Issue 3 March 2005 - BASES

ISSUE 3 MARCH 2005
The official publication of the BRITISH ASSOCIATION OF SPORT AND EXERCISE SCIENCES
USING MOTIVATIONAL
INTERVIEWING
Getting to know your client
HOW TO MAKE RESEARCH
METHODS EXCITING
Some suggestions shared
EVALUATING
YOUR PRACTICE
Advice on how to undertake evaluation
STUDENT SPECIAL
Making the most of your degree
CARBOHYDRATE
Fuelling physical activity & recovery
www.bases.org.uk
Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport Scientist
Promoting Excellence in Sport and Exercise Sciences

FOREWORD
The Sport and Exercise Scientist
The SES is published quarterly by BASES
Editor l Dr Chris Sellars
Production Director l Dr Claire Palmer
Book and Resource Review Editor l Dr Keith Tolfrey
Editorial Advisory Board l Lisa Board, Tracey Devonport,
Prof Andy Lane, Dr Sarah Rowell, Dr John Saxton
Advertising l Dr Claire Palmer
Tel/ Fax:+44 (0)113 289 1020 • cpalmer@bases.org.uk
Publisher l Mercer Print, Newark Street, Accrington BB5 0PB
Tel: +44 (0)1254 395512
info@mercer-print.co.uk
BASES l Chelsea Close, Off Amberley Road, Armley,
Leeds, LS12 4HP • Tel/ Fax: +44 (0)113 289 1020
jbairstow@bases.org.uk
Website l www.bases.org.uk
is sponsored by Human Kinetics, www.HumanKinetics.com
BASES is supported by UK Sport.
Disclaimer l The statements and opinions contained in the articles
are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and are
not necessarily those of BASES. The appearance of advertisements
in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement or approval of
products or services. BASES has undertaken all reasonable
measures to ensure that the information contained in The SES is
accurate and specifically disclaims any liability, loss or risk, personal
or otherwise, which is incurred as a consequence, directly or
indirectly of the use and application of any of the contents.
Copyright © BASES, 2005 l All rights reserved. Reproduction in
whole or in substantial part without permission of The SES
Production Director is strictly prohibited. An archive of the The SES
is available in the Member Area at ■ www.bases.org.uk
Copy deadline 12 May 2005 for Issue 4 June 2005. All contributions
welcomed. Info for contributors ■ www.bases.org.uk
Front Cover Photograph l Courtesy of The Sugar Bureau.
Dr CHRIS SELLARS
Editor
The Sport and
Exercise Scientist
In this our third issue of The SES, we have a range of material that
spans applied practice, research, and teaching and learning in sport and
exercise science. In line with useful suggestions and feedback from
readers, we have attempted to further integrate reflection on one’s own
and others’ practices, while at the same time building on the publication’s
themes that I hope are becoming familiar.
Our feature article explores the role of carbohydrates in fuelling exercise
and recovery, providing valuable advice on suitable food types and eating
strategies. This is supported by articles on motivational interviewing, how
to make the teaching of research methods more effective, the use of
software to aid qualitative research, and examining ways of evaluating
your practice. We also have an interview with sport and exercise scientist
turned Olympic cycling coach Simon Jones.
We also have two contributions that focus specifically on personal
reflections in relation to aspects of the contributor’s work - one discussing
the lessons learned from applied sport science practice and the other
considering the contribution of personal development planning within
sport and exercise science. New to this issue, we have an ‘Ask the
Practitioner’ section, where two BASES accredited sport and exercise
scientists comment on a case presented by a probationary sport and
exercise scientist. The ‘special’ in this issue may be of specific interest to
our student members in relation to making the most of their degree
when applying for jobs or postgraduate training. This section incorporates
testimonials from two recent graduates who share their tips on how to
get ahead.
We also have a summary of BASES’ recent EGM, the outcomes of which
will result in some significant, challenging and exciting changes to the
Association.
I have had some encouraging communications from readers over the last
few months, so please keep it coming! ■
Dr Chris Sellars
Editor
■ c.sellars@hud.ac.uk
CONTENTS
4 CARBOHYDRATES –
THE PROS AND CONS IN RELATION TO PERFORMANCE
Dr Samantha Stear evaluates the
significance of carbohydrate consumption
6 NEWS
BASES and AAASP Collaboration, New accreditation
system for exercise science practitioners, BASES
relocating to Leeds Metropolitan University, CCPR
challenge to Government
8 EXERCISE MOTIVATION AND ADHERENCE: THE USE
OF MOTIVATIONAL INTERVIEWING
Jeff Breckon discusses this
approach to behaviour change
10 MAKING RESEARCH METHODS MORE ‘ATTRACTIVE’
TO SPORT & EXERCISE SCIENCE STUDENTS
Dr Clare Hencken discusses some of her experiences
of designing and teaching research methods
12 CHANGING ATHLETES BEHAVIOUR
Dr Claire Palmer reflects on lessons learned from
her own applied practice
14 BASES WORKSHOPS & DATES FOR THE DIARY
15 STUDENT SPECIAL
Making the most of your
sport & exercise science degree
19 REVIEWS
Latest books reviewed
21 LETTERS
22 INTERVIEW WITH
DR SIMON JONES
Dr Simon Jones reflects on his
transition to Olympic cycling coach
23 TOP TIPS
24 REFLECTIONS ON THE USE OF
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS SOFTWARE:
IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING
Dr Lynne Johnston shares her experiences of
using software such as NVivo and QSR NUD*IST
26 BASES EGM
A new chapter in the history of BASES has opened
27 UK SPORT PRACTITIONER
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
Dr John Bradley describes
his experiences
28 EVALUATING PRACTICE IN SPORT
AND EXERCISE SCIENCE
Dr Nick Smith and Phil Moore
draw on their own experiences of
evaluating practice
30 ASK THE PRACTITIONER
Two accredited sport & exercise
scientists comment on case material
4
30
www.bases.org.uk
Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist 3

FEATURE
Carbohydrates
- the pros and cons in relation to performance
Dr Samantha Stear examines the importance of carbohydrate intake and makes
recommendations in relation to sport and physical activity performance
LIFE in competitive sport revolves around training
and competition. To be able to sustain training as
well as strive for performance improvements, it is
essential to optimise recovery between one
training session and the next. But why is there
such a huge emphasis on carbohydrates?
Carbohydrate is the preferred energy fuel for the muscles, because it
is the only fuel that can power intense exercise for prolonged
periods. All carbohydrates, both sugars and starches, are converted
to glucose and stored as glycogen in the muscles and liver.
However, the body's glycogen stores are limited so need to be
topped-up regularly to supply and restock fuel for training.
It is important to make carbohydrate-rich foods the focus of the
training diet, because only carbohydrates are stored as glycogen
and depleted stores are associated with fatigue. Unfortunately, due
to the popularity of the low-carbohydrate diets, such as Atkins and
South Beach diets, many athletes, from recreational to elite, are
suffering with needless fatigue. Eating insufficient carbohydrates is
likely to lead to energy deficiency, which not only puts performance,
but also health, at risk.
So the pro-side is relatively straightforward - carbohydrates are the
key nutrient for energy supply. But what about the cons? In simple
terms there aren't any. The con-side needs a slightly different
approach with regards to how the type, amount and timing of
carbohydrate intake may affect performance. Although the details
regarding these issues will be discussed in terms of the recent IOC
Consensus Conference on Sports Nutrition (Maughan, Burke &
Coyle, 2004), it is important to bear in mind that specifics are down
to the individual and the exercise or sporting situation.
Energy deficiency related health risks
Total dietary energy intake needs to be increased to compensate for
the energy used-up during training and competition. However, many
athletes, particularly females and individuals who compete in
endurance and aesthetic sports, and sports with weight categories,
do not adequately compensate for their exercise energy expenditure
and so end-up chronically energy deficient. Energy deficiency
impairs performance, growth and health. It has been shown that
metabolic and reproductive disorders in athletes, especially females,
are caused by low energy availability, particularly low carbohydrate
availability, and not by the stress of exercise (Loucks, 2004). Energy
availability is defined as dietary energy intake minus exercise energy
expenditure.
For athletes expending large amounts of energy during training,
neither an eating disorder nor dietary restriction is necessary to
induce reproductive disorders. Therefore, athletes can prevent this
and restore metabolic and reproductive function through dietary
supplementation to compensate for exercise energy expenditure
without any modification to the training regimen, or indeed other
stresses. So training can continue providing athletes are willing to
eat!
There is strong evidence that in order to protect metabolic,
reproductive and skeletal health, energy availability (EA) should not
fall below 30kcal per kg fat free mass (FFM) per day (Loucks, 2004).
Table 1 shows some examples of low energy availability that fall
below the 30kcal per kg of FFM per day.
Table 1. Examples of low energy availability (EA) that fall below the
30kcal per kg of FFM per day *
Athlete description
Female, 60kg with 20% body
fat FFM = 48kg (60 x 0.80)
Trains 1.5 hours per day
Male, 75 kg with 12% body fat
FFM = 66kg (75 x 0.88)
Trains 2.25 hours per day
(*Reproduced from Fuelling Fitness for Sports Performance)
Amount of carbohydrate
The key aspect of the daily diet during training is to ensure that it
provides the muscles with substrates to fuel training to attain optimal
adaptation and performance enhancements. Availability of
carbohydrate as a substrate for the muscle and central nervous
system is essential for exercise performance, particularly during
prolonged sessions (>90 minutes) and as exercise intensity
increases.
Carbohydrate intake must be adequate to meet the fuel requirements
of training and to optimise recovery of glycogen stores between
training sessions. General daily carbohydrate targets can be
provided in terms of body size and training level, but should be
tailored to suit individual energy and training needs, and feedback
from training performance (Burke, Kiens & Ivy, 2004). Table 2 gives
daily carbohydrate targets in terms of grams per kg body weight as
this is more closely related to the muscles' absolute need for fuel.
Table 2. Carbohydrate recommendations for training*
Training level
Dietary
energy
intake (a)
Regular levels of activity (3-5 hrs/week)
Moderate duration/low-intensity training (1-2 hrs/day)
Moderate to heavy endurance training (2-4+ hrs/day)
Extreme exercise programme (4-6+ hrs/day)
Carbohydrate
g/kg body
weight/day
4 - 5
5 - 7
7 - 12
10 - 12
(*Reproduced from Fuelling Fitness for Sports Performance)
It is essential that athletes are realistic as to how long and how hard
they are training. Inadequate carbohydrate fuel will diminish glycogen
stores and result in fatigue. This in turn increases the risk of illness
and injury. In female athletes, metabolic and reproductive function is
disrupted following only a few days of low carbohydrate availability,
putting both health and performance at risk.
Conversely, too high an energy intake, regardless of nutrient (calories
count), could lead to an increase in body fat. For many, this is
opposite to the goal of reducing body fat. In sport – size matters!
The right dietary intakes will help athletes achieve a sport specific
optimal body size and body composition, and the optimal mix of fuel
stores to enhance exercise performance.
4 Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist
www.bases.org.uk
2100
kcal
3800
kcal
Energy used
in exercise
(b)
800
kcal
1950 kcal
EA
(a-b)
1300
kcal
1850
kcal
EA/
FFM
27
28

FEATURE
Type of carbohydrate
It is important to choose nutrient-rich
carbohydrate foods and to add other foods
to recovery meals and snacks, to provide a
good source of protein and other nutrients.
The bulk of carbohydrate intake should
come from the cereal and starchy sources -
the main ones being breads, potatoes, rice,
pasta, breakfast cereals, plus the less
common starchy vegetables and pulses
such as yams, plantains, peas, beans and
lentils. The remaining intake can come from
more sugary sources such as
sugar, fruit and juices.
As most carbohydrate foods, Refuelling
for example potatoes or
sugars, are eventually
broken down into glucose,
one type is not intrinsically
better than the other.
Research has shown that a
diet high in carbohydrate,
obtained either from simple
sugars or complex carbohydrates, is
equally effective in improving exercise
performance. However, perhaps what is more
important is how quickly the carbohydrate is
converted to glucose - its glycaemic index
(GI).
The GI of a food is a measure of that food’s
effect on blood glucose levels. It is worked
out by comparing the rise in blood glucose
after consuming a food containing 50g of
carbohydrate with the blood glucose rise
after consuming 50g of a reference
carbohydrate (usually glucose). The faster
the rise in blood glucose, the higher the GI
(and generally the greater the insulin
response). In general, foods are divided into
three categories – high, moderate and low
GI. Unfortunately, there is no easy way to tell
what the GI of a food is. Some sugars have
a high GI (glucose) and others a low GI
(fructose). Some complex carbohydrates
have a low GI (pasta) whereas others have a
higher GI (rice). Several characteristics can
lower the GI of food such as high fructose,
fibre or fat content.
Carbohydrate-rich foods with a moderate to
high GI provide a fast and readily available
source of carbohydrate for glycogen storage
and therefore are the best fuel choice during
exercise and should also be the major fuel
choice in the immediate recovery period (0-4
hours after exercise) to boost post-exercise
refuelling (Burke et al., 2004). Conversely,
the rate of glucose supply to the
bloodstream from the digestion of low GI
carbohydrate foods is generally not fast
enough while exercising. However,
consuming low GI carbohydrates 3-4 hours
prior to prolonged exercise may help sustain
delivery of carbohydrate during the exercise
period.
One of the problems with low GI
carbohydrate foods may be more due to the
presence of dietary fibre, resulting in a
considerable proportion of indigestible
carbohydrate. This means that although the
food in theory supplies a certain amount of
The
Sugar Bureau
carbohydrate, some is malabsorbed, and is
therefore not available to the muscles for
refuelling. So, if low GI carbohydrate foods
are a more normal dietary pattern, then a
greater amount of carbohydrates need to be
consumed to take account of the
indigestible proportion.
Timing of carbohydrate intake
Consuming a carbohydrate-rich meal 3-4
hours before exercise can increase glycogen
stores and so is generally thought to
enhance exercise performance
(Hargreaves, Hawley &
Jeukendrup, 2004). Pre-exercise
carbohydrate-rich meals can
help stock inadequate muscle
glycogen stores and restore
liver glycogen stores, which
get depleted during the night.
Restoring liver glycogen is
particularly important before
morning training sessions or
competition. If time is limited prior to
exercising in the morning, then an alternative
option is to have a lighter meal or snack and
continue to consume carbohydrates during
exercise to balance missed fuelling
opportunities.
Consuming a carbohydrate-rich snack 30-60
minutes before exercise can be beneficial for
some individuals providing enough
carbohydrate, ideally 70–100g, is consumed
without causing unnecessary gastrointestinal
distress (Hargreaves et al., 2004). This must
be assessed on an individual basis to
ensure that it can be done without inducing
the negative consequences of
hypoglycaemia (low blood glucose levels) in
susceptible individuals.
If pre-exercise carbohydrate is the only
means of increasing carbohydrate availability
during exercise, then it is important that a
substantial amount (>70g) is consumed.
Problems regarding carbohydrate
consumption prior to exercise arise when too
little carbohydrate (40 minutes) it is often
beneficial to continue to ingest carbohydrate
at a rate of 30-60g·h-1 throughout exercise
to help maintain the flow of glucose.
During exercise that lasts for longer than an
hour and which elicits fatigue, it is advisable
to consume rapidly-absorbable (moderatehigh
GI) carbohydrates at a rate of 30-60g·h-
1, because this generally improves
performance. This intake is best achieved by
regular feedings every 10-30min, depending
on what is allowed during competition, and
should be continued throughout exercise to
provide a steady flow of glucose into the
blood stream (Coyle, 2004). Again, fructose
intake should be limited to amounts that do
not cause gastrointestinal distress.
After exercise carbohydrates need to be
consumed to ensure successful refuelling
and restocking of glycogen stores between
training sessions. Highest rates of glycogen
storage occur in the first few hours (0-4
hours) after exercise, so it is particularly
important to consume carbohydrates as
soon as is practically possible when
recovery time is short (less than 8 hours)
between training sessions. Moderate to high
GI carbohydrates should be consumed in
the immediate recovery period to optimise
glucose uptake for glycogen storage and
then low GI carbohydrates can be phased in
for the remaining recovery period.
Conclusion
Dietary carbohydrate intake needs to be
adequate to supply and restock fuel for
training. It is vital to get the energy intake
right – too much or too little can have an
adverse impact on health and performance.
The total amount of carbohydrate consumed
is the most important dietary factor in terms
of restocking glycogen stores. Other dietary
strategies such as timing of intake, type of
carbohydrate, or addition of other nutrients,
may either directly enhance glycogen
recovery or improve the practical aspects of
achieving carbohydrate intake targets. It is
important that any new fuelling strategies are
experimented with during training,
particularly ingestion of carbohydrates
before and during exercise, to find out what
works for the individual and also for each
specific exercise or sporting situation. ■
References
Burke, L.M., Kiens, B. & Ivy, J.L. (2004).
Carbohydrates and fat for training and recovery. Journal of
Sports Sciences, 22, 15-30.
Hargreaves, M., Hawley, J.A. & Jeukendrup, A.
(2004). Pre-exercise carbohydrate and fat ingestion:
effects on metabolism and performance. Journal of Sports
Science, 22, 31-38.
Loucks, A.B. (2004). Energy balance and body
composition in sports and exercise. Journal of Sports
Sciences, 22, 1-14.
Maughan, R.J., Burke, L.M. & Coyle, E.F. (2004).
Food, Nutrition and Sports Performance II.
London:Routledge.
The full manuscripts from the International Olympic
Committee (IOC) Consensus Conference on Sports
Nutrition have been published as a Special Issue of the
Journal of Sports Sciences, January 2004 and are also
available in Maughan et al., 2004.
Dr Samantha Stear
Sam is a Registered Sport and
Exercise Nutritionist with a
biomedical science degree from
University College London, a
masters degree in nutrition from
King’s College London, and a
PhD from Cambridge University.
www.bases.org.uk
Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist
5

