga, faktų kaupimas ne visada yra žinios. Norėdami nepasimesti informacijos sraute, turime gauti naujų 

žinių ir įgyti įgūdžių, t. y. kompetencijų, kurios padėtų susivokti informacijos sraute ir išvengti informacinės 

perkrovos. 

Panaši problema kyla ir darbuotojams jų darbo vietose dėl greitai senstančios įrangos. Nors kompiuteriai 

atrodė didžiausias techninės minties laimėjimas, jie sensta neįsivaizduojamai greitai. Kas dar neseniai atrodė 

kaip naujas techninis sprendimas, tampa standartiniu vos per šešis mėnesius, o po trejų metų jau nebelaikomas 

moderniu. Ką daryti su pasenusiais kompiuteriais ar kita įranga, kuri nebepajėgi apdoroti darbui būtino 

informacijos kiekio? Pirmiausia būtina ją atnaujinti, vėliau paprasčiausiai pakeisti. Bet ką daryti, jei žmogus, 

kuris yra svarbiausias žinių kūrimo, perdavimo ir atnaujinimo veiksnys, nebegali susidoroti su šia užduotimi? 

Senėjančios Europos kontekste, ilgėjant pensiniam amžiui, ši problema vis aktualėja, nes pokyčiai 

verčia žmones prisitaikyti nepaisant jų amžiaus. 

Siekiant išspręsti šią problemą, autoriai siūlo mokymo sistemą žmonėms, kurie nori padidinti informacijos 

apdorojimo greitį. Pavyzdžiui, greito įsiminimo ugdymas, greitasis skaitymas ir teksto formavimas 

leidžia greičiau prisitaikyti prie kintančios aplinkos reikalavimų ir sparčiau apdoroti didelį informacijos 

kiekį. Tai ypač svarbu regionų vystymuisi, kur žmonės dažnai gauna jau pasenusią informaciją, todėl būtina 

užtikrinti lygių galimybių principo taikymą regionų ir miestų gyventojams. 

PAGRINDINIAI ŽODŽIAI: suaugusiųjų mokymas, žinių valdymas, regionų vystymasis. 

JEL klasifikacija: H250, O110. 

171

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Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla 

REGIONAL FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES 

Journal of Social Sciences 

No. 2 (7) 

Klaipėda, 2012 

SL 1335. 2012 07 13. Apimtis 22 sąl. sp. l. Tiražas 90 egz. 

Išleido ir spausdino Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla, Herkaus Manto g. 84, 92294 Klaipėda 

Tel. (8 46) 398 891, el. paštas: leidykla@ku.lt; interneto adresas: http://www.ku.lt/leidykla/ 

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