Positive Behavior Support for ALL Michigan ... - Oakland Schools

MDE 

Michigan Department of Education 

Office of Special Education and 

Early Intervention Services 

Positive Behavior Support 

for 

ALL Michigan Students: 

Creating Environments 

That Assure Learning 

February 2000 

IDEA State Improvement Plan (SIP) 

00-1a

For hard copies of this document: 

Awareness and Dissemination (Hub 2 of the SIP) 

Eaton Intermediate School District 

1790 East Packard Highway 

Charlotte, Michigan 48813 

(800) 593-9146 #3 

Email: mhewer@eaton.k12.mi.us 

For electronic copies of this document: 

Visit the SIP web site at: 

http://www.michigansipsig.match.org 

State Board of Education 

Dorothy Beardmore, President 

Kathleen N. Straus, Vice-president 

Herbert S. Moyer, Secretary 

Sharon A. Wise, Treasurer 

Sharon L. Gire, NASBE Delegate 

Marianne Yared McGuire, Board Member 

Michael David Warren, Jr., Board Member 

Eileen Weiser, Board Member 

Ex Officio Members 

John Engler, Governor 

Arthur E. Ellis, Superintendent of Public Instruction 

This document was produced through an IDEA State Improvement Grant awarded by the Michigan Department of Education. 

The opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the Michigan State Board of 

Education or the U.S. Department of Education, and no endorsement is inferred. This document is in the public domain 

and may be copied for further distribution when proper credit is given. For further information or inquiries about this 

project, contact Judy M. Hazelo at the Office of Special Education and Early Intervention Services; P.O. Box 30008; Lansing, 

Michigan 48909. 

00-1a

MDE 




Positive Behavior Support 

for 

ALL Michigan Students: 

Creating Environments 

That Assure Learning 

February 2000 

IDEA State Improvement Plan (SIP) 

00-1a

Positive Behavior Support for ALL Michigan Students: 

Creating Environments That Assure Learning 

Dedication 

We dedicate this work to ALL kids! 

Acknowledgments 

We appreciate the leadership of the State Board of Education and Dr. Jacquelyn 

Thompson, Director of the Office of Special Education and Early Intervention 

Services, in recognizing the importance of getting this information into the 

hands of Michigan parents and practitioners. This tool enables and teaches 

parents and practitioners to better meet the learning needs of ALL Michigan 

students. We thank the people who took the time to review the contents of this 

document. Their input was invaluable in making this document a practical and 

usable resource. We would also like to thank Emily Gustavson, graphic artist, 

Margot Landa Kielhorn, editor, and Denise Smith, desktop publisher, for their 

work on this document. 

Core Work Group 

Kathy Clegg, Lapeer Intermediate School District 

John Dickey, Ph.D., Michigan Department of Education, Office of Special 

Education and Early Intervention Services 

Tricia Luker, Epilepsy Foundation of Michigan 

Frances Mueller, Ph.D., Michigan Federated Chapters of the Council for Exceptional 

Children, Oakland Schools 

Jim Paris, Michigan Department of Education, Office of Special Education and 


Sue Pratt, Citizens Alliance to Uphold Special Education 

Deborah Roush, Ed.S., Children with Attention Deficit Disorder 

Bernie Travnikar, Ed.D., Consultant, Michigan Positive Behavior Support 

Initiative, Michigan Department of Education State Improvement Grant 

Claudia Williamson, Michigan Association of School Social Workers, Flat Rock 

Community Schools 

Reviewers 

Introduction – 1

Reviewers 

Kathy Al-Rubaiy, Superintendent, Livingston Educational Service Agency 

Penny Axe, Director of Special Education, Wayland Public Schools 

Kristal Ehrhardt, Graduate Student, Western Michigan University 

Meme Hieneman, Director of the Department of Child and Family Studies, 

Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, University of South Florida 

Joanne Hopper, Curriculum Coordinator, Lapeer Intermediate School District 

Lucy Hough-Waite, Assistant Director of Special Education, Kent Intermediate 

School District 

Jack Martin, Wayne-Westland Community Schools, Michigan Association of 

School Psychologists 

Valerie Mierzwa, Teacher Consultant, Michigan Federated Chapters of the Council 

for Exceptional Children, Michigan Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders, 

Farmington Public Schools 

Gigi Mitchell, Director of Student Support Services, Oakland Schools 

Donna Secor, Michigan Association of School Social Workers, Forest Hills Public 

Schools 

Deneen Sink, Parent, Livonia Schools 

Ken Smith, Parent, Children with Attention Deficit Disorder 

Greg Waller, Supervisor of Special Education, Traverse Bay Area Intermediate 

School District 

Introduction – 2

Introduction 

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), as amended in 1997, 

reflects a revolution in the theory and practice of behavior intervention. Students 

who experience both disability and behavioral challenges must now 

receive positive behavior support developed upon a foundation of functional 

assessment. However, the law does not define the procedures for positive behavior 

support. This document has been developed to address this need, affording 

parents and practitioners the basic information needed for good faith implementation 

of such procedures. 

While the IDEA serves as the catalyst for this initiative, positive behavior support 

is appropriate for ALL students who present behavior challenges. The 

entire educational community benefits when ALL students learn how to pursue 

their own legitimate needs and interests without compromising the rights and 

privileges of others. 

The professional literature affirms the systematic practice of positive behavior 

support on a schoolwide basis. In addition to helping learning environments 

become safer and more productive, this approach offers the potential of improving 

the quality of life of everyone engaged in the teaching and learning 

process. 

We anticipate the ongoing development of additional products to assist schools, 

families, and communities in supporting positive results for ALL students. This 

document is just a beginning. We hope it will prove to be a valuable resource in 

the pursuit of our goals for improved student achievement in our schools. 

Jacquelyn J. Thompson, Ph.D., Director 




Introduction – 3

Introduction – 4

Preface 

All contributors to the document Positive Behavior Support for ALL Michigan 

Students: Creating Environments That Assure Learning are firm in their conviction 

that the door to a meaningful education must not be closed to any student 

who could, with our help, pass through. Students who persistently exhibit 

inappropriate behavior limit their learning opportunities and compromise 

teaching and the learning of others. It is no longer acceptable to continue with 

the status quo approach to problem behavior. It is time to systematically address 

challenging behaviors in a comprehensive, research-validated, humane manner. 

Michigan needs schools in which ALL students are taught how to act within 

accepted norms. Effective schools are safe and orderly. Positive Behavior Support 

(PBS)—with its Functional Assessment of Behavior and Behavior Intervention 

Plan components—provides a way for us to commit our talent and our 

resources to making our schools safe. We must be unequivocal in our resolve to 

teach students how to pursue their own needs and interests legitimately, without 

compromising the rights and privileges of others. Society expects this, and 

our students deserve nothing less. 

In pursuit of these goals, a representative group of professionals, advocates, 

administrators, and parents first met in the fall of 1998 with the intent of producing 

a document to explain the conceptual framework and practical implementation 

of PBS, the umbrella framework that covers multiple types of interventions. 

As this core team wrestled with the known information about PBS, it became 

clear that implementing PBS in isolation is insufficient, and that PBS includes a 

range of best and promising practices that exceeded the personal philosophies of 

individual core team members. Collaborating on this document expanded the 

core team members’ knowledge of best practice, rekindling their passion for the 

concept of PBS. This initial document is offered to the field in the hope that 

readers will be similarly inspired to learn about and implement PBS in our 

schools to enhance learning and improve the quality of life for students, their 

families, school personnel, and service providers throughout the state. 

Adults in the state of Michigan who face complex situations need access to comprehensive 

PBS support and resources to successfully teach students new ways of 

behaving. It is our intent to initiate ongoing conversation about what really matters 

in the lives of our students. It is our hope that people who really care about ALL kids 

will join this conversation and extend the dialogue. The Reader Response form in 

Section 14 provides one way for you to enter into the conversation. 

Proposed changes in perspective and practice articulated in this document are 

offered in the sincere belief that traditional methods have failed to address 

ongoing challenging student behaviors. The new philosophy and promising 

practices of Positive Behavior Support are offered here in the belief that ALL 

students are worth the effort. 

Introduction – 5

Introduction – 6

Table of Contents 

Section 1 – Exploring Beliefs and Defining Positive Behavior Support 

• What Is Positive Behavior Support? 1-1 

• Positive Behavior Support: The Concept 1-1 

• Why Use Positive Behavior Support? 1-2 

• When Should Positive Behavior Support Be Implemented? 1-2 

• What Does This Document Provide? 1-3 

• Purpose of This Document 1-3 

• Positive Behavior Support Implementation Plan 1-3 

• Anticipated Outcomes for Michigan Students 1-3 

• Anticipated Benefits 1-4 

Section 2 – Assessing the Status of Positive Behavior Support 

in Your District 

• Getting Started with Positive Behavior Support 2-1 

• What Does Not Work? 2-1 

• What Does Work? 2-1 

• What Is the Foundation of Positive Behavior Support? 2-2 

• What Are the Features of the Positive Behavior Support Approach? 2-2 

• What Types of Problems Does Positive Behavior Support Address? 2-3 

• What Outcomes Are Emphasized Using Positive Behavior Support? 2-3 

• What Does a Schoolwide Positive Behavior Support System Look Like? 2-3 

• Where to Start? 2-4 

• When to Start? 2-4 

• Positive Behavior Support Works! 2-5 

• Randy’s Story: A Social Worker’s Perceptions regarding Positive 

Behavior Support 2-8 

• The Nature of the Approach 2-10 

Section 3 – Building a Model Positive Behavior Support Team 

• Introduction 3-1 

• Student Support Teams 3-2 

• Student Support Teams: Basic Considerations 3-2 

• Student Support Teams: Structure and Size 3-3 

• Core Team 3-4 

• Auxiliary Team (Expanded Team) 3-4 

• Selection of Team Members 3-4 

• Duration of Team Membership 3-4 

• Student Support Team Meetings 3-4 

• Incentives for Membership 3-5 

• Personnel Development 3-5 

Introduction – 7

Section 4 – Completing a Functional Assessment of Behavior 

• What Is Functional Assessment of Behavior? 4-1 

• Basic Beliefs Supporting Functional Assessment of Behavior 4-1 

• Four Main Goals of Functional Assessment of Behavior 4-2 

• Two Major Techniques for Obtaining Information for 

Functional Assessment of Behavior 4-2 

• Three Values of Functional Assessment of Behavior 4-2 

• When Is Functional Assessment of Behavior Necessary? 4-2 

• Functional Assessment of Academic and Behavior Challenges 

Process Checklist 4-6 

Section 5 – Collaborating on a Positive Behavior Intervention Plan 

• What Is a Behavior Intervention Plan? 5-1 

• Components of a Behavior Intervention Plan 5-2 

• Positive Behavior Support in the Classroom: Basic Assumptions for 

Writing a Behavior Intervention Plan 5-4 

Section 6 – Linking Positive Behavior Support to Special Education 

• How Can Positive Behavior Support Aid the 

Prereferral-to-Special Education Evaluation Process? 6-1 

• Prereferral and Referral Processes 6-2 

• Special Education Evaluation and Eligibility 6-3 

• What Is an Individualized Education Program? 6-4 

• How Can a Functional Assessment of Behavior and Behavior 

Intervention Plan Help Guide the Individualized Education 

Program Team? 6-5 

• How Can a Functional Assessment of Behavior and/or 

Behavior Intervention Plan Be Addressed in an Individualized 

Education Program? 6-6 

• The Required Use of Functional Assessment of Behavior and 

Behavior Intervention Plans When Students with Disabilities 

Are Removed from School 6-8 

• What Constitutes a Functional Assessment of Behavior and 

Behavior Intervention Plan? 6-9 

• Manifestation Determination Review 6-10 

• When Are Functional Assessment of Behavior, Behavior 

Intervention Plans, and Manifestation Determination Reviews Required? 6-11 

• General Change of Placement 6-12 

• Change of Placement: Drugs and Dangerous Weapons 6-12 

• Change of Placement: Other Dangerous Situations 6-13 

Section 7 – Designing Positive Behavior Support Strategies 

• Conditions Related to Curriculum and Instruction 7-1 

• Preventive and Early Intervention Strategies 7-2 

Introduction – 8

• Conditions Related to Physical and Mental Health Disorders 7-3 

• Consideration of Maintenance over Time and Generalization 

across Settings 7-4 

• What about General Education Students? 7-4 

• What about Students with Section 504 Plans? 7-5 

• What about Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students? 7-6 

Section 8 – Responding to Emergency Situations: 

When Students Are Physically Dangerous 

• Staff Training 8-1 

• Corporal Punishment Prohibited 8-2 

• School Response to Violence in Michigan 8-2 

• Best Practice Considerations 8-3 

Section 9 – Conclusion 9-1 

Section 10 – Resources 

• Early Warning, Timely Response 10-1 

• “Effective Behavior Support: A Systems Approach to Proactive 

Schoolwide Management” 10-1 

• Functional Behavior Assessment: An Annotated Bibliography 10-1 

• Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 10-1 

• Michigan Positive Behavior Support Initiative 10-2 

• Research Connections in Special Education 10-2 

• School-Community Partnerships – A Guide, Conduct and 

Behavior Problems: Intervention and Resources for School 

Aged Youth, Sampler on Resiliency and Protective Factors 10-2 

• State Documents 

Alabama 10-2 

California 10-3 

Kansas 10-3 

Minnesota 10-3 

Utah 10-3 

Vermont 10-4 

West Virginia 10-4 

• The Agreement of Collaboration for Positive Behavior Support 10-4 

• The Exemplary Mental Health Programs: School Psychologists 

As Mental Health Service Providers 10-4 

• Teaching Exceptional Children 10-4 

• Commercially Available Resources: 

Aggression Replacement Training: A Comprehensive Intervention 

for Aggressive Youth 10-5 

Analysis of Sensory Behavior Inventory-Revised 10-5 

Anger Management for Youth: Stemming Aggression and Violence 10-5 

Introduction – 9

Basic Skill Builders: A Precision Teaching Approach 10-5 

BEST Practices, Behavioral and Educational Strategies for Teachers 10-6 

Conflict in the Classroom, The Education of At-Risk and 

Troubled Students 10-6 

Functional Assessment and Intervention Program 10-6 

Homework Partners: Practical Strategies for Parents and Teachers 10-6 

Life Space Intervention: Talking with Children and Youth in Crisis 10-7 

Nonviolent Crisis Intervention 10-7 

Reaching the Hard to Teach: Participant Packet 10-7 

Skillstreaming in Early Childhood: Teaching Prosocial Skills 

to the Preschool and Kindergarten Child, Skillstreaming in the 

Elementary School Child: A Guide for Teaching Prosocial Skills, 

Skillstreaming the Adolescent: A Structured Learning Approach 

to Teaching Prosocial Skills 10-7 

Techniques for Managing Verbally and Physically Aggressive Students 10-8 

The Administrator’s Desk Reference of Behavior Management 10-8 

The High Five Program: A Positive Approach to School Discipline 10-8 

The Motivation Assessment Scale 10-8 

The Prepare Curriculum: Teaching Prosocial Competencies 10-9 

The Rehabilitation Research and Training Center (RRTC) on 

Positive Behavior Support 10-9 

The Tough Kid Book, Practical Classroom Management Strategies 10-9 

The Tough Kid Social Skills Book 10-10 

The Tough Kid Tool Box 10-10 

The Tough Kid Video Series Kit 10-10 

The Walker Social Skills Curriculum 10-10 

• Suggested Websites 10-11 

• Resources for Classrooms: Variables Affecting Student Behavior 

and Performance 10-11 

• Choosing an Observational Method 10-14 

• Survey: Preventing and Responding to Violent School Crises 10-15 

• At-a-Glance Comparison of Traditional Behavior Management 

and Positive Behavior Support 10-19 

• Michigan’s Ban of Corporal Punishment Law 10-20 

Section 11 – Assessment Tools on Disk 11-1 

Section 12 – Glossary 12-1 

Section 13 – References and Supporting Materials 13-1 

Section 14 – Reader Response 14-1 

Introduction – 10

Figures, Tables, Worksheets 

Section 2 – Assessing the Status of Positive Behavior Support 


• Figure 2.1 A Systems Approach to Positive Behavior Support 2-5 

• Figure 2.2 Change in Suspension Rates 2-7 

• Worksheet 2.1 

Assessing and Planning Positive Behavior Support 

in Schools 2-11 

• Worksheet 2.2 District-Wide System Program Indicators 2-12 

• Worksheet 2.3 Building-Based System Program Indicators 2-14 

• Worksheet 2.4 Classroom-Based System Program Indicators 2-16 

• Worksheet 2.5 Individual Student System Program Indicators 2-18 

• Worksheet 2.6 

Positive Behavior Support Program Indicators 

Survey Summary 2-20 

Section 3 – Building a Model Positive Behavior Support Team 

• Worksheet 3.1 Checklist of Skills Needed by Student Support 

Team Members 3-6 

• Worksheet 3.2 Sample Support Team Worksheet 3-7 

• Worksheet 3.3 Sample Support Team Report 3-8 

• Worksheet 3.4 Support Team Checklist 3-9 

• Worksheet 3.5 Sample Student Support Team Self-Assessment 3-10 

Section 4 – Completing a Functional Assessment of Behavior 

• Figure 4.1 Functional Assessment of Behavior Model 4-5 

Section 5 – Collaborating on a Positive Behavior Intervention Plan 

• Figure 5.1 Positive Behavior Support Framework for 

Addressing Learning and Behavior Problems 5-3 

• Worksheet 5.1 Initial Planning for Academic and Behavior Support: 

30-Minute Collaboration 5-5 

• Worksheet 5.2 Functional Assessment and Behavior Intervention 

Plan Worksheet 5-10 

• Worksheet 5.3 Sample Behavior Intervention Plan 5-12 

• Worksheet 5.4 Functional Assessment Checklist for Teachers and Staff 5-14 

Section 7 – Designing Positive Behavior Support Strategies 

• Table 7.1 Sociocultural Considerations regarding Culturally 

and Linguistically Diverse Children 7-9 

Introduction – 11

Section 1 

Exploring Beliefs 

and Defining 

Positive Behavior Support

Section 1 

Exploring Beliefs and Defining Positive Behavior Support 

If a student doesn’t know how to read, we teach. 

If a student doesn’t know how to swim, we teach. 

If a student doesn’t know how to multiply, we teach. 

If a student doesn’t know how to behave, we ...... punish? 

John Herner 

People need to take responsibility for teaching students how to behave. When 

school personnel, community agencies, families, and students adopt Positive 

Behavior Support (PBS), academic and social skills will likely improve. The 

principles of PBS are applicable and appropriate for ALL students regardless of 

educational status. This document will help readers understand why Positive 

Behavior Support is effective and necessary, who does it, how it is done, and 

how its success can be evaluated. 

What Is Positive Behavior Support? 

Positive Behavior Support is a broad-based set of proactive approaches integrated 

within comprehensive, schoolwide systems. Such systems are communities 

of concern that include parents, school personnel, students, and appropriate 

community agency personnel. This home/school/community system supports 

students in learning responsible behavior and achieving academic success. 

Who’s Involved? 

• Parents 

• Teachers 

• Support Staff 

• Student 

• Community 

• You! 

Positive Behavior Support: The Concept 

• PBS is a data-based effort. 

• PBS concentrates on adjusting the system that supports the student. 

• PBS is implemented by a collaborative, school-based team using personcentered 

planning. 

• The emphasis of intervention is on skill building. 

• Schoolwide expectations for prosocial behavior are clearly stated, widely 

promoted, and frequently referenced. 

• New contacts, positive experiences, powerful role models, and appropriate 

relationships are developed in this student-centered system. 

• It can require time (months to years) and patience to develop responsive systems; 

personalized settings; and appropriate, empowering, and enduring skills. 

Section 1 – 1

• Learning and behavior problems are assessed comprehensively. An ecological 

approach to assessment focuses on the identification of the student’s needs as 

well as on the student’s interaction within school, home, and community 

settings. 

• Functional assessment of learning and/or behavior challenges is linked to an 

intervention. The effectiveness of the selected intervention is evaluated and 

reviewed, leading to data-based revisions. 

• Change efforts focus on the use of positive interventions that support adaptive 

and prosocial behavior and build on the strengths of the student, leading 

to an improved quality of life. 

• Students are offered a continuum of methods to support appropriate behavior 

and to discourage violation of schoolwide expectations. 

• PBS thrives in a safe, well-planned, yet flexible system. 

• Dignity and self-esteem must be fostered for the student as well as for all those 

engaged in the process. 

Why? 

Addressed 

problems get 

resolved and 

stay solved 

Why Use Positive Behavior Support? 

• Academic and/or behavior problems are effectively addressed through functional 

assessment of behavior. 

• Students benefit from modeling, system supports, and appropriate accommodations. 

• PBS complements a variety of teaching approaches and classroom discipline 

models. 

• A student’s behavior changes when it is understood by the student. 

• A student’s behavior changes when the student is involved in the process. 

• A student’s behavior changes when positive support is provided. 

• PBS is supported by research. 

• PBS works! 

When? 

Any time 

you need to 

better understand a 

pattern of 

behavior 

When Should Positive Behavior Support Be Implemented? 

• When supporting any learner’s academic and behavioral needs 

• When the behavior targeted for replacement or a new skill to be learned is 

selected, based on the educational needs of the student 

• At all times 

Section 1 – 2

What Does This Document Provide? 

• Strategies for self-assessment of your school system’s PBS status 

• A framework for implementation of Positive Behavior Support for ALL 

students 

• User friendly resources and references to extend your knowledge of PBS 

• Computer accessible materials 

• An opportunity for you to offer input to future revisions and obtain updates 

of this document 

Purpose of This Document 

• Improve quality of learning for ALL students 

• Define, place in context, and provide recommendations for the application of 

functional assessment and written plans of support using the Positive Behavior 

Support approach 

• Help local school districts build teams that will creatively utilize best practices 

to resolve behavior problems rather than rely on the “expert model” 

• Support the State Board of Education Goals and the State Improvement Plan 

• Support implementation of IDEA 97 

Positive Behavior Support Implementation Plan 

• Produce a document of emerging promising practices for guidance in the use 

of Positive Behavior Support for students in the state of Michigan 

• Provide training 

• Build sustained support for PBS through the Michigan Positive Behavior 

Support Intiative (see Resources, 10-2) 

How do you 

get there? 

• Action research 

• Make a plan 

• Utilize existing mechanisms for statewide dissemination of information 

Anticipated Outcomes for Michigan Students 

• Increased student educational achievement: 

√ 

√ 

More time engaged in learning 

More classroom assignments completed 

Section 1 – 3

• Greater student self-control and self-determination: 

√ 

√ 

√ 

√ 

Fewer critical incidents: office referrals, suspensions, expulsions 

Improved school attendance 

Greater number of student-mediated conflict resolutions 

Fewer incidents of school and classroom rules violations 

Anticipated Benefits 

• Improved school climate 

• Improved interpersonal relationships 

• Reduced acts of violence in the school and community 

• Enhanced public confidence in education 

• Increased interagency collaboration 

• Increased student independence and community participation 

• Increased high school graduation rates 

• Reduced dependency on public assistance, corrections, and other public 

services and agencies 

• Ongoing evaluation and refinement of the system 

Section 1 – 4

Section 2 

Assessing the Status 

of Positive Behavior 

Support in Your District

Section 2 

Assessing the Status of Positive Behavior Support 


Don’t fix blame, fix the system. 

W. Edwards Deming 

Positive Behavior Support (PBS) is a systems approach. A common core of 

beliefs about the needs of students and about the responsibility of the system to 

meet those needs must exist. Schoolwide policies and procedures that reflect 

those beliefs must be established. 

Getting Started with Positive Behavior Support 

• First, increase your school’s capacity to initiate and sustain new innovations 

through training and resources. 

• Then, clarify and communicate norms about behavior: 

Ready? 

Start... 

Go! 

√ 

√ 

√ 

√ 

√ 

Review board policy. 

Establish school rules. 

Provide consistent enforcement of rules. 

Provide consistent and rich positive reinforcement. 

Communicate norms through system and school-wide campaigns. 

• Finally, establish effective academic support with high expectations. 

What Does Not Work? 

• Suspension, exclusion, punishment, and counseling when used in isolation 

• Focusing effort on a few kids and not paying attention to the foundation of 

the whole system 

• Simply attempting to control someone else’s behavior 

What Does Work? 

• Listening to a student’s words and addressing a student’s actions 

• Understanding that all behavior has a function 

Section 2 – 1

• Clear and concise schoolwide rules 

• Rules based on behaviors, not big ideas like, “Be respectful!” 

• Teaching and modeling the behaviors you expect in the classroom, hallway, 

cafeteria, bus, and other places 

• Reinforcement for following the rules, displaying expected behaviors, and 

achieving academic success 

• Immediate feedback to and correction of students when their behavior 

violates a rule (disciplinary action may also be required, but prompt feedback 

about what to do and how to behave is critical) 

What works? 

• Intensive focus on the five to seven percent of students who exhibit dangerous 

or chronic negative behavior through comprehensive instructional 

programs that assure learning for all students (United States Department of 

Education, Office of Special Education Programs, 1998), such as: 

•Study the problem 

•Make a plan 

•Engage student 

•Keep going! 