NEWS
NEWS IN BRIEF
BASES Annual Conference
locations announced
The 2006 and 2007 BASES Annual Conferences have
been awarded to the University of Wolverhampton and
the University of Bath respectively. Heriot Watt University
will host the 2006 BASES Annual Student Conference.
Chair of K 46, the Sports Related
Studies RAE 2008 Sub-panel,
appointed
The four UK higher education funding bodies have
announced the chairs of the 67 sub-panels for
Research Assessment Exercise (RAE) 2008. Prof
Clyde Williams, Loughborough University and
previous Chair of BASES, has been appointed the
Chair of K 46, the Sports Related Studies RAE
Panel. ■ www.rae.ac.uk
New Midlands Sport & Exercise
Psychology Network
The Midlands Sport & Exercise Psychology Network is a
new forum for individuals living in the midlands of England.
Its purpose is to facilitate communication, dissemination of
good practice, and continuing professional development.
The network is co-directed by Dr Dan Weigand at
University College Northampton
■ daniel.weigand@northampton.ac.uk
and Dr Chris Harwood at Loughborough University
■ c.g.harwood@lboro.ac.uk
Course Finder update
BASES has received a high level of interest in
this important initiative. The course finder lists
details of over 260 courses available at 36
universities.
The course finder has received over 15,000
page hits so far.
■ www.bases.org.uk/newsite/coursesearch.asp
Journal of Sports Sciences Editorials
now in member area
A selection of Editorials from the Journal of Sports
Sciences has been added to the Member Area of the
BASES website ■ www.bases.org.uk
Abstract submission goes on-line
On-line abstract submission forms were
developed for both the 2005 BASES Annual and
Student Conferences. The on-line abstract
submission form for the Annual Conference was
developed in association with Taylor & Francis.
BASES weekly email newsletter
Please ensure that the BASES Office has your correct
Email address as the Email newsletter is now the key
communication tool for BASES.
The deadline for News and News in Brief items
for the next issue of The SES is 12 May.
BASES and AAASP Reach
Collaboration Agreement
BASES and the Association for the Advancement of Applied
Sport Psychology (AAASP) have
developed a Memorandum of
Collaboration (MoC) aimed to
enhance the developing alliance
between the two associations.
AAASP specialises in promoting
research and consulting excellence in applied sport, exercise and
health psychology. AAASP and BASES share a common goal of
ensuring that all athletes, coaches and those in the community
that participate in sport and exercise benefit from the highest
quality provision of psychological services.
Building on cooperation in the area of sport and exercise
psychology over several years, BASES and AAASP have
recently developed a reciprocity agreement, which
recognises the equivalence of BASES Accreditation and
AAASP Certification. Furthermore, BASES and AAASP will
collaborate on joint continuous professional development
opportunities and will develop enhanced benefits for
members of both associations through economies of scale.
New accreditation system for
exercise science practitioners
BASES is developing a new accreditation category to add to its
existing peer-reviewed sport & exercise scientist accreditation
programme. This new category of Accredited Exercise Science
Practitioner aims to provide the recognised standard for exercise
scientists working in areas of outpatient rehabilitation, exercise
referrals and physical activity advisory services. It is aimed at the
individual who possesses a sport and exercise science degree, and
has also demonstrated practice experience and attained relevant
practical or vocational standards. It aims to assist health and leisure
service (public or private) providers who want to employ a person
with this background but where currently there is no identified
common standard.
The accreditation process is about demonstrating the ability to
integrate knowledge, experience and practice/vocational skills into
one recognised qualification. Within this the Practitioner can
demonstrate a speciality (e.g., cardiac rehabilitation) but also needs
skills and knowledge to at least advise or direct clients with needs
outside his/her speciality (similar to a GP in medicine). The
accreditation is aimed to integrate such vocational standards as
those developed by Skills Active and Skills for Health. This initiative is
being led by Dr John Buckley.
CCPR launches challenge to
Government
The CCPR has launched the ‘Challenge’ and ‘Physical Education Declaration’.
The Challenge calls upon the next government to place sport and recreation
higher on the political agenda and seeks a genuine commitment for more
sustained support and financial investment in the UK’s sports system.
The Physical Education Declaration, issued by the National Physical
Education Summit on 24 January, calls on the Government and key delivery
agencies to invest more time for initial teacher training and professional
development, and to review the nature of training to meet 21st Century
needs. ■ www.ccpr.org.uk
6
Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist
www.bases.org.uk

BASES are relocating to Leeds
Metropolitan University
In May 2005 BASES will be
moving its Head Office to
the Headingley Campus at
Leeds Metropolitan
University.
Prof Craig Mahoney, Chair of
BASES, said, “I am delighted that
we have been able to relocate the
BASES Head Office onto the
campus of Leeds Metropolitan
University. The potential this offers
us in the development of the
Association, the links with Higher
Education, sport and associated
agencies will undoubtedly be of
long term benefit to both BASES
and the University. I think the desire
to stay in Leeds, where we are
known, respected and have good
contact support, was key in making
this move. The environmental
conditions and support structures of
the University will also add to the
further development of the
Association in this time of change
and restructuring.”
Prof Carlton Cooke, Associate Dean
and Head of the School of Sport,
Exercise and Physical Education,
added, "We are delighted
to welcome BASES onto
our Headingley Campus at Leeds
Metropolitan University. The offices
will be located in Fairfax Hall, which
is also the home of the Schools of
Sport, Exercise and Physical
Education and Leisure and Sport
Management, part of the Carnegie
Faculty of Sport and Education.
Staff of the school of Sport, Exercise
and Physical Education work across
the whole range of sport and
exercise contexts that relate to the
work of BASES and we look forward
to providing an appropriate
environment that will support
BASES as it continues to develop
and grow."
Lactate
Scout
NEWS
Headingley Campus at Leeds
Metropolitan University
BASES Annual Awards
BASES members are encouraged to apply for the following awards:
• BASES Awards for Good Practice in Applied Work - these awards are
designed to recognise and reward examples of good practice and innovation
in applied work. The application deadline is 29 April 2005.
• BASES Honorary Fellows Undergraduate Dissertation of the Year Award -
this award is for the best abridged version of a 2005 UK final year
undergraduate dissertation in the area of sport or exercise science. The
application deadline is 30 September 2005.
• Philip Read Memorial Award for ‘Recently Qualified’ Researcher in Sport
and Exercise Sciences - this award is for published research of outstanding
merit in the field of sport or exercise sciences. The application deadline is 29
April 2005.
■ www.bases.org.uk/newsite/awards.asp
COURTESY OF PROF CARLTON COOKE
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www.bases.org.uk
Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist
7

EXERCISE SCIENCE
Exercise Motivation and Adherence:
The Use of Motivational Interviewing
Jeff Breckon discusses this approach to behaviour change and highlights its benefits
THIS paper summarises the theory and application
of motivational interviewing (MI) and its potential
as a counselling tool and intervention for exercise
and physical activity specialists. One of the greatest
challenges within exercise referral programmes,
and the promotion of physical activity in a wider
sense, is assisting clients and patients to initiate and
maintain behaviour change. There is an increasingly
unfit and sedentary population in the UK.
In September 2004 the Secretary of State for Health suggested that
while the population has an increasing awareness of the need to be
physically active, the population in general does not have the
motivation to initiate and maintain that behaviour change. The
Health Development Agency (2004) recommends that
interventions should use behavioural skills training, including selfefficacy,
and emphasise risk reduction rather than promoting
complete abstinence only. While many authors have offered
guidelines as to ‘what’ an exercise counselling rubric should involve,
few have offered the ‘how’ to action them. There is evidence that
‘advice giving’ about lifestyle change is ineffective and in contrast that
a more client-centred model produces better client responses.
What has become increasingly apparent is the need for a method of
counselling at all stages of exercise consultation that addresses the
high drop-out rates from which many programmes suffer. It is
therefore important to be able to train exercise specialists in a
practical setting by explaining the fundamentals of exercise
adherence and demonstrating the complex determinants of
behaviour change. MI may then offer many health, exercise and
physical activity professionals communication skills that assist the
client to explore ambivalence and initiate that elusive behaviour
change. Skills that are fundamental to MI, such as ‘reflective
listening’, are difficult to teach but the style of the two-way
relationship of MI helps to reduce client resistance and appreciates
that the client is the expert of their own situation.
What is Motivational Interviewing?
Miller and Rollnick (1991, 2002) describe MI as a psychotherapeutic
and evidence-based counselling technique that aims to help the
client to explore and resolve his/her ambivalence to behaviour
change. A number of detailed sources exist that describe the
theoretical and philosophical underpinnings of MI
(www.motivationalinterview.org). The Transtheoretical Model
(Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983) emerged at roughly the same
time as MI and enables MI trainers to assist exercise and health
specialists in understanding the processes that can enable a client to
move away from risk behaviours, such as those seen in sedentary
lifestyles.
There are a number of 'tools' that can be used in MI clinical settings,
one of which is the 'readiness ruler' (see Table 1). This provides an
opportunity for the client to express his/her current readiness to
change, based on his/her current motivation to initiate behaviour
change and, just as importantly, his/her confidence in maintaining
this change. More than one facet of behaviour can be mapped onto
the readiness ruler. This supports the suggestion that risk behaviours
are not mutually exclusive and that an inter-relationship between
behaviours may often exist. For example, an exercise referral
patient may be at pre-contemplation for their smoking, a
contemplator for exercise and in the action stage when it comes to
diet.
Table 1. Readiness Ruler: Countdown Version
(Miller & Rollnick, 2002)
Not Ready Unsure Ready Trying
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Pre-contemplation Contemplation Determination/Preparation Action
Motivational Interviewing Phase I
Motivational Interviewing Phase II
When applying the readiness ruler a number of statements are used
to elicit clients’ perception of their current ‘readiness for change’.
For example, a non-exerciser might be asked, “On a scale of 1 to
10, where would you put yourself?” The follow up question
emphasises the positive element of the response where the client,
depending on the result, would be asked (if for example they
responded with a ‘5’) “Why 5 and not 2 or 1?” This results in
primitive, but none-the-less effective 'self motivational statements'.
The application of MI is aimed at increasing the likelihood of a client
considering, initiating, and maintaining specific change strategies. This
intervention strategy builds on the premise that change happens
most effectively when the client generates it. This is a principle that
is apparent in the use of reflective listening which clarifies and
amplifies the client's own experience and meaning. These reflective
listening strategies are applied in order to elicit client self-motivation,
evidenced through change talk, as a consequence of exploring client
ambivalence. An example in an exercise consultation would be a
client who is encouraged to verbalise their reluctance or motivation
for change as the exercise counsellor evokes and selectively
reinforces the client’s own self-motivational statements whilst
monitoring their readiness for change so as not to jump ahead of
the client’s ‘stage’. By skilful reflective listening the exercise
counsellor facilitates this change talk by the client.
There are five general principles in MI, which assist counsellors in
developing a ‘respectful’ method of moving a client through the
stages of behaviour change. These are:
• express empathy
• develop discrepancy
• avoid argumentation
• roll with resistance
• support self-efficacy.
Clients who have self-efficacy have greater self-control and are
therefore more likely to change for personal rather than external
reasons. By increasing self-efficacy they are less likely to react to
temptation and therefore maintain a health behaviour change.
Fundamental to MI is its ‘spirit’ in application. Miller and Rollnick
describe the ‘spirit’ that is commonly associated with MI and its
principle of eliciting self-change through ‘negotiation’:
1. Motivation to change is elicited from the client, and not
imposed from others
2. It is the client's task, not the counsellor's, to articulate and
resolve his or her ambivalence
3. Direct persuasion is not an effective method for resolving
ambivalence
8 Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist
www.bases.org.uk

