EDUCARE - University of South Africa
EDUCARE - University of South Africa
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<strong>EDUCARE</strong><br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> the Faculty <strong>of</strong> Education<br />
Editor<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>WFSoÈhnge<br />
Editorial staff<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong> G D Kamper<br />
Dr L Higgs<br />
Dr C Meier<br />
Dr J D Rossouw<br />
Mr M Sarakinsky<br />
Dr A van Schalkwyk<br />
Dr W A van Schoor<br />
Editorial advisers<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong> P Higgs (<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>)<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong> S Weeks (<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Botswana)<br />
Correspondence:<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong> WF SoÈhnge<br />
<strong>EDUCARE</strong><br />
<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong><br />
PO Box 392<br />
Pretoria<br />
2003<br />
Republic <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>
(iii)<br />
Educare<br />
Volume 30 (1+2) 2001<br />
(v)<br />
Editor's Page/Redaksioneel<br />
1 Why philosphy for children in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>?<br />
P Higgs & L Higgs<br />
14 The globalisation debate and implications for higher education<br />
E Lemmer<br />
33 A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> progressive education in the USA<br />
I A Coetzer<br />
50 Let's revisit competence-based teacher education<br />
WJ Fraser<br />
73 A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> Outcomes-based Education (OBE) in<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong><br />
IA Coetzer<br />
94 A Historical-educational perspective <strong>of</strong> urbanisation and its<br />
contribution to the street child phenomenon in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong><br />
C le Roux<br />
115 Preparing <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n educators for school-familycommunity<br />
partnerships<br />
NvanWyk<br />
140 Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning - a few words <strong>of</strong> caution<br />
MM Nieman<br />
165 Die bepaling van 'n realistiese prestasievlak<br />
GBester<br />
185 Sportsielkunde as komponent in die opleidingsprogram van<br />
vakonderwysers<br />
J G le Roux & GE Pienaar
(iv)<br />
208 The Swiss missionaries' educational endeavour as a means for<br />
social transformation in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong><br />
BMC Masumbe and IA Coetzer<br />
229 Coping skills for street children<br />
HM Vogel<br />
249 Adolescent substance abuse: perspectives on club drugs<br />
SM Hoberg<br />
272 The issue <strong>of</strong> perception: some educational implications<br />
ALewis<br />
289 Educational change: is it possible<br />
JA Slabbert<br />
306 The internet as an important instrument in training and learning<br />
in distance education Ð a cursory review<br />
FJ Pretorius<br />
326 Pr<strong>of</strong>essional portfolio building Ð alternative assessment strategy<br />
in teacher education<br />
PH du Toit<br />
345 Appendix A
(v)<br />
Editor's page<br />
The articles in this number <strong>of</strong> <strong>EDUCARE</strong> present a scope <strong>of</strong><br />
research which includes philosophical, theoretical as well as<br />
empirical considerations, all <strong>of</strong> importance to educational theory<br />
and schooling.<br />
Volume 30 <strong>of</strong> <strong>EDUCARE</strong> appears against a background <strong>of</strong> 30<br />
years' existence during which time span some 349 articles were<br />
published. The spectrum <strong>of</strong> themes covers theoretical and<br />
practical issues indicative <strong>of</strong> the discipline <strong>of</strong> education and its<br />
various sub-disciplines. The original intention was explained by<br />
the first editor, Pr<strong>of</strong> JD Vrey, in volume 1, 1972 as follows:<br />
The faculty wishes to provide information for its students about the<br />
content, theories, views and approaches to pedagogics as a particular<br />
form <strong>of</strong> practising science.<br />
Since 1972 this policy was adhered to according to changes and<br />
developments related to scientific-scholarly endeavours in the<br />
field <strong>of</strong> education. It should be mentioned that the following<br />
lecturers made valuable contributions as editors to the existence<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>EDUCARE</strong>: Pr<strong>of</strong>f. JD Vrey (1972±1976), CJG Kilian (1977±<br />
1979), TL Verster (1980±1983), PC van Wyk (1984). Since 1985 the<br />
present editor is serving in this capacity.<br />
In 1994 a full democracy was constituted in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. The<br />
following editorial comment from that year's edition <strong>of</strong> EDU-<br />
CARE is still the basic editorial tenor <strong>of</strong> the journal:<br />
Critical theoretical self-reflection coupled with differential theoretical<br />
thought processes made possible by a multitheoretical and multi-
(vi)<br />
disciplinary frame <strong>of</strong> reference, opens up educational vistas and<br />
theoretical discourses.<br />
In a universe <strong>of</strong> infinity all dimensions <strong>of</strong> human life, all domains<br />
<strong>of</strong> society, in fact the universe in its totality and in all its parts,<br />
are displaying the evidence <strong>of</strong> a fundamental process <strong>of</strong> change,<br />
development and re-organisation. Educational reflective considerations<br />
are confronted by the development <strong>of</strong> meta-theoretical<br />
analyses about anthropological and epistemological notions<br />
which are paradigm related and will exert fundamental influence<br />
on educational thought, theory and practice. The status <strong>of</strong><br />
knowledge and schooling in view <strong>of</strong> lifelong learning is reflected<br />
upon. Society is informatised at a tempo which gives an<br />
indication <strong>of</strong> the influence <strong>of</strong> information technology.<br />
The journal wishes to provide for a forum where such issues and<br />
serious questions are dealt with in view <strong>of</strong> scholarship and<br />
schooling within the parameters <strong>of</strong> the editorial policy.<br />
The editorial policy is to publish research and review articles about<br />
issues relevant to the theory and practice <strong>of</strong> any field <strong>of</strong> education.<br />
Contributions are submitted to a review process whereby issues (e.g.<br />
relevancy and formulation <strong>of</strong> problem), content (e.g. context, discussion,<br />
originality) and presentation (e.g. style, language and technical<br />
editing) are taken into account in accordance with internationally<br />
accepted criteria.