√ 

√ 

√ 

√ 

√ 

√ 

√ 

Impulse control (i.e., self-monitoring leading to self-regulation) 

Anger management 

Stress management 

Responsible decision making 

Problem solving 

Peer mediation 

Attendance, positive conduct, and achievement rewards 

What Is the Foundation of Positive Behavior Support? 

• School board members, superintendents, principals, and teachers making 

PBS a school improvement priority 

• Parent and community support of appropriate academic and social behavior 

• Student participation 

• Use of assessment-based, research-validated interventions 

• Team-driven planning and support 

• Visible and supportive leadership 

Features: 

• System-wide 

• Data-based 

• Student-centered 

What Are the Features of the Positive Behavior Support Approach? 

• Attention is paid to schoolwide practices for at-risk and high-risk students. 

• Staff practices with real-life examples using role-playing, modeling, and 

feedback on how to teach behavioral expectations in school, how to teach 

social skills, and how to maximize academic success and engagement. 

Section 2 – 2

• Schoolwide reward structure is in place. 

• Functional Assessment of Behavior is used for intervention planning. 

• Data are used to guide interventions. 

• Effective learning environments are created for students. 

• Support is provided for a student to help change his/her own behavior. 

What Types of Problems Does Positive Behavior Support Address? 

• High rates of problem behavior 

• Ineffective and punitive discipline processes 

• Lack of general and specialized behavioral interventions 

• Lack of staff support and cohesion 

• Negative school climate 

• High use of crisis/reactive management 

• Limited insight into student’s own behavior 

What Outcomes Are Emphasized Using Positive Behavior Support? 

• Student-driven behavior change 

• Consistent implementation of effective practice 

• School policy and procedures that include PBS philosophy 

• Formalized problem solving 

• Improved quality of life 

What Does a Schoolwide Positive Behavior Support System Look Like? 

• Families are involved. 

• Community is supportive. 

Remember: 

Accent the 

positive! 

• Discipline procedures are well-defined and consistently implemented. 

• Appropriate behavior is taught. 

• Student behavior is monitored. 

• Positive behavior is recognized. 

Section 2 – 3

• Continuum of consequences for problem behavior is available. 

• Regular feedback on progress is disseminated to staff and students. 

• Staff is skilled in responding to students with learning and/or behavior 

problems. 

Where to Start? 

• Complete the schoolwide assessment and evaluation. 

• Set short- and long-term goals and objectives. 

• Develop and evaluate new procedures and systems. 

• Provide ongoing feedback to staff. 

• Involve community agencies and families at all times. 

When to Start? 

•Now! 

Section 2 – 4

Positive Behavior Support Works! 

George Sugai and Robert Horner, researchers at the University of Oregon, direct 

the federally funded Center for Positive Behavior Interventions and Support. 

They have studied Positive Behavior Support (PBS) in over 65 schools in Oregon, 

Hawaii, Texas, and British Columbia. In those schools, the schoolwide approach 

defines, teaches, and encourages socially appropriate student behavior in elementary 

and middle schools. While 85% of the students have intact social skills, the 

school establishes an effective environment that frees teachers to better address 

the needs of students with challenging learning and behavior problems. 

The effective school environment has support from four sources (see Figure 

2.1). One, district/community support consists of developing policies and 

procedures philosophically aligned with the community’s and school’s missions. 

Two, schoolwide support consists of procedures and processes intended 

for ALL students and ALL staff. Specific setting support involves a team process 

that monitors school settings (e.g., cafeteria) where problem behaviors occur. 

The team develops strategies that prevent or minimize behavioral disturbances. 

Three, classroom support consists of routines and procedures through which 

teachers structure learning opportunities. Four, individual student support 

consists of immediate and effective responses to students who present significant 

behavior challenges. These intensive and individualized support systems 

may be needed for three to seven percent of students. 

Figure 2.1 A Systems Approach to Positive Behavior Support 

District/Community 

• Community, School Board & Superintendent with Aligned Philosophy 

• Policy 

• Procedures 

School 

• Principal’s Philosophy 

• Policy 

• Procedures 

Classroom 

• Teacher’s Philosophy 

• Policy 

• Procedure 

Student 

• Individual Performance 

Incentives 

• Functional Assessment 

of Behavior 

• Behavior 

Support 

Plan 

Section 2 – 5

When Fern Ridge Middle School in Elmira, Oregon implemented Positive 

Behavior Support on a schoolwide basis, a 42% drop in office referrals occurred 

over a one-year period. The school focused on defining and teaching expected 

behaviors, structured a reward system for displaying appropriate social behaviors 

throughout the school year, and used office referrals for inappropriate 

behaviors. Some students were required to check in daily at the counseling 

office in the morning and afternoon and to carry point cards to collect rewards 

for meeting school behavior expectations. For a few students, an individualized 

behavior plan was developed. 

Dr. Ron Nelson, an Arizona University researcher, found a dramatic decrease in 

office referrals after implementing a schoolwide approach. His consistent and 

systematic interpersonal response to disruptive behavior yielded significant 

results. By using a Think Time Strategy, teachers and students quickly ended any 

negative social exchanges, and teachers promptly engaged students in feedback 

and planning. With a Think Time area in each classroom, a disruptive behavior 

was interrupted early. The student talked to another teacher in another room 

about the problem, then completed a form that addressed what went wrong and 

how to react differently next time. When the student’s response form was 

approved by the cooperating teacher, the student returned to class. Office 

referrals decreased from over 700 annually to 71 in one year. 

Suzanne Schmick, Principal of Endicott Elementary-St. John Middle School in 

rural Washington state, confirms the success of the Think Time Strategy. She 

adds that it is important to make sure that the staff is in philosophical agreement 

and that sufficient training time and adequate follow-up support are 

provided. She also believes that limiting other school reform initiatives at the 

same time allows teachers to focus on this strategy and to become proficient in 

its application. Further, she recommends networking with other schools using 

the approach and offering incentives for predicted positive results. 

In Westerly, Rhode Island in the 1990s, new leadership transformed a district 

with 100 Office of Civil Rights violations into a model program for students, 

who now receive a continuum of support and services for behavior problems. 

The change to a PBS philosophy led to a change in practice. Policies for both 

prevention and intervention were developed, and over a four-year period, 

behavior problems were significantly reduced. In 1990, the district had 13 selfcontained 

classrooms for students with emotional and behavioral problems. By 

1994, only two self-contained classrooms remained. Westerly’s suspension and 

discipline statistics revealed significant improvement. Suspensions and discipline 

incidents dropped well below the state’s average and well below the average 

for districts of comparable size. The schools became safer and more productive 

for ALL students at all levels. 

Section 2 – 6

Two county school districts in Florida put a focus on teaching students social 

skills, problem-solving methods, and anger reduction techniques. Interventions 

were developed for academically and socially at-risk students. Since 1990, incidents 

of aggression and violence in the district have dropped. During the first 

three years of the program, disciplinary referrals were reduced by 28%, and 

suspensions dropped by one-third. In addition, grade retentions were reduced, 

and standardized test scores and academic performance improved. There were no 

student placements in the county’s alternative education program during the past 

four years. Figure 2.2 illustrates the significant reduction in suspension rates. 

Change in Suspension Rates 

14 

12 

P 

e 

r 

c 

e 

n 

t 

a 

g 

e 

10 

8 

6 

4 

9 

11 

Figure 2.2 Change in Suspension Rates 

2 

3 

3 

0 

0 

1989 

Year Before 

0 

1990 

Year 1 

0 

1991 

Year 2 

0 

1992 

Year 3 

Section 2 – 7

Randy’s Story: 

A Social Worker’s Perceptions 

regarding Positive Behavior Support 

Randy began life with many barriers to overcome. He was born to an unwed 

mother and his father was in jail. Randy also faced numerous medical problems. 

He had a hernia, poorly developed muscles, breathing problems, and low birth 

weight. His prognosis for healthy development was poor. 

Randy’s mother took him home from the hospital, held him, and cared for him 

for months. Gradually, he began to improve. However, Randy’s mother noticed 

that he did not seem to hear sounds that other children heard. Testing determined 

that Randy had a significant hearing loss and would eventually require 

special accommodations when he went to school. 

When he was five, Randy was enrolled in elementary school. He soon exhibited 

serious emotional and behavior problems. When Randy entered first grade, he 

was placed in a self-contained classroom for students with emotional impairment. 

Services provided by the school team and his mother’s support and 

assistance helped Randy gradually improve his behavior. 

By the fifth grade, Randy was able to function in a normal school setting, and he 

was mainstreamed into a regular classroom. However, there were still areas in 

which Randy required skilled support to be successful. He had problems with 

poor hygiene, immaturity, and occasional temper outbursts. Randy’s academic 

achievement was poor, as well. A system of Positive Behavior Support was 

implemented by the school team to help Randy remain in the general education 

program and to improve his social and academic functioning. 

As he grew older, Randy became a sports fanatic. The Positive Behavior Support 

team recognized his passion and used it to help him stay academically motivated 

and to expose him to positive male social role models. Even though his 

athletic prowess was just average, the junior high school coaches selected Randy 

to play football and basketball or made him a team manager or coach’s assistant. 

In the eighth grade, when Randy did not make the cut for the basketball team, one 

of his classmates privately went to the coach and begged him to make Randy the 

team manager. Understanding Randy’s needs, the coach agreed to do so. 

Randy gave his heart and soul to his sports endeavors, and his spirit prompted 

the coaches to create a place for him. With this teamwork, a small boy with a 

severe hearing impairment, attention deficit disorder, and a history of emotional 

difficulty, achieved success. His teammates and coaches respected him, 

Section 2 – 8

liked him, and helped him when he needed it. As a high school freshman, Randy 

has continued his involvement with school sports. 

Randy is now in ninth grade. His support team—which has included the elementary 

and middle school staffs, psychologist, social worker, high school staff, 

his mother, athletic director, coaches, principals, community mental health 

workers, grandparents, and counselors—has debated, planned, implemented 

plans, and worked hard to help Randy develop skills that now serve him well. 

For example, today, he is fully mainstreamed with the exception of one resource 

class, which affords him the opportunity to develop a connection with the 

special education teacher who will be a consistent, caring adult for all four years 

of high school. This is important because Randy’s grandparents are aging and 

his mother, who is frequently ill, often fails to provide Randy adequate supervision 

and direction. 

Recently, Randy was involved in a shoving match with another student. As a 

result of the incident, he was disciplined and told he had three days of in-house 

suspension. He became extremely upset, voiced his belief that this was unfair, 

and said he was “just going to leave the building and go home.” The school 

social worker was informed of the situation by the special education teacher 

and, together, they intervened and prevented the temper outburst from escalating. 

Randy spent two days in the in-house suspension room. After role playing 

the situation with the social worker, he went to the principal and successfully 

negotiated the elimination of the third suspension day. The principal, aware of 

Randy’s effort to handle himself more maturely, saw this as a step forward and 

rewarded it. 

Another positive support effort relates to Randy’s relatively under-developed 

social skills. He is often impulsive and acts without thinking. This problem is 

compounded by his hearing impairment, and he often misses speech nuances 

and connected mannerisms. Because Randy has had limited exposure to the 

larger world beyond his neighborhood, his support team has involved him in a 

social skills group to help him develop better social skills and contextual understanding. 

The group focuses on self-exploration, appropriate social behavior 

within the group and school setting, and discussions related to topics such as 

careers, personal goals, and dating. 

Randy’s progress, in spite of his many handicaps, has been remarkable. He has 

benefited from modeling, system supports, and appropriate accommodations. 

His mother and grandparents have collaborated with the school and with 

community members to build upon Randy’s strengths. The results have been 

very positive for Randy and rewarding to all those who have participated on his 

support team. 

Section 2 – 9

The Nature of the Approach 

Positive Behavior Support is not a “cookbook” approach that is implemented in 

exactly the same way in every setting. Instead, it is an approach that can be 

contextualized to address the identification and development of the values, 

skills, and resources inherent in various settings. Toward that end, the survey 

worksheets that follow can be employed to ascertain which procedures and 

practices are in place and which need to be developed to assure learning and 

promote prosocial behavior across settings and communities. An additional 

worksheet is provided to help users organize survey results into useful, goaloriented 

information. The “indicators” identified in this process can then serve 

as the basis for action planning and for verification of results. 

Section 2 – 10

Assessing and Planning 

Positive Behavior Support in Schools 

Date: 

This survey is designed to help assess and plan Positive Behavior Support in schools. It was adapted 

from one survey developed by the Pennsylvania Department of Education and Department of 

Public Welfare in collaboration with a Tri-State Consortium on Positive Behavior (Knoster, 1999) 

and from another developed by Lewis and Sugai (1999). Often, a comprehensive approach to 

understanding the challenging behavior of students within a variety of school factors is necessary. 

This survey, which will assist teams in assessing the extent to which PBS indicators are in place, 

addresses district-wide indicators, building-based factors, classroom variables, and individual 

student considerations. Districts that use the survey may find policy and program areas in need of 

attention and other areas that are intact and functioning well. A listing of many factors related to 

Positive Behavior Support in school follows. 

Name of School District: 

Name of School: 

Worksheet 2.1 Assessing and Planning Positive Behavior Support in Schools 

Type of School: ❑ Elementary ❑ Middle/Junior High 

❑ High School 

❑ Alternative 

❑ Other: 

Total School Enrollment: 

Estimated number of students with chronic problem behaviors (i.e., students requiring extensive 

individualized support): 

Estimated number of days of expulsion and/or suspension for previous school year: 

Estimated number of office referrals for previous school year: 

Name of person completing the survey (optional): 

Position: ❑ Administrator ❑ General Educator 

❑ Special Educator 

❑ Parent/Family Member 

❑ Teacher Assistant 

❑ Counselor 

❑ School Psychologist ❑ School Social Worker 

❑ Community Member ❑ Student 

❑ Other: 

Knoster (1999) 

Section 2 – 11

Worksheet 2.2 District-Wide System Program Indicators 

District-Wide System Program Indicators 

The district-wide system of Positive Behavior Support includes the following: 

1. Space, staff, and time are provided for planning and 

implementing programs for all students’ social and 

emotional development across school buildings. 

2. Individualized options are available for supporting 

social-emotional development of all students and to 

instruct students in social skills (e.g., pro-social skills) as 

warranted across school buildings. 

3. An interpersonal problem-solving curriculum is taught 

within each school building. 

4. In-school counseling programs are available for students 

across school buildings. 

5. Each school building has a crisis prevention and intervention 

program in place (see Resources, page 10-15). 

6. Support programs are available for families across each 

school building. 

7. Clearly stated behavioral expectations and a support 

program that is designed to maximize student engagement 

in social and academic instruction are present 

across all school buildings. 

8. Administrative policies and procedures that support the 

inclusion of students with emotional and/or behavior 

support needs are in place across all buildings. 

9. The district’s discipline code has explicit exit criteria and 

a clearly articulated re-entry/transition process for return 

of students who were suspended as a result of a behavioral 

infraction. 

10. School specialists skilled in areas of social-emotional 

development are used to collaboratively enhance 

programs across all buildings. 

11. Transdisciplinary teams of teachers and specialists who 

are responsible for developing and monitoring all parts 

of district-wide programs are available for collaboration 

across buildings. 

12. The district has a local interagency plan. 

Yes / Somewhat / No 

(circle one) 













Evidence 

Adapted from Knoster (1999) 

Section 2 – 12

Worksheet 2.2 (con’t) 

District-Wide System Program Indicators 

The district-wide system of Positive Behavior Support includes the following: 

13. District policies are conducive to making available 

necessary supports to students who need additional 

help when emotional stressors significantly interfere 

with learning. 

14. Procedures are defined to design and implement 

personalized behavior support plans for students as 

needed in a consistent manner across all school 

buildings. 

15. A program coordinator, advisor, or administrator who 

functions across all buildings is responsible for overseeing/coordinating 

all aspects of behavior support plans 

for students who require individualized behavior 

support (this should be done in an integrated fashion 

within an individualized education program where 

appropriate). 


(circle one) 




Evidence 

Please total the number of Yes/Somewhat/No responses circled above. Yes = , Somewhat = , No = . Place 

these totals in the spaces provided for District on the Survey Summary found on page 2-20. 


Section 2 – 13

Worksheet 2.3 Building-Based System Program Indicators 

Building-Based System Program Indicators 

The building-based system of Positive Behavior Support includes the following: 

1. Space, staff, and time are provided for planning and 

implementing programs for all students’ social and 

emotional development within the school building. 

2. All classrooms operate/utilize a common/shared model 

of management within the building. 

3. Individualized options are available for supporting 

social-emotional development of all students and to 

instruct students in social skills (e.g., pro-social skills) as 

warranted within the building. 

4. An interpersonal problem-solving curriculum is taught 

and used by all staff with all students in the building. 

5. An in-school counseling program is available for 

students in the building. 

6. A crisis prevention and intervention program is in place 

in the building (see Resources, page 10-15). 

7. Support programs are available for families who have 

children in the building. 

8. Clearly stated behavioral expectations and a support 

program that is designed to maximize student engagement 

in social and academic instruction within the 

building are present. 

9. Administrative policies and procedures that support the 

inclusion of students with emotional and/or behavior 

support needs are in place in the building. 

10. School specialists skilled in areas of social-emotional 

development are used to collaboratively enhance 

programs in the building. 

11. Transdisciplinary teams of teachers and specialists who 

are responsible for developing and monitoring all parts 

of school building programs are available within the 

building. 

12. The district’s local interagency plan has been operationally 

defined by staff in the building. 


(circle one) 













Evidence 


Section 2 – 14


Building-Based System Program Indicators 

The building-based system of Positive Behavior Support includes the following: 

13. Planning room/space is available in the building for 

students who need additional support when emotional 

stressors significantly interfere with learning (this is not 

a time out room). 

14. Procedures are defined to design and implement 

personalized behavior support plans for students as 

needed in a consistent manner within the building. 

15. A program coordinator, advisor, or supervisor/principal 

is responsible for overseeing/coordinating all aspects of 

behavior support plans for students in the building 

(this should be done in an integrated fashion as part of 

an individualized education program where appropriate). 


(circle one) 




Evidence 


these totals in the spaces provided for School on the Survey Summary found on page 2-20. 


Section 2 – 15

Worksheet 2.4 Classroom-Based System Program Indicators 

Classroom-Based System Program Indicators 

Each classroom-based system of Positive Behavior Support includes the following: 

1. A classroom statement/description concerning the 

rights and responsibilities (e.g., right to disagree, respect 

for people and property, responsibility for helping 

others) of students and staff is present . 

2. Clear behavioral expectations (i.e., rules and/or code of 

conduct) for everyone in the classroom exist . 

3. A classroom-based system of behavior support (i.e., 

classroom management model) that establishes a 

conducive climate for growth and learning is in place. 

4. The classroom teacher/staff utilizes a common/shared 

classroom approach/model to management (e.g., all 

classrooms in the school building share one model/ 

orientation to management.) 

5. Thoughtful organization of the classroom setting (e.g., 

furnishings) exists to minimize overstimulation and 

problem behavior and to maximize safety, cooperation, 

and learning. 

6. An adequate staff/student ratio exists for including 

students with emotional and/or behavioral needs in 

typical classroom routines (e.g., academic instruction, 

social interaction). 

7. Direct, credible, and timely support exists for teacher/ 

staff in each classroom to support students who have 

emotional and behavioral disorders. 

8. Support is available to each classroom teacher to modify 

the curriculum and/or change instructional design 

based on students’ cognitive and emotional strengths, 

with consideration given to each student’s: 

a. Instructional level in the curriculum 

b. Stress tolerance 

c. Information processing preferences and abilities 

d. Level of independent functioning (e.g., selfregulatory 

skills) 

e. Interests 

f. Overall quality of life 

9. Flexible time periods/limits are present in each classroom 

for social and academic activities in the classroom. 


Section 2 – 16 


(circle one) 










Evidence


Classroom-Based System Program Indicators 

Each classroom-based system of Positive Behavior Support includes the following: 

10. An explicit classroom crisis intervention plan exists that 

includes: 

a. Consistent and explicit exit criteria 

b. Consistent and explicit re-entry criteria 

c. Specific procedure for processing incidents 

d. Emphasis on maximizing instructional time 

(see Resources, page 10-15) 

11. Classroom rules and management procedures that have 

been collaboratively determined and designed to 

maximize student ownership are present. 


(circle one) 



Evidence 


these totals in the spaces provided for Classroom on the Survey Summary found on page 2-20. 


Section 2 – 17

Worksheet 2.5 Individual Student System Program Indicators 

Individual Student System Program Indicators 

Each individual student system of Positive Behavior Support includes the following: 

1. Referral for multi-disciplinary evaluation for special 

education and/or behavior support can be accessed as 

needed. 

2. Each student’s local team has access to additional 

medical, mental health, and other community social 

services in a timely fashion. 

3. Where relevant, medication is used only as prescribed 

and is monitored frequently by each student’s local team. 

4. Other service agencies are available for each student 

who has a behavior support plan, and services (e.g., 

mental health services, respite care, counseling) are 

effectively integrated with school services in an efficient 

manner. 

5. Circle of friends, a buddy system, or other supports are 

used to facilitate positive interpersonal relationships for 

each particular student who has a behavior support plan. 

6. The school-wide Crisis Prevention Program can be 

tailored to meet needs of each particular student with a 

behavior support plan (see Resources, page 10-15). 

7. The academic curriculum is meaningful for each 

student who has a behavior support plan and can be 

adapted/modified to meet his/her needs. 

8. Each student who has a behavior support plan is 

involved in school-wide activities with developmentally 

appropriate peers to facilitate social skills development. 

9. A behavior support plan is based on a functional 

assessment and reflects multi-component strategies as 

designed by the team to meet the individual student’s 

needs. 

10. Family members are part of each student’s team and 

welcome to participate in meetings that are scheduled. 


(circle one) 











Evidence 


Section 2 – 18


Individual Student System Program Indicators 

Each individual student system of Positive Behavior Support includes the following: 

11. A consistent school representative (e.g., counselor, 

school psychologist, social worker) provides family 

support or outreach contact with parents at least once 

every three weeks with regard to the behavior support 

plan. 

12. Parents of each student who has a behavior support 

plan have access to a family support group based on 

their expressed interest. 

13. Representatives from other service systems are in the 

school regularly for planning or reviewing each 

student’s program. 

14. A coordinated system of care is established in the 

community to meet the needs of each student who has a 

behavior support plan. 


(circle one) 





Evidence 


these totals in the spaces provided for Individual Student on the Survey Summary found on page 2-20. 


Section 2 – 19

Worksheet 2.6 Positive Behavior Support Program Indicators Survey Summary 

Positive Behavior Support Program Indicators Survey Summary 

District School Classroom Individual Student 

1. Rate the overall yes yes yes yes 

implementation of somewhat somewhat somewhat somewhat 

positive behavior no no no no 

support. 

2. List the three a. a. a. a. 

major strengths of 

each system. 

b. b. b. b. 

c. c. c. c. 

3. List the three a. a. a. a. 

major areas in 

need of development 

in each 

system. 

b. b. b. b. 

c. c. c. c. 

4. Indicate the area 

in each system in 

most need of 

development. 

Adapted from Lewis & Sugai (1999) 

Section 2 – 20

5. Check one system to ❑ District 

focus this year’s efforts. ❑ School 

❑ Classroom 

❑ Individual Student 


Positive Behavior Support Program Indicators Survey Summary 

6. Develop an action Activity 1: Who When 

plan that includes What: 

development, implementation, 

and management 

activities. 

Activity 2: Who 

When 

What: 


What: 

When 


What: 

When 


What: 

When 

7. Schedule next Team Members: 

team meeting. 

a. 

b. 

c. 

d. 

e. 

f. 

g. 

Date: Time: Where: 

Adapted from Lewis & Sugai (1999) 

Section 2 – 21

Section 3 

Building a Model 

Positive Behavior 

Support Team 

T 

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P B S

Section 3 

Building a Model Positive Behavior Support Team 

It is important to recognize that behind every success story, 

there lies a journey in which commitment, hard work, and 

humor paved the way. 

Institute on Disability 

University of New Hampshire 

T 

E 

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P B S 

Introduction 

Educators in American schools today are dealing with more and more students 

who are “at risk” for learning, behavior, and/or social-emotional problems. 

Educators must be able to accommodate these students and their unique needs. 

In addition to learning problems, student problems range from disruptive, 

aggressive, acting-out, and oppositional behaviors to severe anxiety, social 

withdrawal, depression, and sleep problems. These problems often follow these 

students into adulthood unless effective interventions and support occur as 

early as possible in the students’ school careers (Lober, 1982; Lober, 1985; 

Patterson & Bank, 1986; Quay & Wherry, 1986; Hollinger, 1987; Kazdin, 1987; 

and Walker, Stieber, & O’Neill, 1990). Given the range and significance of the 

problems exhibited, the classroom teacher alone cannot be expected to have all 

the answers. 

Together 

Everyone 

Accomplishes 

More 

Critical to Positive Behavior Support (PBS) is a team approach for systematic 

problem-solving and intervention planning. In the PBS approach, school-based 

teams that involve parents, students, school personnel, and the mental health 

and medical communities, when appropriate, work together to develop comprehensive 

and individualized interventions with students who exhibit significant 

learning and/or behavior problems. 

Collaborative student support teams represent a growing service delivery model 

for students with diverse academic and social-emotional needs (Bahr, 1994). 