EXERCISE SCIENCE
4. The counselling style is generally a quiet
and eliciting one
5. The counsellor is directive in helping the
client to examine and resolve ambivalence
6. Readiness to change is not a client trait,
but a fluctuating product of interpersonal
interaction
7. The therapeutic relationship is more like
a partnership or companionship than
that of expert/recipient.
Part of the attraction of MI may exist in the
practical application of techniques that can be
delivered and trained without losing the
essence of the MI approach. Miller describes
this as:
• Seeking to understand the person's frame
of reference, particularly via reflective
listening
• Expressing acceptance and affirmation
• Eliciting and selectively reinforcing the
client's own self motivational statements,
expressions of problem recognition,
concern, desire and intention to change,
and ability to change
• Monitoring the client's degree of readiness
to change, and ensuring that resistance is
not generated by jumping ahead of the
client.
• Affirming the client's freedom of choice and
self-direction.
MI in varied settings
To date, most of the clinical work and
research employing MI has been associated
with applied settings involving alcoholism,
smoking, eating disorders, drug and substance
abuse, and prison and probationary contexts.
However, there is an increasing interest in its
efficacy within lifestyle and behaviour change
across a variety of health and primary care
settings and indeed physical activity and
exercise promotion. While there are
numerous studies examining the application of
‘stages of change’ to exercise settings with
varied populations, there is still a paucity of
empirical evidence testing the efficacy of
applying MI techniques specifically in exercise
and lifestyle change. A limited amount of
research has been carried out in this setting
and with equivocal findings. This could be a
result of methodological inconsistencies, the
depth of training of practitioners or indeed the
client’s stage at which it is applied. The
application of MI though is becoming
widespread and is being rolled out by MI
trainers to numerous physical activity, leisure
services and exercise referral groups, as well
as the British RAF. Research from Rollnick
(1996) has vindicated the emergence of MI in
the treatment of obesity and diet control by
stating that, “It should be possible to
encourage patients to be much more active in
the consultation, and for practitioners to avoid
some of the pitfalls of ineffective advice giving”
(p.326). Most training that I now deliver is to
physical activity coordinators and lifestyle
consultants, which reflects the shift toward an
appreciation of its potential in physical activity
settings and the movement away from
ineffective advice giving.
Conclusion
Miller & Rollnick (1991) suggest that MI is
rarely dramatic, rather, “it is a particular way to
help people recognize and do something
about their present or potential problems” (p.
52). So can MI help us to enable those
sedentary members of the public to practise
what we are trying to preach, but in a
respectful and effective way? Learning skills in
MI is similar in duration and difficulty to any
other counselling and communication
technique. While there are key skills delivered
through MI training, the ‘spirit’ is an essential
element and is only achieved by working with
clients in an empathetic and respectful
manner, appreciating clients’ autonomy and
respecting their ambivalence to change. It is
therefore a challenging technique to develop
but holds substantial promise in exercise and
physical activity settings. There is a need for
further research into the effectiveness of MI in
this context but what is clear is that the
communication skill level in exercise specialists
can improve significantly following training in
MI. While in an embryonic stage with regards
to this setting, MI’s application across so many
other areas suggests that its fundamental
principles may provide a new generation of
health coaches, lifestyle consultants and
physical activity officers with key skills and a
style of delivery that is directive but in a far
more client-centred manner. ■
References
Health Development Agency (2004). Evidence of
effectiveness of public health interventions - and the
implications (Choosing Health Briefing). www.hdaonline.org.uk/Documents/CHB1-public-health.pdf
Miller, W.R. & Rollnick, S. (1991, 2002). Motivational
Interviewing: Preparing people for change. New York:
Guildford Press.
Rollnick, S. (1996). Behaviour Change in Practice:
Targeting Individuals. International Journal of Obesity, 23,
325-334.
www.motivationalinterview.org
In the next issue of The Sport and Exercise
Scientist there will be an example of MI use.
Jeff Breckon
Jeff is a senior lecturer in
exercise psychology at Sheffield
Hallam University and a member
of the Motivational Interviewing
Network of Trainers and BASES.
His clinical, research and
teaching interests are in exercise
motivation and adherence.
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Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist
9

EDUCATION
Making Research Methods more ‘attractive’
to sport and exercise science students
Dr Clare Hencken discusses some of her experiences of designing and teaching research methods courses
Making ‘Research Methods’ appealing
is quite a challenge. Many sport and
exercise scientists cringe at the
mention of statistics and even more so
when words like ‘ethics’ are banded
about. This is not to say that ethical
and statistical procedures are not
followed; rather, that such procedures
are the decidedly unglamorous
elements of the research game. As a
research coordinator for “Research
Methods” to second year
undergraduate sport science students
and “Research Applications in Sport
Science” to MSc students, I aim to
make such aspects of sport and
exercise science attractive and
enjoyable.
“We all recognise the
importance of research
methods and it is a
universal requirement”
Research methods is often described,
at best, as “dry” and, at worst, “dull
and boring”, and it is reframing these
perceptions that is the challenge for
the sport science lecturer. Many of us
are, by the very nature of our subject
area, competitive and yet the research
methods gauntlet has been thrown
down, and many of us are reluctant to
take it up.
We all recognise the importance of
research methods and it is a universal
requirement that we include within our
syllabuses. But, as it is historically
unpopular with the students, few
volunteer to teach it! As I see it, the
delivery of research methods presents
two central challenges:
• to ‘win’ the students over, and
• to increase the confidence of sport
and exercise science lecturers who
teach research methods units.
To ‘win’ the students over
A number of initiatives can be actioned:
1. Every example used to demonstrate
the application of research principles
should have links to the sport and
exercise curriculum. This linkage is
complicated by the multidisciplinary
nature of sport and exercise science.
In addition, research methods modules
are typically delivered to a combination
of sport studies students, sport
development students, and sport and
exercise science students. Banks of
examples and scenarios are required
to gain, and maintain, the interest of
these cohorts, and actually address
questions that they might face within
their particular area of study. This can
be achieved by engaging the other
members of the sport and exercise
science team and discussing typical
research problems faced by, for
example, the psychologists, the
biomechanists, the physiologists, the
sport developers or the sports
managers within the department.
2. The timing and length of the
research methods unit within an
undergraduate programme is crucial. If
it is too early in their academic career,
students cannot fully appreciate the
application of research, and simply ‘go
through the motions’. By the time they
are provided with opportunities to
apply research principles, they are
usually unable to recall the processes
involved. If it is too short a unit (1
semester), there is so much to learn
that the students often feel overawed
by the topic, and they end up
resenting the time it takes to learn how
to produce an ethically viable
experimental design, or to use
computer software such as SPSS to
interpret data, when other, perhaps
more pressing, assessment deadlines
are approaching.
3. The assessments within the
‘Research Methods’ unit must
contribute to the attainment of learning
objectives and outcomes for the
degree programme. For example,
incorporating the development of a
research proposal and protocol prior to
their final year. This would help the
students to understand better a
process vital to their final year
project/dissertation. Additionally, since
the unit is teaching ‘methodology’,
assessments should be graded using
the full scale of marks from 0-100%, so
that mastery is promoted and
encouraged.
4. The notion of research and data
analysis needs to be embraced by the
entire sport and exercise science
department so that other cognate
areas and units utilise the skills learnt
in research methods elements. This
may help to elevate research methods
in terms of importance to the students,
and also encourages students to get
to grips with the various considerations
associated with research design,
sampling, methods of data collection
and interpretation, and triangulation
because they are also rewarded in
other unit assessments for transferring
knowledge and skills across units. This
is something that we all aspire to when
planning our curriculum, and yet we
need to ensure that the mechanisms to
execute such a plan are put in place
within each department.
Increasing confidence of sport and
exercise science lecturers teaching
research methods.
The notion of research
and data analysis needs
to be embraced by the
entire sport and exercise
science department
We need to consider the following:
1. A great deal of the success
achieved with regard to the teaching of
research methods in my own
department can be attributed to the
support that other members of staff
give to the Research Methods
Coordinator. Like many other sport and
exercise science departments, student
reviews concerning the research
methods module used to be negative.
Students described the module as
‘boring’, ‘not applicable’ and ‘hard to
get their heads around’. Recognising
the need for change, the Head of
Department was flexible, allowing the
curriculum to be manipulated so that
research methods could be
restructured into a year-long, doublesemester,
double-credit unit.
2. It is beneficial to make use of other
staff members’ input, e.g., I was
actively encouraged to write a
‘Research and Statistics Manual’ for
staff and students providing flowcharts
and step-by-step guidelines to
walk someone through the research
process, ethical submissions and
statistical analyses. Staff development
workshops were, and still are,
timetabled within the academic year so
that the area of research methods is
10 Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist
www.bases.org.uk

EDUCATION
not seen as a one-person crusade,
and so other staff can offer statistical
support to students and other
members of the department. It also
seems that the team approach is a
sure way to emphasise the
importance of research methods in
the eyes of the students.
3. Many students’ concerns about
research methods related to the lack
of appropriate reading material, and I
have to say I agree. The interpretation
of the term ‘appropriate’ appears to
refer to the fact that many of the
research texts are written in an
antiquated format with long flowery
words, complex technical jargon and
an assumption that the reader knows
something about what they are doing!
These texts are very useful to
experienced researchers but to the
novice, they are far from ‘appropriate’.
4. This leads to another controversial
point: should we get down to grassroots
and teach our students to
undertake complex mathematical data
analysis by hand (as I was taught), or
should we teach them which buttons
to press in a data analysis software
programme, such as SPSS? This is a
debate that could cause division but I
will provide my opinion on this matter.
Many would argue that mathematics
is probably even less ‘alluring’ than
research methods. So, if you insist
that sport and exercise science
students develop their mathematical
skill to a point that they can easily
undertake a repeated measures
ANOVA, or indeed a regression
analysis, by hand, you are most
certainly going to alienate most of
your students.
Is it not, therefore, a better idea to
teach them the purpose of the
analysis, i.e., exactly what the analysis
is doing, and then ‘turn them on’ by
switching on a computer and
explaining that it will do the hard bit
for them? From my humble
perspective, it is this that excites the
students; as they come to terms with
analysis and experimental design.
Their challenge then is to learn how to
run a programme and then interpret
the data within the context of the
research question.
I do not believe that this is ‘dumbing
down’ the academic quality of
research methods, as there is still a
high degree of aptitude required to
load data appropriately, determine
which analysis to undertake, correctly
decipher the output, and finally relate
it back to the scenario under
investigation.
Conclusion
With the renewed encouragement I
have had from recent student
feedback, I feel I have been
successful in making research
methods of interest to the sport and
exercise science students simply by
following the above principles. It has
taken years of trial and error to achieve
this but now the undergraduate unit
involves a mixture of lectures,
workshops and assessments, where
students apply the research skills they
have learnt. This system is not only
confined to quantitative data; they also
watch videos and use qualitative
methods to analyse what they observe,
they create vignettes and mock
interviews that require transcription,
and they examine questionnaires/
surveys and single-subject designs.
Yet still the first rule applies - at all
times the bank of examples is geared
to many aspects of sport and exercise
so that all cohorts are engaged. There
is also a natural progression within the
undergraduate and postgraduate
research methods. The postgraduate
modules are more complex and
applied, incorporating exercises that
require the students to prepare work
ready for journal submission, as this
can be a particularly onerous task and
one that requires some practice.
I think the single most satisfying
element of teaching research methods
is when students gain the confidence
to ‘have a go’. I now have students
eagerly requesting new data sets to
analyse and interpret, as they become
increasingly aware that research
designs and associated analysis can
develop our understanding of complex
and applied events in sport. ■
Further reading
Lane, A. M., Devonport, T. J. & Horrell, A.
(2004). Self-efficacy and research methods. Journal
of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education.
Onwuegbuzie, A. J. & Daley, C. E. (1996). The
relative contributions of examination-taking coping
strategies and study coping strategies to test anxiety:
a concurrent analysis. Cognitive Therapy and
Research, 20, 287–303.
Onwuegbuzie, A. J. & DaRos-Voseles, D. A.
(2001). The role of cooperative learning in research
methodology courses: A mixed-methods analysis.
Research in the Schools, 8, 61–75.
Dr Clare Hencken
Clare is a Senior Lecturer in
the Department of Sport &
Exercise Science at the
University of Portsmouth. She
teaches Research Methods
and Statistics to both
undergraduate and
postgraduate students.
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Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist 11

PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE
Changing athletes’ behaviour: Lessons learnt
Dr Claire Palmer reflects on her own professional practices in applied
sports science to highlight some key lessons she has learned along the way
Introduction
In my opinion, Claire’s reflections are of relevance to all sport and exercise scientists who are in the business of trying to
change other people’s behaviours. The work that Phil Moore, Dave Wilkinson and I did for the BASES/Sports Council
Interdisciplinary Review in 1992 revealed that adherence to any form of training or intervention was one of the five most
important problems for all sports. The findings of a follow-up survey published in the BASES Newsletter in 1999
confirmed this view. As an interdisciplinary issue, you would have thought that it was of real importance for
physiologists, biomechanists, sport psychologists and performance analysts. However, the evidence is that the
participants in the BASES Adherence to Training workshops since 2003 have been predominantly from sport
psychology, with only 20% coming from any of the other disciplines. It does seem to me, however, that adherence is
relevant across the sports science board. ■ Prof Les Burwitz
THIS article aims to pick out some of the key
lessons that I’ve learned from 10 years of
applied work as a sports scientist. My research
and applied focus relates to adherence issues.
On a practical level, there is little value in
prescribing programmes if athletes are either
unable or unwilling to adopt and maintain any
recommendations made. For me, a number of
questions arose concerning the problem of
adherence: what factors influence adherence
and can intervention strategies be successfully
used to increase adherence? Through research
with sports groups, I have attempted to answer
some of these questions and interested parties
are directed to read Palmer et al. (1999; 2000).
Rather than repeat those findings in this article,
I have sought to take advantage of the
potentially unique forum that The SES provides
by sharing reflections on some key events that
have significantly influenced my work practice
– the issue of training adherence is merely
used as the vehicle through which those
lessons were learned.
Across a time period of 10 years inevitably
there have been changes to the way elite
performers are supported. For example, Lottery
funding has become available, enabling the
UK's top sportsmen and women to access a
package of scientific support through their
respective sports. The World Class
Performance Programme is designed to
develop athletes and provide them with all the
necessary elements to perform. This has
undoubtedly assisted with adherence issues for
this elite sport community. However, sport and
exercise scientists, involved with team-sport
athletes unable to access such individualised
support and performing most training in
unsupervised settings, continue to report
issues with training adherence.
1. In “my universe” I’m the norm
In 1992, a close friend was selected to
compete in a team sport at a World Youth Cup.
Whilst juggling summer vacation jobs, we both
religiously followed the fitness training set for
the squad by the team’s sport physiologist. We
both genuinely enjoyed the training and were
even happy doing plyometrics in front of
bemused ground staff. However, although my
Agree the role of testing
friend trained hard, she often complained about
teammates who were not completing the
recommended training.
My experiences with adherence problems came
closer to hand when I started working with a
team sport on a Sports Science Support
Programme and started a PhD looking at
adherence. Other sport and exercise scientists
and I were surprised at a general lack of fitness
among the athletes relative to our expectations.
Moreover, despite the provision of training
programmes, some athletes appeared to not
improve across seasons and this was often
associated with half-filled training diaries.
I, like many sport scientists that I talk to, are
the types of individuals that wouldn’t dream of
not following a programme. But whilst in “our
universe” we are the norm, to be effective
practitioners it is important not to assume that
our values and beliefs are representative of our
clients. As part of the preliminary needs
analysis with the client, an understanding of
the athletic context in which the athletes
operate should be gained (e.g., assess the
athletes’, the coach’s and the sporting
organisation’s knowledge of and commitment
to fitness or indeed any other aspect of
training). This assessment can involve asking
questions about previous training histories and
looking at what normally happens at the level
below. If the training that you aim to introduce
is not integral at the level that the athlete has
just progressed from, then the behaviour will
probably not be habitual and its adoption may
require a dramatic lifestyle change. Such an
assessment will allow the practitioner to
establish whether his or her expectations
regarding training prescriptions are realistic and
what support is required. I think this is
particularly relevant for probationary sport and
exercise scientists who are typically
enthusiastic in their own training to become
accredited and may make the mistake of
assuming this enthusiasm exists in whoever
they are working with.
2. This applies to everyone but me
Aware of the adherence issues within the squad
in which I worked, I ran a group workshop
aimed at improving adherence. I thought the
session went well until an hour later I bumped
into one of the athletes, whom I considered to
be a low-adherer, and asked her what she
thought of the session. She responded, “It was
good, cos the whole squad’s really fed up with
Nicky (not her real name) not training and it’s
good that that’s been highlighted.” I left in
silence because clearly this athlete (and I
feared most of the squad) had sat throughout
the whole session thinking the message was
aimed at only one athlete. How could an
athlete who regularly handed me a half-empty
training diary and under-performed in fitness
monitoring regard herself as a trainer? Surely
the relevancy of the workshop’s messages to
her would be clear? Obviously not and I had
DR CLAIRE PALMER
12
Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist
www.bases.org.uk

PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE
made the mistake of assuming otherwise.
I now consider intervention checks, formal
and/or informal, as critical to evaluating my
effectiveness. These checks range from formal
paper-based evaluation forms completed
anonymously by both athletes and support staff
to an informal question such as, “What did you
think of that session?” As rapport and trust
builds up, I found individuals to be fairly
honest in their appraisals.
Additionally, as a result of my initial ‘waste-oftime’
group adherence workshop session I
decided in future to run group sessions only if I
considered it to be the most appropriate
intervention format. My view is that it’s difficult
to be effective if you can’t work on an
individual basis. Early in my career I would take
whatever sessions were made available, keen
for whatever experiences I could get. But I
wouldn’t run a session unless a coach was
prepared to allow adequate time and priority for
me to do a job properly. All too often I notice
that sport science workshops are timetabled
late in the evening when athletes would rather
rest and recover. By continually agreeing to
work the ‘graveyard slot’ I think the role of
sport science in positively impacting on
performance is in danger of being devalued. I
think the important thing is to not always agree
straight away to running a session, particularly
if you think the timing is not ideal. This does
not mean being unaccommodating but in my
experience, by challenging the timetable and
requesting more time I actually gained
credibility.
3. You won’t know you have a problem
unless you look
I soon learned that the prescription of a training
programme does not ensure the adoption and
maintenance of the target behaviours, even in
high-level sport groups where motivation is
often assumed to be high. Provision of a fitness
training programme should represent only an
initial stage of an intervention and monitoring
both training adherence behaviour and fitness
is important. Most sports now monitor training
adherence via various methods, including
training diaries, some of which are now webbased
or can be completed electronically. In
terms of good practice, it is important that the
athlete is made aware of who will have access
to this diary information and how it will be
used, especially in terms of the
development/selection process. Otherwise this
could lead to problems with confidentiality and
fabrication of data.
What is monitored, in terms of training and
fitness, and how it is undertaken undoubtedly
influences training behaviour. I will use a story
regarding the ‘bleep test’ to illustrate how the
use of one test dramatically influenced training
behaviour. In the fitness testing in which I was
involved, the bleep test was the first test to be
performed and all the coaches would watch
this one test before disappearing off to various
planning meetings. This selective coach
observation was soon noticed by athletes and
as a consequence, performance in the bleep
test was massively over-emphasised and took
on the only definition of ‘fitness’. However,
once aware of this issue, the coaches soon
changed their behaviour.
But is it a coincidence that there was a trend to
‘over-adhere’ to aerobic fitness training and
‘under-adhere’ with other types of training such
as speed and power? Whilst there are many
possible explanations for these over- and
under-adherence findings, my own thoughts are
that the myth of defining fitness by
performance on one test certainly contributed.
My aim here is to debate neither the
advantages of certain fitness tests over others,
nor the merits of laboratory versus field-based
testing, but rather to highlight the need to
carefully select appropriate tests, not just
fitness ones, and ensure their relative
importance is clearly communicated to all,
including key support staff.
CUES-TO-DECISION
(INITIATION PHASE)
SELF-EFFICACY FOR
NEW BEHAVIOUR
ATTITUDE TOWARD
NEW BEHAVIOUR
ATTITUDE TOWARD
CURRENT BEHAVIOUR*
PERCEIVED SOCIAL
NORMS
(REPETITION)
* Includes perceived vulnerability to negative consequences
4. There is nothing so practical as a
good theory
‘Theory-based practice’ has become an
accepted part of many professions and it took
me a while to grasp what it actually meant. In
my work I became aware of the revised Theory
of Planned Behaviour (TPB; Maddux, 1993; see
Figure 1).
Positively influenced by a successful
intervention aimed at improving training
adherence (see Palmer et al., 2000), I became
a real fan of this revised theory’s practical
utility. This theory has influenced how I
strategically plan to change behaviour, yet I
suspect that many practitioners are not aware
of it, let alone use it to influence their work
practice. What I like about it is that it
distinguishes between current and new
behaviours. Maddux argued for an independent
assessment of an individual’s attitudes toward
current and new behaviour because an
individual contemplating a behaviour change
will compare the costs and benefits of both
behaviours.
My applied work indicated that in an analysis of
the benefits and costs of current training
compared to following a recommended training
programme, athletes did not view their current
training as sufficiently poor to invoke a
behaviour change. In my example, most of the
athletes had reached their initial goal of playing
for England on their current training, so unless
the benchmark is changed to being World
Class there may be a tendency to think, ’Why
change a winning formula?’ Providing
information about the benefits of a new training
behaviour is only part of the necessary support
service - practitioners need to make athletes
perceive the need to change from their current
training behaviours.
Achieving this may require delivering a harsh
message and making athletes feel vulnerable.
Such an approach may conflict with many
criteria included in Consultant Evaluation
Forms that focus on being easy to relate to,
positive and constructive.
But ultimately we’re not there to be liked, but to
be effective. ■
References
INTENTIONS
CUES-TO-ACTION
(HABIT PHASE)
Burwitz, L., Moore, P.M. & Wilkinson, D. (1994).
Future directions for performance-related sports
science research: an interdisciplinary approach. Journal
of Sports Sciences, 12, 93-109.
Maddux, J.E. (1993). Social cognitive models of
health and exercise behavior: An introduction. Journal
of Applied Sport Psychology, 5, 116-140.
Palmer, C.L., Burwitz, L., Smith, N.C. & Collins, D.
(1999). Adherence to fitness training of elite netball
players: A naturalistic inquiry. The Sport Psychologist,
13, 313-334.
Palmer, C.L., Burwitz, L., Smith, N.C. & Borrie, A.
(2000). Enhancing fitness training adherence of elite
netball players: An evaluation of Maddux’s revised
theory of planned behaviour. Journal of Sports
Sciences, 18, 627-641.
Dr Claire Palmer
BEHAVIOUR
Figure 1. Revised Theory of Planned Behaviour, adapted from Maddux (1993)
Claire currently works as
the BASES Executive Officer.
She has over 10 years
experience working as an
applied sport scientist with
high-level athletes and her
PhD was in fitness training
adherence. She is a BASES
Accredited Sport and
Exercise Scientist (Psychology and
Interdisciplinary – Scientific Support).
www.bases.org.uk
Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist 13

WORKSHOPS
BASES WORKSHOPS FOR 2005
Introduction to Counselling Skills
University College Northampton, 6 April
Dr Jonathan Katz, Dr Brian Hemmings
Field Testing and Physiology Assessment of Large
Groups
Bisham Abbey National Sports Centre, 8 April
Dr Greg Whyte, Charlie Pedlar, Dr Craig Williams,
Matt Hammond
Adherence to Fitness Training Programmes
Manchester Metropolitan University, Cheshire, 20 April
Dr Claire Palmer, Prof Les Burwitz
Pulmonary Testing
Brunel University, 27 April
Prof Alison McConnell, Dr Lee Romer, John Dickinson
Motivational Interviewing and Brief Negotiation
Sheffield Hallam University, 18 May
Dr Lynne Johnston, Jeff Breckon
Performing Under Pressure: Theory to Practice
Sheffield Hallam University, 27 May
Prof Ian Maynard, Dr Mark Bawden
5 Day Advanced Counselling Sport Specific Course
University College Northampton, 13 -17June
Dr Jonathan Katz, Dr Brian Hemmings
Cardiopulmonary Exercise Testing
Olympic Medical Institute Harrow, 14 October
Dr Greg Whyte, Dr John Buckley, Dr Paul Bromley
Communicating Findings to Client Groups
Manchester Metropolitan University, Cheshire, 15 October
Dr Carl Payton et al.
Maximal Exercise Testing
Maximal Exercise Testing, 19 November
Prof Edward Winter
Further details on BASES workshops and booking
forms at www.bases.org.uk/newsite/workshops.asp
Delegate fees: One-day workshops. BASES member:
£75, Non-member: £100
All booking forms should be returned to the BASES
office at least two weeks before the workshop date.
BOOK EARLY AS PLACES ARE LIMITED.
DATES FOR THE DIARY
31 March - 1 April 2005 BASES Annual Student Conference University of Wales,
www.bases.org.uk/newsite/studentconf.asp
Aberystwyth
31 March - 5 April 35th Congress of the International Union San Diego,
of Physiological Sciences
USA
13 April BASES Heads of Department Forum University of
Gloucestershire
29 May - 2 June International Society for Posture and Marseille,
Gait Research XVIIth Conference
France
1 - 4 June American College of Sports Medicine Nashville,
Annual Conference XXIII
USA
22 - 25 June Canadian Federation for Biological Sciences Ontario,
48th Annual Meeting
Canada
29 June - 1 July Obesity and Its Management Liverpool Medical
Email: c.greenwood@liverpool.ac.uk
Institution, Liverpool
5 - 7 July The Anatomy of Exercise Summer Meeting University of Cardiff,
www.anatsoc.org.uk/
Wales
6 - 9 July National Strength & Conditioning Association Las Vegas,
National Conference
USA
7 - 9 July International Children’s Games 2005 – Symposium on Child Coventry,
Welfare in Sport. www.childrens-games2005.org.uk
England
13 July Practical Skills in Obesity Research and Treatment 1 Cambridge,
www.aso.org.uk
England
13 - 16 July European College of Sport Science Congress Belgrade,
Serbia
14
Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist
www.bases.org.uk

EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT
Making the most of your sport & exercise science degree
Are you studying for a degree in sport and
exercise science and will shortly be looking to
determine your potential career path for years to
come?
Some of you will have a clear idea about where you want to go and
what you are aiming to become, whilst others will be uncertain
about the route your career will take. Most of you will, however, be
wondering how to maximise your chances of achieving your
potential and moving into a position as a graduate in sport and
exercise science. The purpose of this article is not only to give you
some insight into what potential employers are looking for in their
employees and thereby increase your chances of success but also to
inform you of some potential employment fields about which you
may not be aware. As a first or second year undergraduate you may
think that reading this article right now is not worth your while.
However, now is the time to make sure that whilst you enjoy your
time at university you begin to make the most of all the
opportunities that are available to you.
Since you are reading this you are no doubt studying for a sport and
exercise science related degree and surely you say to yourself that
the degree is the main thing. But you will be in competition with
other individuals all of whom have comparable degree qualifications.
Your potential employers want to know what knowledge, skills and
competencies you have that sets you above the others applicants in
relation to the role they wish to fill.
“There is no doubt that postgraduate
employment for students is extremely
competitive”
As part of the forthcoming 2005 BASES Annual Student Conference
we have poled a number of graduate employers and those working
as graduates with a sport and exercise science degree. The purpose
of this exercise was to get an insight into those skills that they
considered will increase your chances of success in your chosen field
of employment. There is no doubt that postgraduate employment
for students is extremely competitive with more students than ever
before leaving UK institutions with sport and exercise science related
degrees. So how do you maximise your chances of success?
The postgraduate destinations for people with sport and exercise
science related degrees are extremely wide and the possibilities are
many; for this reason alone many of you may feel overwhelmed at
this point in time. As previously mentioned there are many roles you
could take, so for the purpose of simplicity we have grouped
postgraduate activities into the following sub-headings and will deal
with each in turn.
• Non-sport and exercise science related graduate positions
• Positions working in the field of sport and exercise science
• Teaching at primary and secondary levels
• Postgraduate education: MSc, MRes, MPhil, PhD
While there is no doubt that there will be some considerable overlap
between groups there are also specific skills that can be highlighted in each
case.
Non-Sport and exercise science related graduate positions
Remember a large percentage of all graduate posts advertised do not
specify a particular degree subject. This covers a wide range of
career paths including: the armed services, emergency services,
managerial training, civil service, retail, local authority employment
and private sector. The subject specific skills and knowledge you
have developed will have little direct relevance but by achieving your
degree you have shown you can work at an intellectual level
required by the post. The main issues to draw on here are your
www.bases.org.uk
graduate skills such as your ability to:
• communicate in both oral and written forms
• work as part of a team
• problem solve
• manage your time
• self-reflect
• use information technology.
When submitting your application you will undoubtedly be given
ample opportunity to highlight how you have developed your
abilities in the above list but be sure that before any interview you
read your application and are confident that you can support every
statement in there with examples. These can come from your
degree programme or from extra curricula activities such as
involvement in staff student committees, the Students’ Union or
BASES. Highlight your leadership qualities by explaining how you
organised a sporting event or captained a sporting team, illustrate
your communication skills by highlighting the fact that you presented
your final year project at the BASES Annual Student Conference or
even within your institution (e.g., to your year group). There are
many opportunities to develop these skills at university, many degree
programmes have identified these skills as essential to graduates and
specific modules are created to develop them such as problem
solving, work placements and personal development or applied
modules. Reflect on your degree programme and highlight where
each of these graduate skills has been developed.
Positions working in the field of sport and exercise science
The graduate skills highlighted above are just as important here as
they are in the non-subject specific areas of employment. However,
in addition, the specific skills and knowledge you have gained over
your time as an undergraduate are vital. The opportunities for sport
and exercise science graduates to work in the fields of sport and
health are growing as awareness increases of the role that training
and exercise play in maintaining health and improving performance
respectively. Possible career paths include: health promotion,
“experience counts for
a great deal”
exercise specialist dealing with diabetes, cardiac rehabilitation, GP
referral etc., health clubs/personal training, sports development,
strength and conditioning coach, sport scientist; this list is not
exhaustive and the opportunities are continuing to grow. Some of
the above careers may require further training and/or education such
as an MSc or population specific qualifications, i.e., cardiac
rehabilitation. Some of the further qualifications are possible to obtain
while in post.
Your degree qualification may get you to the interview stage but
what sets you apart from the rest of the candidates? If you want to
work in a specific sport as a sport scientist, it is vital that you can
demonstrate a commitment to the sport. This could be achieved by
becoming involved with local or university clubs on a voluntary basis.
Use the experience of your final year project to focus on your
sporting interest, you may be able to inform an interview panel of an
issue related to their sport about which they are not aware. If the
opportunity arises whereby you can shadow a member of academic
staff while they work in a consultative role for a group of athletes,
take it, and highlight the fact in your application and at interview,
focusing on specific lessons learnt. If your goal is to work in the
health and fitness sector as a fitness instructor/personal trainer,
experience counts for a great deal. While studying for their degree
many students will work part-time in a local gym; if this is you, make
the most of the training offered by the organisation. ➔ ➔
Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist 15

EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT
Qualifications and experience in teaching and working with specific
populations or types of class may set you out from the other
candidates and are easily attainable while studying for your degree.
One of the areas with the greatest potential for employment is within
the health service working with specific populations. It may be that
you would need to complete further training but some qualifications
such as the BACR Phase IV Exercise Instructor Training are available
while in post. Again highlight specific knowledge gained while studying
and if your final year project has relevance, highlight this.
Teaching: Primary and secondary
This will require a Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE), for
which places are competitive and applications need to be submitted
early. An alternative is the Graduate Teaching Programme in which
you are placed in a school and training is provided while in post.
Information for both can be found at www.tta.gov.uk. If you plan to
teach sport to children, it is vital that you are qualified in a range of
sports as a coach. Just because you are a top soccer coach does not
guarantee you a place. Use your time at university to develop your
Curriculum Vitae in relation to teaching and coaching. If the
opportunity presents itself, spend time in a school working with
children, if it does not present itself, develop your own links. Use the
Students’ Union to become involved in a range of sports available at
your institution, some will pay to train you as a coach, but if not,
there is still a great deal that can be gained by involvement in several
sports. Finally, many universities run outreach programmes whereby
they form links with local schools and host visiting days for young
children; volunteer your services and highlight the involvement in
your application.
Postgraduate Education: MSc, MRes, MPhil, PhD
Without doubt this is where your subject specific skills and
knowledge will have the greatest input. There are a range of options
available if you want to continue with your education. Taught MSc
programmes are available in most sport and exercise science
departments, fees are payable but some institutions have bursaries
available for the most gifted students; details will be available at
individual institutions. Regularly check institutional websites for
information. Masters by Research and PhD scholarships are available
and are advertised as and when funding becomes available, check the
BASES website, www.bases.org.uk for these opportunities. In your
application it is essential that you communicate that you are capable
of study at an appropriate level, short listed candidates will usually
hold a 2:1 or 1st class honours degree in a relevant subject. In
addition, you will need to communicate the ability to manage your
time and have research experience; this is where your final year
project can be used to demonstrate both attributes. Postgraduate
qualifications and BASES Accreditation as a sport and exercise scientist
are now becoming essential if you want to work with world class
performers as a sport scientist.
Finally remember all the experience and knowledge in the world will
do you no good in the job market unless you communicate it to the
employer. To this end most universities will have a careers
department that will help you with the writing of Curriculum Vitae
and application forms and will stage mock interviews providing
feedback on your performance so that it can be improved before the
real thing. Furthermore, this is probably the first time you will have
the opportunity to demonstrate the communication skills that you
have developed during your degree and are now an essential part of
all degree programmes.
You will spend most of your life between the ages of 21 and 65 at
work, it is a lot of time if you do not enjoy what you do. To get your
working life off to a good start it is worth putting in some time and
thought now. ■
Dr Rhys Thatcher
Department of Sport and Exercise Science
University of Wales Aberystwyth
16
Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist
www.bases.org.uk

EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT
From undergraduate to postgraduate study
BASED on my journey to date from an
undergraduate student of Sport and Exercise
Science at Leeds Metropolitan University to
completing an MSc in Exercise Physiology at
Loughborough University, I aim to describe my
reasons for carrying out a Masters degree and to
provide an account of differences in characteristics
and content of courses. I also attempt to reflect
upon my Master’s year to determine in what ways
the experience developed me in the area of sport
and exercise science and strengthened my CV and
future prospects.
On completion of my undergraduate studies, I still
thought that I had more to learn. Sport and
Exercise Science as a multidisciplinary degree
served to introduce a number of key theoretical
concepts within disciplines such as physiology,
psychology and biomechanics. In contrast, the
Master’s programme in Exercise Physiology
offered a focus, providing a comprehensive yet
diverse overview of key topical aspects in my field
of interest, including sport and exercise nutrition,
exercise immunology and laboratory techniques in
sport and exercise.
Module content at postgraduate level was
distinctly more detailed than undergraduate level.
Lecture material was diverse, based upon current
research in the field of interest. Assessment
procedures were more original and challenging,
ranging from abstract writing, to preparing an A4
feedback poster for a footballer suffering from
muscle cramps. Prior to starting the course, we
were repeatedly encouraged to ‘think critically’ and
were advised to practise critical evaluation
techniques of unpublished articles in our field of
interest. The year culminated with an invitation to
work alongside and assist an established research
group within the school to carry out a research
project of our choice. A very satisfying three
months of intensive research saw my colleagues
and me involved and committed to a diversity of
research projects, supervised by experts in the
field. I would not be alone in describing this
aspect to be the most fulfilling experience of the
Master’s programme, allowing students to express
the wealth of knowledge gained during an
intensive year. Those students interested in the
applied field of sport and exercise science
welcomed opportunities to provide sport science
support to affiliated institutions such as the British
Swimming Team and Northampton Saints RFC.
The key to success at Masters level is to select the
right programme. My advice, particularly to those
sport and exercise science undergraduates, is to
select a programme that focuses upon your
individual discipline of interest and apply to an
institution renowned for its research expertise in
this area and is able to provide access to elite
athletes. In comparison to the undergraduate
degree, the demand to frequently submit
coursework of a high quality makes those time
management skills and commitment to
background reading key ingredients to success at
Master’s level.
On reflection, the transition from undergraduate
study to a Master’s degree provided a challenging
progression in my personal understanding of
exercise physiology. For those students looking to
impress admission tutors and strengthen their
application to a Master’s programme, I advise
enhancing personal extracurricular interests and
qualifications such as coaching badges and
emphasising individual research areas of interest
presented at undergraduate level. I would
recommend a Master’s degree to those students
who have successfully pinpointed their area of
interest in sport and exercise science and can
maintain the motivation to explore further into the
current literature. Those students treating the
Masters course as a “stop gap” without purpose or
direction will gain very little from the experience,
other than a much lighter wallet!
My view is that the Master’s degree acts as a
valuable stepping-stone to those people interested
in pursuing careers in both academic and applied
fields, without providing a direct ticket to
guaranteed employment in either field. I think that
this postgraduate qualification provides a valuable
addition to any CV submitted
in application to both
academic and applied fields
of exercise physiology. ■
Oliver Witard
MSc, Exercise Physiology
Loughborough University
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Call us on +44 (0)208 392 3232 or visit our website
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www.bases.org.uk
Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist 17

EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT
From undergraduate student to sport & exercise science work
FOLLOWING my graduation from Loughborough
University with a 2:1 BA honours in English and
Sports Science, I, like many students, naively
assumed that employers in the sporting domain
would be falling over themselves to employ an
ambitious graduate like myself. However, I soon
realised that with so many people now going to
university, it was no longer enough to rely on
my degree to get me my dream job. As sport
related programmes of study are becoming
increasingly popular, competition for the limited
number of jobs in this field was inevitably going
to be tough. When it came to my interview for
my current position, I was up against candidates
with Masters degrees in various sport and
exercise science areas. In order to override the
fact that they had an extra qualification, I had to
highlight my additional experiences and the
transferable skills I had gained in other areas of
my life. I needed to illustrate how they made me
the best, most capable candidate for the role.
In my position, I am responsible for
coordinating the Jump Rope For Heart (JRFH)
initiative - a fundraising scheme developed by
the British Heart Foundation (BHF) aiming both
to raise money and to increase physical activity
levels of young people through skipping. A core
task of the job is to promote the scheme to
teachers, sports coordinators and group leaders,
predominantly through the delivery of practical
workshops run across the UK. Additionally, I
manage eight tutors who also deliver these
workshops, reconcile the expenses and organise
a national festival to promote the scheme.
Throughout my degree, I developed skills and
knowledge specific to sport and exercise, which
have been invaluable in my current role such as
up-to-date knowledge of the national curriculum
and physical activity recommendations. This
enables me to provide accurate information
about the scheme and effectively apply health
and safety in the physical setting. Furthermore,
my studies developed many generic skills such
as written and verbal communication, working
under pressure, time management and the
ability to work both independently or in a team
However, I believe my involvement in activities
aside from my degree have all enhanced these
skills and developed new ones enabling me to
carry out my role effectively. For example, my
position as social secretary in my hall of
residence, my teaching of dance to youngsters,
various part time jobs and my dedication to an
athletic training programme. My levels of
organisation, leadership and confidence plus my
ability to motivate, persuade, support and
influence individuals could not have come from
my degree alone.
Moving into employment within the sporting
domain has brought the content of my degree
into perspective. It is extremely rewarding to
apply the theoretical knowledge in a practical
setting and be in a position to make a positive
impact. The most significant difference I have
noticed since entering employment is the shift
in focus from personal gain to encompassing
and striving towards meeting the company’s
targets and goals. Working for a charity, I feel
privileged to be representing and maintaining its
high standards and value my responsibility and
influence.
Personal Tips
• Make the most of your time at university and
the opportunities available by gaining
valuable experience and developing
transferable skills.
• Talk with your lecturers… they generally
know best! They may have valuable
contacts/information and they may agree to
provide you with a reference.
• Show enthusiasm, dedication and passion for
the field that you wish to enter.
• Research the company offering the position
that you are applying for.
• The most valuable advice is to apply for jobs
sooner rather than later to beat the rush. ■
Emma Boyle
BA (Hons) in English and
Physical Education and
Sports Science, JRFH Coordinator
BHF National
Centre for Physical Activity
and Health, Loughborough
University
18
Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist
www.bases.org.uk

REVIEWS
A SNAPSHOT OF SOME OF THE LATEST SPORT AND EXERCISE SCIENCE BOOKS
Concepts of Fitness and Wellness
Authors: Charles Corbin, Gregory Welk,
Ruth Lindsey & William Corbin
Publisher: McGraw-Hill
ISBN: 0-07-255666-8
Edition: Fifth
Advanced Fitness Assessment and
Exercise Prescription
Author: Vivian H. Heyward
Publisher: Human Kinetics
ISBN: 0-7360-4016-1
Edition: Fourth
This book focuses on health education,
An original, comprehensive text that
health promotion, and behaviour
synthesises theories, principles and
modification and is accompanied by a
concepts derived from research in exercise
CD containing useful “labs”. The book
physiology, kinesiology, measurement,
is multi-disciplinary in nature, wide
psychology and nutrition. It uniquely
emphasises laboratory techniques for
ranging in extent, well set out, and most
assessment of physical fitness components
suitable for the educated layperson or
while incorporating field testing procedures
undergraduate student. The labs could
and the latest information from the 6th
be incorporated into teaching, while
edition of the ACSM Guidelines for Exercise
further readings and a range of web
Testing and Exercise Prescription (2000). The primary focus of this text is the
resources are listed at the end of each chapter. The authors have also
assessment of the physical fitness status of apparently healthy individuals and
extensively utilised colour in the production. The book defines concepts of
thus, it is not clinically oriented. The text elaborates on current assessment
health, fitness and wellness before moving onto physical activity, which takes
techniques and exercise prescription strategies for five components of
up five chapters. Here consideration is given to how to adopt an active physical fitness, namely: cardio-respiratory endurance, muscular fitness, body
lifestyle, including what factors to consider before becoming active, the weight and composition, flexibility and neuromuscular relaxation in successive
amount of activity necessary for health benefits, and strategic planning for a order. At the end of each chapter on assessment, there is an up-to-date list of
lifetime of physical activity. Various components of fitness are covered from a sources for purchasing equipment and supplies and an extensive reference
sport and recreational perspective. Body composition and nutrition are linked, list. Moreover, the inclusion of new pedagogical tools, such as key questions
with the focus of body composition assessment being the use of skin fold at the beginning of each chapter, key points, review questions and key terms at
measures. The later part of the book focuses on stress and how to manage it, the end of each chapter and a glossary of terms at the back of the book
lifestyle behaviours such as the use of tobacco, alcohol, other drugs, and
preventing sexually transmitted diseases. The final chapters cover cancer,
diabetes and other health threats, as well as planning for lifestyle change. The
main weaknesses are that the health data cited relate only to North America
and some of the key concepts are not explained clearly or sufficiently, even
with accompanying diagrams. It is a useful but not outstanding text.
distinguish it from its previous editions. Focus boxes, tables, graphs and
diagrams are included throughout the text presenting recent research findings
and reference data. The only limitation is that there is no laboratory manual or
CD ROM to accompany the text. Nevertheless, the text is highly relevant and a
valuable resource for practitioners employed in health and exercise science
settings and also exercise science students and academics.
■ Dr Ron Butterly
★★★✩ ■ Dr Maria Konstantaki
★★★★★
www.bases.org.uk
Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist 19

STAR LETTER
A call to arms
I sit and pen this letter not more than 12 hours after the EGM and feel it
essential that I make comment. At the EMG I moved an amendment to the
proposal that Divisions and Interest Group be formed to replace the current
Sections. My amendment asked that Sectional representation be retained
for Education and Training, Supervised Experience and Accreditation until
September 2006. This was based on my concern that there was
insufficient time to put in place comparable Divisional structures in the
next seven months. The amendment was not supported and the proposal
was carried. The single vote against the proposal was mine.
So I awake this morning a member of an Association setting off on a new
path. I retain my concern that there are many important tasks to be
completed to make this work in a very short space of time. I therefore
write with one simple purpose, to encourage all members to mobilise and
get involved in the process. The die is cast, there is no point dwelling on
how things used to be. We must make this work and the only way this can
happen is through a wide cross-section of the membership contributing
imaginatively and enthusiastically to creation of the Divisions, Interest
Groups and other underlying structures.
Neil Fowler, Section Chair, Biomechanics
BASES advanced workshops
Through its Education & Training Committee, BASES has implemented a
programme of intermediate workshops designed to provide essential
knowledge and skills to members undergoing supervised experience.
Whilst other individuals seeking to brush up on areas of interest also often
attend these workshops, only a couple of advanced workshops designed for
the continuing professional development of members run each year. Such
workshops are generally organised and presented by members of Special
Interest Groups (e.g. Molecular Exercise Physiology), and have been well
attended and received.
At the time of writing, it is unclear how the formation of three divisions
within BASES and their possible replacement of some, if not all, of the
current sections will affect the structure of the current Intermediate
Workshop Programme. More evident is that the additional interest groups
intended to spawn from the divisions will provide exciting new
opportunities to generate a more extensive advanced workshop programme
aimed at the CPD of members. If you are considering forming a new
interest group, or are working in an area that you feel other members may
benefit from knowing more about, please contact me to discuss the
prospect of running an advanced workshop.
Adrian Burden, PhD
Chair, BASES Education & Training Committee
■ a.burden@mmu.ac.uk
LETTERS
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Each issue, the winner of the Star
Letter will receive a copy of the
featured book or a voucher to the value
of £50, courtesy of Human Kinetics.
This issue’s prize is
SPORT NUTRITION: An introduction to
Energy Production and Performance.
www.humankinetics.com
Write to:
If you have any comments on any aspect of sport & exercise science that
would make a stimulating letter or have a Top Tip, please send them to:
The Editor, The Sport and Exercise Scientist
■ c.sellars@hud.ac.uk
The deadline for Top Tips & Letters for the next issue of The SES is 12 May.
www.bases.org.uk
Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist 21