Why philosophy for children in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>? 1<br />
Why philosophy<br />
for children in<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>?<br />
Philip Higgs<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Educational<br />
Studies<br />
Unisa<br />
Leonie Higgs<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Secondary<br />
School Teacher Education<br />
Unisa<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the most immediate challenges confronting education in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> at present<br />
is the establishment <strong>of</strong> a democratic ethos and a culture <strong>of</strong> human rights supported by<br />
educational programmes and practices conducive to critical discourse and experimental<br />
thinking, cultural tolerance, and a common commitment to a humane, nonracist and<br />
nonsexist social order. With this challenge in mind, we set about exploring in this article<br />
the educational possibilities <strong>of</strong> the Philosophy for Children programme that was<br />
developed in the United States by Matthew Lipman, and which encourages the<br />
development <strong>of</strong> critical thinking and social skills.<br />
1 INTRODUCTION<br />
Over the past six years, <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n society has been set on the road<br />
to becoming a democratic society. This transformation has far reaching<br />
implications for educational thought and practice, and especially for<br />
educational discourse and the role that it can play in laying the<br />
foundations <strong>of</strong> a critical civil society. The present ANC led government
2<br />
has advocated an educational discourse conducive to critical thinking<br />
as an integral part <strong>of</strong> its education programme and <strong>of</strong> its drive to life<br />
long learning. In this article we reflect on the Philosophy for Children<br />
programme initiated by Matthew Lipman and argue that the philosophy<br />
behind Lipman's programmes could contribute to those attempts<br />
being made to lay the foundations <strong>of</strong> a critical civil society in postapartheid<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>.<br />
2 THE CURRICULUM IN EDUCATION IN SOUTH<br />
AFRICA AND CRITICAL THINKING<br />
There is a plethora <strong>of</strong> literature that vividly depicts how the Bantu<br />
Education and Department <strong>of</strong> Education and Training (DET) system<br />
was used by the apartheid government to perpetuate rote learning and<br />
passive acceptance <strong>of</strong> ``the facts''. There are many examples, both overt<br />
and covert (hidden curriculum), that illustrate ways in which apartheid<br />
education tried to maintain and reinforce the status quo. It would<br />
not be an exaggeration to state that this apartheid education system not<br />
only encouraged the idea <strong>of</strong> the passive learner, but also actively<br />
discouraged critical thinking.<br />
The call for critical thinking to be centrally integrated into the<br />
curriculum is not a new one. The importance <strong>of</strong> critical thinking has for<br />
a long time been associated with an alternative curriculum and was<br />
articulated in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> as early as 1986 in the demand for ``People's<br />
Education''. Although couched in a different discourse, the youth, then<br />
organised under the Congress <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n Students (COSAS), in<br />
demanding ``People's Education'', were challenging the hegemonic<br />
and oppressive syllabus which characterised the Department <strong>of</strong><br />
Education and Training (DET) curriculum. Father Smangaliso<br />
Mkatshwa, in defining people's education, referred to it as an<br />
education ``which prepares people for total human liberation; one<br />
which helps people to be creative, to develop a critical mind, to help<br />
people analyse; one that prepares people for full participation in all<br />
social, political, or cultural spheres''.<br />
In direct contrast to the previous apartheid government, the ANC led<br />
Government has advocated an educational discourse that will be
Why philosophy for children in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>? 3<br />
directed at supporting a culture <strong>of</strong> human rights by educational<br />
programs and practices conducive to critical discourse and experimental<br />
thinking, cultural tolerance, and a common commitment to a<br />
humane, nonracist and nonsexist social order ± (see White Paper on<br />
Higher Education Transformation, 1997:7). It has also incorporated<br />
critical thinking skills as an integral part <strong>of</strong> its education programme<br />
and <strong>of</strong> its drive towards lifelong learning. This is clearly articulated in<br />
many policy documents, such as the National Basic Education and<br />
Training Framework (1995:1), which states that ``(a)dult basic education<br />
and training have been successfully used and can be used to help<br />
promote the principles <strong>of</strong> cooperation, critical thinking, and civic<br />
responsibility and equip people for participation in a high skills<br />
economy and society as a whole''.<br />
It is not only at the level <strong>of</strong> Adult Basic Education and Training (ABET)<br />
that the developing <strong>of</strong> critical thinking is taken seriously. At the other<br />
end <strong>of</strong> the education continuum, the National Qualifications Framework<br />
(NQF) in the White Paper 3 Programme for the Transformation <strong>of</strong><br />
Higher Education [August 1997:6], lists as a major goal for higher<br />
education, ``the production <strong>of</strong> graduates with the skills and competencies<br />
that build the foundations for lifelong learning, including<br />
critical, analytical, problem-solving and communication skills, as well<br />
as the ability to deal with change and diversity and in particular, the<br />
tolerance <strong>of</strong> different views and ideas. (SAQA Bulletin vol 1, no 1,<br />
May/June 1997, and NSB Regulations, March 1998)<br />
3 WHAT IS THE PHILOSOPHY FOR CHILDREN<br />
PROGRAMME?<br />
The promotion <strong>of</strong> critical thinking skills in education has been<br />
addressed extensively (see, for example, Peticolas 1998:24±37; Ikuenobe<br />
1998:73±94; Puolimatka 1998:44±60; Ennis 1998:15±33; Hare<br />
1998:38±51; Higgs 1999:121±142; Daniels 1998:79±82). In these instances,<br />
the concern is with getting learners to think critically, which is<br />
perceived to be the primary object <strong>of</strong> critical thinking in the classroom.<br />
In fact, Hare (1998:39) argues that critical thinking has received far<br />
more attention in the recent past than any other educational aim and is<br />
now widely though not universally viewed as an ideal which should
4<br />
transform the manner <strong>of</strong> teaching and the learning <strong>of</strong> learners. Of the<br />
many attempts at promoting critical thinking in the classroom, the<br />
Philosophy for Children programme has over he past few decades<br />
made a significant contribution to the establishment <strong>of</strong> a critical culture<br />
in the school curriculum worldwide (see, for example, Splitter 2000;<br />
Cam 1999).<br />
Philosophy for Children is a well-known programme created by an<br />
American philosopher, Matthew Lipman who has written extensively<br />
on the subject <strong>of</strong> critical thinking and social skills in school context<br />
(see, for example, Lipman 1980;1988; 1992; 1996). Philosophy for<br />
Children is an attempt to take the discipline <strong>of</strong> philosophy and<br />
reconstruct it for children in such a way that they can appropriate the<br />
concepts and methods and come to think for themselves about matters<br />
<strong>of</strong> importance and care about doing so. With its curriculum that ranges<br />
from day care centre age to 18 years <strong>of</strong> age, it aims to acquaint children<br />
with the tools that are required to think well about their own thinking<br />
while at the same time discussing philosophical issues that arise in<br />
their own experience. The focus is on the doing <strong>of</strong> philosophy rather<br />
than learning about philosophical systems or specific philosophers <strong>of</strong><br />