Over the past decade, a variety of team models have developed, ranging from 

teams comprised exclusively of general education teachers (Chalfant & Pysh, 

1989) to teams with interdisciplinary membership (Aksamit & Rankin, 1993; 

Fuchs, Fuchs, & Bahr, 1990; Graden, Casey, & Christenson, 1985). 

Currently, a small, though growing, empirical database is emerging on collaborative 

student support teams. For example, Aksamit and Rankin (1993) identi- 

Section 3 – 1

T 

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P B S 

fied team member knowledge and commitment as the two key contributing 

factors in the success of teams in urban settings. Whitten and Dieker (1995) 

found that approximately 75% of the teams in their Illinois survey implemented 

a standardized procedure for analyzing student problems. In a study of 64 

teams, Chalfant and Pysh (1989) discovered high levels of (a) teacher satisfaction 

with intervention plans and (b) team judgment of student improvement 

for students without disabilities. Finally, in Pennsylvania, Hartman and Fay 

(1996) documented a decrease in special referral and grade retentions as a result 

of implementation of Instructional Support Teams. Clearly, collaborative 

student support teams will be crucial as we implement Positive Behavior Support 

for ALL Michigan students. 

A description of these school-based teams follows. In this document, these 

school-based, problem-solving teams are referred to as Student Support Teams. 

Student Support Teams 

Team: 

•Shared ideas 

•Shared responsibility 

•Shared success 

To meet the diverse needs and challenges of students with learning and/or 

behavior problems, many school districts use Student Support Teams. Student 

Support Teams are often called “Child Study Teams,” “Intervention Assistance 

Teams,” “Teacher Assistance Teams,” “Prereferral Teams,” and “Building Level 

Teams.” The purpose of these teams is to assist teachers, parents, and students, 

through the collaborative process, to develop strategies to help students with 

learning and/or behavior problems. 

These teams can create ways to maximize available resources so that students 

can learn to deal with their problems efficiently and effectively. Over the past 

decade, a variety of team models has evolved. The composition and mechanics 

of Student Support Teams are typically determined by local school buildings 

and/or districts and are often related to a specific need (e.g., individual student 

intervention, school-based systems interventions). 

Student Support Teams: Basic Considerations 

Research and practice indicate that the following factors need to be addressed 

when establishing Student Support Teams and can be applied at all educational 

levels (e.g., preschool, elementary school, middle school, high school, alternative 

education settings): 

• Shared belief that all children can learn 

• Clear definition of how team will operate 

• Clear definition of roles and functions of all team members 

Section 3 – 2

• Shared common goal and purpose 

• Collaborative working relationship (not an expert-based model) 

• Shared responsibility for decision making 

• Shared accountability for outcomes 

• Regular scheduled meetings, as needed, with prepared agenda, documented 

strategies, recommendations, and meeting dates 

• Evaluation of team effectiveness 

T 

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• Utilization of a data-driven problem-solving format. A typical problemsolving 

format will: 

Step 1: Clarify the problem 

Step 2: Analyze the problem 

Step 3: Brainstorm possible intervention strategies 

Step 4: Select an intervention strategy 

Step 5: Clarify implementation procedures, including team member 

responsibilities 

Step 6: Implement the intervention plan 

Step 7: Evaluate plan effectiveness 

Step 8: Revise the plan, as needed (Pugach & Johnson, 1990; Zins, 

Curtis, Graden, & Ponti, 1988) 

See “Functional Assessment of Academic and Behavior Challenges Process 

Checklist” on pages 4-6 to 4-13 of this document as one method to help structure 

problem solving. 

Student Support Teams: Structure and Size 

To reflect the wide range of concerns that may exist in the schools, team membership 

should be as representative as possible. Membership should draw from 

the following groups: 

• Students 

• Parents 

• Building administrative staff 

• Teaching staff 

• Ancillary staff 

• Consultants 

• Community agencies 

• Other 

Section 3 – 3

Core Team 

T 

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Out of this representative group, a “core team” should be established, which 

should include four to seven members. Core team members should demonstrate 

broad-based knowledge of student needs, working knowledge of the 

teaming process, and a commitment to that process. Whenever possible, the 

team should include both parent(s) and student as active participants. 

Auxiliary Team (Expanded Team) 

Team membership can be expanded based on specific case needs. The nature of 

the concern and whether it is an individual student, building, or district concern 

will help determine the exact make-up of the auxiliary or expanded team. 

Selection of Team Members 

Selection of a “core team” may be conducted in one of the following ways, in 

accordance with district policies and procedures: 

The parent is always 

a member 

of the team 

• Administrative appointment by the principal, superintendent, or other 

administrator 

• Peer selection or election 

• Self-nomination or voluntary service 

Duration of Team Membership 

When establishing Student Support Teams, it is important to determine the 

service time frame for “core team” members: 

• Ongoing - Some positions on the “core team” may be ongoing (e.g., building 

principal) 

• Fixed Term - Some “core team” positions may be fixed (e.g., one semester, one 

school year, etc.) 

Student Support Team Meetings 

Meeting times for student support teams are critical to the success and continuation 

of the team. In most cases, teams meet either: 

• Before school 

• After school 

Section 3 – 4

• During lunch time 

• During a team session specified in the school schedule 

• When other arrangements can be made depending on individual circumstances 

The length of team meetings must be determined and should not exceed one 

hour. With a prepared agenda and data available, a team should be able to 

systematically analyze one to two cases at an hour-long meeting (Chalfant & 

Pysh, 1989; Sprick, Sprick, & Garrison, 1993). Team meetings must be conducted 

on a regular basis. When planning for your team, determine meeting 

dates and times and be sure to communicate that information to relevant 

persons. 

T 

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Incentives for Membership 

To compensate for additional responsibilities and the potential time commitment, 

some school districts offer incentives to team members. Common examples 

of staff incentives include: 

• Release time 

• Release from other assignments 

• Personnel development 

Personnel Development 

In the Positive Behavior Support approach, school-based team members (see 

Student Support Teams: Structure and Size, page 3-3) are provided with training in: 

(a) systems change and management principles and practices; (b) applications 

of research-validated instructional and management practices at the school, 

classroom, non-classroom, and individual student levels; (c) data analysis and 

data-based decision making; and, (d) the team process and collaborative decision 

making. 

Collaboration teams, with a variety of designations, work in school settings to 

collect relevant data by asking key questions. The data obtained are employed to 

develop the hypotheses that are crucial to understanding behaviors that impede 

learning. If utilized, the forms, checklists, and worksheets that follow in this 

section will help practitioners identify and attend to quality process issues and 

considerations. 

Note: Some of the checklists found in this section have been included to assist in 

developing efficient and effective Student Support Teams. These checklists include: 

Checklist of Skills Needed by Student Support Team Members, Support Team 

Checklist, and Sample Student Support Team Self-Assessment. 

Section 3 – 5

Worksheet 3.1 Checklist of Skills Needed by Student Support Team Members 

Checklist of Skills Needed by Student Support Team Members 

1. Does a member have knowledge of informal assessment 

techniques? 

2. Does a member have knowledge of the scope and sequence 

of academic content areas? 

3. Does a member have observation skills? 

4. Do members understand the district philosophy? 

5. Do members have knowledge of the various program goals? 

6. Do members have knowledge of various instructional strategies? 

7. Do members have knowledge of behavior change strategies? 

8. Does a member have knowledge of available resources in the 

building, district, or region? 

9. Does a member have knowledge of eligibility criteria for 

placement in special education programs? 

10. Do members have good listening skills? 

11. Do members understand student conflict resolution process? 

12. Do members have collaborative decision making skills? 

13. Do members have knowledge of group dynamics? 

14. Do members have communication skills? 

15. Does a member have leadership skills? 

16. Does a member have management skills? 

Yes No N/A 

Adapted from National Association of School Psychologists (1998) 

Section 3 – 6

Worksheet 3.2 Sample Support Team Worksheet 

Sample Support Team Worksheet 

Student: 

School: 

Grade: Date: Teacher: 

Team members participating: 

Presenting concern: 

What we discussed: 

What we decided: 

What will be tried (identify first, second, third): 

What is needed to try this: 

How will it be evaluated?: 

Follow-up date: 

What needs to brought and by whom: 

Recorded by: 

Section 3 – 7

Worksheet 3.3 Sample Support Team Report 

Sample Support Team Report 

Date: 

Student’s Name: 

Grade: 

School: 

Program: 

Teacher: 

Parent Invited: (When): (By Whom): 

Conference type: 

Initial 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 

Meeting Follow-up Follow-up Follow-up Follow-up 

Concerns: 

Target Behavior: 

Progress (circle one): 

1. Program goals met 

2. Behavior showing improvement 

3. Behavior inconsistent 

4. No documentable behavior change 

5. Behavior worsening 

Mutually agreed upon strategy: 

Conferring team members and titles: 

1. 2. 

3. 4. 

5. 6. 

Disposition: ❑ Continue present strategy ❑ Revise strategy ❑ Case closed 

Copy distribution: ❑ Team members ❑ Principal ❑ Administrator(s) 

❑ Parent 

❑ Student 

Section 3 – 8

Worksheet 3.4 Support Team Checklist 

Support Team Checklist 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

Intervention assistance team meeting date is set and members are informed. 

At the meeting, members review all information and reach consensus regarding the nature of the 

problem. 

Team members brainstorm to explore a variety of alternative intervention strategies that may offer a 

solution to the problem. 

Each strategy is evaluated and prioritized. 

One or more intervention strategies are selected. 

Related material and human resources for assisting in the implementation of the intervention strategies 

are identified. 

A written intervention plan that includes selected intervention strategies, identified related material 

and human resources, and timelines for implementation is developed. 

Responsibilities for carrying out the recommended plan are established. 

A date is set for reviewing the effectiveness of the plan. 

If the plan is successful and no further assistance is needed, the case is closed. 

If the plan is not effective and further assistance is needed, another team meeting date is set. 

The team reviews the original intervention plan and additional information to seek agreement on the 

nature of the problem. 

Once again, a variety of intervention strategies is explored and evaluated. 

Strategies are prioritized and selected. 

A new plan that may include new materials and human resources and timelines is developed. 

A date for review of the new plan is established. 

When the team agrees that everything possible has been done and the problem still has not been 

solved, the pupil may be referred for a multifactored evaluation. 

A record of each team meeting is maintained. 


Section 3 – 9

Worksheet 3.5 Sample Student Support Team Self-Assessment 

Sample Student Support Team Self-Assessment 

1. Please check description that best characterizes your team 

a. My team works primarily on concerns about general education students who are having academic 

or behavior problems. 

b. My team works primarily on concerns about general education students with whom some interventions 

have been attempted and were unsuccessful. The possibility of a suspected disability and 

possible special education services are now considered. 

c. My team works primarily on initial special education referrals or referrals on students already in 

special education. 

d. Other release (describe): 

2. Please offer your best opinion in response to the following statements by indicating 1 = yes, 2 = no. 

___ Our team develops appropriate interventions regarding the student’s needs. 

___ Our team develops manageable interventions for teachers and students. 

___ Our team uses a shared decision-making process. 

___ Our team clearly defines the role every member has in working on a specific student concern. 

___ I encourage fellow educators to use our team when they have a specific student concern. 

___ I am satisfied with our intervention team process. 

___ Our team is effective in meeting the needs of the problem identifier (e.g., teacher). 

___ Our team is effective in meeting the needs of the student. 

___ Team members communicate clearly with one another. 

___ Overall, I think our team is effective. 

3. Please respond to these questions by identifying the person who best fits each one. 

Who typically leads the team meeting? 

Who is most knowledgeable about interventions for academic problems? 

Who is most knowledgeable about interventions for behavior problems? 

Who is the most effective communicator? 

Overall, who contributes most significantly to the team’s effectiveness? 

4. What type of follow up is provided to the referral source (who brings a problem to the team)? Check 

as many as applicable. 

❑ Individual verbal contact 

❑ A follow-up visit with the team 

❑ Individual written contact 

❑ Written follow up from the team 

❑ No follow up 

❑ Other (please describe): 

Circle one number that indicates your overall judgment as to how follow-up is conducted. 

Inadequately 1 2 3 4 5 Very adequately 

Adapted from “A Comparison of School-Based Intervention Team Implications for Educational and Legal Reform,” Michael W. Bahr, 

Elizabeth Whitten, Lisa Dieker, Catherine E. Kocarek, and David Manson, Exceptional Children, Vol. 66, No. 1, pp. 67-83, Fall 1999. 

Permission also granted by the first author, Michael W. Bahr. 

Section 3 – 10


In your opinion, does your team have enough time to work on each case thoroughly in order to meet 

the needs of the problem identifier? 

Not enough time 1 2 3 4 5 Enough time 

5. Below are activities and techniques associated with interventions. Please circle “Use” for each one you 

use. Some are highly specific, so feel free to leave some uncircled if you’re unfamiliar with them. For 

those techniques with which you are familiar but don’t use, please circle “Don’t Use.” 

Our team: 

• develops a step-by-step plan for the intervention Use Don’t Use 

• assigns responsibilities to individuals who will assist with the intervention Use Don’t Use 

• defines problems in observable, measurable terms Use Don’t Use 

• assesses problems with an objective measure Use Don’t Use 

• collects preintervention (or baseline) data Use Don’t Use 

To determine intervention effectiveness, our team: 

• assesses whether the intervention was implemented as planned Use Don’t Use 

• graphs results of the intervention Use Don’t Use 

• compares preintervention (or baseline) data with postintervention data Use Don’t Use 

• uses systematic classroom observation Use Don’t Use 

• uses teacher judgments Use Don’t Use 

• inspects samples of the student’s academic work Use Don’t Use 

• uses curriculum-based assessment Use Don’t Use 

6. Please circle one number that best represents your view on each of the following professional issues. 

Some educators think that in order for the consultation/intervention process to be effective, it should 

be highly collaborative. Others think that collaboration is less essential. How important do you think 

collaboration is in order for the consultation/intervention process to be effective? 

Collaboration 

Collaboration 

less essential 1 2 3 4 5 more essential 

In the last few years, building-based intervention teams have become increasingly common as a 

service delivery model for school-related problems. In your opinion, is this an effective model? 

Ineffective 

Very effective 

model 1 2 3 4 5 model 

A prominent issue in contemporary education focuses on inclusion, a model for serving children 

with disabilities in general education classes. To what extent do you support the movement of 

inclusion? 

Unsupportive 1 2 3 4 5 Very supportive 

Adapted from “A Comparison of School-Based Intervention Team Implications for Educational and Legal Reform,” Michael W. Bahr, 

Elizabeth Whitten, Lisa Dieker, Catherine E. Kocarek, and David Manson, Exceptional Children, Vol. 66, No. 1, pp. 67-83, Fall 1999. 

Permission also granted by the first author, Michael W. Bahr. 

Section 3 – 11

Section 4 

Completing a 

Functional Assessment 

of Behavior

Section 4 

Completing a Functional Assessment of Behavior 

If you always do what you always did, you will always 

get what you always got. 

Vern Hill 

What Is Functional Assessment of Behavior? 

Functional Assessment of Behavior (FAB) is an assessment process for gathering 

information to develop student support plans (O’Neill, Horner, Albin, Storey, & 

Sprague, 1990). FAB is a data-based, thoughtful, organized process. A comprehensive 

functional assessment identifies the consequences to maintaining 

behaviors and the contexts in which those behaviors reflect antecedents and 

setting events. A FAB is flexible, in that selected interventions are linked to an 

informed hypothesis and are revised as needed. The information obtained 

demonstrates the effect of a selected intervention. The need to revise the written 

plan of behavior support is then determined. 

FAB is... 

...finding patterns 

to understand 

the puzzle 

Basic Beliefs Supporting Functional Assessment of Behavior 

• Problem behavior serves a specific purpose or function. 

• One behavior (e.g., hitting) can serve multiple purposes in the same setting or 

across settings. 

• For some students, problem behavior may serve as a means of communication 

(e.g., one student may hit to communicate a need for increased personal 

space; another may hit to express frustration, to request an object, or to 

communicate a need for a break). 

• Behavior has a purpose; it does not occur randomly. Although problem 

behavior may appear haphazard, a reason for that behavior can often be 

discovered (Demchak & Bossert, 1996). Medical, emotional, neurological, 

sleep, or other types of problems may be the cause of challenging behavior. 

A functional assessment approach looks at individual-specific behavior excesses 

and deficits to identify factors that support behavioral and academic difficulties 

(DuPaul, Eckert, McGoey, & Maaza, 1997; Maag & Reid, 1994). The key to 

dysfunctional or maladaptive behavior can often be found by examining the 

Section 4 – 1

events preceding (antecedents) and following (consequences) that behavior 

(The Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice, 1998). 

Four Main Goals of Functional Assessment of Behavior 

1. To describe behavior 

2. To predict when and where the behavior may occur 

3. To identify the possible reasons for that behavior for that individual across 

time and places (O’Neill, Horner, Albin, Storey, & Sprague, 1990) 

4. To propose interventions that match our best guess about why the behavior 

occurs, leading to resolution of the problem 

Two Major Techniques for Obtaining Information for Functional Assessment 

of Behavior 

1. Indirect: Talk to the person, when possible, and then to individuals who 

have direct contact with that person, review records, and complete rating 

scales. 

FAB is... 

... a thinking process 

—not just the filling 

out of forms 

2. Direct: Directly observe the person for extended periods of time (O’Neill, 

Horner, Albin, Storey, & Sprague, 1990). 

Three Values of Functional Assessment of Behavior 

1. Behavior support must always protect the dignity of the person. 

2. The point of understanding the behavior is to teach and/or develop effective 

alternatives, not just to eliminate undesirable behavior. 

3. Functional assessment is a method for looking at relationships between 

behavior and the environment (O’Neill, Horner, Albin, Storey, & Sprague, 

1990). 

When Is Functional Assessment of Behavior Necessary? 

Functional Assessment of Behavior is a tool for implementing better intervention 

selections for ALL Michigan students, including students receiving special 

education services, those with Section 504 plans, those in alternative education 

programs, culturally and linguistically diverse students, and general education 

students who receive frequent detentions or suspensions (McConnell, Hilvitz, & 

Cox, 1998; Umbreit, 1995). Knowledge of FAB and the development of a written 

plan of behavior support is necessary: 

Section 4 – 2

• For successfully and thoroughly completing the manifestation determination 

review (see pages 6-10 to 6-14) 

• In planning a response to the behavior that results in a significant change of 

school placement due to expulsion or suspension 

• When a student with a disability is educated in an alternative education 

setting due to possession or use of illegal drugs, controlled substances, or 

weapons (McConnell, Hilvitz, & Cox, 1998) 

If a student with a disability is not making the desired, predicted progress in 

achieving his/her objectives, a functional assessment of the behavior that may 

be interfering with learning is a promising practice, but it is not required by 

IDEA 97 (Council for Exceptional Children, 1999). Developing interventions 

without first completing a FAB is not recommended. Challenging behavior 

problems exist with students who do not receive special education programs 

and services as well as for those who do. While there are times when IDEA 97 

does not require a FAB and written behavioral interventions, completing a FAB 

and writing a plan of support can be helpful. More information on IDEA 97 

requirements for FAB can be found in Section 6. 

Functional Assessment of Behavior can be helpful in four basic situations: 

1. An individualized education program team can develop a Functional Assessment 

of Behavior and design interventions in a written behavior plan if 

a student’s behavior interferes with learning. 

2. If a student’s learning is not progressing toward the written individualized 

education program objectives, and/or behavior problems (e.g., not turning 

in homework) are impeding a student’s progress, a Functional Assessment 

of Behavior can troubleshoot what is/is not working for the student. 

When is FAB 

useful? 

Whenever you are 

challenged by a 

student’s behavior 

3. A Functional Assessment of Behavior can help get to the root of disagreements 

between the parents and a school district over issues of least restrictive 

environment, placement, or types of services needed for the student. 

4. A Functional Assessment of Behavior is required when the student experiences 

significant change in educational placements, such as suspension over 

10 days or placement in an interim or alternative education setting. Not 

every student with a disability needs a Functional Assessment of Behavior 

and a written behavior plan. If a Functional Assessment of Behavior is 

conducted and a written plan of support is developed only under the pressure 

of student suspension or expulsion, little practice will be gained with 

this valuable tool. Employing Functional Assessment of Behavior as a 

standard approach to dealing with learning and behavior problems will help 

refine and hone the valuable skills used in this procedure. 

Section 4 – 3

Use of Functional Assessment of Behavior and a written plan of behavior 

support can help avoid crisis planning in situations involving suspension and 

expulsion. Beginning the process of identifying the behavior of concern and 

proceeding to a structured collaborative approach should occur when student 

learning and behavior first become significant problems. A planned approach to 

supporting student efforts toward successful academic achievement and selfregulation 

of behavior can be a great benefit to student learning. 

Figure 4.1 on page 4-5 illustrates the four basic steps involved in conducting a 

Functional Assessment of Behavior: 

1. Describe Behavior: Select a behavior for assessment and describe that 

behavior by using a number of salient features. While the behavior of 

concern may seriously interfere with classroom function, specific information 

may be lacking about key variables such as frequency, time and place of 

occurrence, people involved, and clear identification of antecedents and 

consequences. This information is needed to make an informed hypothesis 

as to the function of the behavior. 

FAB is completed by 

a collaborative team 

in four steps 

2. Collect Additional Data: Parents and teachers may find it necessary to 

gather additional information to develop a thorough understanding of the 

behavior. One effective method is to interview key persons, including the 

student. Direct observations can also be helpful. A task analysis can help 

identify breakdowns in task completion or curriculum understanding. 

Additional helpful information can be found in a portfolio review of academic 

skills or in a records review. A school and medical record review can 

reveal the history and intensity of the behavior or help evaluate the effects of 

factors such as attendance, school transfers, visual and hearing difficulties, 

test results, etc. Some students can support the Functional Assessment of 

Behavior process by self-monitoring, which can contribute to successful selfmanagement 

of the behavior. 

3. Develop a Hypothesis: Using the information gathered that describes the 

relationship of a variety of factors to the target behavior, one can hypothesize 

which variables trigger and maintain the behavior. The more accurate 

and complete the body of evidence, the more useful the hypothesis. The 

“Develop Hypothesis” column of the Functional Assessment of Behavior 

model in Figure 4.1 provides variables to help consider what may be influencing 

the behavior of concern. Some of these are internal or personal 

factors. There are curricular, instructional, health, medical, environmental, 

personal motivation, communicative intent, social, and other variables as 

well. The many variables under each category require additional consideration, 

specific to the circumstances under review. The process checklist on 

pages 4-6 to 4-13—extensive but not exhaustive—suggests additional 

variables to consider. 

Section 4 – 4

Figure 4.1 Functional Assessment of Behavior Model 

Section 4 – 5

4. Design Interventions: An intervention is developed based on the hypothesis 

generated by interpreting the data. Good judgment, creative thinking, 

and best practices come into consideration in planning interventions. Since 

curricular and instructional interventions are often overlooked, they were 

placed first and second in the Functional Assessment of Behavior model. 

Inappropriate and unacceptable behavior can often be secondary to curricular 

and instructional variables. The effectiveness of an accurate FAB and the 

resulting individualized written behavior support plan is maximized when 

the plan is designed by a team that includes parents and the student, whenever 

possible. Shared understanding of the behavior of concern and shared 

responsibility for teaching a replacement behavior when there is excess 

behavior, teaching a new skill when there is a skill deficit, or supporting the 

needed strategies for Positive Behavior Support are critical. This can be 

accomplished by using a collaborative, structured format for writing a 

behavior intervention plan. Quality assurance is built in through an agreedupon 

date and time for a review and revision meeting. A collaborative and 

structured format is illustrated on pages 5-5 through 5-8. 

Functional Assessment of Academic and Behavior Challenges 

Process Checklist 

Frances Mueller, Ph.D. (1997) 

The following checklist is offered to structure problem solving. This menu is 

not a laundry list. Rather, it is designed to facilitate brainstorming for interventions 

related to the functional purpose of the target behavior. 

Step 1 

Identify Target Behavior(s) 

• Academic tasks or behavior(s) of concern described, considering 

❑ Frequency 

❑ Rate 

❑ Duration 

❑ Latency 

❑ Intensity 

❑ Location 

❑ When and where it occurs and does not occur 

• Replacement behavior described 

• Baseline data collected, considering 

❑ Antecedents 

❑ Consequences 

❑ Unique or typical 

❑ Length of time; circumstances during time period 

Section 4 – 6

• Analysis applied for time, place, person variables 

• Additional data for analysis to be considered as needed 

• Interviews: parent, student, school personnel, others involved in student’s life 

• Direct observation 

❑ Running record 

❑ Time sampling 

❑ Event sampling 

• Self-monitoring of target behavior 

• Task analysis of academic task or skill involved 

• Records/portfolio review to consider 

❑ History of change of schools 

❑ Attendance/tardy patterns 

❑ School vision acuity screening 

❑ School hearing acuity screening 

❑ Change of family composition 

❑ Quality of work products 

❑ Influence of medical history 

❑ Influence of cultural membership 

❑ Individual and group test results 

❑ Teacher comments on report cards 

❑ Involvement with Chapter 1, Reading Recovery 

❑ Special education services 

❑ Child study team reports 

❑ Other 

Consider Available Data and Develop Hypothesis 

(more than one hypothesis may apply to different circumstances) 

Step 2 

• Health/neurological/medical variable(s) to consider 

❑ Hearing and/or vision acuity 

❑ Known disability 

❑ Mobility 

❑ Gross and/or fine motor skills 

❑ Seizures 

❑ Medication (type, dosage, frequency, purpose) 

❑ Medication unwanted side effects 

❑ Current or past therapy or treatment 

❑ Hospitalizations 

❑ Previous Evaluations 

❑ Sleeping patterns 

❑ Eating patterns 

❑ Allergies 

❑ Syndrome 

Section 4 – 7

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

Tremors 

Fatigue 

Memory 

Impulsivity 

Sustained attention 

Integration of visual/motor/auditory tasks 

Other 

Other 

• Curricular/instructional variable(s) to consider 

❑ Incompetent behavior or noncompliant behavior or (i.e., “can’t vs. 

won’t”)? 