INTERVIEW
Interview Simon Jones
SIMON is Head Coach of the GB cycling team that won three medals (gold, silver & bronze) in the Athens
Olympics and a bronze in Sydney, and also contains two World Champions (2002, 2003) plus various medallists
from the Commonwealth Games in 2002
Q Can you please describe briefly
your career path and achievements -
from sports science graduate to coach
of Olympic gold medallists.
I graduated from Cardiff Institute (UWIC) in
1995. Prior to this I was interviewed and
was subsequently selected to work for the
Sport Science Support Programme for
cycling in Chichester. This appointment
involved support for the federation with
regard to physiological assessments and
generating coach education material. The other part of the job was
meant to be spent studying for a PhD in cycling (the job was split
50/50 sport science support and academic research; however, I didn’t
complete the PhD as I was more interested in the coaching than the
academic side). I stayed in Chichester for 2.5 years, where the funding
switched to Lottery. Peter Keen invited me to work in Manchester
where he wanted me to continue testing the ‘Programme’ athletes. I
did this for 1.5 years, but I was being pulled towards more interesting
aspects of work, such as track side support, coaching riders attending
pre-World Championship training camps. When Peter wanted to
expand the operation with coaches, I applied for a job. From that
point on I developed as a coach through trial and error, picking up
advice from everyone around me.
Q In the early stages of your career did you have any key
mentors? If so, who and what did you learn from them?
I wouldn't say mentors; all the staff were keen to support and help
me. It was learning more through trial and error and attempting to do
things differently with a sound reason behind it. That approach was
encouraged.
Q What motivated the move into coaching from sport
science?
My main reason for moving from science to coaching was that as a
coach you had a direct influence in the performance outcome, rather
than working through the coach as a scientist. I liked the hands-on
approach that coaching gave me.
Q In what ways were the two functions complementary?
Keeping ahead of the competition is crucial and to have someone
scanning and reading for innovation is important. Also, it’s great to be
challenged in what you do as it makes you think through exactly what
you are doing and how it’s going to improve performance.
Q Do these functions ever conflict?
Applied sport science does not, rigid science with no implications for
elite performance does!
Q What are the benefits of a sports science background to
coaching?
The foundation of knowledge and the understanding of the key
limitations to performance are very important for a physical sport such
as cycling. The science can dispel myths and explain or refute
traditional thinking.
Q Looking back, did your sports science background help give
you the skills, both technical and people-oriented, to help you
become a successful coach?
My sport science skills gave me very little technical knowledge of the
sport or people skills to coach and get the best of people. Perhaps one
reason I have coached successfully is that I have always been
ambitious; I love winning, I hate ‘no’ or ‘can’t do’ for an answer and
I'm extremely pragmatic in my approach. I was like this before my
sport science training. One reason I left ‘science’ was that it was too
rigid. What sport science taught me was the ‘methodogical approach’ I
needed and that it’s attention to detail that counts. This was
underpinned with background physiology knowledge of the crucial
limiting factors in cycling.
Q As a very successful coach, what thoughts would you pass
on to young sports scientists who want to work in the applied
field with elite athletes?
Be flexible, listen carefully to the coaches, watch intently, aim to apply the
science in the real world rather in a laboratory. Understand how a scientist
can help the coach and not compete with the coach, and understand that
your role can often be an unseen and rarely rewarded part of the jigsaw.
■ Interview by Dr Sarah Rowell
Team GB warming up in the Athens velodrome
22
Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist
www.bases.org.uk

TOP TIPS WINNER
Reduced membership fees
Membership to the American Physiological Society is free for the first year and only
$15 for each additional year. Benefits include access to all APS journals online.
Follow the links below:
www.the-aps.org/membership/categories.htm#Student
www.the-aps.org/membership/application.htm
Also, for a limited time the European Respiratory Society is offering free trial
membership.
www.ersnet.org/ers/default.aspx?id_fiche=87949&id_langue=3
Student members might also be interested to know that they can become affiliate
members of the Physiological Society for only £20.
www.physoc.org/join/whyaffiliate.asp
Steve How,
Brunel University
Website for psychology tests
Students find this invaluable. The website is
free to access and has a list of various
pschometric tests that can be accessed and
downloaded quickly rather than having to
search extensively for information.
http://dlibrary.acu.edu.au/staffhome/stburke/v
1.htm
Tracey Devonport,
University of Wolverhampton
Wingate tests without technology
Getting a large group of students to
experience the Wingate Anaerobic Cycling
Test not only requires expensive technology,
but also takes a considerable amount of
time. To overcome this we have devised the
'UWIC anaerobic power test.' All you need
is a basket loaded cycle ergometer that
displays pedal revolutions in rpm. The
procedure is as follows:
• Complete a 5 mins. warm-up at 60 W
• Set the resistance (kg) to 7.5% body mass
• Support resistance and ask the subject to
cycle to 60 rpm
• On the command 3, 2, 1, go, apply the
weight and encourage the subject to cycle
flat out for 10 s
• Record the peak rpm
• Peak power (W) = Peak pedal
revolutions (rpm) x resistance (kg).
Hence using 3 or 4 basic cycle ergometers, a
large laboratory class can experience the
assessment of anaerobic power without using
expensive equipment in less than 30 minutes.
Richard Tong, University of Wales Institute,
Cardiff
Multi-tasking during exercise testing
My exercise testing protocol involves
undertaking simultaneous tasks with my
hands. Therefore, where possible,
programme the incremental exercise
protocol into the treadmill to enable you to
pay due attention to the athlete who is
exercising, as opposed to the timings and
alterations of the speed and/or gradient.
Simple, yet very effective.
Sheena Privett,
Liverpool John Moores University
Telephone interviewing
I've recently been doing some interviews
with netball umpires and since I couldn't get
out to them all face to face I managed to do
some over the phone by picking up a little
bit of kit which connects a dictaphone to the
telephone. It's called a TA103 telephone
recording adapter. It costs around £20 and is
available from Speak-IT Solutions based in
Birmingham who are on 0121 689 9080.
Ali Mahoney,
University of Wolverhampton
Neutral language
If unsure about terms and expressions that
unwittingly cause offence and their preferred
alternatives, the following web-site addresses
provide some especially helpful guidance
(produced by the British Sociological
Association).
Anti-sexist language
www.britsoc.co.uk/bsaweb.php?link_id=15&area=item1
Anti-racist language
www.britsoc.co.uk/bsaweb.php?link_id=16&area=item1
Non-disablist language
www.britsoc.co.uk/bsaweb.php?link_id=17&area=item1
The BSA is updating its website and these
guidelines might be revised so continue to
check for amendments.
Professor Edward M Winter,
Sheffield Hallam University
The winner of each issue’s Top Tip will receive a prize courtesy
of Bodycare. This issue’s prize is
the Polar F11 red Chilli.
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www.bases.org.uk
Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist 23

RESEARCH
Reflections on the use of Qualitative Data Analysis Software:
Dr Lynne Johnston shares her experiences of using software such as NVivo and QSR NUD*IST and reflects on their contribution in teaching and learning
My story
I first became involved with computer
assisted qualitative data analysis (QDA) when
I attempted to analyse a series of interviews
that I had collected to supplement the main
quantitative study in my doctoral research. I
used QSR NUD*IST (version 3) and viewed
the qualitative analysis process in much the
same as my quantitative analysis. It never
occurred to me that data collection and
analysis should be an iterative process or that
my use of QDA software would be questioned,
or even that I would spend considerable time
explaining the background and use of QDA
software in my thesis, viva and resultant
journal articles. I never imagined that I would
invest so much time learning the technical
aspects of the software and that I would
squander a considerable amount of this time
doing irrelevant things with it. Most
importantly, I failed to recognise that I had
fallen into the coding trap. At the end of my
doctoral research I attended a training course
with the software developers. It was at this
point that I discovered my ignorance
regarding the skilful use of the software and
how much I did not know about qualitative
research.
In the last eight years, I have attended several
training sessions with the software developers
(www.qsr.com.au/) and spent time at a
specialist research retreat
(www.researchsupport.com.au/). In most of my
training courses the participants are studying
for a higher degree; it is very unusual for a
doctoral supervisor to attend. Qualitative
software has now been publicly available for 21
years, yet it is not unusual for doctoral
supervisors and examiners to know less about
computer assisted approaches to qualitative
analysis than their students. Without honest
reflective reports about the way in which
computing has influenced the way in which we
do qualitative research, it is likely that
discussions will be confined to specialist
conferences on qualitative computing.
Technical and methodological
learning curves
I now realise that my early experiences with a
QDA software package are by no means
unique, as evidenced by the rather
audaciously entitled text by Morse and
Richards (2002). ReadME First was written in
response to the amount of people who turned
up at training workshops without the
necessary grounding in qualitative methods or
methodology. The Economic and Social
Research Council (ESRC) have recognised
this problem in their research training
guidelines for postgraduate students (ESRC,
2001). These guidelines go some way in
helping to ensure that ESRC funded students
have adequate training in qualitative research
methods and software (e.g., QSR NVivo) but
they fail to espouse the need to integrate
technology and methodology. This lack of
integration emanates from the qualitative
research methods literature that is still
dominated by erroneous discussions about
the relative pros and cons of various software
programmes. Software is not routinely viewed
as integral to the analysis process and as a
result current qualitative methods texts still
include separate chapters on software. This
suggests a false dichotomy between tool and
process (e.g., Weitzman, 2003). The
challenge of combining discussions about
methodology and teaching the technical
aspects of QDA software creates pedagogic
tensions regarding the design and delivery of
postgraduate research training. As a result,
the following questions usually emerge from
my workshops:
“Software is not routinely
viewed as integral to the
analysis process”
1. How much detail regarding the analysis
process is expected within the thesis?
2. How do I demonstrate the processes I have
gone through in the final written document?
3. Should I include my project on CD at the
back of the thesis; and if I do, what are the
ethical implications?
4. What will my examiner expect me to
know/discuss regarding the impact of QDA
software on the way we do qualitative
research?
The coding trap
One of the most common problems
associated with non skilful use of QDA
software is the coding trap. This occurs
because software makes it extremely easy to
code and retrieve material. Researchers have
found themselves coding in a somewhat
mechanistic manner without using some of
the in-built tools to help them to see the
proverbial wood from the trees. This incessant
desire to code every part of a document
without taking time to think and reflect upon
data can lead to a very descriptive prosaic
project. Computer software can facilitate the
coding trap and the resultant code and
retrieve cycle but I would suggest that there
are several factors that can help to explain
such occurrences.
“Computer software can
facilitate the coding trap”
Firstly, QDA software has undoubtedly
increased the attraction of qualitative research
in disciplines that have usually adopted
quantitative approaches, such as those
traditionally adopted within sport and exercise
sciences. One of the reasons for this
increased attraction is the increased ability to
link qualitative and quantitative data in a way
that was extremely difficult to do without
software. For example, the developers of QSR
NUD*IST and NVivo have given significant
attention to the ability to export detailed
coding information. This offers the potential
to create data sets from the qualitative data
that can be exported to a statistical
programme for further analysis. The
advantage being that the researcher can go
back to the original text to seek further
interpretation. Some of the arguably more
deductive aspects of QDA software
programmes, such as the ability to generate
coding automatically or to search text for
keywords, phrases or patterns of words, can
also save a considerable amount of time. The
fact that software can assist researchers in
answering positivistic questions does not
provide justification for asking such questions
in the first place.
Researchers with a background in sport and
exercise sciences may not have received
24 Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist
www.bases.org.uk

Implications for Teaching and Learning
RESEARCH
extensive training in QDA procedures at
undergraduate level. As a result they may
fail to appreciate the importance of audit
trails, memoing and the research diary. The
main benefit of keeping a research diary
inside programmes such as NVivo is that it
encourages the researcher to rapidly and
openly record their thoughts, hunches,
questions, reflections and emergent
theoretical ideas to a central executive
point. Used skilfully an electronic diary can
act as a conceptual launch pad from where
the researcher can then jump to specific
points in their literature, data, or memos to
explain, conceptualise and theorise.
Reviewing and reflecting on a research
diary can provide the necessary analytical
distance that is so often lacking in
qualitative projects. This aids further
interpretation and creativity because it
gives the person time to think without the
fear of losing context and continuity.
A second explanation for the coding trap is
that it may in fact have always existed yet
remained a dirty secret with manual
methods of analysis. The increased level of
transparency that comes with QDA software
programmes has a potential impact upon
the expectations that may be placed on
qualitative researchers today. For example,
including a project CD or DVD within a
thesis allows doctoral supervisors and
examiners to view the data analysis process
itself and assess whether or not a specific
methodological approach has really been
adopted and adhered to. Whether or not
this level of transparency should become
commonplace is still to be debated.
The third explanation for the coding trap
stems from the inappropriate use of
demonstration tutorials. This is especially
true when demonstration tutorials are used
as the sole method of support. New users
tend to be highly motivated to learn the
functionality of the software yet do not
necessarily acknowledge that each tutorial
comes with its own implicit
epistemological position and
methodological approach. For some new
users this may be their first real practical
exposure to qualitative research. In my
experience, most users report that they get
to a certain point in a tutorial and then stop
because they feel they know enough, they
are bored, or because they are under
unrealistic time pressure to complete their
qualitative analysis. For some this will
involve stopping after they have learned
how to code and retrieve. Most tutorials are
sequenced into different stages and new
users often view the latter stages as more
‘advanced’ stages of analysis.
Unfortunately, it is only when users move
on to the latter stages of tutorials that they
can start to explore the role of different
types of searching, linking and modelling
data. This is analogous to performing
descriptive rather than multivariate analysis
within a statistical software package. One of
the most common errors that QSR
NUD*IST and NVivo users tend to make is
that they view the index (tree) system as a
way of modelling their coding rather than
as a functional infrastructure that can
maximise the way the data are searched.
Problematic index tree structures are those
which are illogical and contain
multiplicative coding systems (i.e.,
repetitions of the same node in various
places throughout the tree structure). The
purpose of the in-built searching and
linking tools is to assist the users in
building the results of initial searches into
further ‘deeper’ searchers to follow a
particular hunch or to explore subtleties in
the data. The ability to turn questions into
logical and meaningful searches is
probably the aspect that novice users find
most difficult. These types of searches
would be extremely difficult to do via
manual methods and as a result have not
been adequately discussed within the
research methods literature. This may be a
reflection of the fact that most existing
qualitative methods texts spend a
disproportionate amount of time discussing
data collection rather than analysis
procedures. ■
Further information
For further details of forthcoming training
and consultancy workshops on using QSR
NUD*IST or NVivo please contact Lynne
Johnston directly via Email.
Useful websites
www.dur.ac.uk/strategies.conference/
www.qsr.com.au/
www.researchsupport.com.au/
http://tqm.wceruw.org/
References
Economic and Social Research Council (2001).
Postgraduate training guidelines, third edition.
Swindon, UK: Economic and Social Research Council.
Morse, J.M. & Richards, L. (2002). Readme
First: For a users guide to qualitative methods.
London: Sage.
Weitzman, E. (2003). Software and qualitative
research. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (Eds).
Collecting and Interpreting Qualitative Materials
(2nd Edition). London: Sage. pp 310-339.
Dr Lynne Johnston
Lynne is Principal
Research Fellow, Centre
for Sport and Exercise
Science, Sheffield
Hallam University,
Collegiate Crescent
Campus, Sheffield.
■ E-mail:
l.johnston@shu.ac.uk
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Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist 25