the past. One will find most <strong>of</strong> the ideas <strong>of</strong> the major philosophers <strong>of</strong><br />
the West, and some <strong>of</strong> the East and <strong>Africa</strong>n presented in a dialogical<br />
mode that encourages children to think for themselves about the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> these ideas.<br />
Various versions <strong>of</strong> the Philosophy for Children programme for<br />
different levels, from preschool to secondary school, use group<br />
discussion techniques to help learners consider such philosophical<br />
ideas by means <strong>of</strong> a process <strong>of</strong> inquiry, inductive reasoning and the<br />
nature <strong>of</strong> explanation through stories that are focussed on everyday<br />
events and problems. The programme is also structured to encourage<br />
logical and reasonable thinking as well as probing questions from<br />
ethics, metaphysics, aesthetics and epistemology. In this sense, Cairns<br />
(1994:44) observes that, philosophy practised in Philosophy for<br />
Children programmes, allows children to operate in a complex world,<br />
where the need for discussion, problem solving, making choices,<br />
listening to others, taking initiatives, and understanding their own
Why philosophy for children in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>? 5<br />
beliefs, is essential. In the light <strong>of</strong> this, Lipman (1995:69±70) argues that<br />
philosophy needs to be made an integral part <strong>of</strong> primary and<br />
secondary school education in order to help children think for<br />
themselves so they can discover the rudiments <strong>of</strong> their own philosophy<br />
<strong>of</strong> life and develop a more secure sense <strong>of</strong> their own identities (in Le<br />
Buis, Schleifer and Caron 1993:77).<br />
Le Buis (1993:77) notes that the Philosophy for Children programme<br />
was developed during the 1970's and 1980's to address the low level <strong>of</strong><br />
thinking skills exhibited by university and secondary school learners in<br />
the United States. A programme <strong>of</strong> studies in Philosophy for Children<br />
from grade one upwards was based on eight novels with accompanying<br />
instructional manuals to assist the teacher in extracting the<br />
philosophical issues from the novels the children choose to read. In so<br />
doing, Laird (1993:39) points out that the Philosophy for Children<br />
programme makes thinking skills explicit in that students are exposed<br />
to numerous philosophical, social and personal problems related to<br />
everyday occurrences in their life world. The object <strong>of</strong> the exercise,<br />
however, is not to seek for ultimate answers to these problems but<br />
rather, that in being confronted with such everyday problems one<br />
exercises judgement by weighing all the considerations, and then<br />
arriving at an answer based on consensual agreement.<br />
4 THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING<br />
In the Philosophy for Children programme, critical thinking is<br />
inextricably linked to problem solving. In short, critical thinking is said<br />
to involve thinking well in the attempt to solve problems. In this<br />
regard, Lipman (1995:22) makes a distinction between thinking and<br />
thinking well and he believes it is the school's role to encourage<br />
children to think better. Sprod (1995:24) argues that good thinking is<br />
holistic and being a good thinker is more than being good at a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> individual thinking skills.<br />
As for the exercising <strong>of</strong> holistic thinking, Lipman (1995:64±67)<br />
comments on the trio <strong>of</strong> modes <strong>of</strong> applied thinking and judgement as<br />
follows:
6<br />
4.1 Critical thinking<br />
This mode <strong>of</strong> thinking is mainly rule-governed and is devoted to<br />
problem-finding and problem-solving. It is highly inquisitive thinking<br />
and extremely deliberative, continually examining and weighing<br />
alternatives in the light <strong>of</strong> explicit standards and criteria. Critical<br />
thinking is <strong>of</strong>ten justificatory, devising reasons and arguments for<br />
particular opinions and conclusions. Critical thinking is conducive to<br />
judgement, self-corrective and sensitive to context.<br />
4.2 Creative thinking<br />
Critical thinking is rule-guided and creative thinking need not be ruleguided<br />
but could be rule-defiant. Critical thinking is mainly expressed<br />
in linguistic utterances where language is one media through which<br />
creative thinking can choose to express itself. A person can also think<br />
creatively in any artistic medium i.e. stone, wood, paint, tones words<br />
etc. Critical thinking employs criteria on an individual basis whereas<br />
creative thinking employs contrasting criteria all at once. Creative<br />
thinking is more concerned with the creation <strong>of</strong> meaning than with the<br />
discovery <strong>of</strong> truth.<br />
The two major modes <strong>of</strong> creative thinking are invention and discovery.<br />
If we refer to the works <strong>of</strong> arts and crafts we have to refer to the various<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> intelligent discovery <strong>of</strong> that world, and intelligent discovery<br />
is a form <strong>of</strong> creative thinking.<br />
Lipman (1995:66) postulate that it would be incorrect to put creative<br />
thinking in the same category as aesthetic criticism, as aesthetic<br />
criticism cannot function effectively without appealing to reasons,<br />
criteria and standards, and therefore it is an enclave to critical<br />
thinking. Creative thinking may employ reasons and criteria without<br />
appealing to them.<br />
4.3 Caring thinking<br />
Lipman (1995:66±67) says there may seem to be a discrepancy between<br />
doing as a mode <strong>of</strong> active judgement and caring as a mode <strong>of</strong> thinking.<br />
He also refers to doing and caring on the one hand, and evaluation and
Why philosophy for children in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>? 7<br />
cognitive objective thinking on the other hand. It is important to<br />
distinguish evaluative thinking from valuative thinking. Evaluative<br />
thinking involves asking why something is valued and valuative<br />
thinking employs the values in the thinking. As Lipman (1995:67)<br />
claims, valuing is not so much a way <strong>of</strong> analysing as a way <strong>of</strong> caring<br />
(Lipman, 1995:67).<br />
Lipman (1995:69) also refers further to active thinking and affective<br />
thinking as ways <strong>of</strong> caring thinking. By our actions we demonstrate<br />
what it is we care about and to what extent. The movements <strong>of</strong> our<br />
body, body language, aggressive actions refer to active thinking.<br />
Affective thinking also refers to emotions as forms <strong>of</strong> judgement.<br />
Nussbaum (in Lipman, 1995:67) says that emotions are a kind <strong>of</strong><br />
thought and like any thought they can go wrong. Therefore emotions<br />
are not merely the psychological consequences <strong>of</strong> human judgements<br />
but they are those judgements themselves.<br />
As regards the practise <strong>of</strong> judgement, Lipman (1997:70±71) identifies<br />
some <strong>of</strong> the aspects <strong>of</strong> the Philosophy for Children programme which<br />
correlates with the following aspects <strong>of</strong> thinking ie:<br />
. Philosophy for Children is presented in narrative form ± as<br />
novels, short stories and/or comic strips. This fictional<br />
approach with fictional children presented as members <strong>of</strong> a<br />
community <strong>of</strong> philosophical inquiry is able to combine<br />
critical, creative and caring thinking by presenting models <strong>of</strong><br />
reasoning and feeling, <strong>of</strong> evaluating and valuing, <strong>of</strong> inventing<br />
and discovering.<br />
. The skills cultivated by doing philosophy are vital for early<br />
education. These include inquiry skills, reasoning skills,<br />
concept-formation skills and translation skills.<br />
. The pedagogy by which children do philosophy is that <strong>of</strong> the<br />
community <strong>of</strong> inquiry. This means that the cognitive<br />
practices outlined in the fictional model can be put into<br />
actual practice in the classroom.