❑ Curriculum too easy or too hard? 

❑ Relevant to the student's experiences and understanding? 

❑ Presented in a way that relates to student strengths or mode of learning? 

❑ Pace commensurate with learning rate? 

❑ Sufficient opportunity to practice skills? 

❑ Length of lesson commensurate to attention span? 

❑ Curriculum broad enough (e.g., phonics only)? 

❑ Testing or product accommodations? 

❑ Teacher expectations too high, too low? 

❑ Feedback of insufficient strength or frequency? 

❑ Reinforcement too low? 

❑ Not enough practice? 

❑ Need more teaching of content? 

❑ Teacher unfamiliar with curricular methods necessary for student? 

❑ Level of supervision in class inadequate? 

❑ Teaching style in class related to child weakness area? 

❑ Other 

• Social/cultural/emotional variables to consider 

❑ Parent discipline inadequate, too severe? 

❑ Conflict/aggression between parents? 

❑ Conflict/aggression present in the neighborhood? 

❑ Limited levels of supervision in community? 

❑ Different values/expectations between home/school? 

❑ Parent academic skills too low to help the child? 

❑ Parent unable or unwilling to reinforce school-related academic/behavior 

strategies? 

❑ Peers influence inappropriate behavior? 

❑ Peers do not provide adequate models? 

❑ Peers tease/provoke student? 

❑ Expectations/values of peer group influence student? 

❑ Student attributions/beliefs influence learning/behaving? 

❑ Student social skills inadequate? 

Section 4 – 8

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

Student limited self control of impulses? 

English is a second language? 

Other 

• Communicative intent variables to consider 

❑ Attempts to gain attention of peer? 

❑ Attempts to gain staff attention? 

❑ Attempts to gain access to an activity? 

❑ Attempts to gain access to an object? 

❑ Making a protest? 

❑ Asking for a break? 

❑ Asking for help? 

❑ Indicating not feeling well? 

❑ Indicating a mood? 

❑ Other 

• Motivation variables to consider 

❑ Control/power issues? 

❑ Revenge issues? 

❑ Attention seeking issues? 

❑ Escape situation? 

❑ Sensory feedback needs? 

❑ Tangible object need? 

❑ Other 

Link Hypothesis to Intervention 

Suspect academic/behavioral challenges related to need for Curriculum Support: 

Curriculum Changes or Material Adaptation and Accommodations 

Step 3 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

Community service 

Volunteer work 

School service position 

School-to-work activities; part-time employment 

Vocational/technical training 

Assessment alternatives 

Communication system enhanced, developed, modified to respond to 

communicative intent 

Partner, study buddy 

Daily/weekly organizational sessions 

Reduce length of assignment as appropriate 

Homework as practice 

Extra set of books at home 

Structured and direct instruction 

Class routines 

Section 4 – 9

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❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

Difficult tasks in the morning 

Individual or small group instruction 

Avoid down time or unstructured situations 

Use checklists, maps, or other graphic organizer 

Establish goals with student 

Assist student preparation with prompts, reminders, extra materials 

Memory strategies actively applied 

Photocopy notes or NCR paper 

Systematic distribution of, collection of, and feedback on homework 

Break task into parts 

Other 

Other 

Suspect academic/behavioral challenges related to need for Instructional Support: 

Content Delivery 

❑ 

❑ 

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❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

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❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

Student/parent involvement 

Technology 

Signals 

Timers 

Pencil grips 

Segment assignments (paired to frequent feedback) 

Organization of locker, notebook, desk... 

Organize classroom materials 

Graphic organizers 

Learning strategies: (e.g. KWL - what do I Know, what do I Want to 

know, what have I Learned) 

Think, pair, share, repair 

Multi-sensory experiences 

Choral response 

Frequent eye contact: Scanning 

Use of student name to answer easy questions and bring focus on task 

Simplify directions and student paraphrase 

Write homework assignment on overhead, allow student time to copy 

Use highlighters 

Encourage self-talk 

Home/school communication 

Routine for home study 

Talking chips 

Brisk pace 

Study guides and outlines 

Frequent check for understanding 

Sufficient wait time for responses 

Teach social skills in the moment 

Teach listening skills and following directions 

Section 4 – 10

❑ 

❑ 

Peer tutoring 

Other 

Suspect academic/behavioral challenges related to need for Behavior Support 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

Adjust antecedents 

Make a contract 

Provide positive role models 

Guidance cues: verbal and/or physical prompts, written cues 

Social skills training 

Peer mediation 

Learn to play or make friends 

Teach team work and related skills through extra-curricular activities 

Frequent feedback 

Enthusiastic feedback 

Describe expected behavior to student 

Use start statements (what to do) and avoid stop statements 

Use eye contact 

Signals 

• Close the door, pull the shades: time to work cues 

• Tap finger on watch-time to work cue 

• Timer 

Provide choices 

Review consequences 

• Increase positive reinforcement 

• The rules say... apply rules 

• Time out from positive reinforcement 

• Negative reinforcement 

• Natural consequences 

• Response cost 

• Guided practice 

Proximity 

Self-monitoring 

Audiotape support 

Rules 

Mystery motivator 

Gates dots 

Taped boundaries 

Planned breaks 

Other 

Other 

Section 4 – 11

Suspect academic/behavioral challenges related to need for Ecological Support: 

Environmental Engineering 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

Organization of time: classroom schedule posted 

Prompts for routines and procedures such as the following: 

• To go to the bathroom 

• Get a drink of water 

• Ask a question 

• Sharpen a pencil 

• Obtain supplies 

• Where to put trash 

• Eat, drink 

• Turning in homework 

• Format for heading paper 

• Behavior for entering class 

• Seating arrangements 

• What to do when late for class 

• Policy for making up work 

• Penalty for late work 

• Grading policy 

• Procedure for taking tests 

• How to ask for assistance 

• Routine for leaving class at end of day or period 

Classroom rules posted 

Transitions organized into steps, procedures 

Room arrangement: seating, access to study carrel 

Organization of materials 

Predictable routines 

Adjusted schedule 

Reduced day 

Organization of space 

Standards maintained for noise level 

Physical accessibility 

Visual/Auditory stimulation managed through environment 

Other 

Suspect academic/behavioral challenges related to need for Psychological Support 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

Referral to Community Mental Health services 

Referral to Protective Services 

Parent groups 

Parenting classes 

Bibliotherapy/social stories 

Social skills training 

Knowledge and acceptance of disability 

Section 4 – 12

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

Development of personal advocacy skills 

Individual or group therapy 

Coping: Anger management, stress management 

Identification of areas of personal competence 

Opportunities to demonstrate competence and responsibility 

Replacement behavior for motivation variables 

Counseling related to adjustment to divorce, death 

Treatment for substance abuse 

Other 

Suspect academic/behavioral challenges related to need for Pharmacological Referral 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

Consider as one element of a multimodality approach 

Consider need for support to attain compliance to medication schedule 

Other 

Current data indicating selected support not effective and additional data are 

needed 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

❑ 

Review alternative hypothesis for academic/behavioral challenges 

Review assessment of academic/behavioral problems 

Identify gaps in original assessment 

Consider informal or formal evaluation 

Revise written plan of support 

Other 

Section 4 – 13

Section 5 

Collaborating on a 


Intervention Plan

Section 5 

Collaborating on a Positive Behavior Intervention Plan 

Without data, you’re just another person with an opinion. 

Unknown 

What Is a Behavior Intervention Plan? 

A Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP) is a written, individualized, behavior support 

plan based on a functional assessment of a student’s behavior. BIPs incorporate 

Positive Behavior Support to address identified academic and behavior 

concerns. 

A Behavior Intervention Plan is: 

• Based on functional assessment 

• Driven by the hypothesis or “best guess” 

• Directed toward skill building and environmental changes 

Every BIP 

is different 

• Comprehensive, with multiple intervention components 

• Assessed not just by the change in the targeted behavior, but by broader 

quality-of-life issues, such as maintenance across time and generalization 

across settings (Bambara & Knoster, 1995) 

The Functional Assessment of Behavior (FAB) leads to the development of a 

hypothesis (refer to the Hypothesis Building Worksheet on the assessment tools 

disk that accompanies this document). A hypothesis can be stated in the following 

manner: 

All available evidence suggests that when an antecedent event happens, 

in conjunction with setting events, he/she does behavior of concern 

in order to perceived function. 

For example: 

All available evidence suggests that when the teacher assistant turns to 

help another student in conjunction with a paper and pencil task at her 

desk, the student knocks her book on floor in order to gain the 

assistant’s attention. 

Section 5 – 1

A Behavior Intervention Plan can address replacement behavior, such as teaching 

the student how to raise a hand rather than knock a book on the floor. 

Hand-raising more adaptively serves the same function of obtaining the teacher 

assistant’s attention. The BIP can also address reinforcement for independent 

student work. The plan can: 

• Include descriptions of success-assured tasks a student would perform while 

learning to raise a hand and work independently 

• Describe the reinforcers for that student with a schedule of reinforcement 

• Determine BIP evaluation criteria and set review and revision schedules 

One hypothesis or best guess can suggest different interventions. For example, a 

student may not be motivated to respond to instructional expectations. Some 

ideas for increasing student response could be to provide incentives, teach the 

skill in a personalized context for that student, or allow the student choices with 

similar educational activities in different modalities (e.g., read a book by himself, 

read a book with a partner, listen to the book on audio tape). 

Components of a Behavior Intervention Plan (adapted in part from 

McConnel, Hilvitz, & Cox, 1998) 

1. Complete the functional assessment process. 

• Identify and define or describe behavior of concern. 

• Identify replacement behavior. 

• Analyze baseline and other data. 

• Develop hypothesis. 

• Select intervention. 

2. Determine the measurable objectives of selected intervention. 

3. Identify the type of data collection (convenient and meaningful) to test the 

hypothesis and evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention. 

4. Label the selected approach and describe in detail and/or write the script for 

what to do and say. 

5. List the roles and responsibilities of all involved. 

6. Set the start date. 

7. Establish the timelines for review and revision. 

Figure 5.1 on the following page illustrates a model of BIP process components. 

This diagram provides the framework of the six steps for conducting a FAB, 

designing a BIP, and evaluating the success of the BIP. 

Section 5 – 2

Figure 5.1. Positive Behavior Support Framework for Addressing Learning and Behavior Problems 

Section 5 – 3

Positive Behavior Support in the Classroom: Basic Assumptions 

for Writing a Behavior Intervention Plan 

• We may all be equal, but we are not the same. Intervention strategies are 

developed to fit the child, not the problem. Therefore, “time out” is not the 

solution for all children. Necessary incentives or accommodations for one 

student may appear unfair to others. 

• Behavior plans change. A behavior plan is always a work in progress. The road 

toward positive behavior change is fluid, not a fixed linear path. Do not 

expect miracles overnight. 

• Data is not a “four-letter” word. Data-based decisions produce a functional 

assessment of behavior and lead to more useful interventions and revisions of 

a planned approach to behavior change. 

• Build rapport, accentuate the positive, and identify student and staff strengths 

and build on them. 

• Include key people in the process as much as possible, encouraging the 

student’s input and participation and engaging the parent(s) in the whole 

process. Communicate about positive and negative changes. Have more than 

one person design, write, and implement the plan. 

• When a student acts out in class, consider the relationship between learning 

and behavior. When faced with, “I’m not doing this,” consider if the student is 

motivated, has the prerequisite skills, or understands the task. Differentiate 

between compliance (won’t do it) and competence (can’t do it). 

• Interventions in isolation rarely work. Engaging ancillary staff, modifying the 

curriculum, and changing an instructional approach contribute collectively to 

positive change. Private counseling or medication are options that may 

support successful learning of more adaptive behavior responses. 

The examples in this document are helpful references for developing a Functional 

Assessment of Behavior and producing a Behavior Intervention Plan. 

“Initial Planning for Academic and Behavior Support: 30-Minute Collaboration” 

(Worksheet 5.1) provides a timed structure for identifying the behavior of 

concern, establishing a functional assessment, and designing an intervention 

(Kratochwill, Elliott, & Rotto, 1995; Mueller, 1998; Mueller, 1999; Mueller, 

Jenson, Reavis, & Andrews, In press; Sprick, Sprick, & Garrison, 1993). A timed, 

structured, and focused collaboration of key people, including the student and 

parents, can enhance the development of a hypothesis and generate more 

effective, individualized interventions. The other two examples, “Functional 

Assessment and Behavior Intervention Plan Worksheet” (Worksheet 5.2) and 

“Functional Assessment Checklist for Teachers and Staff” (Worksheet 5.4) can 

help improve cooperation when interventions are planned around the participation 

of key people. The collaborative approach also ensures accountability as 

the BIP goes through data-based review and revision toward less restrictive or 

different interventions. 

Section 5 – 4

Worksheet 5.1 Initial Planning for Academic and Behavior Support: 

30-Minute Collaboration 

Initial Planning for Academic and Behavior Support: 

30-Minute Collaboration 

Student: 

Participants: 

Date: 

Set timer for 10 minutes. 

Step 1: Describe current state. 

• Behavioral descriptions of the student’s functioning in area of concern. Ask, 

“What does the student do?” and “What is the student not doing?” 

Evaluate behaviors of concern: 

1. Yes No Does the behavior threaten the life of the student or others? 

2. Yes No Does the behavior threaten the physical well-being of the student 

or others? 

3. Yes No Does the behavior interfere with the educational progress of the 

student? 

4. Yes No Does the behavior interfere with the educational progress of 

others? 

5. Yes No Does the behavior result in materials destruction or damage? 

6. Yes No Will the behavior become more serious without intervention now? 

7. Yes No Does the behavior interfere with acceptance by peers or adults? 

Behavior strength: 

Learn how often, how long, and how intense the behavior is. For example, ask, 

“How often does the student hit?” “How long does the episode last?” “How 

disruptive is the student’s behavior?” 

a. Frequency (How often?) 

b. Duration (How long?) 

c. Intensity (How much?) 

d. Is this unique or typical behavior for the student? 

Location: 

Obtain a description of the setting. Ask, “Where does the student do this?” 

“Where else does the student do this?” “Where doesn’t the student do this?” 

a. Specify examples of the behavior in the different settings. 

b. Prioritize by the setting where the behavior occurs most frequently. 

Time: 

When, during the day, does the student exhibit this behavior? When does the 

student not engage in this behavior? 

Section 5 – 5


Identify antecedent conditions: 

Identify events that immediately precede the target behavior. Ask, “What happens 

right before the student does this?” “What seems to trigger this behavior?” 

Identify simultaneous conditions: 

Consider situational or environmental events that may contribute to the behavior 

problem. Ask, “What else is happening at the same time that the behavior occurs?” 

Identify consequent conditions: 

Determine what events occur immediately after the behavior. Ask, “What happens 

after the problem behavior occurs?” “What seems to stop this behavior?” 

Tentative definition-of-goal question: 

Determine what level or extent of the behavior, if any, is acceptable. For example, 

ask, “How often could the student leave his seat without causing problems?” “Is the 

behavior acceptable under any other circumstances?” 

Approach to teaching or using existing procedures: 

Explore procedures or rules. Ask, “Is there a rule associated with this behavior?” 

“Is there a routine associated with this behavior?” “Is there a replacement behavior 

to substitute for this maladaptive behavior?” 

Identify student strengths (examples): 

Peer social skills Leader Verbal skills 

Motivated to change Cooperative Academic skills 

Engages adults Positive attitude Athletic skills 

Sense of humor Future plans Fine arts skills 

Seeks information Interest areas Hobbies 

Identify reinforcers for student: 

Ask, “What does the student like to do?” 

Identify strategies already tried (indicate duration/outcome): 

Private talk with student Parent calls/conferences Assignment sheets 

Proximity control Verbal reminders Alternative testing 

Study carrel Charting and graphing progress Assistive technology 

Contracts Planned ignoring Ancillary staff contact 

Planned time out Positive reinforcement Medication 

Changed seating Reduced day/schedule adjusted Retention 

Adjusted assignments Progress reports Other: 

Tutoring Mentorship Other: 

Section 5 – 6



Step 2: Describe desired state. 

• In a sentence, describe desired state (goal) or identify replacement behavior. 


Step 3: Identify influencing variables. 

• Review FAB model, Process Checklist, ABC sheets, or Scatter Plot. Consider 

any pattern of antecedent and consequent conditions: person, place, time, and 

events. 


Step 4: Generate one or more hypotheses from analysis of available data. 

• List possible hypotheses to explain function(s) of problem behavior (use FAB 

model for suggestions). 


Step 5: Identify strategies to promote positive change. 

• Brainstorm ideas; consider all contributions. 

Section 5 – 7


Step 6: Select strategies to implement. 



Step 7: Attend to final details. 

Assess: How do you know if the plan is working? What data do you need? 

Plan Summary: Identify how parents and other people or resources can support 

the plan. Identify responsibilities, actions, and deadlines and schedule 

follow-up meeting. Include who will obtain student input on the plan if the 

student does not participate in this meeting. 

Who? Does What? By When? 

Schedule follow-up meeting to review and revise plan: 

When? 

Where? 

Who should attend? 

Section 5 – 8

Trials of this collaboration example have proven effective when all meeting 

participants are familiar with the student and are prepared to solve problems 

rather than blame or complain. The fact that the collaboration is timed supports 

focused discussion. The resulting plan is developed most expediently 

using a laptop computer to record responses and to generate printouts for 

dissemination to all participants by the end of the meeting. One person can 

record, time, and facilitate the meeting, but one person leading the group and 

another recording the responses proves more efficient. As clearly outlined in this 

section, collaboration produces the best Behavior Intervention Plans. 

Section 5 – 9

Worksheet 5.2 Functional Assessment and Behavior Intervention Plan Worksheet 

Functional Assessment and Behavior Intervention Plan Worksheet 

Student name: 

Date: 

Teacher Name: 

Pro-social behaviors: 

What is/or can be done 

What does the student do well? Where does it occur? to reinforce this behavior? 

Prioritize up to two target behaviors that most interfere with the student’s functioning in the classroom. 

Estimate or directly observe the frequency (how often), intensity (high, medium, low), and duration of 

each: 

Behavior: (baseline levels) Frequency Intensity Duration 

From the list below, indicate the triggers (antecedents), concurrent events, and consequences that seem to 

support the current behavior. 

Triggers Concurrent Events Consequences 

❑ Lack of social attention ❑ Independent seat work ❑ Behavior ignored 

❑ Demand/request ❑ Group instruction ❑ Reprimand/warning 

❑ Difficult task ❑ Crowded seating ❑ Time out 

❑ Transition (task) ❑ Unstructured activity ❑ Loss of incentives/privileges 

❑ Transition (setting) ❑ Unstructured setting ❑ Sent to office 

❑ Interruption in routine ❑ Peer attention ❑ Communications with home 

❑ Negative social interaction ❑ Adult attention ❑ In-school suspension 

❑ Consequence imposed for ❑ Other _______________ ❑ Out-of-school suspension 

negative behavior ______________________ ❑ Other ________________ 

❑ Other ____________________ ______________________ _______________________ 


Section 5 – 10


What function(s) does the identified behavior(s) seem to serve for the student? 

Escape 

❑ Avoid a demand or request 

❑ Avoid an activity/task 

❑ Avoid a person 

❑ Escape the classroom/setting 

❑ Escape the school 

❑ Other _____________________ 

____________________________ 

Attention/Control 

❑ Get desired item/activity 

❑ Gain adult attention 

❑ Gain peer attention 

❑ Get sent to preferred adult 

❑ Other ______________________ 

______________________________ 

This information was collected through: 

❑ Teacher interview 

❑ Direct observation 

Suggest any preferred items, activities, or people to use as incentives in an intervention for this student 

(what can be used to increase positive student behaviors). 

Behavioral Goals (state in observable, measurable terms related to target behaviors). 

1. 

2. 


Section 5 – 11

Worksheet 5.3 Sample Behavior Intervention Plan 

Sample Behavior Intervention Plan 

Student Name: 

Date: 

Target Behavior: 

❑ Function of the behavior: 

❑ Intervention selected: 

Intervention Steps/Components (include each step/component of the intervention, persons responsible, 

and where and when it will occur). 

Student progress (include how it will be monitored, how often, and by whom). 

Implementation (include how implementation will be monitored, how often, by whom). 

Indicate number of instructional weeks before plan will be evaluated. 

Section 5 – 12


Plan Evaluation (indicate student progress toward identified goals). 

Indicate extent to which the intervention was implemented as designed. 

Plan Revisions (indicate any revisions made to the plan). 

Date: 

Outcome: 

Date: 

Outcome: 

This BIP was reviewed and piloted by the Syracuse City School District IDEA Reauthorization Discipline Committee: School 

Psychologists Alison Conley, Nancy Crawford, Dave Lochner, Kelly Malone, Anne Kilmer, Elizabeth Tucker-Schult, and James 

McDougal; SETRC Training Specialist Dave Zawadski; and Director of Special Education, Edward Erwin and adapted for this 

document. 

Section 5 – 13

Worksheet 5.4 Functional Assessment Checklist for Teachers and Staff 

Functional Assessment Checklist for Teachers and Staff (FACTS-Part A) 

Student/Grade: 

Interviewer: 

Date: 

Respondent(s): 

Student Profile: Please identify at least three strengths or contributions the student brings to school. 

Problem Behavior(s): Identify problem behaviors. 

❑ Tardy ❑ Inappropriate Language ❑ Disruptive ❑ Theft 

❑ Unresponsive ❑ Fight/Physical Aggression ❑ Insubordinate ❑ Vandalism 

❑ Withdrawn ❑ Verbal Harassment ❑ Work not done ❑ Other 

Describe problem behavior: 

Identify Routines: Where, when, and with whom problem behaviors are most likely. 

Schedule 

(Times) 

Activity 

With Whom Does 

Problem Occur 

Likelihood of 

Problem Behavior 

Low High 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

Specific Problem 

Behavior 

Select 1-3 Routines for Further Assessment: Select routines based on (a) similarity of activities (conditions) with 

ratings of 4, 5, or 6 and (b) similarity of problem behavior(s). Complete the FACTS-Part B for each routine 

identified. 

Routine(s) 

Problem Behaviors 

1. 

2. 

3. 

March, Horner, Lewis-Palmer, Brown, Crone, & Todd (1999) 

Section 5 – 14


Functional Assessment Checklist for Teachers and Staff (FACTS-Part B) 


Interviewer: 

Date: 

Respondent(s): 

Routine/Activities/Context: Which routine (only one) from FACTS-Part A is assessed? 

Routine/Activities/Context 


Provide more detail about the problem behavior(s): 

What does the problem behavior(s) look like? 

How often does the problem behavior(s) occur? 

How long does the problem behavior(s) last when it does occur? 

What is the intensity/level of danger of the problem behavior(s)? 

What efforts have been used to control the problem behavior? 

Strategies for Preventing Problem Behavior 

Consequences for Problem Behavior 

What are the events that predict when the problem behavior(s) will occur? 

❑ illness 

❑ drug use 

❑ negative social 

❑ conflict at home 

❑ academic failure 

Related Issues (setting events) 

❑ Other: 

❑ reprimand/correction 

❑ physical demands 

❑ social isolation 

❑ with peers 

❑ other 


❑ adult attention 

❑ peer attention 

❑ preferred activity 

❑ money/things 


❑ Other: 

❑ hard tasks 

❑ reprimands 

❑ peer negatives 

❑ physical effort 

Environmental Features 

❑ structured activity 

❑ unstructured time 

❑ tasks too boring 

❑ activity too long 

❑ tasks too difficult 


❑ Other: 

Summary of Behavior - Identify the summary that will be used to build a plan of behavior support. 

Setting Events & Predictors Problem Behaviors Maintaining Consequence(s) 


Section 5 – 15


The Functional Assessment Checklist for Teachers and Staff (FACTS): 

Instructions 

The FACTS is a two-page interview used by school personnel to build behavior support plans. An efficient 

strategy for initial functional behavioral assessment, FACTS is completed by people (teachers, 

family, clinicians) who know the student best, and is used to build behavior support plans or as a guide 

for more comprehensive functional assessment efforts. FACTS can be completed in a short period of 

time (5-15 minutes); efficient, effective completion of the forms increases with practice. 

How to Complete the FACTS-Part A 

Step #1: Complete Demographic Information 

Indicate the name and grade of the student, the date the assessment data were collected, the name of the 

person completing the form (the interviewer), and the name(s) of the people providing information 

(respondents). 