EGM
A new chapter in the history of BASES has opened
BASES is now a private limited company and will shortly be
restructuring to Divisions. At the February EGM, members
voted in favour of the following proposals:
1. To establish three Divisions focused on the areas of Sport
and Performance, Physical Activity and Health, and Learning
and Teaching
2. To form BASES as a private company limited by
guarantee.
Forty members attended the meeting and those unable to
attend registered their opinions via an on-line survey. There
was a good mix of new faces and more established members
of the Association.
BOTH proposals received overwhelming support. At the meeting there
was constructive comments and vibrant and focused debate. The main
concern raised was about a realistic hand-over period from existing
structures to a new Divisional structure. Dr Neil Fowler and Prof Les
Burwitz expressed their views that September 2006 was a more realistic
timescale. Prof Andy Smith, a proponent of Revolution rather than
Evolution, stated that a Big Bang approach was required. Such an
approach was supported by some new faces, who added that there was
a need for a leap of faith and that members needed to place
responsibility on the Strategic Management Team to put the exact detail
into the plans. A proposal to go for a less dramatic timescale in terms
of change-over was not supported and there was strong support in
favour of the original proposal with one member voting against it. Dr
Neil Fowler highlighted that, “Members now need to embrace the
changes and to volunteer for working parties and other activities.”
“Members now need to embrace the
changes and to volunteer”
The vote to form a limited company required less debate. There was
helpful comment regarding some aspects of the Memorandums but the
rationale behind the proposal was unanimously supported. Based on
effective planning by the SMT, BASES was incorporated on 8 March
2005 under the Companies Act 1985 as a private limited company. Dr
Claire Palmer, BASES Executive Officer, has headed this project and
said, “To be incorporated just 8 days after it was voted for at the EGM
is a great achievement for the Association. I spoke with another
association who took three years to become incorporated because of
needing to go through several AGMs and red tape. So for BASES to do
this in such a short period demonstrates how effective the new
Strategic Management Team is.”
“Becoming a limited company wasn’t straight forward at all as BASES
requested exemption from using 'limited' in its name. Also our company
name contains two ‘sensitive’ words, ‘British’ (implying national or
international pre-eminence), and ‘Association’ (implying business preeminence
or representation or representation or authoritative status),
which cannot be used without consent of appropriate parties. We
needed to ensure we supplied sufficient evidence to support our preeminence
and ensure that the Memorandum and Articles of Association
had the relevant clauses in. It certainly was a relief when we got the
certificate of incorporation through.”
“It’s important for the Association to be
flexible to operate in the best interests of
members at a quick pace”
The main advantage of this development is that as a limited company
BASES has limited liability. This means that if the Association ever
ceased to operate, the Association will be required to pay only what it
has already paid or agreed to pay towards settling its debts. The only
liability is for fraud and for recklessness and incompetence that has
jeopardised the interest of the creditors.
Two documents will replace the Constitution. The first document,
Memorandum and Articles of Association, broadly sets out the objects
for which the company is formed and the regulations governing the
company’s internal affairs. The second document, Rules, will contain
26 Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist
more detailed
information,
which will be
available by
the
September
2005 AGM.
The SMT will
have the
power to
make
regulations on
any points not
specifically
catered for by
the Rules or
to make
alterations to
Prof Craig Mahoney
and Dr Claire Palmer.
the Rules, provided such new regulations or alterations are reported at
the next available quorate general meeting. Dr Richard Davison from the
SMT added, “I think it was timely to review the Constitution as it’s
important for the Association to be flexible to operate in the best
interests of members at a quick pace.”
“It's our organisation and it can only be as good
or supportive as we make it for each other”
Dr Claire Palmer commented after the meeting, “Both moves are
significant steps forward for BASES. The short timescale that both
proposals were put together and voted on was really impressive. The
Association appears to have really picked up momentum and members at
the meeting acknowledged the rate of positive change that is now
occurring. The required work between now and September will be
substantial but I’m confident that deadlines will be met.”
The existing four Section Chairs have been tasked with consulting
section members about how their needs can be met best with respect
to Interest Groups. Calls have already been made for volunteers to sit
on three Divisional working parties, which will develop Terms of
Reference for their respective Divisions (including Division name, aims,
membership, meetings, committee structure, election of officers,
structures and systems for education and training, supervised
experience and accreditation) for approval by the SMT. This will enable
elections for Division Officers to take place in time for the September
2005 AGM. The SMT will be responsible for ensuring parity across
Divisions.
Prof Craig Mahoney, BASES Chair, reflected on the EGM, “I am
personally delighted with the outcomes and would like to thank the
members, the Strategic Management Team, the Modernisation Working
Party and the full-time staff for all their hard work that was involved in
preparing these new initiatives. I think the future of the Association is
very exciting and look forward to working with the members in seeing
these proposals realised.”
One Email sent to the BASES Office following the EGM provides a good
summary, “It's our organisation and it can only be as good or
supportive as we make it for each other. I liked the vibe at the EGM. A
new chapter in BASES' history has opened.” ■
www.bases.org.uk

UK Sport Practitioner
Development Programme
Dr John Bradley reflects on his own practitioner development and its
relevance to his work within the Scottish Institute of Sport
The UK Sport Practitioner Development
Programme (PDP) is operated by UK
Sport in association with its partners the
English, Scottish, Welsh and Northern
Irish Sports Institutes. Its stated aims are:
1. To create a career path which attracts and
retains high calibre graduates to the High
Performance System
2. To immerse suitably qualified individuals
into the High Performance System which, with
suitable mentoring, will fast track the
development of knowledge and competencies
for the first level of autonomous practice with
High Performance Athletes
3. To increase the number of suitably qualified
practitioners working within the High
Performance System
4. To create a scalable programme that has the
ability to rapidly increase or decrease the
number of candidates entering the programme.
It is part of UK Sport’s wider Sports Medicine
and Sports Science programme that aims to
provide professional performance services to
the UK High Performance System that exceed
the expectations of coaches and athletes and
leads to international sporting success.
“Some of the most useful
and memorable parts of the
programme so far have been
meeting acknowledged
world experts”
The PDP has some potentially very useful aims
but does it help in my daily role as Exercise
Physiologist with the Scottish Institute of
Sport? Since starting this job in October 2004,
I have found myself in an environment of high
quality support providers that can help athletes
and coaches to achieve their maximum
potential. There is a real emphasis on
integration and working with the other
providers to build a High Performance
environment to support the athlete and coach.
This is an exciting environment to be part of
but besides the skills and experience of
exercise physiology, there are many other
skills necessary to do an effective job.
The PDP is made up of practitioners with a
host of different backgrounds and skills and
led by a team with a similarly wide background
(of geography as well as skills). This mix is
one of the most useful aspects of the PDP. The
mix of physiotherapists, nutritionists, strength
& conditioning coaches and exercise
physiologists provides a very valuable platform
to see how other disciplines approach and
interpret situations and problems. Some have
international sporting experience, most have a
higher degree (MSc, PhD), but all have a daily
involvement with high calibre sports men and
women in their normal roles, with the aim of
achieving peak performance. This mix of
experiences is a great way to appreciate
different perspectives and approaches within
sport science. Liaising effectively within this
group is one aspect of the PDP.
The focus on High Performance is an integral
part of the PDP. Everything is geared towards
working with the athlete, coach and others to
identify strengths and weaknesses, to improve
performance and to achieve results. The High
Performance end of the spectrum is an
unforgiving environment. For me, some of the
most useful and memorable parts of the
programme so far have been meeting
acknowledged world experts in their respective
fields, such as Peter Keen and Sarah Webb.
Getting insights into this world from people
who have been there and have got the T-shirt
(a drawer full of T-shirts!) is a very motivating
experience.
Over the course of the workshops the PDP is
building what it terms a ‘High Performance
Toolbox’. This contains tips and strategies to
develop aspects such as:
• Managing self
• Managing through others
• Business delivery
• Innovation and change.
This toolbox provides a skill set that can be
dipped into and used as necessary. We all
have our own strengths and weaknesses and
no doubt feel we are good at some things, but
we can always benefit from wider experience.
Strategies for dealing with the dependant
athlete, the intimidating coach, the
independent athlete and the rest, are useful to
hear, discuss and then to use as necessary.
Alongside all this the PDP moves around the
country. We get to see the different parts of the
UK Sport network, meet different athletes,
coaches and support staff, and try the
occasional new sport. There is a while to go
but so far it seems the UK Sport PDP is an
integral part of a High Performance System.■
Dr John Bradley
John is a Sport & Exercise
Scientist (exercise
physiology) employed
since 2004 by the
Scottish Institute of Sport
and based in Glasgow. He
provides physiological
support to all West of
Scotland Institute athletes
and is lead physiologist
with the Institute badminton programme.
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Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist
27

SPORT SCIENCE
Evaluating Practice in Sp
Dr Nick Smith and Phil Moore draw on their own experiences to highlight the necessity for systematic evaluation of applied practice
THIS article focuses on the process of evaluation and where it fits
in the working practices of the sport and exercise scientist. Based
on our main areas of professional experience, we focus on the
evaluation process largely from the perspective of psychologists
working in a performance sport context. It is hoped that many of the
issues raised and recommendations made will apply equally to the
evaluation process when working in an exercise context.
Evaluation: A working definition
Evaluation is “an attempt to assess the worth or value of some innovation or
intervention, some service or approach” (Robson, 1997, p.171). Reasons
for conducting evaluations as a sport and exercise scientist (SES) may
include:
• To support judgements about the quality of the performance/service
• To facilitate improvement of the performance/service
• To generate knowledge about the performance/service.
In sport performance settings, one of the key factors relevant to the
development of performance excellence is active and constructive
engagement in the evaluation process. This engagement may take place at
a number of levels within the ‘organisation’ and may involve multiple
individuals (e.g., athletes, coaches, performance directors and other sport
and exercise service providers). The process of evaluation can be repeated
at various stages in the development cycle. Figure 1 shows such a cycle
that is commonly used in models of reflective practice.
PLANNING
(NOW WHAT?)
PERFORMING
CONCLUDING
(SO WHAT?)
REFLECTING
(WHAT?)
Figure 1: Experiential development cycle (adapted from Kolb & Allen, 1984)
Figure 1. Experiential development cycle (adapted from Kolb & Allen, 1984)
Characteristics of effective evaluations
Evaluation normally takes place in the context of a developmental or
performance cycle that has agreed objectives (both outcome and process
goals), and these should be the primary focus of any evaluation. For an
evaluation process to be effective it is essential that the participants (e.g.,
athletes, coaches and support personnel) are involved in agreeing ‘the
targets’ of any evaluation, the methods to be used and allocate sufficient
time and priority to it. Gaining clear consent from all involved in the
process for how evaluation ‘data’ are to be used is essential in order to
minimise potential feelings of threat or disruption.
Informed consent
Ethical practice demands that freely given, fully informed written consent
should be obtained from all individuals from whom (or about whom) data will
be sought. Participants should be informed, in a manner and in language they
can understand, of the context, purpose, nature, methods and procedures of
the evaluation. Anonymity and confidentiality of data need to be clarified and
ensured as appropriate. Full information on the rights and responsibilities of
all personnel involved in evaluation should be clearly explained.
In the case of evaluation with children (below the age of 16 years), consent
should be sought from the parents/guardians as well as the children
themselves. Where the parents/guardians consent to participate, and the
children have declined, the rights of the children should be respected.
28 Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist
Anonymity
Allowing participants to provide their thoughts in a non-threatening
environment is particularly important when ‘subordinate’ individuals provide
feedback about colleagues who have power, control or influence over their
situation (i.e., athletes providing feedback on coaches). However, there is
also a risk that anonymity can be used as a cover for spurious, non-specific
and unconstructive negative feedback.
The evaluation process provides a ‘system for change’. However, for
individuals to change it is necessary to receive specific and constructive
feedback. If only vague comments are provided then change is difficult.
Therefore, feedback should be specific, constructive, evidence-based,
action-orientated and where relevant, solution-focused.
In some instances, anonymous feedback may not be required or desirable.
For example, specific follow-up or support may be facilitated by requesting
identifiable feedback on some programme or service areas. Decisions about
anonymity should be fully considered by all involved and the rationale for
decisions appropriately communicated. To maintain the anonymity of
participants you will need to consider how data are created, stored,
accessed, transferred and disposed of.
Confidentiality
All information generated through the process of evaluation should be
considered confidential unless otherwise stated. All personnel who may have
access to raw data, summaries or reports are obliged to maintain
confidentiality within the boundaries specified for each evaluation.
There may be differences in terms of professional codes of conduct and
issues relating to confidentiality within the group involved with the evaluation
process. Members of the medical support and scientific support staff are
bound by professional codes of conduct. They must ensure confidentiality of
information. However, some support personnel (e.g., coaches) are not
currently obliged to abide by a professional code of conduct and as such, do
not have specific, professional obligations to confidentiality.
Information storage
Storage and use of raw evaluation data need to be in accordance with the
provisions of the Data Protection Act 1998. Evaluation data should be stored
in a secure place for a period, which is reasonable to meet the purposes for
which it was collected. The evaluation data should then be destroyed.
What and who needs to be evaluated?
Key individual and team performance measures linked to the organisation’s
objectives and goals should be evaluated. In ‘World Class Performance’
sport settings, measures such as athlete or team placing, match analysis
data and physiological field-test measures may be used to indicate changes
in performance over time. Programme and team evaluations should be
integrated into relevant performance cycles whilst individual evaluations
should be conducted on a regular basis and linked to formal appraisals.
Improvements in knowledge of and actual use of the techniques introduced,
as well as satisfaction with, enjoyment of, and attitude toward the
intervention are considered important (Vealey, 1994). Support personnel’s
impact, effectiveness, rapport and overall evaluation have been identified as
key criteria for evaluating support personnel effectiveness (e.g., Weigand,
Richardson and Weinberg, 1999).
Evaluation procedures
All personnel within an organisation should be encouraged to take
individual responsibility for the delivery and evaluation of the services they
provide or the performances they achieve. Thus, personal evaluation plans
should be developed that use a variety of sources of evidence to support
judgements about performance. Typically these will include self-reflection,
client satisfaction feedback, objective data, peer review and appraisal by
relevant line managers.
www.bases.org.uk