8<br />
. The classroom community <strong>of</strong> philosophical inquiry can be<br />
preparatory microcosm not only for further stages in formal<br />
education but for one's later life as a participating member <strong>of</strong><br />
ademocraticsociety.<br />
The exercise <strong>of</strong> critical thinking in the solving <strong>of</strong> problems is, therefore,<br />
seen to be developed in a communitarian context which is encompassed<br />
in the notion <strong>of</strong> a classroom community on inquiry.<br />
5 PHILOSOPHY FOR CHILDREN AND THE<br />
CLASSROOM COMMUNITY OF INQUIRY<br />
Philosophy for Children employs a pedagogy called a ``community <strong>of</strong><br />
inquiry'' which has its roots in the Socratic method and whose title is<br />
borrowed from the American philosopher Charles Peirce. The community<br />
<strong>of</strong> inquiry involves the claim that deliberative and collaborative<br />
communities are exceptional in their ability to foster critical,<br />
creative and caring thinking leading to sounder reasoning, understanding<br />
and judgement. Participation in a community <strong>of</strong> inquiry is not<br />
only a journey in self-discovery but in self-creation and world-creation.<br />
Children learn, as Sharp (1994:4) notes, how to ask themselves what<br />
kind <strong>of</strong> citizens they would like to be or what kind <strong>of</strong> worlds they<br />
would like to live in before making judgements.<br />
The creation <strong>of</strong> a community <strong>of</strong> inquiry, according to Wilks (1994:1),<br />
has dialogue at the centre <strong>of</strong> its methodology and tolerance <strong>of</strong> other's<br />
opinions as central aim. At the same time, Wilks identifies the<br />
following skills which are encompassed by this dialogical approach:<br />
. participants view each other as rational and reasoning<br />
persons who value the process <strong>of</strong> the enquiry<br />
. reasons for views being expected and respected are seen as<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the dialogical process, and<br />
. participants are expected to be self-critical and self-corrective.<br />
These skills ultimately develop with practice and enrich programmes<br />
which foster philosophical enquiry.
Why philosophy for children in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>? 9<br />
Furthermore, children create opportunities to discover values in their<br />
own classroom communities <strong>of</strong> inquiry. In these communities they can<br />
clarify for themselves concepts such as freedom, rights, personhood,<br />
truth, common good, community, justice. Such a community <strong>of</strong> inquiry<br />
is, therefore, also a social enterprise that enables children with<br />
different backgrounds to make their voices heard. It is, as Sharp<br />
(1995:48) concludes, pluralistic in nature in that it encourages a<br />
plurality <strong>of</strong> perspectives and interests instead <strong>of</strong> a monopoly <strong>of</strong> one<br />
perspective or point <strong>of</strong> view. The community <strong>of</strong> inquiry aims at the<br />
transformation <strong>of</strong> persons and changing one's perceptions <strong>of</strong> how one<br />
relates to the world and to other people. In this regard, the aim is<br />
always, Sharp (1994:4) asserts, to create something better ± that is more<br />
just, more reasonable, more beautiful than we had before.<br />
Lipman (1998:277) also stresses the importance <strong>of</strong> recognizing that the<br />
Philosophy for Children programme and its pedagogy can contribute<br />
to improving the quality <strong>of</strong> life in a democratic society. Philosophy for<br />
Children programmes produce higher order thinking amongst learners<br />
and it does so by distributed thinking in the community <strong>of</strong> inquiry<br />
classroom. Distributed thinking and higher order thinking are<br />
characteristic <strong>of</strong> the citizens in those societies that exhibit a higherquality<br />
democracy. Education for higher order thinking is quality<br />
education for all, and the criteria by means <strong>of</strong> which it is identified are<br />
critical thinking, creative thinking and caring thinking. According to<br />
Lipman (1998:277), distributed thinking also refers to ``shared cognition''.<br />
For example, a classroom discussion can be an example <strong>of</strong><br />
distributed thinking because the learners <strong>of</strong> the class answer one<br />
another's questions, emulate others' questions, build on one another's<br />
inferences and so on.<br />
6 THE STRENGTHS OF THE PHILOSOPHY FOR<br />
CHILDREN PROGRAMME IN A PEDAGOGICAL<br />
CONTEXT<br />
Sharp (1995:45±46) identifies the following as the strengths <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Philosophy for Children programme for pedagogical endeavour in that<br />
it promotes:
10<br />
. ethical inquiry: engaging children in investigation <strong>of</strong> problems<br />
dealing with the role <strong>of</strong> moral values and norms in<br />
human conduct<br />
. aesthetic inquiry: engaging children in exploring problematic<br />
issues that involve the relationship between artistic creation,<br />
aesthetic appreciation and aesthetic criticism<br />
. metaphysical inquiry: encouraging children to reach for<br />
greater and greater generality in their understanding <strong>of</strong> the<br />
world and its working<br />
. logical inquiry: engaging children in reflection on the rules <strong>of</strong><br />
inquiry and whatever principle are appealed to when<br />
thinking about thinking<br />
. epistemological inquiry: havingchildrentoseektoanswer<br />
questions such as ``What counts for truth?'' and ``What is the<br />
relationship between truth and meaning?''<br />
These forms <strong>of</strong> inquiry are directed at applied thinking in the<br />
endeavour to exercise sound judgement in the act <strong>of</strong> thinking well.<br />
Reasoning and judgement are ideally what educational institutions <strong>of</strong><br />
an ideal democracy should cultivate. Citizens <strong>of</strong> a democracy, as<br />
Lipman (1998:277) states, need to acquire the ability to judge the advice<br />
<strong>of</strong> the expert with regard to information.<br />
Doing philosophy as advocated in the programme for Philosophy for<br />