Step #2: Complete Student Profile 

Begin each assessment with a review of the positive and contributing characteristics the student brings to 

school. Identify at least three strengths or contributions the student offers. 

Step #3: Identify Problem Behaviors 

Identify specific student behaviors that are barriers to effective education, disrupt the education of 

others, interfere with social development, or compromise safety at school. Provide a brief description of 

exactly how the student engages in these behaviors. What makes his/her way of doing these behaviors 

unique? Identify the most problematic behaviors, but also identify any problem behaviors that occur 

regularly. 

Step #4: Identify Where, When, and with Whom the Problem Behaviors Are Most Likely 

A. List the times that define the student’s daily schedule. Include times between classes, lunch, and 

before school, and adapt for complex schedule features (e.g., odd/even days) if appropriate. 

B. For each time listed, indicate the activity typically engaged in during that time (e.g., small group 

instruction, math, independent art, transition). 

C. Where appropriate, indicate the people (adults and peers) with whom the student interacts during 

each activity, and especially list the people the student interacts with when he/she engages in problem 

behavior. 


Section 5 – 16

D. Use the “1-6” scale to indicate (in general) which times/activities are most and least likely to be 

associated with problem behaviors. A “1” indicates low likelihood of problems; a “6” indicates high 

likelihood of problem behaviors. 

E. Indicate which problem behavior with a rating of “4,” “5,” or “6” is most likely in any time/activity. 

Step #5: Select Routines for Further Assessment 


Examine each time/activity listed as “4,” “5,” or “6” in the Table from Step #4. If activities are similar— 

unstructured activities, activities that involve high academic demands, activities with teacher reprimands, 

activities with peer taunting—and have similar problem behaviors, treat them as “routines for further 

analysis.” 

Select between one and three routines for further analysis. Record the name of the routine and the most 

common problem behavior(s). Within each routine, identify the problem behavior(s) most likely or most 

problematic. 

How to Complete the FACTS-Part B 

Step #1: Complete Demographic Information 

Identify the name and grade of the student, the date that the FACTS-Part B was completed, who completed 

the form, and who provided information for completing the form. 

Step #2: Identify the Target Routine 

List the targeted routine and problem behavior from the bottom of the FACTS-Part A. The FACTS Part B 

provides information about one routine. Use multiple Part B forms if multiple routines are identified. 

Step #3: Provide Specifics about the Problem Behavior(s) 

Provide more detail about features of the problem behavior(s). Focus specifically on unique and distinguishing 

features and on the way the behavior(s) is disruptive or dangerous. 

Step #4: Identify Events That Predict Occurrence of the Problem Behavior(s) 

Within each routine, what (a) setting events and (b) immediate preceding events predict when the 

problem behavior(s) will occur? What would you do to make the problem behaviors happen in this 

routine? 

Step #5: Identify the Consequences That May Maintain the Problem Behavior 

What consequences appear to reward the problem behavior? Consider that students may get/obtain 

something that they want or that they may escape/avoid something they find unpleasant. 


Section 5 – 17

Identify the most powerful maintaining consequence with a “1” and other possible consequences with a 

“2” or “3.” Do not check more than three options. The focus here is on the consequence with the greatest 

impact. 

When problems involve minor events that escalate into major events, separate the consequences that 

maintain the minor problem behavior from the events that may maintain problem behavior later in the 

escalation. 

Step #6: Define What Has Been Done to Date to Prevent/Control the Problem Behavior 

In most cases, school personnel implement initial strategies to address problem behavior. List strategies 

that have been tried and organize these as (a) strategies implemented to prevent the problem from 

getting started, or (b) steps taken to control or punish the problem behavior (or reward alternative 

behavior). 

Step #7: Build a Summary Statement 


The summary statement, which identifies the “setting” events, immediate predictors, problem behaviors, 

and maintaining consequences, is the foundation for building an effective behavior support plan. Build 

the summary statement from the information in the FACTS-A and FACTS-B (especially the information 

in Steps #3, #4, and #5 of the FACTS-B). If the summary statement is accurate, move on to plan development; 

if not, continue the functional assessment by conducting direct observation. Procedures for completing 

a functional assessment and for designing behavior support are described in the following references. 

Examples of completed FACTS-Part A and FACTS-Part B are provided on pages 5-19 and 5-20. 


Section 5 – 18


Case Illustration of Example 3: Functional Assessment Checklist for Teachers and Staff (FACTS-Part A) 


Interviewer: 

Allison P. Grade 4 Date: May 3, 1999 

J.B. 

Respondent(s): 8D, AC, MA 

Student Profile: Please identify at least three strengths or contributions the student brings to school. 

Allison is very social, does an excellent job with adults, is prompt. 

Problem Behavior(s): Identify problem behaviors. 

❑ Tardy ❑ √ Inapprop Language ❑ √ Disruptive ❑ Theft 

❑ Unresponsive ❑ √ Fight/Physical Aggression ❑ Insubordination ❑ Vandalism 

❑ Withdrawn ❑ Verbal Harassment ❑ Work not done ❑ Other 

Describe problem behavior: 

Often engages in teasing and swearing that often escalates to physical 

aggression. 

Identifying Routines: Where, when and with whom problem behaviors are most likely. 

Schedule 

(Times) 

8:30-9:15 

Activity 

With Whom Does 

Problem Occur 


Likelihood of 

Problem Behavior 

Low High 

1 2 3 4 5 6 


Specific Problem 

Behavior 

9:15-9:21 

9:21-10:05 

10:05-10:11 

10:11-11:03 

11:03-11:44 

11:44-12:30 

Transition 

Reading 

Transition 

Math/Science 

Lunch 

Music 

Alex 

Alex/Jim 

Amy B./Alex 

Jim/Alex 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

Tease/Fight 

Tease/Swear 

Threat/Tease 

Swear/Fight 

12:30-12:36 Transition 

Carl/Jim 

1 2 3 4 5 6 Tease 

12:36-1:50 

1:50-2:30 

2:30-3:00 

Common Block 

Common Block 

Common Block 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

Select 1-3 Routines for Further Assessment: Select routines based on (a) similarity of activities (conditions) with 

ratings of 4, 5, or 6 and (b) similarity of problem behavior(s). Complete the FACTS-Part B for each routine 

identified. 

Routine(s) 


1. 

2. 

3. 

Language 

Unstructured times 

none 

Tease/Swear/Fight


Case illustration of Example 3: Functional Assessment Checklist for Teachers and Staff (FACTS-Part B) 


Interviewer: 

Allison P. Grade 4 Date: May 3, 1999 

J.B. 

Respondent(s): 8D, AC, MA 

Routine/Activities/Context: Which routinely (only one) from the FACTS-Part A is assessed? 

Routine/Activities/Context 


Unstructured times 

Tease/Swear/Fight 

Provide more detail about the problem behavior(s): 

What does the problem behavior(s) look like? Tease/swear - name calling, sexually inappropriate comments 

How often does the problem behavior(s) occur? Every day 

How long does the problem behavior(s) last when it does occur? Teasing continues 3-5 min. & can lead to fight 

What is the intensity/level of danger of the problem behavior(s)? Teasing & low intensity, fight & high intensity 

What current efforts have been used to control the problem behavior? 

Strategies for preventing problem behavior 

Consequences for problem behavior 

• precorrect 

• tell her to stay away from Alex 

office detention 

time in corner 


❑ illness 

❑ drug use 

❑ √ negative social 

❑ conflict at home 

❑ academic failure 


❑ Other: 

❑ reprimand/correction 

❑ physical demands 

❑ socially isolated 

❑ √ with peers 

❑ other 



❑ adult attention ❑ Other: 

❑ √ peer attention 

❑ preferred activity 

❑ money/things 


❑ structured activity 

❑ √ unstructured time 

❑ √ tasks too boring 

❑ activity too long 

❑ tasks too difficult 


❑ hard tasks ❑ Other: 

❑ reprimands 

❑ peer negatives 

❑ physical effort 

Summary of Behavior - Identify the summary that will be used to build a plan of behavior support. 

Setting Events & Predictors Problem Behaviors Maintaining Consequence(s) 

Given unstructured social 

situations 


Tease 

Swear 

Fight 


Peer attention 

?

Section 6 

Linking Positive Behavior 

Support to 

Special Education

Section 6 

Linking Positive Behavior Support to Special Education 

Insanity is doing the same thing again and expecting 

a different result. 

Albert Einstein 

It is a reality that some students require school guidance and training to learn 

appropriate and proper behavior. A major theme of this document is that ALL 

students can benefit from Positive Behavior Support (PBS) through plans that 

guide positive interactions with peers and authority figures. 

This section focuses on the use of functional assessment and PBS for students 

who are referred for or are receiving special education programs and services. 

PBS can be especially useful in the following cases: 

• As a helpful tool in special education prereferral or referral processes. 

• In developing individualized education programs (IEPs) for students receiving 

special education programs and services. Consideration of positive interventions, 

strategies, and supports as appropriate for behavior that impedes 

learning is required every time an IEP team develops or reviews an IEP. 

• When legally required in certain circumstances involving suspension and 

expulsion. Documented functional assessment and behavioral intervention 

are mandated in some cases that involve the removal of students receiving 

special education programs and services from school. 

PBS leads to: 

• Prevention of 

problems 

• Instructional 

skills 

• Responses to 

behavior 

How Can Positive Behavior Support Aid the Prereferral-to-Special Education 

Evaluation Process? 

First, consider when a special education referral is appropriate. Not all behaviors 

that inhibit learning are clear indicators of a disability. Effective alternative behavior—in 

the vast majority of student behavior concerns—can, in fact, best be 

taught through consistent general school and classroom practices. As teachers 

become more skilled at consistent use of schoolwide and classroom practices, 

requests for help from other school staff (including special educators) decrease. 

However, not all behavior challenges can be met using general education strategies. 

Persistent behavior problems often stem from conditions related to physical, 

Section 6 – 1

cognitive, or emotional impairments. It has been suggested that a special education 

referral may be appropriate when the following conditions exist (from Willis, 

LaVigna, & Donnellan, 1995): 

• A student’s challenging behavior persists despite consistent implementation of 

classroom-based interventions. 

• A student’s behavior places the student at risk of (1) harm or injury, and/or 

(2) exclusion or devaluation (e.g., suspension/expulsion). 

• School personnel are considering more intrusive and restrictive procedures 

and/or a more restrictive placement for the student. 

Challenging behavior that is underscored by a disability presents a considerable 

hurdle when implementing discipline procedures. The law protects students 

facing suspension or expulsion who are suspected of having any disabilities. For 

example, The Revised School Code of Michigan (§380.1311), states that a student 

can be expelled for “gross misconduct or persistent disobedience.” The same 

section of the code also states that: 

“If there is reasonable cause to believe that the pupil is handicapped, 

and the school district has not evaluated the pupil...the pupil shall be 

evaluated by the intermediate school district of which the student is a 

constituent ...” 

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendments of 1997 (IDEA 97) 

similarly require timely evaluation for suspended students identified through 

special education Child Find or district referral systems or students whose 

performance may signal a disability [(IDEA, §615(k)(8); 34 CFR 300.527)]. 

Prereferral and Referral Processes 

Note: This document does not intend to provide a comprehensive list of all procedural 

safeguards regarding discipline issues as related to students with disabilities. 

Addressed here are issues directly related to the IEP, functional behavioral assessment 

(referred to as FAB in this document), Behavior Intervention Plans (BIPs), 

and manifestation determination review. For a complete listing of all current 

procedural safeguards, consult the procedural safeguards distributed by the Michigan 

Department of Education or contact a local or intermediate school district. 

A special education referral is usually initiated when a student’s problem behavior 

persists, often frustrating school staff and parents. Many schools have collaborative 

teamwork procedures for staff and parents to implement at the initial onset of 

behavior and/or academic problems. For such teams, Functional Assessment of 

Behavior and Positive Behavior Support are optional, efficient tools for systematically 

collecting the information needed to address critical questions such as: 

Section 6 – 2

• Is an appropriate general education curriculum and program of instruction 

being provided? 

• Is the behavior related to an academic learning problem? 

• Is individualized general education behavior support being provided and 

consistently attempted? 

• Is the provided support effective? 

• In a program with many factors, which factors influence (or do not influence) 

the student’s behavior? 

• What is needed to fit PBS into typical general education environments and routines? 

• Is the challenging behavior the result of factors unrelated to a disability, such 

as irregular attendance or, perhaps, cultural or bilingual concerns? 

In some schools, a collaborative team is a student’s initial contact for Positive 

Behavior Support beyond the classroom. Participation on such teams may be 

restricted to general education staff to encourage a complete exploration of 

options within general education. As previously explained, most alternatives to 

challenging behavior can best be taught through consistent use of general 

school and classroom practices. Often, when special education staff are present 

at an early point in teaming, it is presumed that a special education referral is 

certain to follow, or that special education services provide the only means for 

accessing individualized support for the student. 

Consistency is 

marked by 

harmony, 

regularity, and 

steady persistence 

Experience indicates that when a special education referral and evaluation are 

implemented as the first line of support for students, subsequent eligibility rates 

for special education may be low. When eligibility is not determined and general 

education support for the student is lacking during the referral-to-evaluation 

process, precious time is lost during which a student’s needs might have been 

expediently and efficiently addressed within general education. The school 

response to behavior challenges is a complex issue that involves the entire 

school-family-community constellation of support for the student. 

Special Education Evaluation and Eligibility 

Even when the best efforts of general school staff and parents are in place, 

behavior challenges may be triggered by conditions related to physical, cognitive, 

or emotional impairments. In such cases, a referral for special education 

services may be appropriate. Once a comprehensive individualized evaluation is 

completed, providing reliable and evaluative information, an IEP team can 

make informed decisions about determining eligibility for special education 

Section 6 – 3

programs and services. In determining special education eligibility, the IEP 

team report must document considerations about the student’s present level of 

educational performance and other related issues. These considerations include: 

• Student strengths 

• Parent and student concerns 

• Progress in the general curriculum, including physical education 

• For preschool children, how behavior concerns affects the child’s participation 

in appropriate activities 

• Whether the student meets disability criteria 

• The extent to which the student, because of a disability (if any), needs special 

education or specially designed instruction 

• Determination that eligibility (if any) is not due to lack of appropriate instruction 

or limited English proficiency 

The IEP team may conclude that the student does not meet special education 

eligibility requirements and that the student’s needs can be met without special 

education. Information collected for the evaluation can then be used to continue, 

develop, or revise a plan of positive support for use in general education. 

This plan can be implemented generally and/or under the legal provisions of 

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. However, if the IEP team determines 

that the student has a disability and needs support that can only be 

provided by special education, information collected for the referral can then be 

used to develop an individualized education program (IEP). 

What Is an Individualized Education Program? 

When a student has a disability, special education law requires that challenging 

behaviors are treated appropriately for the identified disability. The law also requires 

documentation that specifies the manner in which the school will meet the challenge. 

This required document is the individualized education program (IEP). 

Imagine, for a moment, that a student with a disability displays the same challenging 

behavior as a student who does not have an identified disability. Both students 

will benefit if the behaviors are treated in a positive manner that is consistent with 

each student’s unique strengths, needs, and personal development. 

However, special education laws recognize that, for the student with a disability, 

disability-related behavior challenges can differ from general behavior challenges. 

Section 6 – 4

IDEA 97 is the federal law designed to remove disability-related barriers to the 

education of students with disabilities. IDEA 97 requires: 

• Zero reject: No student eligible for special education under IDEA 97 can be 

excluded from receiving programs and/or services in the state of Michigan. 

• Nondiscriminatory evaluation: Schools must use non-biased evaluations to 

decide if a student has a disability and, if so, its nature and extent. 

• Appropriate education: Schools must tailor educational programs and 

services to each student’s individual needs, based upon evaluation information. 

The 1997 amendments to IDEA incorporate into the statute, for the first 

time, an expressed recognition that formal Behavior Intervention Plans (BIPs) 

are a special education service. 

• Least restrictive environment: Schools must allow students with disabilities 

to receive educational programs and services with students without disabilities 

to the maximum extent appropriate. 

• Procedural due process: Parents must be involved in and allowed to challenge 

school actions, with the right to access formal processes for complaints, 

hearings, and civil actions in court. 

Using these principles, an individualized education program team develops an 

IEP to help a student with disabilities receive a full and complete education. The 

IEP team identifies a student’s needs caused by the disability, then develops and 

implements strategies to address those needs. The process is not unlike other 

student behavior intervention planning. Ideally, these needs-based interventions 

lead to successful educational outcomes for both the student and the school. 

How Can a Functional Assessment of Behavior and Behavior Intervention 

Plan Help Guide the Individualized Education Program Team? 

The IDEA 97 specifies several special considerations every IEP team must 

examine when writing an IEP. In every IEP team meeting, the IEP team must 

consider whether the student’s behavior significantly impedes the learning of 

the student or that of others. If behavior is a significant concern, the team must 

develop strategies that include positive behavior interventions and support, as 

appropriate. 

How are positive behavior interventions and support documented in the IEP 

when there is some concern about a student’s behavior? This is a good question 

because such concerns may range from anecdotal observations to behavior that 

threatens physical harm to the student and others. 

Section 6 – 5

Ideally, effective IEPs document shared understandings and roles among the 

student and the IEP team members, enabling the student to build skills and 

competencies. At the same time, it is critical to be aware that Positive Behavior 

Support is an ongoing, dynamic activity. The IEP, then, works best when its shared 

understandings are stated in broad enough terms to allow day-to-day variations as 

a part of normal life. In this active environment, the Behavior Intervention Plan 

serves as an active document that works best when subjected to periodic review 

and revision. 

PBS is... 

...an ongoing, 

dynamic activity 

While Functional Assessment of Behavior and/or Behavior Intervention Plans 

do not necessarily need to be included within the IEP, a strong, well-written BIP 

is vital in developing an IEP. Most schools and families prefer to separate the 

BIP from the IEP. An IEP can refer to a BIP (e.g., to document a required BIP), 

but one advantage of having a BIP stand alone is that it can be changed without 

a formal IEP team meeting. Once in place, the BIP can then be evaluated and 

adjusted as indicated by the student’s targeted behavior. 

How Can a Functional Assessment of Behavior and/or Behavior Intervention 

Plan Be Addressed in an Individualized Education Program? 

The individualized education program can address behavior concerns by 

referring to the Behavior Intervention Plan or by using information from the 

Functional Assessment of Behavior and/or BIP in one or more of the required 

parts of the IEP. Some of the IEP components that can be developed to reflect a 

BIP and/or behavioral concerns are: 

• Present level of educational performance and related questions about student 

performance 

• Supplementary aids and services 

• Related services and programs 

• Goals and objectives 

Present level of educational performance. A required part of every individualized 

education program is a statement about the student’s present level of 

educational performance (PLEP) (refer to the list and discussion about eligibility 

on pages 6-3 and 6-4). Including behavioral information in the PLEP statement 

is one way to address behavior in the IEP. A competent functional assessment 

can identify the source of/antecedent to challenging behaviors as well as 

desirable behaviors as they occur across various settings and social situations. As 

assessment information is collected, patterns emerge that help the IEP team to 

subsequently identify appropriate goals for the student as well as supplementary 

aids and services or special education programs and services that support the 

achievement of those goals. 

Section 6 – 6

Supplementary Aids and Services. Another required part of the individualized 

education program identifies specific supplementary aids and services, if 

needed. These are defined by law as “aids, services, and other supports that are 

provided in regular education classes or other education-related settings to 

enable children with disabilities to be educated with nondisabled children to the 

maximum extent appropriate” [IDEA §602 (29)]. 

Supplementary aids and services that help to implement Positive Behavior 

Support can be provided through either general education or special education. 

These may include but are not limited to supports such as: 

• Functional assessment and behavior intervention planning 

• Social interaction supports: peer tutoring, greetings, partial participation, 

learning groups, other structured activities 

• Self-management aids: calendars, monitor sheets, study arrangements 

• Professional or paraprofessional personnel as well as any other instructional 

support provided within general education 

• Assistive technology devices and services, such as tape recorders and calculators 

• Accommodated/modified assignments: pacing of presentations; variation of 

activity; written or recorded directions; reduced difficulty or length; recording 

of the printed assignment; providing correct models, extra cues, or prompts; 

alternate assignments; adapted materials 

• Testing adaptations: oral responses, taped tests, extended time, application in 

real setting, modified format, administration by resource person 

• Adapting the physical environment: seating, use of personal/shared space, 

room arrangement, reduction of distractions 

Related Services and Programs. Another required part of the individualized 

education program specifies related services and programs. Behavior planning 

can be considered a related special education service if facilitated by special 

education-related service personnel. Special education classroom program staff 

can also be utilized. The related services and program section of the IEP includes 

special eduction personnel who are involved in the behavior components 

of the IEP. Special education personnel with a particular interest in behavior 

issues often are: 

• The special education classroom teacher 

Section 6 – 7

• Ancillary and other related service staff: teacher consultants; school social 

worker, psychologist, or behavior specialist; orientation and mobility specialist; 

audiologist; homebound/hospitalized service provider 

• A work-study service provider or rehabilitation counselor for students involved 

in off-campus transitional activities 

Goals and Objectives. Another required part of the individualized education 

program specifies goals and objectives. If concerns about behavior warrant a 

Functional Assessment of Behavior and/or Behavior Intervention Plan, then it is 

logical to include the anticipated results for the student in at least one goal with 

associated objectives. In keeping with a positive approach to behavior support, 

the promising practice literature suggests that goals and objectives should: 

• Be based upon a functional assessment 

• “Fit” naturally in the settings and routines in which the behavior is to occur 

• Focus on measurable outcomes that are compatible with IDEA 97 and state 

requirements for periodic progress reports 

• Reflect a preference for goals to increase replacement or alternative behaviors 

rather than suppression of negative behavior 

• Utilize the strengths of the student 

• Define behaviors and interventions broadly enough to allow providers flexibility 

and to give the student a choice of responses, while still accomplishing 

the desired behavior 

The Required Use of Functional Assessment of Behavior and Behavior Intervention 

Plans When Students with Disabilities Are Removed from School 

Even though individualized education programs and Behavior Intervention 

Plans are in place, a student with a disability may still violate school rules and, 

therefore, be subject to disciplinary action. IDEA 97 stipulates that, when 

schools implement disciplinary procedures in serious cases involving special 

education students, they must take the students’ disability(ies) into consideration. 

Toward that end, some legal requirements and practical issues pertain 

specifically to the Functional Assessment of Behavior/BIP and to the manifestation 

determination review. 

The laws and regulations about removing students with disabilities from school 

are complex; some provisions are controversial. Legal complications and power 

struggles can be exacerbated by emotional fallout from the student, parent(s), 

Section 6 – 8

and staff. Often, critical resources (time, attention, and other supports) are 

expended. These complications suggest that schools should remove a student 

only when student safety issues are involved. 

What Constitutes a Functional Assessment of Behavior and a Behavior 

Intervention Plan? 

Historically, the study of behavior has included both the antecedents and 

consequences of behavior. One of the strengths of practical Functional Assessment 

of Behavior and of Positive Behavior Support is the “rediscovery” of the 

antecedents of behavior, which has developed in reaction to practical applications 

of behavior intervention that too often have overemphasized consequences. 

Typically, suspensions are applied as consequences for unacceptable behavior. 

Repeated suspension without functional assessment is essentially a “consequences-only” 

approach that may not get to the root cause of persistent behavior. 

In a school that utilizes Positive Behavior Support, a pattern of suspensions 

for persistent behavior will prompt school staff and parents to investigate the 

antecedents of the unacceptable behavior. Requiring a Functional Assessment of 

Behavior and Behavior Intervention Plan provides a minimum standard for the 

consideration (or reconsideration) of the antecedents to challenging behaviors 

that result in lengthy and/or frequent removals from school. 

In general, the individualized education program team must consider the need 

to develop or review a Functional Assessment of Behavior and Behavior Intervention 

Plan when a student is removed from school for more than 10 consecutive 

school days, or if a series of shorter removals accumulates to more than 10 

school days in one school year. When these situations occur, the federal regulations 

for IDEA require that: 

1. If the school has not already conducted a Functional Assessment of Behavior and 

implemented a Behavior Intervention Plan, the IEP team shall meet to develop 

an assessment plan to address the problem behavior. The assessment plan shall be 

conducted as soon as practicable and presented at an IEP team meeting to 

determine an appropriate BIP to address the behavior subject to discipline. 

2. If the student already has a BIP, the IEP team shall meet to review the plan 

and modify it, as necessary, to address the problem behavior. 

3. If the student is subject to further removals during the school year, the school 

shall contact the IEP team to determine if another IEP team meeting is 

needed to review the plan. If any member of the IEP team (including the 

parent) requests a review, the IEP team shall meet to review the BIP. 

Section 6 – 9

Manifestation Determination Review 

While not required to be used as such, a previously existing Functional Assessment 

of Behavior and Behavior Intervention Plan can also help the individualized 

education program team conduct a manifestation determination review. 

Like the FAB and BIP, a manifestation determination review is required in more 

serious disciplinary procedures. In a manifestation determination review, the 

IEP team must address the following question: Was the behavior under review 

related to the disability? 