SPORT SCIENCE
ort and Exercise Science
Triangulation of data is crucially important. Steps should be taken to
validate each piece of information against at least one other source. No
single item of information (unless coming from a “gold standard” and
unimpeachable source) should be given serious consideration unless it
can be triangulated.
It is likely that questionnaire findings will be found to be more useful if
both quantitative and qualitative methods are utilised, e.g., combining
‘how much and how many’ type data with data that elicits deeper
description, understanding and meaning.
Where and from whom will evaluation data be collected?
The best individual(s) to perform evaluations will depend on what aspect
of the programme is to be evaluated. The key issues are that the
evaluators are appropriately experienced, knowledgeable and informed.
For example, athlete performance needs to be primarily assessed by selfreport,
objective match analysis data and coaches, whereas coaches,
sport science and medicine personnel may require feedback from athletes
and other support staff. In addition, there can be significant value in
independent peer evaluation by internal and/or external experts.
Access to the questionnaire data
Access by the participants to summaries (or raw) data should be
determined prior to evaluation and everyone involved should have this
explained. In a team sport setting, it could be argued that all data should
be presented to all participants. In this way, they can make informed
decisions about each aspect of the support programme provided. We have
used successfully such an ‘open’ approach in some sport settings but
there are risks involved. An alternative model is that data are provided to
individuals on a ‘need-to-know’ basis. That is, data regarding individuals
are only forwarded to individuals who have responsibility for the overall
programme or to whom they are responsible. The advantages and
disadvantages of different models of information dissemination should be
discussed. However, once the policy is agreed it should not be modified
dependent on whether evaluations are favourable or not.
A summary of the questionnaire data (not including any evaluation data
relating to individuals) should be circulated to those responsible for the
programme, all support staff and athletes. Individuals evaluated in the
questionnaire should receive a copy of their own evaluation by team
members. Data should be presented in a user-friendly and succinct format.
Debriefings
The purpose of a debrief is normally to focus on a systematic review and
validation of the collected data, including the key factors that influenced
the individual, unit or team performance at a competition, training phase
or phase of work.
For mid-programme or periodic reviews, the debriefing may be conducted
internally and led by a member of the relevant team. The data generated
in minor cycle evaluations and debriefs can be recorded in a summary of
action statements.
For major cycles (i.e., World Cup/Olympic Games), the debrief will
normally be facilitated by a credible and trustworthy independent with
whom the athletes and support personnel can have a no-holds-barred
discussion about salient issues. Independence is critical to ensure that
biases, motivations or vested interests do not determine the findings of
the evaluation.
Goals, ground-rules and format of debriefings
The facilitator needs to outline goals for the debrief, establish ground
rules (e.g., staying focused on the topic, adopting a team approach,
respecting others at all times, valuing all opinions, considerate use of
language and confidentiality) and outline the format of the day. This
information can be distributed prior to the debriefing with the evaluation
questionnaire summary report.
Implementation of action plans
Following evaluations, action plans relating to the most salient factors
should be developed. Procedures outlining specific timescales and
responsibility for implementation should be developed. Monitoring
checkpoints should be used to ensure that the implementation of action
plans is ‘on track’. The action plan should inform and influence the next
cycle’s evaluation.
Quality assurance and sensitive data
A system for checking and verifying data needs to be implemented
before a wider audience of all involved has access to the data.
Trustworthy individuals should be identified and given responsibility to
read and verify the data and to have authority to deal appropriately
with any sensitive issues, including removal of sensitive data, if
necessary.
Timing of evaluations
Data need to be collected systematically across time. Otherwise if data
is only collected post-competition it may be skewed by the outcome of
the competition. The content and frequency of evaluation should be
established at the start of each competitive cycle. It should occur at
regular intervals in order to allow changes to be implemented and also
at the end of a major cycle in an overall, summative fashion. The
information generated from each evaluation cycle should inform and
influence the next cycle’s goals. The timescale for each evaluation cycle
needs to be clearly defined.
Evaluating the evaluation process
The evaluation process needs to be a dynamic process, which, whilst
maintaining a certain level of consistency, is flexible enough to
incorporate appropriate modifications. A process for evaluating the
evaluation process needs to be developed. Questions focusing on the
evaluation process can be included in the evaluation questionnaire or
workshops can be run at training camps. The inclusion of external
quality assurance mechanisms will undoubtedly enhance the quality,
integrity and credibility of the evaluation process. ■
References
Kolb, A. & Allen, D. (1984). Experiential learning: experience as the source
of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Robson, C. (1997). Real World Research. Oxford: Blackwell.
Vealey, R. (1994). Current status and prominent issues in sport psychology
intervention. Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise, 26, 495-502.
Weigand, D. A., Richardson, P. A. & Weinberg, R. S. (1999). A two-stage
evaluation of sport psychology internship. Journal of Sport Behavior, 22, 83-
104.
Dr Nick Smith & Phil Moore
Nick is the Course Leader of the MSc in Sport and
Exercise Science at MMU Cheshire. BASES
Accredited for 14 years, he has worked as a Sport
and Exercise Scientist (Psychology Scientific
Support) across a range of sports.
Phil is a BASES Accredited
Sport & Exercise Scientist
(Psychology Scientific
Support) and is the Science and Medicine
Manager for English Hockey, being responsible for
their evaluation policy. He is a Senior Lecturer in
Sport Psychology at MMU Cheshire.
www.bases.org.uk
Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist
29

ASK THE PRACTITIONER
Ask the Practitioner
The ‘Case’
‘LAURA’ is a 29 year old professional horse rider (Three-Day-
Eventing). Last season Laura suffered from ‘blankness’ during
competitions (she forgot the order of the movements in the dressage
test on several occasions). This was both disastrous to her
competition results (she relies on prize money for her living), and
extremely embarrassing (“I feel like a plonker”), especially as it was
more likely to happen at the bigger events, where typically spectator
numbers can be in the thousands.
Laura has also reported (evidenced by a ‘qualitative-type’ approach
of a taped semi-structured interview and content analysis) the
following issues:
• Not realising she has gone wrong until someone (or something,
e.g., a bell) actually told her so.
• After the ‘blanking’ episode, the performance typically
degenerated.
• A tendency to be easily distracted from task in hand in both
training and competition – typically thinking irrelevant thoughts (e.g.,
“I must remember to tax the car….”).
• Warming-up well and then not producing similar standards
in performance.
• Inappropriate in-performance focus and limited distraction control
(reported being hyper-aware of distractions such as certain spectators
– especially those known to her).
• An underdeveloped and inconsistent performance ‘zone’ for
competition and training performances (“I don't feel that I really ever
have been in any kind of ‘zone’ in the dressage arena”).
• No apparent established pre-performance states or strategies for
competition and training performances.
• Generally and progressively: losing confidence, finding inperformance
decision-making more difficult, ‘over-riding,’ and
becoming more anxious in the other parts of the competitions (“I use
so much more nervous energy than I used to”).
I am in the early stages of working with Laura, and I would appreciate
advice from the experts.
Submitted by a 3rd Year Probationary Sport and Exercise
Scientist.
Practitioner 1
ON first reading Laura’s case, it seemed to
centre around attention, but I suggest that
her problems in this area may be
symptomatic of her evident anxiety (an
assumption that needs to be tested).
Further questioning around Laura’s
memories of her first ‘blank’ could reveal
that attentional problems led to
performance decrement, loss of
confidence and increasing levels of
performance anxiety, but I would focus
initially on the anxiety because it a) seems
quite severe and b) may exacerbate any
underlying attentional problems and c)
could present an obstacle to attempts at
intervention in this area.
Reversal Theory (Apter, 2001; Kerr, 2001)
provides an integrative approach to
understanding motivation and emotion and
offers some insight.
Laura describes the consequences as
‘disastrous’ and more likely to occur at
bigger events. Anxiety is experienced in
the serious state, when the activity is a
means to an end or goal rather than an
end in itself and the activity is perceived as
important (or arousal is high). Given that
this is Laura’s livelihood, it is unlikely that
attempts to ‘reverse’ into the playful state,
in which arousal is experienced as
excitement, would be easily achieved (or
necessarily fruitful in the dressage!).
One option might be to focus on helping
Laura reduce her arousal levels using
physical or cognitive arousal management
techniques. I am normally sceptical of
Maintaining the performance zone
interventions that focus solely on arousal.
However, as I believe that they treat a
symptom rather than the cause of the
anxiety, it could form part of a range of
interventions.
I would recommend, therefore, that you
work on the perceived ‘importance’ or
threat of competition and perhaps:
1. Spend some time exploring Laura’s
perceptions of the risks and consequences
of ‘blanking’. Encourage and challenge her
to accurately assess these risks and play out
the consequences fully (e.g., is that really
true/and then what?) and help her to
develop a new perspective. There are a
number of techniques, for example from
Rational Emotive Therapy, that might be
helpful.
2. For those risks that are accurately
perceived but still induce anxiety, Laura
could develop a plan to mitigate each of
them in turn. This will provide an
important part of the pre-performance
routine/plan that she lacks.
3. Help Laura to cultivate a robust
confidence in training, and take it into
competition. This can be done by using
goals more effectively. In Reversal Theory
terms, performance goals tend to reduce
the perceived ‘importance’ in the serious
state versus outcome goals, while process
goals take this further still (any may facilitate
a reversal to the playful state).
4. By widening her definition of the
‘competition’ to include preparation and
warm-down, Laura could reframe her
positive warm-up as a ‘good start’ and use
process goals written into a performance
plan to help her to build upon this. If she
learns to evaluate her whole competition
in this way, with the final performance as
the ‘icing on the cake’, then her confidence
can become more robust, based on a
number of small ‘efficacy’ experiences
rather than one all-important moment.
Looking further down the road, I am
interested in the embarrassment factor. It is
reasonable to hope that this will be
diminished by the effective use of process
goals, which will facilitate a ‘mastery’
experiences (in Reversal Theory terms)
that are self-referenced and not otherreferenced
(or ‘task’ rather than ‘ego’ in
Achievement Motivation terms). If not, I
would be interested to know whether
Laura feels like she is performing for the
30 Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist
www.bases.org.uk

ASK THE PRACTITIONER
benefit of others, and explore the impact of this
with her.
Laura’s attentional issues may still also need to
be addressed, especially as they sometimes
occur in training and could be the root cause of
her anxiety. She could harness her process
goals to provide some simple attentional cues. I
would also recommend that you help Laura to
develop the habit of spending some time
‘listening’ to her body, becoming more aware
of her feelings and thoughts before any practice
or competition, and ‘parking’ any distracting
thoughts (see Syer and Connelly for some
specific examples of this). ■
References
Apter, M.J. (Ed.) (2001). Motivational Styles in Everyday
Life: A Guide to Reversal Theory. Washington, D.C.: American
Psychological Association.
Kerr, J.H. (2001). Counselling Athletes: Applying Reversal
Theory. London: Routledge.
Syer, J. & Connolly, C. (1998). Sporting Body Sporting
Mind. London: Simon and Schuster.
Rob Robson
Rob is a BASES Accredited Sport &
Exercise Scientist (Psychology
Scientific Support) and Full Member
of the British Psychological Society.
He has worked largely with athletes
in sports such as swimming,
athletics and slalom canoeing.
Practitioner 2
My initial approach with Laura would be to
break down the competition into three phases
– pre-, during and post-competition.
1. Development of consistent precompetition
routines
These can be worked out on paper together,
put into practice and refined at each
competition. This would involve preparation of
the horse but just as important mental
preparation of Laura. You may find her focus is
totally on the horse without allowing herself the
necessary time to achieve the correct
attentional focus. The ideal scenario is to have a
physical and mental preparation ladder where
every physical action is linked to a mental
preparation strategy and is repeatable.
2. “Walking” the course
Build in time for Laura to physically and
mentally walk the course beforehand. This can
be reinforced by work in the previous week, if
the course is known, using imagery skills. Ask
Laura to allocate time to image herself riding
the course, performing her dressage routines,
successfully completing the show jump section.
These skills will take time to teach and develop
but will aid with her focus and confidence.
3. Pre-performance state
Laura should be encouraged to understand
what her ideal state is – a suggestion would be
to use Hanin’s IZOF (“Emotions in Sport” has
all the necessary forms) to build a profile. This
will enable Laura to understand what facilitates
and what harms performance and achieve
some consistency.
4. “The Performance” itself
As you begin to develop the imagery programme
of Laura riding the course, add keywords that she
has ownership of at important parts of the course
or routine. These can be motivational (positive
self-talk) or reminders (attentional focus). These
all need to be developed in training and
transferred to the competition arena slowly.
Practise coping mechanisms in training where
Laura has to recover from a situation when things
have gone wrong.
5. Debriefing
After each competition, encourage Laura to
record her thoughts / feelings in a way she is
comfortable with. This may be a reflective
diary, an e-mail to you, telephone call – the
most important point being that she reflects on
what went well and not so well. Did she just
focus on the negative aspects, which are then
carried into the next event? Possibly ask for a
list of balanced positives and negatives. Is it
possible for the events to be videoed? Can the
successful performances be transferred to DVD
to reinforce the imagery work?
General Comments
The trick is not to try to achieve all these at
once. Start with one aspect such as
preparation; get it right so that Laura is
comfortable with it before adding in another
component. This requires an education of your
client that Sport Psychology is not a quick fix
and that skills need to be developed, tried and
reinforced. There also need to be commitment
from Laura in that she practises the skills you
give her and there is regular communication
between you on how things are progressing.
Outline your thoughts in a proposal to her with
timescales dictated by agreed goals. What
performance measures will you be measured
by? How will you reflect upon your work –
Supervised Experience is about the progress of
you not your client? What do you expect of
your client? When will you review your
progress and how will you be evaluated? The
more you outline these details in the beginning,
the more structured and professional a service
you can offer. ■
Reference
Hanin, Y. L. (Ed.) (2000). Emotions in sport. Human
Kinetics: Champaign, IL.
Paul Dent
Paul has been a reviewer of BASES
(Psychology) SE and Accreditation
applications for 18 months and is
continuing his work with Peter
Waterfield, Olympic Silver Medallist
Platform Synchronised Diving in
preparation for the 2006
Commonwealth Games.
THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION OF SPORT AND EXERCISE SCIENCES - the UK professional body for all those with an interest in the science of sport and exercise
Biomechanics Chair l Dr Neil Fowler
Interdisciplinary Chair l Paul Boyle
Physiology Chair l Dr Paul Bromley
Psychology Chair l Dr Daniel Weigand
Education and Training Chair l Dr Adrian Burden
Student Advisory Group Chair l Emma Stevenson
Exercise Science Special Committee Chair l Dr John Buckley
Sport Science Special Committee Chair l Dr Kevin Thonpson
Executive Officer l Dr Claire Palmer
Chair l Prof Craig Mahoney
Secretary l Prof Edward Winter
Treasurer l Dr Richard Davison
Office Manager l Jane Bairstow
jbairstow@bases.org.uk
Committee l Contact details at
BASES
Chelsea Close
Off Amberley Road
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Leeds LS12 4HP
Tel/ Fax: +44 (0)113 289 1020
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Issue 3 March 2005 The Sport and Exercise Scientist 31