Children provides children with a rigorous methodology <strong>of</strong> linguistic<br />
and logical analysis which will stand them in good stead as they<br />
assume more responsibility in society. However, doing philosophy<br />
well involves more than conceptual clarity. It also involves oral<br />
imagination and insight. It requires a sharpened eye to distinguish<br />
what is from what ought to be. Doing philosophy within the context <strong>of</strong><br />
a community <strong>of</strong> inquiry acquaints children with the repertoire <strong>of</strong><br />
distinctively philosophical concepts that are important to children, but<br />
not dealt with specifically by other disciplines in the existing school<br />
curriculum. Examples <strong>of</strong> such concepts are justice, personhood,<br />
freedom, democracy, friendship, self and identity. These concepts are<br />
used over and over again in textbooks, but rarely are children prepared
Why philosophy for children in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>? 11<br />
or encouraged to ferret out for themselves the underlying assumptions<br />
<strong>of</strong> the author with regard to such concepts. In most cases, as Sharp<br />
(1994:10) observes, authorial presence is disregarded in favour <strong>of</strong><br />
information for children to memorise.<br />
It is in this sense that the practise <strong>of</strong> philosophy in the programme <strong>of</strong><br />
Philosophy for Children is liberating; it liberates the child from the<br />
possibility <strong>of</strong> being no more than an unaware pawn in the system <strong>of</strong> the<br />
written, printed and spoken word. The programme allows children to<br />
recognise when anyone in authority is using an unexamined philosophical<br />
concept and to question assumptions that are being made with<br />
regard to its meaning.<br />
From an educational point <strong>of</strong> view, the classroom community <strong>of</strong><br />
philosophical inquiry is consequently the most efficient way <strong>of</strong><br />
bringing about dialogue with others and with the self about matters <strong>of</strong><br />
importance while at the same time strengthening reasoning and<br />
fostering collaborative inquiry and good judgement. If philosophy is as<br />
the ancient Greeks claimed `a love <strong>of</strong> wisdom', and if one thinks <strong>of</strong> the<br />
doing <strong>of</strong> philosophy as advocated in the programme <strong>of</strong> Philosophy for<br />
Children, as a conversation in which all voices ought to be heard, then<br />
such a practice would embody a respect for the dignity <strong>of</strong> each<br />
individual in the group however diverse, while at the same time serve<br />
the end <strong>of</strong> liberating children to think for themselves about matters <strong>of</strong><br />
importance. In such a context, Philosophy for Children is a social<br />
enterprise that enables children with different backgrounds to make<br />
their voices heard. In a word, it is pluralistic: it encourages a plurality<br />
<strong>of</strong> perspectives and interests instead <strong>of</strong> the monopoly <strong>of</strong> one. But it<br />
does not encourage the view that one opinion is as good as another.<br />
The challenge <strong>of</strong> the communal inquiry is to embrace a wide range <strong>of</strong><br />
disparate and <strong>of</strong>ten conflicting views and forge out <strong>of</strong> them new<br />
perspectives and horizons.<br />
To be a participant in a community <strong>of</strong> inquiry is to learn to see oneself<br />
in relation to the other and to reflect on thoughts that are other ± to that<br />
which is not oneself. The different, the foreign, the unique is to be<br />
sought out, appraised and understood. This assumes the ability to see
12<br />
the world from the other's point <strong>of</strong> view. Such collaborative deliberation,<br />
according to Sharp (1994:12) opens the child up to the pull <strong>of</strong><br />
ideals which find expression in love, goodness, beauty, freedom and<br />
justice.<br />
7 CONCLUSION<br />
The authors believe that the Philosophy for Children programme can<br />
make a positive contribution to attempts at transforming the education<br />
curriculum in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. This programme will <strong>of</strong>fer an appropriate<br />
framework to foster an authentic reflective educational practice in<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> directed at laying the foundations <strong>of</strong> a critical civil<br />
society. Global change also, challenges us to devise new values and to<br />
reflect on the fundamental issues <strong>of</strong> how we live. In other words what<br />
are our ultimate values and what do we take as our goals in life? What<br />
kind <strong>of</strong> society do we wish to establish in order to reflect these values<br />
and goals? If we don't start reflecting seriously on these issues we are<br />
likely to be led by forces <strong>of</strong> the free market into a direction that will be<br />
individually unsatisfying and collectively self-defeating. Also, the<br />
process <strong>of</strong> education in a democracy is a process <strong>of</strong> developing citizens<br />
and this process covers such issues as our ability to think, reason, make<br />
sound judgements and converse, and their relation to each other. In<br />
short, teaching children how to think well and make good judgements<br />
are central to the civic education <strong>of</strong> children in any democracy. And in<br />
this context, the programme <strong>of</strong> Philosophy for Children would be seen<br />
as a significant agent in the promotion and development <strong>of</strong> such<br />
critical thinking and social skills for democratic citizenship.<br />
BIBLIOGRAPHY<br />
Cairns, C & Wilks, S. March 1994. ``A PMI on including philosophy in teacher training<br />
and primary curriculum''. Critical and Creative Thinking, Vol 2(1).<br />
Cam, P, Cha, I, Tamthaia, M & Reyes, R (eds) 1999. Philosophy, culture and education. The<br />
Asia-Pacific Philosophy <strong>of</strong> Education Network for Democracy and Korean<br />
National Commission for UNESCO.<br />
Daniels, L R. 1998. Some critical thinking concepts revisited. Prospero, 4(2).<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Education. 1995. National Basic Education and Training Framework.