According to federal regulations, it can be determined that the behavior was not 

a manifestation of the disability only if the individualized education program 

team first considers, in terms of the behavior subject to disciplinary action, all 

relevant information, including: 

1. Evaluation and diagnostic results, including such results or other relevant 

information supplied by the parents of the student 

2. Observation of the student 

3. The student’s IEP and placement 

Then, the IEP team determines that: 

1. In relation to the behavior subject to disciplinary action, the IEP and placement 

were appropriate, and the special education services, supplementary 

aids and services, and behavior intervention strategies were provided consistent 

with the IEP and placement, or 

2. The student’s disability did not impair the student’s ability to understand the 

impact and consequences of the behavior subject to discipline, or 

3. The student’s disability did not impair the student’s ability to control the 

behavior subject to discipline. 

If the individualized education program team determines that any of the immediately 

preceding three statements is false, then the behavior subject to discipline 

is considered to be related to a disability. 

While not required in all cases, a previously existing Behavior Intervention Plan 

featuring systematic data collection about appropriate behaviors may provide 

the student performance data needed to address these issues. A previous behavior 

plan—if it documents progress toward individualized education program 

goals and establishes that the problem behavior was an abrupt change from the 

recent level of performance—can support the determination that the student 

Section 6 – 10

previously understood and controlled the problem behavior under similar 

circumstances and that the disability or IEP did not create an obstacle to appropriate 

behavior. If the IEP team decides that the behavior is not related to the 

disability or IEP/BIP, then the student is subject to the same disciplinary procedures 

as are students without disabilities; however, services to the student do 

not cease. 

When Are Functional Assessment of Behavior, Behavior Intervention Plans, 

and Manifestation Determination Reviews Required? 

“Change of placement” is the key to understanding procedural safeguards in 

discipline procedures for students with disabilities. With few exceptions, whenever 

there is a change in the educational placement of a student with disabilities, 

there must be a new individualized education program team meeting to determine 

the IEP for the new setting. Removing the student from school may 

constitute a change of placement, depending upon the length and frequency of 

the removals. 

First, consider situations in which Functional Assessment of Behavior, Behavior 

Intervention Plans, and manifestation determination reviews are not required. 

In general, for each separate incident subject to disciplinary procedures, a 

student with a disability can be removed from school for 10 school days or less, 

as would a student without disabilities. Such relatively short removals are not 

considered a change in educational placement. In such cases, the FAB/BIP and 

manifestation determination review are not required. 

A change of placement may occur, however, if a “pattern” of short removals 

accumulates to more than 10 school days in one school year. Critical factors in 

determining a pattern include the length of each removal, the total amount of 

time, and their proximity in time. If a pattern is identified, the student is entitled 

to change in placement procedure safeguards (see “General Change of 

Placement” on page 6-12). 

In any case, after 10 accumulated school days of removal in a school year, the 

school must provide services that allow the student to progress in the general 

curriculum and toward the goals of the individualized education program. The 

services are determined by school personnel in consultation with the student’s 

special education teacher. Also, no later than 10 business days after first removing 

the student for the 11th accumulated school day in a school year, the school 

must consider a Functional Assessment of Behavior and Behavior Intervention 

Plan (see “What Constitutes a Functional Assessment of Behavior and a Behavior 

Intervention Plan?” page 6-9). 

Section 6 – 11

General Change of Placement 

A general change of placement is: 

1. A pattern of removals as described previously 

2. A single removal longer than 10 consecutive school days (except for removals 

under “Change of Placement: Drugs and Dangerous Weapons” or “Change of 

Placement: Other Dangerous Situations,” pages 6-12 to 6-13) 

For removals that constitute a general change in placement: 

1. Immediately, but not later than 10 school days after the day on which the 

decision is made to remove the student, an IEP team must meet to determine 

the relationship between the student’s disability and the behavior subject to 

discipline (see “Manifestation Determination Review,” pages 6-10 to 6-11). 

2. No later than 10 business days after the day on which the decision is made to 

remove the student, the IEP team must develop/review a Functional Assessment 

of Behavior and/or Behavior Intervention Plan (see “What Constitutes a Functional 

Assessment of Behavior and a Behavior Intervention Plan?” page 6-9). 

3. If the IEP team determines that the behavior subject to discipline was not a 

manifestation of the disability, the relevant disciplinary procedures applicable 

to students without disabilities can be applied to the student, except 

that programs and/or services must be continued as determined by the IEP 

team to allow the student to progress in the general curriculum and toward 

the IEP goals. 

4. If the IEP team determines that the behavior subject to discipline is a manifestation 

of the disability, the removal is terminated and the IEP team must 

take immediate steps to remedy any deficiencies in the IEP or in the placement 

found during the manifestation determination review. 

Change of Placement: Drugs and Dangerous Weapons 

A change in placement for a student with a disability to another educational 

setting can be made by school personnel for not more than 45 calendar days if 

the student possesses, uses, sells, or solicits illegal drugs or possesses or carries a 

weapon to school or to a school function. 

For removals involving drugs or weapons: 

1. Immediately, but no later than 10 school days after the day on which the 

decision is made to remove the student, an IEP team must meet to determine 

Section 6 – 12

the relationship between the student’s disability and the behavior subject to 

discipline (see “Manifestation Determination Review,” pages 6-10 to 6-11). 

2. No later than 10 business days after the day on which the decision is made to 

remove the student, the IEP team must develop/review a Functional Assessment 

of Behavior and/or Behavior Intervention Plan (see “What Constitutes a Functional 

Assessment of Behavior and a Behavior Intervention Plan?” page 6-9). 

3. Programs and services in the interim alternative educational setting are 

determined by the IEP team. The IEP team determines what services or 

modifications are needed to maintain the student’s progress in the general 

curriculum and toward IEP goals and to help prevent recurrence of the 


4. If the behavior subject to discipline is not a manifestation of the disability, 

the relevant disciplinary procedures applicable to students without disabilities 

can be applied to the student with a disability, except for continued 

services described in #3 above. 

5. If the IEP team determines that the behavior subject to discipline is a manifestation 

of the disability, the removal (up to 45 calendar days) may still be 

completed. The IEP team must take immediate steps to remedy any deficiencies 

in the IEP or in the placement found during the manifestation determination 

review. Programs and services must be provided to the student as in 

#3 above. 

Change of Placement: Other Dangerous Situations 

In instances not involving weapons or drugs, the student may be assigned to an 

interim alternative educational setting (not to exceed 45 calendar days) if, in 

response to a school request, either a hearing officer or court: 

1. Determines that the school has demonstrated substantial evidence that 

maintaining the current placement is substantially likely to result in injury to 

the student or others, and 

2. Considers the appropriateness of the current placement, and 

3. Considers whether the school has made reasonable efforts to minimize the 

risk of harm in the current placement, including the use of supplementary 

aids and services, and 

4. Determines that a proposed interim alternative educational placement will 

meet the standards given in #3 on page 6-14. 

Section 6 – 13

When a placement is made by a court or hearing officer: 

1. A manifestation determination review must be conducted (see “Manifestation 

Determination Review,” pages 6-10 to 6-11). Regardless of the outcome 

of that determination, the removal must be completed as ordered, and the 

IEP team must take immediate steps to remedy deficiencies (if any) found in 

the IEP or placement during the manifestation determination review. 

2. The IEP team must develop or review, as appropriate, a BIP (see “What 

Constitutes a Functional Assessment of Behavior and a Behavior Intervention 

Plan?” page 6-9). 

3. Programs and services in the interim alternative educational setting are 

determined by a court or hearing officer in response to proposals by school 

personnel. The proposal must determine what programs and services or 

modifications are needed to maintain the student’s progress in the general 

curriculum and toward IEP goals and to help prevent recurrence of the 


This section has provided an overview of the use of Positive Behavior Support 

in three main areas of activity involving special education, presented in order of 

increasing urgency: (1) when a student is referred for special education services, 

(2) in an individualized education program for a student who is eligible for 

special education, and (3) in disciplinary procedures for students receiving 

special education services. In the most urgent area—disciplinary procedures— 

Functional Assessment of Behavior and Behavior Intervention Plan are prescribed 

by law in certain specified circumstances. Another area concerns every 

student whose IEP includes PBS as a required consideration. Finally, for 

prereferral or referral activities, PBS is a discretionary “promising practice.” 

Positive support, implemented as a discretionary, proactive activity, can provide 

useful information at any point in decision-making processes for students with 

identified or suspected disabilities. 

Section 6 – 14

Section 7 

Designing 


Support Strategies

Section 7 

Designing Positive Behavior Support Strategies 

Being an educator in today’s American schools demands more than 

teaching reading, math, science, arts, and other academic content. 

Today’s educators must be able to accommodate students with significant 

learning and behavioral problems, teach in communities that are 

unable to support the school, and to work under conditions that are 

often counterproductive to teaching and learning. 

Lewis and Sugai 

This section is illustrative rather than exhaustive, intended to prompt further 

investigation into an aspect of a student’s life experiences that may require 

additional or different intervention. The Functional Assessment of Behavior 

(FAB) checklist in Section 4 is a good reference for suggestions about variables 

that may maintain the behavior of concern. Many of the suggestions in Section 

7 are preventive in nature. They are related to curriculum and instruction 

adjustments that may successfully support a student and prevent outbursts of 

frustration and/or refusal to perform. 

Positive Behavior Support (PBS) strategies can be applied to any behavior that 

impedes learning, and the application of such strategies should not be limited to 

overt, acting-out behavior. Improved academic performance is as much a goal 

of this approach as is reduction of inappropriate behavior. In this light, adjustments 

in curriculum and instruction are critical aspects of PBS. 

Conditions Related to Curriculum and Instruction 

The following suggestions are adapted from the work of Wright and Gurman 

(1998). 

A. For students whose motivation needs a boost of interest in curricular activities, 

consider providing incentives for using academic skills, teaching the 

skills using a context meaningful to the student, or providing a choice of 

activities for the student to demonstrate skills. 

B. For students with below average performance (e.g., labored reading, math 

calculations, or writing), apprise the student of his/her own rate of performance 

through timed, one-minute samples. Graph the results toward an 

agreed-upon increase. Use self-monitoring whenever possible, and imple- 

Section 7 – 1

ment precision teaching techniques, if desired. Offer repeated readings of the 

same material to increase rate and accuracy (fluency). 

C. For students who need more rehearsal of the material to improve their recall, 

consider using flash cards, choral response in groups, peer tutoring, and 

student response cards. 

D. When student skills are poor (e.g., misread words, spelling errors, misinterpreted 

math operation symbols), consider providing correct models and 

opportunities for error correction without penalty. Options can include 

using the cover-copy-compare strategy, reading passages aloud to student 

first, providing interesting drill, and practicing activities in a meaningful 

context or through computer activity. 

E. When students fail to generalize a skill to other settings, teach them through 

multiple examples, in a natural setting for the skill, or apply self-monitoring 

of the skill in new places or situations. 

F. When the instructional materials do not promote mastery (e.g., worksheets, 

sorting/using play money), change instructional materials to more closely 

match the curricular objective. Review curricular objective for relevance to a 

student’s goals and life contexts. 

G. When a student’s skill levels are poorly matched to the instructional materials 

(e.g., textbook is beyond a student’s reading ability, a student has difficulty 

with simultaneous note-taking and listening), provide supportive 

materials such as taped textbook and/or outlines of lectures using strategies 

such as the cloze procedure. The point is to increase student participation 

and promote a higher rate of response to instructional materials. 

Preventive and Early Intervention Strategies 

A. Ecological Manipulation: Implement planned environmental changes such 

as choice of classroom settings; proximity to teacher and peers; rapport 

enhancement through models, cues, and prompts; control of light and noise; 

use of voice tones, gestures, instructional methods, and goals. 

B. Positive Programming 

• Expand and develop appropriate social interactions. 

• Facilitate appropriate peer interaction. 

• Review and rehearse daily schedule. 

• Review and rehearse classroom rules. 

• Use visual schedules. 

• Teach coping skills. 

• Focus on whole class positive behavior—whole class celebrates success. 

Section 7 – 2

C. Select and Teach Replacement Behavior 

• Use the hypothesis to identify an acceptable behavior as a replacement 

or substitute for the target behavior. For instance, if the student is 

talking out for the purpose of getting teacher assistance, the student is 

taught how to raise a hand and wait for the teacher’s response. Teaching 

the student to raise a hand to signal a need for assistance provides the 

student with a skill that serves the same function as the target behavior. 

Using a hand signal is more efficient and developmentally appropriate. 

When introducing a replacement behavior, it may be necessary to 

provide frequent, scheduled practice trials and practice opportunities to 

increase proficiency quickly. 

D. Support Strategies for Preventing Problem Behavior 

• Increase student control and choices. 

• Increase opportunities for positive attention. 

• Increase opportunities for student to enhance his/her status. 

• Match teaching strategies/arrangements with student’s strengths. 

Conditions Related to Physical and Mental Health Disorders 

A. For students with behaviors of an obsessive or compulsive nature, consider: 

• Substituting a less maladaptive behavior 

• The cyclic nature of the behaviors—they may change course regardless 

of the intervention 

• The individual’s own level of motivation and ability to control behaviors 

• Environmental factors that contribute to the behavior 

B. For students with behaviors of a depressive nature, consider: 

• Behavior management emphasizing support and encouragement 

• Emphasis on emotional, behavior, social, and academic gains or 

changes—not behavior control 

• Use of positive approaches based on individual reinforcers 

C. For behaviors related to seizure activity, consider: 

• Carefully observing the student for seizure activity if the student’s 

behavior does not have clear, observable antecedents or consequences 

• That behaviors indicative of seizure activity include aggressive behavioral 

outbursts, staring, and states of confusion 

D. For students with behaviors related to fears, consider: 

• Removing the cause of fear 

• Not invading the person’s personal space or touching without permission 

• Talking calmly and using clearly articulated, shorter sentences 

• Helping the student make a plan to implement when feeling afraid 

Section 7 – 3

E. For students with behaviors related to sensory sensitivity, consider: 

• Sensory avoidance: Make the environmental changes that soften, reduce, or 

eliminate stimuli (reduce lights, remove extraneous visual stimuli, use 

earphones to muffle sounds, increase space between student and stimulus). 

• Sensory seeking: Use the identified sensory stimulation as a reinforcer, 

increase opportunities in the day for the student to access the sensory 

stimulation, alternate active and sedentary activities, allow the student to 

choose his/her own work position. 

• Context clues: Consider sensory responses in relation to the function of 

a particular behavior to identify specific, helpful accommodations. 

Consideration of Maintenance over Time and Generalization across Settings 

• Plan for home and school collaboration to practice learned skills in both 

settings. 

• Plan for community practice of learned skills. 

• Plan for skill maintenance through transition meetings when students 

change teachers or schools. 

What about General Education Students? 

It is critically important to keep in mind that the application of Positive Behavior 

Support is NOT limited to special education-eligible students. In fact, the 

principles of PBS, involving the functional assessment of learning and behavior 

that is linked to intervention, are applicable and appropriate for ALL students, 

regardless of educational status. General education classrooms, preschool 

programs, special education classrooms, alternative education settings, hallways, 

lunchrooms, and playgrounds can be safer and more productive when student 

behavior needs are addressed in the broad-based, systematic manner that 

typifies the PBS approach. 

To be effective, school-based approaches to dealing with challenging learning 

and behavior must be based on accurate identification and clear understanding 

of the factors and circumstances that influence student learning and behavior. 

This premise holds true for students who are gifted as well as for those with 

severe disabilities. 

As Lewis and Sugai (1998) indicate, 

Being an educator in today’s American schools demands more than 

teaching reading, math, science, arts, and other academic content. 

Today’s educators must be able to accommodate students with significant 

learning and behavioral problems, teach in communities that are 

unable to support the school, and to work under conditions that are 

often counterproductive to teaching and learning. The impact of these 

conditions is felt in schools, neighborhoods, and families in a variety of 

ways. For example: 

Section 7 – 4

• Up to 25.6% of eighth-grade students reported they have been 

involved in a physical conflict with peers (U.S. Department of 

Education, 1995). 

• Only half of American school children report feeling safe in their 

schools (Leitman & Binns, 1993). 

• Problem behavior is the single most common reason why students 

with disabilities are removed from regular school, work, and 

home settings (Reichle, 1990). 

• Two to six percent of the general population (1.3-3.8 million cases) 

is coming to school with well-established patterns of antisocial and 

aggressive behavior (Sprague, Sugai, & Walker, 1998). 

Some of these students may be eligible for special education services—many 

may not be. 

In light of these statistics, and given the wide range and complexity of learning 

and behavior problems facing today’s educators, it is clear that teachers in both 

general education and special education systems must work together to adopt 

comprehensive, broad-based intervention models. General and special educators 

can no longer afford to work in isolation when designing and implementing 

intervention strategies that impact our youth. The need to work together 

and implement interventions based on best and promising practices research is 

critical. 

Recent professional literature indicates that schools, parents, and communities 

can successfully decrease challenging behavior, improve learning, and help 

students demonstrate socially responsible behaviors by implementing PBS 

strategies. The challenge for us all is to translate validated research strategies 

into actual practice in our schools. 

We believe the Positive Behavior Support approach presented in this document 

offers schools and communities a place to start in assessing, designing, and 

implementing comprehensive systems of support that will positively impact 

ALL students. 

What about Students with Section 504 Plans? 

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 mandates accessibility for individuals 

with disabilities. The civil rights law stipulates that individuals with disabilities 

cannot be denied access to services or programs. It also stipulates that a 

student should have an evaluation and be given a free and appropriate public 

education. 

The Functional Assessment of Behavior is an excellent approach to examining 

all challenging behaviors. It has been well established through special education 

Section 7 – 5

law that students who are eligible for special education programs and services, 

and who demonstrate behavior problems, must be afforded the benefit of a FAB 

and subsequent Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP) (see Section 6). This is true 

for students being evaluated under IDEA 97 and for students whose disabilities 

do not require special education programs and services. If—by any law—a 

student who presents challenging behavior needs to be evaluated, the approach 

found in FAB can be useful. If a local education agency (LEA) is considering a 

behavioral evaluation for a student under Section 504, the LEA would be wise to 

invoke a FAB procedure. 

Like IDEA 97, Section 504 mandates that the schools evaluate students with 

disabilities for the purpose of making reasonable accommodations. When a 

student with a disability presents the school with challenging behavior, the use 

of a formal FAB is one useful component of a total evaluation. 

However, Section 504 differs from IDEA 97 in many respects. The most important 

difference—for our purposes—is that definitions of disabilities under 

Section 504 are broader than those under IDEA 97. Section 504 defines disability 

as a limitation in one or more major life activities. Definitions of disabilities 

under IDEA 97 are category-driven and more tightly defined. This means that a 

student with a disability who may not be eligible for services under IDEA 97, 

may be eligible under Section 504, thus necessitating the same evaluation 

procedures. 

Just as in IDEA 97, a student under consideration for Section 504 interventions 

must first be evaluated. This is where the FAB can be useful: if a student displays 

challenging behaviors, a FAB is an appropriate approach during a Section 504 

evaluation. 

While Section 504 does not mandate a specific approach for evaluations, a 

school team could use a FAB as a logical mechanism for addressing the behavior 

aspects of a Section 504 evaluation. This would serve the dual purpose of 

adequately evaluating the student while systematically assessing the challenging 

behaviors. 

What about Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students? 

The following addresses the need to understand cultural variables that may 

contribute to an understanding of behavioral differences, along with the concept 

that behavior differences may not necessarily be disorders. The following 

information is adapted from Ishil-Jordan (1997). 

• Behavior is culture-related. 

Section 7 – 6

Life experiences define a person’s culture. The more experiences a person has, 

the more his or her own culture changes from that of the native culture. The 

diversity of experiences within and among cultural groups practically obscures 

the broad generalizations of those groups and may lead to faulty stereotypes. 

However, some characteristics that consistently appear in some racial or ethnic 

groups can be more strongly associated with an individual who is closely affiliated 

with traditional cultural practices. 

• Behavior is regulated by internal personal controls (e.g., beliefs about what is 

right and wrong, personal rules of behavior) and by external controls (e.g., 

consequences, room arrangement). This is locus of control, a dimension of 

behavioral characteristics that varies across cultures. 

• Verbal and nonverbal expression of emotions and ideas varies across cultures. 

Caution: There is danger in applying broad characteristics 

known to a culture to all members of that group. 

• The expression of cultural characteristics may vary, due to several factors: 

◆ Socioeconomic status 

◆ Acculturation levels and motivation to acculturate 

◆ Language proficiency 

◆ Religion 

◆ Child-rearing practices 

◆ Decision-making style 

◆ Physical appearance 

• When a great difference exists between a family’s interpretation of a child’s 

behavior in school and the school’s interpretation of that behavior, expect 

disagreement about how that behavior is viewed (inappropriate/appropriate to 

the circumstance, positive or negative, acceptable or unacceptable) and on how 

that behavior should be managed. To understand the difference in perspective: 

◆ Learn what life experiences have shaped the student’s reaction to school 

(both social and structured situations of school). 

◆ Learn the individual personality and cultural environment of the student 

to better understand how that student behaves in certain circumstances. 

◆ Develop a hypothesis regarding the functional purpose or communicative 

intent of that behavior (e.g., not demonstrating a visible emotional 

response may be culturally expected and learned through parents but 

inappropriately interpreted by school personnel as withdrawn, depres- 

Section 7 – 7

◆ 

◆ 

◆ 

sive behavior; aggressive behavior may be a male-dominant trait of the 

culture that is expected as adulthood approaches). 

Some behavior considered against the rules or norm of American 

society may be acceptable in certain cultures, part of the normal process 

of acculturation, or necessary for coping in the student’s cultural or 

physical environment. 

Behavior comparisons should not be made with same-age Americanborn 

children, but rather with same-age ethnic peers with similar 

literacy and social experiences or with other family members. 

Interventions can vary as selected interventions are linked to the hypothesis 

of the behavior problem (the use of visual vs. verbal or kinesthetic 

approaches, competitive vs. cooperative interventions, private vs. 

public demonstrations or statements of approval, peer vs. cross-age 

learning). 

Table 7.1 on page 7-9 illustrates common problems and their behavioral descriptions, 

with alternate hypotheses that address sociocultural considerations 

regarding culturally and linguistically diverse children. 

Section 7 – 8

Table 7.1. Sociocultural Considerations regarding Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Children 

Sociocultural Considerations regarding 

Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Children 

The following information illustrates common problems and their behavioral descriptions, with 

alternate hypotheses that address sociocultural considerations. 

Problem Behavior Sociocultural Consideration 

Withdrawn Not responding when spoken Normal stage of second 

to. Fails to talk, although has language acquisition and 

the skill. Prefers to be alone. 

adaptation to new culture. 

May be appropriate to 

native culture. 

Defensive, Losing belongings. Exhibits Presupposes familiarity with 

Limit-testing an “I don’t care” attitude. having belongings. Adapting 

Lack of responsibility. Seems to a new culture may cause 

to waste time, arrives late, 

anxiety and resistance to 

cheats, blames others, has 

change. Concepts of time vary 

difficulty changing 

greatly from culture to culture. 

activities. 

External locus of control may 

be taught or encouraged in 

some cultures. External vs. 

internal locus of control 

confusion results from 

adapting to new culture. 

Disorganized Confused in terms of time. Concepts of time vary greatly 

Weak adaptive behavior. 

among cultures. Adaptive and 

Weak interpersonal 

interpersonal relationship 

relationships. 

behavior may reflect coping 

through native cultural 

practices. Typical initial stage 

of second language acquisition 

and acculturation. May be 

overwhelmed. 

Aggressive Talks out in class. Strong assertive behavior may 

Fights or harasses others. 

be appropriate by gender role 

Impulsive. 

in native culture. If teacher is 

Talks back to the teacher. 

female, role of male student 

Does not follow class rule. 

may be typical of native 

culture. Presupposes 

familiarity with expectations 

of school socialization, 

behavior, and language. 

Section 7 – 9

Section 8 

Responding to Emergency 

Situations: When Students 

Are Physically Dangerous

Section 8 

Responding to Emergency Situations: 

When Students Are Physically Dangerous 

If we are to reach real peace in this world…we shall have to begin 

with the children. 

Mahatma Gandhi 

Across communities, schools are among the safest places for children. Moreover, 

incidents of school violence (including in-school weapons violations) decreased 

significantly in the 1990s. However, as a result of recent, tragic, and well-publicized 

incidents, students and school staff understandably now feel less safe in 

schools (MacLellan, 1999). 

Staff Training 

Although physically dangerous situations are not the primary focus of this 

document on Positive Behavior Support (PBS), the reality of life in schools is 

that student behaviors sometimes culminate in infrequent but violent/dangerous 

situations. Emergencies may occur that require immediate staff response to 

a real threat of physical harm to people or to the environment. The Michigan 

School Code of 1976 states that schools must “provide for the safety and welfare 

of pupils at school or at a school sponsored activity or while en route from 

school or a school sponsored activity” [Michigan Compiled Laws 380.11a(3)(b)]. 

Emergency procedures are rarely–and only–used as a last resort. A solid foundation 

of rules, rule training, rule enforcement, consideration of antecedent events, 

consistent use of consequences, and a structured schedule with learned routines 

should be established to avoid emergency situations to the maximum extent 

possible. To respond appropriately, it is essential for all care providers to be well 

trained about emergency procedures. Staff development should involve a standardized 

curriculum for training on the policies and procedures of emergency 

management. One example of a nationally recognized training program is the 

Nonviolent Crisis Intervention program offered by Crisis Prevention Institute, 

Inc.; 3315-K North 66th Street; Brookfield, Wisconsin 53005. This program 

emphasizes strategies for crisis prevention and use of nonharmful approaches that 

promote the safety, security, welfare, and care of the student and others involved. 

