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iv CONTENTS 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 6.2 The Hall effect and magnetic field probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 6.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 6.2.2 Background theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 6.3 The Hall effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 6.4 Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 6.4.1 The semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 6.4.2 The electromagnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 6.4.3 The Hall effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 6.4.4 The Hall probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 6.5 Ferromagnetic materials and AC fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 6.5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 6.5.2 Background theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 6.5.3 The apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 6.5.4 Experimental work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 6.6 Useful data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 7 Fundamental constants 75 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 7.2 Charge to mass ratio of the electron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 7.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 7.2.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 7.2.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 7.2.4 Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 7.2.5 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 7.3 The photoelectric effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 7.3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 7.3.2 The failure of classical theory and Einstein’s postulate . . . . . . . 80 7.3.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 7.4 Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
CONTENTS v 7.4.1 Variation of stopping potential with frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 7.4.2 Calculation of the fundamental constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 7.5 Useful data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 8 Waves in waveguides 87 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 8.2 Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 8.2.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 8.2.2 Stationary wave theory and the reflection of plane acoustic waves . 91 8.2.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 8.2.4 Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 8.3 Microwaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 8.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 8.3.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 8.3.3 Modes in the guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 8.3.4 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 8.3.5 Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 8.3.6 Polarisation of microwaves in the guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 8.3.7 Relation between guide and free space wavelengths . . . . . . . . . 106 8.3.8 Impedance measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 8.4 Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 8.4.1 The complex reflection coefficient K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 8.4.2 The Gunn diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 8.4.3 The standing wavemeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 8.4.4 Reading the micrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 9 Electron Spin Resonance 113 9.1 A guide to background reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 9.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 9.3 Introduction: Angular Momentum in Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . 114
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4.6. APPENDICES 45 • An intensity
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Chapter 5 Holography 5.1 Abstract H
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5.4. BACKGROUND 49 photography is a
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5.5. EXPERIMENT 51 5.4.4 Movement N
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5.5. EXPERIMENT 53 than it takes to
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5.6. APPENDICES 55 Once you have se
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 57 Bibliography [1] E
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Chapter 6 Magnets And magnetic fiel
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6.3. THE HALL EFFECT 63 We now assi
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6.4. EXPERIMENT 65 Question 6.4 Wha
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7.3. THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT 81 Ta
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7.4. EXPERIMENT 83 Figure 7.4: The
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7.5. USEFUL DATA 85 7.5 Useful data
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Chapter 10 Rutherford scattering 10
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10.3. GEOMETRY 131 only for this ex
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10.3. GEOMETRY 133 Pre-lab Question
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10.4. EXPERIMENT 135 10.4.1.2 Vacuu
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10.4. EXPERIMENT 137 That signal is
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10.4. EXPERIMENT 139 Question 10.4
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150 CHAPTER 11. β SPECTROSCOPY DET
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Chapter 12 γ ray detection and spe
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12.5. ENERGY RESOLUTION 159 There i
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 161 Table 12.2: Table
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164 CHAPTER 13. ENERGY LOSS OF α P
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Chapter 14 Errors 14.1 Introduction
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14.3. GRAPHS AND ERRORS 179 14.3 Gr
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14.4. EXCEL 181 technique was devel
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14.8. CONCLUDING COMMENTS 185 ( )
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188 CHAPTER 15. EXCEL TUTORIAL ADC
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Chapter 16 The Safe Use of Lasers 1
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Multiplier Prefix Symbol 10 −24 y
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