Why philosophy for children in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>? 13<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Education. 1997. White Paper on Higher Education Transformation.<br />
Ennis, R H. Is critical thinking culturally biased? Teaching Philosophy, 21(1).<br />
Hare, W. 1998. Critical thinking as an aim <strong>of</strong> education. Inquiry, 18(2).<br />
Higgs, P. 1999. A reconstruction <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n philosophy <strong>of</strong> education. Interchange,<br />
30(2).<br />
Ikuenobe, P. 1998. Communtarianism, Liberalism and an epistemic view <strong>of</strong> critical<br />
thinking. Inquiry, 18(1).<br />
Laird, R. March 1993. ``Philosophy for Children in remote Aboriginal communities''.<br />
Critical and Creative Thinking. Vol 1(1).<br />
Le Buis, P, Schleifer, M, Caron, A & Daniel, M. 1993. ``Learning to think: philosophical<br />
instruction and reflective educational practice''. The Alberta Journal <strong>of</strong> Educational<br />
Research. Vol 34 (1).<br />
Lipman, M. 1980. Philosophy in the classroom. Philadelphia: Temple <strong>University</strong> Press.<br />
Lipman, M. 1988. Philosophy goes to school. Philadelphia: Temple <strong>University</strong> Press.<br />
Lipman, M. 1991. Thinking in education. Cambridge: Cambridge <strong>University</strong> Press.<br />
Lipman, M. 1996. Natasha: Vygotskian dialogues. New York: Teachers College Press.<br />
Lipman, M. 1998. ``Teaching students to think reasonably: some findings <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Philosophy for Children Program''. Clearing House, Vol 71 (5).<br />
Lipman, M. 1995. ``Moral education higher-order thinking and philosophy for children''.<br />
Early Child Development and Care, Vol 107.<br />
Peticolas, A P. 1998. The necessity <strong>of</strong> a critical dialogic framework for teaching. Inquiry,<br />
18(2).<br />
Puolimatka, T. 1998. Democracy, critical citizens and manipulation. Inquiry, 18(1).<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n Qualification Authority Bulletin, 1997. 1(1).<br />
Sharp, A M. 1994. ``The religious dimension <strong>of</strong> Philosophy for Children''. Critical and<br />
Creative Thinking, Vol 2 (1).<br />
Sharp, A M. 1995. ``Philosophy for Children and the development <strong>of</strong> ethical values''.<br />
Early Child Development and Care, Vol 107.<br />
Splitter, LJ. 2000. `Philosophy for Children: perspectives on children's thinking' in, M<br />
Robertson and R Reyes (eds.) The child's world: triggers to learning. Melbourne:<br />
ACER Press.<br />
Sprod, T. 1995. ``Cognitive development, philosophy and children's literature''. Early<br />
Child Development and Care, Vol 107.<br />
Wilks, S. 1994. ``Encouraging pupil participation: practical ways <strong>of</strong> establishing a<br />
community <strong>of</strong> enquiry''. Critical and Creative Thinking, Vol 2(2).
14<br />
The globalisation debate<br />
and implications for<br />
higher education<br />
Eleanor Lemmer<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Further Teacher<br />
Education<br />
Unisa<br />
Globalisation has become the buzz word <strong>of</strong> the new millennium. It is frequently<br />
presented as an inevitable economic process which is beneficial for most with little<br />
interrogation <strong>of</strong> the construct. However, globalisation is a highly contested concept with<br />
not only economic but far-reaching social and cultural dimensions as well. This article<br />
outlines the debate surrounding globalisation and its possible effect in domains such as<br />
the economy, the political domain, communication and cultural forms, issues <strong>of</strong> equality<br />
and the world order. Furthermore the implications <strong>of</strong> globalisation as a driver <strong>of</strong> change in<br />
education are discussed with reference to higher education. Globalisation has been<br />
linked to the performative role <strong>of</strong> higher education, new modes <strong>of</strong> knowledge production<br />
to suit a global economy and the impact <strong>of</strong> information technologies on learning and<br />
research. Finally conclusions are drawn about the current and future demand for higher<br />
education worldwide.<br />
1 INTRODUCTION<br />
Globalisation has been touted as a major driver <strong>of</strong> change in the<br />
development <strong>of</strong> education in general and higher education in<br />
particular. The contemporary university reflects radical shifts in form<br />
and function in a global environment (Barnett 2000:114). Some<br />
observers <strong>of</strong> change in higher education have described the university
The globalisation debate and implications for higher education 15<br />
as a contested institution threatened by globalising forces; other<br />
maintain that the university remains a robust institution in spite <strong>of</strong> dire<br />
predictions as to its future in a global environment (Scott 2000:1). This<br />
article points out the complexity <strong>of</strong> the concept <strong>of</strong> globalisation and<br />
identifies, characterises and clarifies some <strong>of</strong> the debates surrounding<br />
the phenomenon. Against this background, the implications <strong>of</strong> the<br />
multiple effects <strong>of</strong> globalisation on higher education are discussed in<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> the role <strong>of</strong> the university in a global economy; new modes <strong>of</strong><br />
knowledge production and the impact <strong>of</strong> information technology on<br />
learning and research. These developments are important influences on<br />
the demand for higher education in future.<br />
2 GLOBALISATION AS A DRIVER OF CHANGE<br />
The term globalisation has quickly assumed its place in our current<br />
vocabulary (Robertson 1992:8), however, no single universally agreed<br />
upon definition <strong>of</strong> globalisation exists. Moreover, the practice and<br />
significance <strong>of</strong> globalising processes differ widely. Globalisation does<br />
not represent the even and inevitable experience for all parts <strong>of</strong> the<br />
world and all communities as is commonly presented by the media<br />
(Popkewitz 2000:4). What appears a globalising process for some, is a<br />
localising process for others (Bauman 1998:2). To some it is even a<br />
perceived set <strong>of</strong> changes, a construct manipulated by state policy<br />
makers to inspire support for or negate opposition to other changes<br />
(Burbules & Torres 2000:2). Similarly various authors have quite<br />
different views on how globalisation is affecting educational policy in<br />
all parts <strong>of</strong> the world. Thus globalisation as a concept as well as in its<br />
relation to education is a widely contested domain and conflicting<br />
schools <strong>of</strong> thought should inevitably mark any discussion <strong>of</strong> globalisation.<br />
2.1 The problem <strong>of</strong> conceptualising globalisation<br />
A crude version <strong>of</strong> the complex debate surrounding globalisation,<br />
would involve the globalists who regard globalisation as a dramatic<br />
new interrogation <strong>of</strong> established paradigms, and the sceptics who<br />
dismiss its significance (Held & McGrew 2000:2). In practice a variety<br />
<strong>of</strong> positions on the sceptic-globalist continuum occur and this, together
16<br />
with insights emanating from different disciplinary strands, adds to<br />
the richness <strong>of</strong> the debate. The main areas <strong>of</strong> discussion with regard to<br />
global processes can broadly be seen in terms <strong>of</strong> reconfigurations <strong>of</strong> the<br />
economy, the political domain, communication and cultural forms,<br />
issues <strong>of</strong> equality and the world order. With reference to these<br />
domains, globalists argue that the globalising process is marked by<br />
interconnectedness and the consequent displacement <strong>of</strong> time and<br />
space; global informational capitalism and a transnational economy;<br />
the erosion <strong>of</strong> the nation-state; an emerging global popular culture<br />
facilitated by a global communications network; growing inequality<br />
between nations and mutilayered global governance. Conversely the<br />
sceptics interrogate these positions as is illustrated in the ensuing<br />
sections. However, the brevity <strong>of</strong> the following description <strong>of</strong> the<br />
debate runs the risk <strong>of</strong> an over-simplified dichotomous account <strong>of</strong><br />
globalisation. Notwithstanding the literature shows that the polemic is<br />
extremely extensive, complex, ambiguous and shifting (Burbules &<br />
Torres 2000:13).<br />
2.2 Globalisation and the economy<br />
Globalisation is most popularly associated with the economy. Economic<br />
globalisation is usually seen to be the core <strong>of</strong> globalising<br />
processes in general with the economic factor construed as the main<br />
driver <strong>of</strong> globalisation (Edwards & Usher 2000:17). Certainly certain<br />
world economic trends are unmistakable, irrespective <strong>of</strong> the significance<br />
given to them by different observers. Global economic restructuring<br />
since the late seventies demonstrates the following features (cf<br />
Burbules & Torres 2000:6):<br />
1 An international division <strong>of</strong> labour and economic integration<br />
which is marked by new exchange relations and arrangements.<br />
2 Greater importance <strong>of</strong> the production <strong>of</strong> information and<br />
services, especially in developed countries, over that <strong>of</strong><br />
manufacturing functions.<br />
3 The replacement <strong>of</strong> the hourly wage by piecework remuneration<br />
and short term contract work; a weakening <strong>of</strong> the power<br />
<strong>of</strong> unions and the waning <strong>of</strong> capital labour conflict.