Section 8 – 1

Corporal Punishment Prohibited 

Michigan law does not prohibit school staff from using reasonable force to 

protect themselves, students, or property. However, the use of reasonable force 

must provide protection without intention of harm. Reasonable force must not 

be confused with corporal punishment, which is prohibited in Michigan (MCL 

§380.1312). The Michigan law is reprinted for your review on page 10-20. 

School Response to Violence in Michigan 

Recent state initiatives have provided direction to and resources for local districts 

in developing effective local capacity to respond to school violence 

(MacLellan, 1999). In Michigan, P.A. 102 (MCL §380.1308), which was enacted 

on July 6, 1999, directs the State Departments of Education, the Attorney General, 

and the State Police to jointly adopt, publish, and distribute to school 

boards, county prosecutors, and local law enforcement agencies a statewide 

school safety information policy. On October 4, 1999, the Statewide School 

Safety Information Policy (State of Michigan, 1999), was issued to local-level 

agencies, consistent with P.A. 102. The policy directs local school safety policy 

developers to include: 

• Joint participation of schools, county prosecutors, and law enforcement 

• A listing of violent incidents to be reported 

• A protocol for reporting incidents among agencies 

• Procedures for responding to incidents 

• Procedures regarding information privacy concerns pursuant to the 

Family Education Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) 

Also strongly encouraged by the Statewide School Safety Information Policy are: 

• Initiation of collaborative interagency activities by school superintendents 

• Participation of other local agencies, such as: 

- local (including family) courts 

- child protection agencies 

- school administrators, teachers, parents, students 

- emergency medical services 

- county emergency management 

• Establishment of a School Resource Officer (SRO) 

• Written agreements between agencies 

• Training for all staff 

• Annual review among all agencies 

Also distributed with the policy was the School Safety Response Guide (State of 

Michigan, 1999), which includes suggested procedures for local school staff to 

implement when dangerous incidents occur. Readers are strongly encouraged to 

8 – 2

closely review P.A. 102, the Statewide School Safety Information Policy, and the 

School Safety Response Guide. 

Best Practice Considerations 

1. Never use any procedure out of anger or frustration. Avoid overreaction. 

Maintain professionalism. 

2. Anticipate that a crisis may occur. Get training and practice your response. 

Recognize that having a plan in place ensures greater capability. Emphasize a 

team approach. 

3. Review school policy and practices regarding crisis situations. 

4. Document and report each emergency situation. Review reports to identify 

patterns. Functional assessment can be helpful. 

5. After the emergency, record and review events with key individuals. This 

includes parents, students, staff, witnesses to the event, and others involved 

in care of the student(s) to develop a plan to prevent a reoccurrence. 

Section 8 – 3

Section 9 

Conclusion

Section 9 

Conclusion 

We have come a long way, but we know that we can and 

must do better. 

Judy Heumann 

Prevention of a violent school tragedy involves much more than ensuring 

physical safety in a school. Schools need to ensure that students are also emotionally 

safe and free from harassment that can foment acts of violence. A wellprepared 

school will have multiple strategies in place to prevent and respond to 

school violence, including primary prevention, early intervention, crisis response, 

and aftermath support. 

Although many sample forms are included in this document, it is critical for all 

readers to understand that the provision of actual Positive Behavior Support 

entails far more than correct form completion. Genuine Positive Behavior 

Support occurs only when quality of life improves for everyone–especially for 

the student. Even when dangerous, destructive, or disruptive behaviors are 

reduced or eliminated, our work is unfinished unless the student gains satisfying, 

productive insights into his or her own values, beliefs, talents, and capabilities. 

Positive Behavior Support implies far more than the legal mandates or 

technical applications of behavior intervention. Ultimately, Positive Behavior 

Support implies belief in, and commitment to, meaningful relationships within 

caring communities. 

Section 9 – 1

Section 10 

Resources

Section 10 

Resources 

If you want truly to understand something, try to change it. 

Kurt Lewin 

1. Early Warning, Timely Response 

Ken Dwyer, David Osher, and Cynthia Wager (1998) 

America’s schools are the safest place to be on a daily basis. This guide is 

part of the overall effort to ensure that every school in the nation has a 

comprehensive violence prevention program in place. To obtain a copy of 

this public domain document, contact: ED PUBS at 877.433.7827; Email: 

edpuborders@aspensys.com or download at http://www.ed.gov/offices/ 

OSERS/OSEP/ealywrn.html. For copies in alternative formats, Email: 

David_Summers@ed.gov or call 202.205.9043. 

2. “Effective Behavior Support: A Systems Approach to Proactive Schoolwide 

Management” 

T. Lewis & G. Sugai (1999) 

As part of the series, Focus on Exceptional Children, this 24-page article 

highlights the application of PBS to the school system. The Focus series is 

published monthly during the school year. PBS was the February 1999 topic. 

The issue included a sample plan and checklist for implementing PBS in 

school districts. Full text is available in electronic format, Education Index. 

Contact: Love Publishing Company; PO Box 22353; Denver, Colorado 

80222; 303.221.7333. 

3. Functional Behavior Assessment: An Annotated Bibliography 

Carl Myers, Nov. 1997, National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) 

This guide describes the value of articles found in the literature and other 

chapters published by NASP in Best Practices in School Psychology - III. For 

reprints, contact: NASP; 4340 East West Highway, Suite 402; Bethesda, MD 

20814; 301.657.0270; Email: NASP8455 @aol.com. 

4. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 

Editors: Glen Dunlap, Ph.D. and Robert L. Koegel, Ph.D. 

Dedicated to Positive Behavior Support, this new quarterly journal is available 

at $39 for one year or $62 for two years. The journal, which deals 

exclusively with principles of PBS in school, home, and community settings 

for people with behavioral adaptation challenges, includes research reports, 

Section 10 – 1

commentaries, program descriptions, discussions of family supports, and 

coverage of timely issues. To subscribe, contact: PRO-ED Journals; 8700 

Shoal Creek Boulevard; Austin, TX 78757-6897; 800.897.3202 or 

512.451.3246; Fax 512.451.8542; Email: proed1@aol.com. 

5. Michigan Positive Behavior Support Initiative 

Dr. Bernie Travnikar, Consultant; P.O. Box 215770; Auburn Hills, MI 48321- 

5770; 248.276.8054; Fax 248.276.9280. 

6. Research Connections in Special Education 

This biannual review of research on topics sponsored by the U.S. Office of 

Special Education Programs featured a Winter, 1999 publication on PBS. 

This free, public domain publication is available from the ERIC/OSEP 

Project at: The ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education; 

CEC; 1920 Association Drive; Reston, VA 20191-1589. 

7. School-Community Partnerships - A Guide 

Conduct and Behavior Problems: Intervention and Resources for School 

Aged Youth 

Sampler on Resiliency and Protective Factors 

For a catalog of resources and these recent packets, contact: Center for 

Mental Health in the Schools; Department of Psychology; UCLA; Los 

Angeles, CA 90095; 310.825.3634; Email: smhp@ucla.edu; Web: http:// 

smhp.psych.ucla.edu. The website has packets prepared for downloading in 

PDF format. Additional recent titles are: Social and Interpersonal Problems 

Related to School Aged Youth and Organizations with Resources Relevant to 

Addressing Barriers to Learning: A Catalog of Clearinghouses, Technical 

Assistance Centers and Other Agencies. 

8. State Documents 

Alabama: 

Conducting Functional Assessments and Writing Positive, Proactive IEPs 

for Students Who Exhibit Violent and Aggressive Behavior 

L. Worthington & R. Gargiulo (1998), University of Alabama at Birmingham. 

This document reviews discipline rules in IDEA 97 and its relationship to 

FAB and BIP. It provides a case study and many examples of supportive 

forms for data collection, data summation, hypothesis development, and 

intervention planning. Contact: Dr. Louanne Worthington; University of 

Alabama at Birmingham; School of Education, Leadership, Special Education 

and Foundations; 901 13th Street South; Birmingham, AL 35294-1250; 

205.934.3440. 

Section 10 – 2

California: 

Positive Interventions for Serious Behavior Problems. Best Practices in 

Implementing the Hughes Bill (AB 2586) and the Positive Behavioral 

Intervention Regulations 

D. B. Wright & H. Gurman (1998), California Department of Education 

This 303-page spiral-bound manual is comprehensive and intensive in its 

explanation and illustration of PBS and focuses largely on the problem 

behaviors of students with autism and other serious developmental disabilities. 

$14 (+$4.95 s/h). To order, request Item #1314. Contact: California 

Department of Education; Publications Division, Sales Office; P.O. Box 271; 

Sacramento, CA 95812; 800.995.4099 or 916.445.12601; Fax 916.323.0823. 

Kansas: 

PBS: Putting the “Positive” into Behavioral Support 

Mike Ruef, Denise Poston, and Kristen Humphrey; The Beach Center on 

Families and Disability, University of Kansas 

This introductory training packet comes in a three-ring binder complete 

with training information, overheads and notes, and reproducible flyers and 

forms. It is filled with tips and strategies on how to present the introductory 

overview of PBS to your audience. To order, contact: Beach Center on 

Families and Disability; 3111 Haworth Hall; The University of Kansas; 

Lawrence, KS 66045. 

Minnesota: 

The Promising Practices in Designing and Using Behavioral Interventions 

This 1996 document (three-hole-punched) provides a strong understanding 

of behavioral approaches to solving problems. To order, contact: The Behavioral 

Intervention Project; Division of Special Education; Minnesota Department 

of Children, Families, and Learning; Room 820 Capital Square 

Bldg.; 550 Cedar Street; St. Paul, MN 55101. 

Utah: 

Selection of Least Restrictive Behavioral Interventions for Use with Students 

with Disabilities (1993) 

As an appendix to the Utah State Board of Education Special Education 

Rules, this manual includes a description of a state human rights committee, 

a state professional peer review committee, and a local human rights committee, 

as well as extensive descriptions of behavioral interventions and 

sample forms. To order, contact: Utah State Office of Education; 250 East 

Fifth South; Salt Lake City, UT 84111. 

Section 10 – 3

Vermont: 

A Positive Approach to Understanding and Addressing Challenging 

Behaviors (1994) 

Karen Topper, Wes Williams, Kelly Leo, Ruth Hamilton, and Tim Fox 

Individual Student Support Team Process 

Best Practices-EBD Project 

These documents were designed to support educator and family efforts to 

include students with emotional and behavioral difficulties in general 

education. To order, contact: The University Affiliated Program of Vermont; 

Center for Developmental Disabilities; 499C Waterman Building; University 

of Vermont; Burlington, VT 05405; 802.656.4031. 

West Virginia: 

A Handbook for Disciplining Students with Disabilities (1998) 

Published by the Office of Special Education, this document largely addresses 

discipline issues presented by IDEA 97 and provides discussion of 

FAB and BIP and sample forms. Contact: West Virginia Department of 

Education; Building 6, Room B-304; Capitol Complex; 1900 Kanawha Blvd.; 

Charleston, WV 25305. 

9. The Agreement of Collaboration for Positive Behavior Support 

J. R. Butterworth, J. L. Beasley, M. A. Brown, J. M. Stooksbury, and 

D. Thompson (1999) 

This LRE for LIFE Project eight-page document provides a sample format 

of a letter of agreement for an interagency collaboration using PBS. To 

obtain a copy, contact: Jessica Beasley; LRE for LIFE Project; UT Conference 

Center, Suite 312; Knoxville, TN 37996-4135; 423.974.2760; Email: 

jbeasley@utkux.utcc.utk.edu. 

10. The Exemplary Mental Health Programs: School Psychologists As Mental 

Health Service Providers 

Mental health statistics regarding children and youth provide strong support 

for mental health programming in schools. Personal and environmental 

stressors put children and adolescents at risk for emotional, behavioral, 

and academic difficulties. This 208-page document, first published in 1997 

and reprinted in 1998, describes successful programs across the nation. To 

obtain a copy, contact: Victoria Stanhope, Director of Professional Information 

and Communication; National Association of School Psychologists; 

4340 East West Highway, Suite 402; Bethesda, MD 20814; 301.657.0270. 

11. Teaching Exceptional Children (Spring, 1990) 

Council for Exceptional Children 

Consider a student’s rate of performance when assessing learning problems. 

A slow reader often has trouble with comprehension. When the mechanics 

of reading a word or doing a math problem are slower than expected, weak 

fluency can be addressed. Precision teaching, an approach to teaching 

fluency—or automaticity—is the focus of this edition. 

Section 10 – 4

Commercially Available Resources: 

Caution: The following list of commercially available resources 

may not suit your teaching philosophy or practice of instruction. 

It is important to review and make informed choices about the 

usefulness of this sampling of quality materials. 

1. Aggression Replacement Training: A Comprehensive Intervention for 

Aggressive Youth 

Arnold Goldstein & Barry Glick with Scott Reiner, Deborah Zimmerman, 

& Thomas Coultry 

This book is an expansion on Skillstreaming, as applied to anger control and 

moral reasoning development as well as the instruction of prosocial skills. 

To place an order, contact: Research Press; P.O. Box 9177; Champaign, IL 

61826; 217.351.3273. 

2. Analysis of Sensory Behavior Inventory-Revised 

K. Morton & S. Wolford (1994) 

This 11-page checklist reviews possible sensory processing differences, 

associated with a range of disabilities and handicapping conditions, that 

may support a possible hypothesis for challenging behavior. Interventions 

that accommodate those individual differences may result in improved 

adaptive functioning. This scale inventories six sensory modalities: vestibular, 

tactile, proprioceptive, auditory, visual, and gustatory-olfactory. Each 

section has subsections that allow rating of both sensory-avoidance and 

sensory-seeking behaviors. Clusters of responses across or within modalities 

are identified. Worksheets assist in organizing the information and developing 

both hypotheses and supportive accommodations. Contact: Skills with 

Occupational Therapy; P.O. Box 1785; Arcadia, CA 91077-1785. 

3. Anger Management for Youth: Stemming Aggression and Violence 

Leona Eggert (1995) 

This award-winning program is a cognitive model of teaching anger management 

in a structured, small-group setting. To order, contact: National 

Educational Service; P.O. Box 55; Bloomington, IN 47402. 

4. Basic Skill Builders: A Precision Teaching Approach 

R. Beck, D. Conrad, & P. Anderson 

If you have students with basic skill problems in math, reading, writing, 

spelling, grammar, and map skills, then consider this data-based instructional 

approach with timed practice sessions allowing for informed curricular 

decisions. To order, contact: Sopris West; 4093 Specialty Place; Longmont, CO 

80504. For a catalog, call: 303.651.2829. Visit the website at: 

www.sopriswest.com. 

Section 10 – 5

5. BEST Practices, Behavioral and Educational Strategies for Teachers 

Editors: H. K. Reavis, M. Sweeten, W. R. Jenson, D. Morgan, D. Andrews, 

S. Fister, ($19.50) 

This 132-page book provides teachers practical information that can be 

used directly in the classroom to benefit students with academic and behavior 

challenges. Twelve major areas of behavioral interventions are presented; 

each strategy and intervention has been validated by Utah’s Behavioral and 

Educational Strategies for Teachers (BEST). To order a copy, contact: Sopris 

West; 4093 Specialty Place; Longmont, CO 80504. For a catalog, call 

303.651.2829. Visit the website at: www.sopriswest.com. 

6. Conflict in the Classroom, The Education of At-Risk and Troubled Students 

Nicholas Long & William Morse 

This 575-page book, now in its fifth edition, is a companion to Life Space 

Crisis Intervention, as its emphasis is on using that classroom tool. This 

resource, which provides an in-depth look at the challenge of educating 

troubled students, offers many ideas and strategies on promoting responsible 

student behavior. To order a copy, contact: PRO-ED; 8700 Shoal Creek 

Boulevard; Austin, TX 78757-6897; 800.897.3202; Fax 512.451.8542; Email: 

proed1@aol.com. 

7. Functional Assessment and Intervention Program ($69) 

This software program uses a guided interview process to conduct a functional 

assessment and provide suggested interventions based on the determined 

hypotheses. The questions help users focus on and consider the 

factors that may influence student behavior. The user confirms or discards 

the factors and generates a report. PC-compatible, Windows 95 and 3.1. 

Includes 20-page manual. To order, contact: Sopris West; 4093 Specialty 

Place; Longmont, CO 80504. For a catalog, call: 303.651.2829. Visit the 

website at: www.sopriswest.com. 

8. Homework Partners: Practical Strategies for Parents and Teachers 

W. R. Jenson, D. Olympia, D. Andrews, J. Bowen, L. Valum, & M. 

Hepworth-Neville 

Three books form a valuable collection of research-validated techniques that 

aid parents in supporting students through homework and result in increased 

academic achievement. The books are Homework Teams: Homework 

Management Strategies for the Classroom, Sanity Savers for Parents: Tips for 

Tackling Homework, and Study Buddies: Parent Tutoring Tactics. The books 

are sold for $16.50 each or $45 for the set of three. To order, contact: Sopris 

West; 4093 Specialty Place; Longmont, CO 80504. For a catalog, call: 


Section 10 – 6

9. Life Space Intervention: Talking with Children and Youth in Crisis 

Mary M. Wood & Nicholas Long (1991) 

This 342-page book teaches–through examples and explanations–how to 

effectively implement the six steps of Life Space Crisis Intervention for different 

age groups and for youth with different psychological disorders and 

suggests how to accomplish more adaptive goals for students. Training of 

trainers of Life Space Crisis Intervention is arranged through the Life Space 

Crisis Intervention Institute; 226 Landis Road; Hagerstown, MD 21740. To 

order a copy, contact: PRO-ED; 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard; Austin, TX 

78757-6897; 800.897.3202; Fax 512.451.8542; Email: proed1@aol.com. 

10. Nonviolent Crisis Intervention 

Al Gene Caraulia & Linda Steiger (1997) 

This book reviews the content used in the CPI training programs, which 

teach a model that includes the four stages of a crisis. That model provides 

adults with behaviors to observe in the students with whom they work to 

identify the crisis stage and a corresponding staff response to that crisis stage 

behavior. For information on training, contact: 800.558.8976; Email: 

cpi@execpc.com; Web: http://www.execpc.com/~cpi. To order a copy of the 

book, contact: Crisis Prevention Publishing; 3315-K N. 124th Street; 

Brookfield, Wisconsin 53005. 

11. Reaching the Hard to Teach: Participant Packet ($60) 

This 350-page three-ring binder features nine booklets with outlines and 

specific information for inclusive environments. The packets include “Adapting 

Socio-emotional Environment,” “Adapting the Behavioral Environment,” 

“Adapting the Physical Environment,” “Adapting Lesson Plans,” “Adapting 

Teaching Techniques,” “Adapting the Format of Content,” “Adapting Media,” 

and “Adapting Evaluation and Alternative Grading Procedures.” To order, 

contact: Judy Wood Publishing Company; 9327 Midlothian Turnpike, Suite 

2E; Richmond, VA 23236; toll-free 877.418.7860; Web: www.judywood.com. 

12. Skillstreaming in Early Childhood: Teaching Prosocial Skills 

to the Preschool and Kindergarten Child 

Ellen McGinnis & Arnold P. Goldstein 

Skillstreaming in the Elementary School Child: A Guide for 

Teaching Prosocial Skills 

Ellen McGinnis & Arnold P. Goldstein with Robert Sprafkin, & N. Jane 

Gershaw 

Skillstreaming the Adolescent: A Structured Learning 

Approach to Teaching Prosocial Skills 

Arnold P. Goldstein, Robert Sprafkin, N. Jane Gershaw, & Paul Klein 

Skillstreaming is a structured instructional approach for training socially 

acceptable and developmentally appropriate skills. It benefits students who 

experience skill deficits, perhaps due to lack of knowledge, aggression, 

Section 10 – 7

withdrawal, or social immaturity. In addition to the skill lessons, the books 

describe procedures for assessing skills, developing objectives, evaluating 

progress, managing problems, and building generalization opportunities. 

The books are accompanied by workbooks and other supplemental materials. 

To place an order, contact: Research Press; P.O. Box 9177; Champaign, IL 

61826; 217.351.3273. 

13. Techniques for Managing Verbally and Physically Aggressive Students 

Beverly H. Johns & Valerie G. Carr (1995) 

This 156-page book contains easily replicated strategies and interventions for 

working with verbally aggressive students. It is recommended for individuals 

with previous direct instruction experience and training on the best practice 

of working with physically aggressive students. The text alone, with no accompanying 

pictures, is insufficient for adequate training for safely and effectively 

dealing with physical aggression. To order a copy, contact: Love Publishing 

Company; P.O. Box 22353; Denver, CO 80222; 303.221.7333. 

14. The Administrator’s Desk Reference of Behavior Management 

R. Sprick, L. Howard, B.J. Wise, K. Marcum, & M. Haykin ($95) 

This comprehensive three-volume set of materials directs staff toward 

consistent, proactive, and positive approaches in discipline. These materials 

teach staff how to be proactive in prevention of behavior problems, how to 

interact positively with students, how to provide feedback calmly and 

consistently, and how to teach students to behave responsibly. They also 

assist in ensuring that a school building is safe and productive, creating a 

positive school climate with high expectations for school success, and 

designing effective policies and procedures for prompting students to be 

responsible. School-based jobs is one program that fosters student responsibility 

and increases purpose and sense of belonging. To order, contact: 

Sopris West; 4093 Specialty Place; Longmont, CO 80504. For a catalog, call: 


15. The High Five Program: A Positive Approach to School Discipline 

Fern Ridge Middle School; Fern Ridge School District 28J; Elmira, Oregon 

(1999) 

This training manual includes an overview of the steps required to plan, 

develop, implement, and monitor a schoolwide positive behavior support 

effort. $25 (+s/h). To order a copy, contact: Fern Ridge Middle School; 

School Climate Committee; 88831 Territorial Road; Elmira, OR 97437; 

541.935.8230; Fax 541.935.8234; Email: staylorg@lane.k12.or.us. 

16. The Motivation Assessment Scale (MAS) 

V. M. Durand & D. Crimmins (1992) 

This 16-item scale helps to better understand maladaptive behavior when it 

may involve one of the following motivations: sensory, attention, escape, or 

Section 10 – 8

tangible. The scale poses questions about the presence of a behavior (e.g., 

“Does the behavior occur when you take away a favorite toy, food, or activity?”) 

and requires a subjective assignment of frequency ranging from “never” 

to “almost always.” Also available is a computer version for Windows— 

MASSoftware—that presents the questions and provides a presentation of 

scores, a graph of results, and a brief written summary. For both the print and 

software versions, contact: Monaco & Associates; 4125 Gage Center Drive, 

Suite 204; Topeka, KS; 800.798.1309. 

17. The Prepare Curriculum: Teaching Prosocial Competencies 

Arnold Goldstein 

This book provides a group problem-solving curriculum for preadolescent 

and adolescent students with a variety of social skill deficits. This researchbased 

approach draws heavily from Skillstreaming and Aggression Replacement 

Training. Goals of the training include development of students’ 

interpersonal problem solving, situation perception, anger control, moral 

reasoning, stress management, empathy, ability to recruit supportive models, 

cooperation, understanding of group pressures, and control of outcomes in 

group situations. Assessment of entry skills and transfer and maintenance of 

learned skills are discussed. To place an order, contact: Research Press; P.O. 

Box 9177; Champaign, IL 61826; 217.351.3273. 

18. The Rehabilitation Research and Training Center (RRTC) on Positive 

Behavior Support 

This collaborative consortium combines resources from the University of 

South Florida, University of Oregon, University of California at Santa 

Barbara, State University of New York at Stony Brook, University of Kansas, 

and California State University at Hayward. The combined resources of the 

Center are available through a Material List and Order Form. Each of the 

291 items in the 29-page document is organized by research articles (pages 

1-17), books (pages 18-19), published chapters (pages 20-27), and curriculum 

materials (pages 28-29). For a Material List and Order Form, contact: 

Glen Dunlap, Ph.D.; c/o Kirsten Cuenca, Administrative Coordinator RRTC; 

Department of Child & Family Studies; Florida Mental Health Institute; 

University of South Florida; 13301 Bruce B. Downs Blvd.; Tampa, FL 33612; 

813.974.4612; Fax 813.974.6115; Email: cuenca@hal.fmhi.usf.edu. 

19. The Tough Kid Book, Practical Classroom Management Strategies 

G. Rhode, W. R. Jenson, & H. K. Reavis ($19.50) 

This 120-page book, written to help readers manage the “tough kid” and 

intended for teachers who want effective, positively managed classrooms, 

suggests practical techniques that can be implemented without great cost in 

materials, time, or money. Sopris West has a variety of other materials 

related to consultation on academic and behavior problems, teaching 

conflict resolution, and guiding administrators through discipline policy 

Section 10 – 9

and practice. To order a copy, contact: Sopris West; 4093 Specialty Place; 

Longmont, CO 80504. For a catalog, call 303.651.2829. Visit the website at: 

www.sopriswest.com. 

