Papers presented at the International Buddhist Conference, March ...

danger of failure in virtue, and through seeing the benefit of
58
perfected virtue. This implies by avoiding the negative traits of
human behavior and adopting the positive attitude would help not
only oneself toward the higher goal but also make the human
relations more amicable and harmonious.
In the description of morality, just as Buddhaghosa has exalted the
benefits of virtue, he did not fail to see the unvirtuousness in the
59
failure of morality, as taught in the Aguttara Nikaya . Due to his
unvirtuousness, an unvirtuous person is displeasing to deities and
human beings and suffers when unvirtuousness is censured and
virtuousness is praised. Being lack in morality is described by
Venerable Buddhaghosa work in the harshest words he is as ugly as
hemp cloth and contact with him is painful as his views bring
people to long lasting suffering in the state of loss. Moreover, he is
worthless as he causes no great fruits to accrue to those who give
him gifts. Again, he is compared to a years old cesspit that is hard to
purify. As a monk, due to his unvirtuousness, he is no more a
bhikkhu but like a donkey that is following a herd of cattle.
Consequently, he is always nervous like a man who is everyone's
60
enemy .
On the contrary the benefits of moral conduct are praised, if the
morality is pure, one will never fear the self-reproach. The deeds
done for a virtuous person, though few, will bear much fruit and
thus becomes a vessel of hounour and renown. Above all these, the
perfume virtue of a virtuous person succeed in pleasing even
deities, as it is more perfect far than all other perfumes in the world.
So once the virtue or morality of a person is perfected, his mind
seeks no other kind but the perfection of nibbana, the state where
utter peace prevails. In this way, the great commentator
Buddhaghosa has made an analysis of virtue or morality
highlighting its characteristic, etc.; classifications; cleansing of the
morality and its advantages; and its defiling and disadvantages.
Having understood its value, virtue should be cleansed with all
care, seeing its danger and its benefits of perfecting. Without being
established in virtue, one cannot develop concentration and
wisdom and cannot attain purification, i.e. Nibbana, the ultimate
peace. This is assured by the Venerable Buddhaghosa in his best
known Visuddhimagga.
Ethical validity of virtue and Contemporary Issues
Sila morality is backbone for ethical explanation of Buddhist
philosophy. The Buddha has examined the ethical validity of
religious practices immediately after getting enlightenment. He
suggested the society to avoid extremes and follow the middle
path. Well developed theory of morality is found in the work of
Buddhaghosa after the process of development in canonical
literatures via the Milindapañho to the Visuddhimaggo. It
determines the ethical activities in the world through Buddhist
scriptural and practical ways. Because of moral values Buddhism
got respectful position in the world Buddhism would see its
attitude to society, the environment and other contemporary issues.
Some of these issues have begun to be addressed in recent years.
The Social scientists who have sought to apply Buddhist principles
to the problems of life in the modern world Progress is therefore
visible in the world, through the movements like socially engaged
Buddhism. The credit goes to Buddhaghosa who has given
practical shape to the Philosophy of the Buddha, because the
Buddha himself counselled layman to follow the precepts he laid
down in scriptures and he avoided discussion of theoretical
problems. With few exceptions, this has remained the pattern.
Such a practice of avoiding the unwholesome and cultivate good
was a further incentive of those who would want to remain in the
household and undertake the practice of morals. This attitude
would involve the well-being of not only of one self but include
others too.
Therefore, the Buddha's conception of society hinges on the selfinterest
(sakhara) of both oneself and others and it is this extremely
significant human interest that makes a society meaningful. As it
addresses mutual self-interest. The minor virtues include the ten
precepts discussed throughout the discourses. Among these, the
first seven involve not merely the abstentions, that is, what is
generally considered evil, the avoidance of which enables a person
to build up his or her moral character, but also the more positive
aspects that represent a moral person's impact on the world or the
social nature of the virtuous life. These seven virtues, therefore, are
embodiments of the ultimate criteria of the good, namely, the
61
welfare of oneself (attahita) and the welfare of others (parahita).
One who is devoted to one's own welfare and cultivates the virtues,
while at the same time is devoted to the welfare of others by
causing other to cultivate the virtues is called a noble person as one
who is virtuous (sappurisa), that is, one who cultivates the virtues,
and then proceeds to define one who is nobler (sappurisena
sappurisatara) as one who cultivates the virtues and causes other to
62
do so.
The eightfold path advocated by the Buddha is better known as the
middle way (majjhima patpada) between two extremes (anta): a
l i f e o f i n d u l g e n c e i n t h e p l e a s u r e s o f s e n s e
(kamasukhallikanuyoga) and indulgence in self-mortification
(attakilamathanuyoga). A life of indulgence is rejected more for
social reasons. It is low, vulgar, and individualist. It is motivated by
possessive individualism. Therefore, the thought centred solely on
self-interest at the cost of overlooking the interests of others can
create the conditions or dissatisfaction, conflict, disharmony and
various other problems of social, political and economic nature.
This world can appear in two forms: motivated by human interest
and dominated by greed. The culture motivated by human interest
emerges as a result of perceiving the world as being dependently
arisen. Culture dominated by greed is the by-product of possessive
63
individualism. This is the underlying cause of the problem of
rampant consumerism and blatant profit making enterprises.
Opposed to the wrong conceptions, which are dominated by
thoughts of sensual pleasures (kama), ill will (vyapada), and injury
(avihimsa), the right conceptions are thoughts dominated by
renunciation, absence of ill will, and non-injury. These are no
doubt virtues. Most people, including ordinary human beings,
would appreciate their value as they are the only source of peaceful
coexistence among humans.
The gradualness of the path thus consists in starting with the basic
virtues relating to the life of social harmony and moving on the
more comprehensive moral life. If the immoral life is one of
passion, hatred, and confusion the moral life has to start with their
restraint and conclude with their complete elimination. Thus, the
moral life, whether it is at its beginning, middle, or conclusion, has
to be what is conducive to one's own welfare and the welfare of
others. This message in Buddhism is directed towards the well-
59
A. III, 252.
60
Vsm. para. 153-154, pp. 53-54.
66
M. VII. Bhikkhuvagga; M.I.414; M.I.420.
67
Kalupahana, David J., Op. Cit.: 137.
61
Kalupahana, David J., Ethics in Early Buddhism, Motolal Banarasidas, Delhi, 2008: 73.
62
A.II.217.
63
Kalupahana, David J., Op. Cit.: 78.
64
Ibid. 137.
65
M.II.76ff.
100