The globalisation debate and implications for higher education 17<br />
4 A shift from the Fordist model <strong>of</strong> production to one marked by<br />
increased flexibility and the speedy movement <strong>of</strong> goods and<br />
information from one place to another.<br />
5 The growing importance <strong>of</strong> capital-intensive production<br />
leading to the redundancy and de-skilling <strong>of</strong> large sections <strong>of</strong><br />
the workforce and an increase <strong>of</strong> part-time and home-based<br />
workers.<br />
6 An ever-increasing gap developing between more developed<br />
and less developed countries.<br />
The debate around economic restructuring focuses on four basic issues:<br />
the extent to which economic activity is being globalised; the new form<br />
<strong>of</strong> capitalism which is sweeping the globe; the extent to which<br />
economic globalisation is subject to proper national and international<br />
controls and the threat posed by global competition to national<br />
economic strategy and the welfare state. The globalists maintain that<br />
contemporary global economic interaction has assumed a historically<br />
unprecedented scale and size. Global production by multi-nationals<br />
(currently about 600 corporations) controls 25% <strong>of</strong> the world's<br />
economy and 80% <strong>of</strong> the world's trade (Burbules & Torres 2000:7).<br />
Migration <strong>of</strong> labour is increasingly globalised and national economies<br />
are deeply enmeshed in global systems <strong>of</strong> production and exchange.<br />
Global financial integration produces a convergence in interest rates<br />
and economic crises with the result that national economies no longer<br />
operate as autonomous systems <strong>of</strong> wealth creation as the importance <strong>of</strong><br />
global economic activity supersedes the latter. The global economy has<br />
become a capitalist global economy that is organised on the basis <strong>of</strong><br />
market principles and production for pr<strong>of</strong>it. This has brought about a<br />
new global division <strong>of</strong> labour in which multinationals out-source<br />
manufacturing production to newly industrialised and transition<br />
economies, thus reorganising developing countries into winners and<br />
losers. As global competition increases, governments are unable to<br />
maintain existing levels <strong>of</strong> social protection or welfare state programmes.<br />
In contrast, the sceptical school holds a more cautious interpretation <strong>of</strong><br />
the contemporary global economic trends mentioned above. The latter,
18<br />
it is argued, only reflect a limited degree <strong>of</strong> economic and financial<br />
integration (Held & McGrew 2000:18). The integration <strong>of</strong> the global<br />
economy is seen as mainly between the major Organisation for<br />
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries to the<br />
exclusion <strong>of</strong> most <strong>of</strong> the rest <strong>of</strong> the world. Far from a globalisation <strong>of</strong><br />
the economy the sceptics see a growing regionalisation <strong>of</strong> economic<br />
activity around three blocs: Europe, Asia-Pacific and the Americas.<br />
They deny the prevalence <strong>of</strong> a global capitalism and argue that even<br />
the activity <strong>of</strong> multinationals is rooted in and dependent on local and<br />
national economic conditions.<br />
2.3 Globalisation and the political domain<br />
The emergence and importance <strong>of</strong> globalising economic processes have<br />
led to the questioning <strong>of</strong> the competence <strong>of</strong> the nation state to govern<br />
and the definition <strong>of</strong> what constitutes a civil society (Popkewitz<br />
2000:8). Globalists argue that the nation state in late modernity is no<br />
longer a unitary phenomenon with a set <strong>of</strong> singular purposes (Claassen<br />
2000:28). Instead due to the pressure exercised by transnational<br />
networks, such as the United Nations (UN) and its specialised<br />
agencies, international lobbies and social movements (eg the Green<br />
movement), the state has become a splintered policy-making arena.<br />
Sovereignty has become a shared exercise on many levels due to the<br />
power <strong>of</strong> intergovernmental organisations which displace national<br />
interests and boundaries. The most common example <strong>of</strong> the latter is the<br />
European Union (EU) which represents a novel system <strong>of</strong> governance<br />
where sovereignty over a number <strong>of</strong> common issues is pooled. In other<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> the world, particularly in the Asia-Pacific, interregional<br />
groupings are also emerging. Military arrangements, the manufacture<br />
<strong>of</strong> military hardware, the fight against organised crime and the fluid<br />
movement <strong>of</strong> goods and services and private capital across borders is<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the areas which creates the opportunity for greater international<br />
cooperation. According to the globalists, these factors strengthen<br />
global interconnectedness and lead to a weakening <strong>of</strong> the nation state.<br />
Consequently, the sovereignty <strong>of</strong> states is displaced by regional and
The globalisation debate and implications for higher education 19<br />
global power systems. Moreover, states cannot supply goods and<br />
services to their own citizens without international cooperation. This,<br />
according to the globalist position, is strong evidence <strong>of</strong> a reconfiguration<br />
<strong>of</strong> political power (Held & Mc Grew 2000:11±14).<br />
Adherents <strong>of</strong> a sceptical stance towards globalisation refer instead to<br />
the powerful and omniscient position assumed by the nation-state<br />
during the late twentieth century. According to them, at the onset <strong>of</strong><br />
the new millennium the modern national state system has reached a<br />
climax and is supported by international organisations like the UN.<br />
The modern national state characterised by a democratic-representation<br />
democracy has become the dominant political form and is still<br />
recognised as the basic unit <strong>of</strong> world order. Moreover, even the OECD<br />
states rigorously exercise their sovereignty ± the entitlement to rule ±<br />
and their autonomy ± their capacity to choose appropriate forms <strong>of</strong><br />
political, economic and social development. Against this background,<br />
the sceptics contest any alleged weakening <strong>of</strong> the nation state<br />
(Baumann 1998:73).<br />