20. The Tough Kid Social Skills Book 

S. Sheridan ($19.50) 

This 230-page book provides strategies for teaching social skills and the 

lesson sequence for teaching 10 discrete social skills. To order a copy, contact: 

Sopris West; 4093 Specialty Place; Longmont, CO 80504. For a catalog, 

call 303.651.2829. Visit the website at: www.sopriswest.com. 

21. The Tough Kid Tool Box 

W. R. Jenson, G. Rhode, & H. K. Reavis ($16.95) 

This 214-page tool box of elementary and middle school classroom-tested, 

ready-to-use materials for managing and motivating tough-to-teach students 

serves as a supplement and complement to The Tough Kid Book. 

Additional in-depth explanations and techniques are provided. To order a 

copy, contact: Sopris West; 4093 Specialty Place; Longmont, CO 80504. For a 

catalog, call 303.651.2829. Visit the website at: www.sopriswest.com. 

22. The Tough Kid Video Series Kit ($2,500 or Rent at $850) 

This set of six 50-minute videotape presentations features eight prominent 

education specialists who present research-validated techniques for management 

of difficult students from grades 1 through 8. Accompanied by a study 

guide, it is a tool for staff development. To order a copy, contact: Sopris 

West; 4093 Specialty Place; Longmont, CO 80504. For a catalog, call 


23. The Walker Social Skills Curriculum: 

(1) The ACCEPTS Program: A Curriculum for Children’s Effective Peer 

and Teacher Skills (Grades K-6) 

H.M. Walker, S. McConnell, D. Holmes, B. Todis, J. Walker, & N. Golden 

Designed for individual, small group and whole class direct instruction in 

social skills. 

(2) The ACCESS Program: Adolescent Curriculum for Communication 

and Effective Social Skills (Secondary) 

H. M. Walker, B. Todis, D. Holmes, & G. Horton 

This program includes 30 skills required for social competence. 

To order, contact: PRO-ED; 8700 Shoal Creek Boulevard; Austin, TX 78757- 

6897; 800.897.3202 or 512.451.3246; Fax 512.451.8542; Email: 

proed1@aol.com. 

Section 10 – 10

Suggested Websites 

• Center for Effective Collaboration and Practice 

 

• Central Instructional Support Center 

 

• Early Prevention of Violence Database 

 

• Institute on Violence and Destructive Behavior 

 

• LRE for Life Project /Tennessee Department of Education 

 

• Mental Health in School Training and Technical Assistance Center 

 

• Michigan Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Early 

Intervention Services 

 

• Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) 

 

• Pacer Center: Parents Helping Parents 

 

• Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports 

 

• The Beach Center on Families and Disabilities 

 

• The Behavior Home Page 

 

• The Great Lakes Area Regional Resource Center 

 

• The National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities 

 

• Tri-State Consortium on Positive Behavior Support 

 

• Western Regional Resource Center 

 

Resources for Classrooms: Variables Affecting 

Student Behavior and Performance 

During the past decade, much educational research has focused on classroom 

environments, behavior strategies, and instructional procedures that have a 

direct impact on student behavior and performance. This research indicates that 

specific variables can have a positive impact on students’ academic skills and 

behavior. The following list of variables/guidelines is a summary of research 

findings developed by Kathy Clegg, Director of Special Education; Lapeer 

Intermediate School District; 1996 W. Oregon; Lapeer, MI 48446. 

Section 10 – 11

Schedules, Routines, Procedures 

1. Classroom schedule follows a standard, consistent, daily routine. 

2. Daily schedule is posted in terms students can be taught to follow. 

3. Students are taught classroom routines and procedures. 

Classroom Management System 

1. Classroom rules are posted where all can see. 

2. Classroom rules describe observable behaviors. 

3. Classroom rules are written in meaningful terms. 

4. Classroom rules are stated in positive terms. 

5. Classroom rules are brief in number. 

6. Classroom rules generalize across settings. 

7. Classroom rules are taught to the students. 

8. Staff enforces classroom rules immediately and consistently. 

9. Classroom rules are reviewed periodically before class begins. 

10. Consequences for following rules and rule violation are clearly spelled out 

for students. 

Instructional Techniques 

1. Teacher encourages students in class at least four times as much as teacher 

reprimands students. 

2. Problem students are seated nearest the teacher and apart from each other. 

3. Model students are seated to the sides of the teacher. 

4. Staff frequently scans and intermittently praises students who follow class 

rules. 

5. Staff warns only once (if at all) before following through with actual 

consequences. 

6. Teacher has lesson plans outlined in advance (procedure/plan). 

7. Students not involved in a particular group are constructively occupied 

with independent activities. 

8. Lessons are broken down into several 10-20 minute instructional/testing 

activities. 

9. Staff makes sure all students are in attendance before starting a lesson. 

10. Staff presents lesson at student’s instructional level. 

11. Staff has students actively respond to lesson. 

12. Staff praises correct answers consistently. 

13. Staff corrects each mistake after it is made. 

14. Staff uses appropriate cues/prompts to secure correct responses. 

15. Staff quickly paces through tasks with enthusiasm. 

16. Teacher uses “off-task” behavior of one student as a cue to praise “on-task” 

behavior of another student. 

Section 10 – 12

17. Transition from activity to activity occurs in an organized, well-planned 

manner. 

18. Teacher circulates around the class, giving feedback to students engaged in 

seatwork. 

19. Procedural, instructional, and prompting adaptations are considered. 

Section 10 – 13

Choosing an Observational Method 

Type of Measure Definition Example Advantages and Disadvantages 

Permanent product 

recording 

Records the enduring 

outcome of the 

behavior 

Number of math 

problems completed, 

windows broken, 

pieces of clothing torn 

Readily assessed for reliability of 

measurement 

Event/frequency 

recording 

Records the number 

of times a specific 

behavior occurs over a 

specific interval 

Punching another 

person, turning over 

desks 

Appropriate for behaviors that have 

clearly definable beginnings and 

endings 

May be recorded on a checklist, wrist 

counter, or hand counter, or through 

transfer of objects (e.g., pennies) 

from one pocket to another 

Duration recording 

Records the length of 

time a behavior lasts 

Temper tantrums, 

high-pitched whining, 

length of time taken 

to complete an 

assignment 

May be recorded with the aid of a 

wall clock or stopwatch 

Interval recording 

Records the presence 

or absence of a given 

response within a 

time interval 

Thumb-sucking or 

sideburn-pulling 

Records behaviors that are not 

clearly discrete 

Useful for behaviors that occur at 

least once every 15 minutes 

Whole-interval 

time sampling 

Records response 

when emitted 

throughout the entire 

interval 

On-task behavior 

Tends to underestimate the occurrences 

of the behavior 

Useful when it is important to know 

that the behavior is not interrupted 

Partial-interval 

time sampling 

Records response 

when a single instance 

of the response occurs 

in the interval 

Swearing or bizarre 

gestures 

Used to record behaviors that may 

occur in fleeting moments 

Tends to overestimate the occurrence 

of the behavior 

Momentary 

Records the response 

if emitted at the 

moment the interval 

terminates 

In-seat behavior, 

frequent stereotypic 

behaviors 

Useful for recording behaviors that 

are apt to persist for a while 

Reprinted with adaptations by Wright & Gurman, 1998 

Section 10 – 14

Survey: Preventing and Responding to Violent School Crises 

This brief checklist may help schools/communities determine their readiness to deal with violent school 

crises in four areas: primary prevention, early intervention, crisis response, and aftermath support. 

Primary prevention and early intervention are designed to prevent school violence, while crisis response 

and aftermath support occur in the event of a violent tragedy. In addition, examples of first steps to take 

to improve school safety are provided. 

Actions to Prevent a Crisis 

Primary Prevention 

Primary prevention of school violence includes activities, programs, and strategies that help assure that 

students have the knowledge, skills, support, and organizational protection (physical and emotional) to 

be and feel safe while at school and at school-sponsored activities and while traveling to and from school. 

Primary prevention is available and is provided to all students, and it helps young people avoid involvement 

in a wide range of unhealthy risk behaviors, e.g., violence, use of alcohol and other drugs, sexual 

activity. 

In 

In 

No Planning Place 

Does your school… 

1. Provide classroom instruction on the topics of safety, harassment, 

diversity, conflict mediation, emotional and mental 

health, social skills, character education, bullying, protective 

behaviors, and suicide? 

2. Have fair policies and procedures to prevent violence, harassment, 

and bullying, developed by a broad representation of the 

school-community and endorsed by the school board? Do they 

clearly define expected behavior and consequences for misbehavior? 

Are these policies and procedures widely publicized for 

students and parents using non-technical language and practical 

examples? Are they part of the school code of conduct? 

3. Sponsor programs for peer educators, leaders, and mediators to 

increase student involvement and commitment to a safe school? 

4. Provide advisor-advisee programs or other ways to ensure all 

students feel connected to an adult in school? 

5. Sponsor family support and education programs to increase 

parent involvement in your school and support efforts of parents 

to raise their children the best they can? 

6. Provide a welcoming environment for students, visitors, and staff? 

7. Have connections to the greater community to ensure families 

and community officials are making efforts to limit access to 

weapons? 

8. Use adult hall monitors? 

9. Have surveillance cameras in hallways? 

Adapted from Nick Dibble (1999) 

Section 10 – 15

In 

In 


10. Have a police-school liaison officer? 

11. Have staff who treat all students with equal respect and model 

behaviors expected of students? Do staff monitor their own 

speech and conduct? 

12. Provide before- and after-school programs? 

13. Provide support and encouragement for students as they transition 

from school to adult life and the workplace? 

14. Encourage staff to keep the principal/designated staff member 

or group informed about identified concerns and ideas to 

improve safety? 

15. Provide professional development opportunities so staff understand 

their roles and responsibilities in school safety promotion? 

Early Intervention 

Research tells us most children who become violent toward self or others feel rejected and psychologically 

victimized. They are often victims of harassment and intimidation. Early intervention is necessary 

when students demonstrate early warning signs of possible future violent acts. These strategies and 

procedures are needed to maintain a safe school environment and to assure that students receive appropriate 

services and consequences, based upon their actions. 

In 

In 



1. Systematically follow up on rumors and violent intents? 

2. Provide student support groups to deal with anger management 

and impulse control? 

3. Have policies and procedures designed to promote school safety 

that are uniformly enforced for all students without regard to 

the “group” to which they belong? 

4. Encourage students and parents to speak out about harassment 

and intimidation? Do they know to whom to talk? 

5. Inform complainant in harassment cases about the complaint 

resolution process and carefully follow the complaint resolution 

procedure? 

6. Provide individual counseling with pupil services staff? 

7. Sponsor peer helpers who represent all segments of the student 

population and whose training covers early warnings signs of 

possible acts of violence? 

8. Have cooperative agreements with local and county law enforcement 

agencies to ensure prompt responses to behaviors 

that, while not violent, may still be illegal? 


Section 10 – 16


9. Take steps to assure that all students have at least one responsible 

adult within the school in whom they feel comfortable 

confiding in? 

10. Have a building consultation team to screen, assess, and recommend 

services, if necessary, for students who demonstrate early 

signs? 

11. Make referrals to community mental health providers when 

appropriate and with parental permission? 

12. Work with families, law enforcement officials, judges, and 

community mental health providers to ensure that violent 

youth are provided sanctions and services to change their 

behavior? 

In 

In 


Actions to Respond to a Crisis 

Crisis Response 

Crisis response includes the immediate actions taken in a crisis. Staff can respond more effectively if 

there is a well-conceived plan and everyone understands what to do and whom to see for instructions. 


In 

In 


1. Have a comprehensive crisis plan that features involvement of 

community agencies, evacuation procedures, a crisis communication 

system, and a process for securing immediate support 

from law enforcement and other appropriate agencies? Is staff 

development provided to ensure everyone understands his/her 

role in a crisis? Is the staff provided a written manual or flip 

chart detailing all procedures? 

2. Provide regular opportunities to practice schoolwide responses 

to crisis, similar to fire and tornado drills? 

3. Have a school-community team to oversee the preparation and 

implementation of the prevention and response plan including 

the principal, teachers, pupil services staff, parents, community 

mental health providers, and a police-school liaison officer? 


Section 10 – 17

Aftermath Support 

Aftermath support is provided in the hours, days, and weeks directly following a tragedy. Students, staff, 

and parents may experience a range of emotions including anger, grief, and fear of returning to school. 

Until they are resolved, these emotions can make learning, teaching, and parenting very difficult. 


1. Have a crisis response team available to be mobilized composed 

of pupil services staff, community-based mental health professionals, 

clergy, and physicians? 

In 

In 


In the event of a violent tragedy, would your school… 

2. Help parents understand adolescents’ reactions to violence? 

3. Provide short-term mental health counseling for students and 

staff? 

4. Provide assistance to victims and family members to re-enter 

the school environment? 

5. Refer students and staff to community-based mental health 

professionals, if necessary, for counseling? 

First Steps to Improving School Safety 

Review of this checklist may prompt your school to take additional measures to improve school safety 

and decrease the likelihood of a crisis. Some first steps to consider: 

• Organize a school-community team to oversee violence prevention and crisis response activities. 

• Conduct a building safety audit in conjunction with local law enforcement officials. 

• Improve connections to community-based organizations to coordinate “wrap around” services for 

students with severe and chronic problems. 

• Conduct a “connection assessment,” for which all staff members list the students with whom each has a 

personal relationship, i.e., he/she knows the student and feels the student would confide in him/her. This 

list is then used to determine which students are not connected to a school-based adult. Efforts can be 

made to involve those students through a variety of means, e.g., extracurricular activities, support groups. 

• Review your existing crisis response plan to ensure it addresses all necessary areas and has been communicated 

effectively to all staff. 

• Strengthen school policies and practices about intervening in fights, harassment, and related behaviors. 

Conclusion 

Prevention of a violent school tragedy involves much more than ensuring physical safety in a school environment. 

Schools need to ensure students are also emotionally safe and free from harassment that can foment 

extreme acts of violence. A well-prepared school will have multiple strategies in place to prevent and respond 

to school violence, including primary prevention, early intervention, crisis response, and aftermath support. 


Section 10 – 18

At-a-Glance Comparison of Traditional Behavior 

Management and Positive Behavior Support 

Traditional 

Behavior Management 

1. Views the person as the 

problem 

2. Attempts to “fix” the 

person 

3. Emphasizes reducing or 

eliminating behavior 

4. Relies frequently on negative 

consequences 

5. “Quick fix” expectations 

6. Designed by “expert” 

Objective: 

“Management” of students by 

teachers/administrators 

compared to 

Positive 

Behavior Support 

1. Views the system, setting, or 

skill deficiency as the problem 

2. Adjusts systems and settings 

and improves skills 

3. Identifies and teaches replacement 

skills and builds relationships 

4. Primarily relies on positive 

approaches 

5. Goal of sustained results 

achieved over time 

6. Developed by a collaborative 

team 

Objective: 

Student self-regulation of behavior 

and greater functional control 

of own life. Improved student 

skills lead to improved quality of 

life. 

Section 10 – 19

Michigan’s Ban of Corporal Punishment Law 

Enrolled Senate Bill No. 338 

AN ACT to amend section 1312 of Act No. 451 of the Public Acts of 1976, entitled as amended “An act to provide a system of 

public instruction and elementary and secondary schools; to revise, consolidate, and classify the laws relating to elementary and 

secondary education; to provide for the classification, reorganization regulation, and maintenance of schools, school districts, 

and intermediate school districts; to prescribe rights, powers, duties, and privileges of schools, school districts, and intermediate 

school districts; to provide for the regulation of school teachers and school administrators; to provide for school elections and to 

prescribe powers and duties with respect thereto; to provide for the levy and collection of taxes; to provide for the borrowing of 

money and issuance of bonds and other evidences of indebtedness; to establish a fund and provide for expenditures from that 

fund; to provide for and prescribe the powers and duties of certain state departments, the state board of education, and certain 

other boards and officials; to provide for licensure of boarding schools; to prescribe penalties; and to repeal certain acts and parts 

of acts,” as amended by Act No. 521 of the Public Acts of 1988, being section 380.1312 of the Michigan Compiled Laws. 

The People of the State of Michigan enact: 

Section 1. Section 1312 of Act No. 451 of the Public Acts of 1976, as amended by Act No. 521 of the Public Acts of 1988, being 

section 380.1312 of the Michigan Compiled Laws, is amended to read as follows: 

Sec. 1312. (1) As used in this section, “corporal punishment” means the deliberate infliction of physical pain by hitting, 

paddling, spanking, slapping, or any other physical force used as a means of discipline. 

(2) Corporal punishment does not include physical pain caused by reasonable physical activities associated with athletic 

training. 

(3) A person employed by or engaged as a volunteer or contractor by a local or intermediate school board shall not inflict or 

cause to be inflicted corporal punishment upon any pupil under any circumstances. 

(4) A person employed by or engaged as a volunteer or contractor by a local or intermediate school board may use reasonable 

physical force upon a pupil as necessary to maintain order and control in a school or school-related setting for the purpose 

of providing and environment conducive to safety and learning. In maintaining that order and control, the person may use 

physical force upon a pupil as may be necessary: 

(a) To restrain or remove a pupil whose behavior is interfering with the orderly exercise and performance of school district 

functions within a school or at a school-related activity, if that pupil has refused to comply with a request to refrain from further 

disruptive acts. 

(b) For self-defense or the defense of another. 

(c) To prevent a pupil from inflicting harm on himself or herself. 

(d) To quell a disturbance that threatens physical injury to any person.. 

(e) To obtain possession of a weapon or other dangerous object upon or within control of a pupil. 

(f) To protect property. 

(5) A person employed by or engaged as a volunteer or contractor by a local or intermediate school board who exercises 

necessary reasonable physical force upon a pupil, or upon another person of school age in a school-related setting, as described 

in subsection (4) is not liable in a civil action for damages arising from the use of that physical force as provided in Act No. 170 

of the Public Acts of 1964, being sections 691.1401 to 691.1415 of the Michigan Compiled Laws. 

(6) A person who violates subsection (3) or (4) may be appropriately disciplined by his or her school board. 

(7) In determining whether an employee, volunteer, or contractor has acted in accordance with subsection (4), deference 

shall be given to reasonable good-faith judgments made by that person. 

(8) A local or intermediate school district shall develop and implement a code of student conduct shall enforce its provisions 

with regard to pupil misconduct in a classroom, elsewhere on school premises, on a school bus or other school-related vehicle, or 

at a school sponsored activity or event whether or not it is held on school premises. 

(9) Not later than January 1, 1993, the department shall develop a model list of alternatives to the use of corporal punishment. 

This model list shall be developed in consultation with organizations that represent the interests of teachers, school employees, 

school boards, school administrators, pupils,, parents, and child advocates, plus any other organization that the state 

board of education may wish to consult. The department shall send this model list to each school district and intermediate 

school district in the state and to each nonpublic school in the state that requests it. A local or intermediate school board shall 

approve and cause to be distributed to each employee, volunteer, and contractor a list of alternatives to the use of corporal 

punishment. Upon request, the department of education shall provide assistance to schools in the development of programs and 

materials to implement this section. 

(10) Any resolution, bylaw, rule, policy, ordinance, or other authority permitting corporal punishment is void. 

This act is ordered to take effect immediately. 

Section 10 – 20

Section 11 

Assessment Tools 

on Disk

Section 11 

Assessment Tools on Disk 

PBS 

on 

Disk 

Let us be a proud nation that takes responsibility for all our children. 

Judy Heumann 

Caution: The model forms provided in this document are 

necessary, but not sufficient for conducting a complete Functional 

Assessment of Behavior (FAB). Filling out forms is not 

Positive Behavior Support (PBS). It is essential that service 

providers understand that PBS is a comprehensive approach. 

Good faith implementation can never be achieved through utilization of a single 

strategy. To be effective, the PBS process must simultaneously incorporate multiple 

approaches and strategies for instruction. Intervention must be designed to 

afford an effective, broad level of support. The student and family members must 

be actively involved in the entire process. Remember, simply filling out a form is 

not genuine Positive Behavior Support. Only data-based efforts that are both 

comprehensive and collaborative qualify as Positive Behavior Support. 

There are several forms included on disk with this document. They are: 

❑ Parent Interview 

❑ Teacher Functional Assessment 

Interview 

❑ Student Functional Assessment 

Interview and Reinforcement Survey 

❑ School Situation Questionnaire 

❑ Home Situation Questionnaire 

❑ ABC Analysis Data Sheet 

❑ How Many Times Count Chart 

❑ Ecological Analysis of Settings 

Where Behaviors Occur Most 

Frequently 

❑ Review of Data on Internal States 

That Potentially Influence Behavior 

❑ Ecobehavioral Observation 

❑ Hypothesis Building Worksheet 

❑ Quality Assurance Rating Scale for 

Intervention Choices 

❑ Initial Planning for Academic and 

Behavior Support: 30-Minute 

Collaboration 

❑ Functional Assessment of Behavior/ 

Behavior Intervention Plan 

❑ Scatter Plot Data Sheet 

These forms are in portable document format (PDF). You will need Adobe 

Acrobat Reader and its Web-Browser Plug-in to read/print the PDF forms on 

this disk. You can obtain your free copy of Acrobat Reader at: 

http://www.adobe.com/products/acrobat/readstep.html. 

The forms on this disk are also available at: http://www.michigansipsig.match.org. 

Section 11 – 1

Section 12 

Glossary

Section 12 

Glossary 

A man who removes a mountain begins by removing small stones. 

Chinese Proverb 

Adaptive behavior: skill areas that are central to successful life functioning, 

such as communication, self-care, home living, and social skills. 

Antecedent: any occurrence, setting, or event that happens before a behavior 

takes place. 

Applied behavior analysis: a methodology that includes systematic collection 

and graphing of data to determine student progress toward a specific objective. 

Baseline: a record of the frequency, duration, rate, or intensity with which a 

behavior occurs over a period of time before intervention. 

Behavior: a person’s measurable and observable actions. 

Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP): a written, proactive, individualized behavior 

support plan based on a functional assessment (see FAB and FBA) of student 

behavior. BIPs incorporate Positive Behavior Support and valid behavioral 

interventions to address identified challenging behaviors. 

Behavior contract: a written and signed agreement that specifies expected 

behaviors and consequences. 

Behavior objective: a statement of expected learning accomplishment for an 

individual. 

Challenging behavior: dangerous or disruptive behavior that interferes with the 

rights of others. 

Communicative intent: behavior—rather than language—that conveys a signal. 

Consequence: the positive or negative result of a behavior. 

Criterion: a written statement of what will be learned; a predetermined level of 

performance to be attained. 

Section 12– 1

Direct observation: a method used to obtain specific relevant information 

about a student’s targeted behavior by watching and recording. 

Discipline: training designed to promote adaptive, prosocial behavior. 

Evaluation: a systematic means of determining the effectiveness of support. A 

formative evaluation is an assessment conducted as an intervention is implemented. 

A summative evaluation is an assessment conducted at the end of a 

program. 

Functional Assessment of Behavior (FAB): a process of gathering information 

to develop an informed, data-based hypothesis about the variables associated 

with behavior. The hypothesis is linked to selected interventions. 

Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA): the term used by IDEA 97 that is 

synonymous with Functional Assessment of Behavior. 

Individualized education program (IEP): a written document describing a 

student’s educational handicap and plan of service. The IEP is written by an IEP 

team composed of the parents, school staff, and, as appropriate, others with an 

educational interest in the student. 

Intervention: planned actions taken to support adaptive, prosocial behavior. 

Manifestation Determination Review: a meeting of the individualized education 

program team for the purpose of determining the relationship between a 

student's disability and behavior that is subject to discipline. This review is 

required, in some instances, when it is anticipated that a student receiving 

special education services will be removed from school for discipline. 

Positive Behavior Support (PBS): a broad-based set of proactive approaches, 

integrated within a comprehensive schoolwide system, that assists a student in 

learning responsible behavior and developing academic success. 

Positive support strategies: a variety of interventions for learning adaptive 

prosocial behaviors (there is no one methodology associated with Positive 

Behavior Support). 

Reinforcer: an event or reward that occurs after a desired behavior and results 

in an increase in the future frequency, intensity, or duration of that behavior. 

Replacement behavior: a behavior selected as a functional replacement or 

substitute for a behavior (e.g., chewing gum rather than spitting if sensory 

needs are the hypothesis for the behavior, or walks to do errands rather than 

Section 12 – 2

nonpurposeful out of seat behavior if the hypothesis is that the behavior is a 

function of overactivity). 

Student support team: a group of people who work collaboratively to better 

assist students with behavior and learning problems. Often called “Child Study 

Team,” “Intervention Assistance Team,” “Teacher Assistance Team,” or 

“Prereferral Team.” 

Section 504: a section of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, a civil rights law that 

addresses the need for reasonable accommodations for students with handicaps. 

Target behavior: a specific behavior identified for change and described by 

frequency, duration, intensity, or rate. 

Section 12– 3

Section 13 

References 

and 

Supporting Materials

Section 13 

References and Supporting Materials 

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Section 13 – 9

Section 14 

Reader 

Response

Section 14 

Reader Response 

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Section 14 – 1


Attn: Dr. John Dickey 

Office of Special Education and Early Intervention Services 

P.O. Box 30008 

Lansing, MI 48909

Michigan State Improvement Plan (SIP) 

Improving the Performance of Students with Disabilities 

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