2.4 Globalisation, communication and cultural forms<br />
The consolidation <strong>of</strong> the modern nation state which evolved during the<br />
past centuries is linked to governments' endeavours to create a<br />
national identity that legitimises state power and consolidates policy<br />
(Popkewitz 2000:9). Among others, this was effected by the creation <strong>of</strong><br />
a mass education system, an effective communication system able to<br />
disperse common ideas necessary for the development <strong>of</strong> a common<br />
culture and the creation <strong>of</strong> an economy which allowed mobility within<br />
a bounded system (Held & McGrew 2000:17).<br />
In the view <strong>of</strong> the sceptics, the aspiration for national identity and<br />
nationalism which spread from Western Europe around the world in<br />
the last century is so powerful that it is not likely to be eroded by<br />
transnational forces and the development <strong>of</strong> a global mass culture.<br />
New forms <strong>of</strong> information technology only reinforce forms <strong>of</strong> national<br />
life and intensify their impact. New flows <strong>of</strong> information may narrow<br />
distance, but bolster difference and the awareness <strong>of</strong> ``the other''. Thus,<br />
local and national culture remains robust. As can be expected, the
20<br />
globalists take issue with this argument. While they acknowledge the<br />
continued existence <strong>of</strong> national identity and cultural nationalism, they<br />
contend that the scale, intensity, speed and volume <strong>of</strong> global cultural<br />
communications is unprecedented and cannot be controlled by<br />
national governments (Held & McGrew 2000:18). An outcome is a<br />
rapid global diffusion <strong>of</strong> ideas and cultures through the linguistic<br />
infrastructure provided by English. This embraces a range <strong>of</strong> activities,<br />
such as a global lifestyle, global sports, increased presence <strong>of</strong> world<br />
religions, global gambling and the global distribution <strong>of</strong> entertainment<br />
products, to mention but a few. The diffusion <strong>of</strong> commercial culture is<br />
driven by companies (eg McDonald, Nike, Benneton) not countries<br />
(Burbules & Torres 2000:11). A geographic situation is less important to<br />
workers who may seek and obtain employment virtually anywhere.<br />
This has led to what Capella (2000:227) terms a fading citizenship.<br />
Moreover, national identities are displaced from their rootedness in<br />
specific localities through expanded travel and tourism. Cultural flows<br />
together with commitment to global or regional objectives such as the<br />
protection <strong>of</strong> the environment or human rights create an emerging<br />
global consciousness and incipient global civil society (Held &<br />
McGrew 2000:18, 19).<br />
2.5 Globalisation and equality<br />
Current economic globalisation is linked to an accelerating gap<br />
between rich and poor nation states as well as between peoples in a<br />
single country, within the global economy, thus shaping new global<br />
patterns <strong>of</strong> hierarchy and inequality. This clearly signals significant<br />
implications for the world order and global security. Here the debate is<br />
extremely complex, even within the globalist school. Thinkers <strong>of</strong> a neoliberal<br />
persuasion regard the creation <strong>of</strong> a single global market through<br />
the organisation <strong>of</strong> free trade, capital mobility and global competition<br />
as the forerunner <strong>of</strong> eventual modernisation and the development <strong>of</strong><br />
impoverished regions and communities. Thus, globalisation heralds a<br />
more positive condition for a more stable world. Others regard<br />
economic globalisation as responsible for the globalisation <strong>of</strong> poverty,<br />
both among rich and poor nations as well as within societies.<br />
Affluence, whether on macro or micro level, is thus determined by the
The globalisation debate and implications for higher education 21<br />
capacity to benefit from global markets. If this argument is followed,<br />
cosmic globalisation polarises and could create conditions for world<br />
conflict. To avoid this, a new global agreement is needed among<br />
nations to tame the negative forces <strong>of</strong> economic globalisation (Baghadi<br />
2000:1).<br />
To the sceptics who are oriented to a traditional Marxist position, the<br />
prospect <strong>of</strong> a global solution to inequality is unrealistic. They recognise<br />
a new deepening <strong>of</strong> global inequality due to the marginalisation <strong>of</strong><br />
economies who fail to match the demands <strong>of</strong> global competition. In this<br />
world <strong>of</strong> poverty and deprivation, the affluent West through mechanisms<br />
such as the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF)<br />
exercise inordinate control over national destinies. This process can<br />
only be reversed by a socialist international order. Once again, other<br />
proponents <strong>of</strong> this school reject the idea <strong>of</strong> a socialist panacea to global<br />
inequality. Furthermore, they discount the idea <strong>of</strong> globalisation alone<br />
as the cause <strong>of</strong> world poverty. They recognise a complexity <strong>of</strong> national<br />
factors and global factors as contributory constituents to poverty and<br />
consequently regard its solution to lie, albeit partially, in national<br />
welfare systems and the pursuit <strong>of</strong> national wealth and power (Held &<br />
McGrew 2000:20).<br />
2.6 Globalisation and the world order<br />
Throughout the modern period, the political good <strong>of</strong> the nation-state<br />
has been at the centre <strong>of</strong> political relations. This view rests on the<br />
assumption that a political community is constituted and bounded<br />
when: its members share a common socio-cultural identity; the<br />
members share the notion that they are a people who should govern<br />
themselves; an institutional structure exists on the behalf <strong>of</strong> the<br />
community; congruence exists between the governed and the government<br />
and; members enjoy a certain kind <strong>of</strong> equitable treatment.<br />
Globalists contest all the last-mentioned points. According to the<br />
globalist position, the political good is no longer found in a territorial<br />
polity but is entrenched in overlapping communities and in an<br />
emergent transnational civil society and global polity. They point out<br />
that individuals increasingly have complex loyalties and multi<br />
dimensional identities as a result <strong>of</strong> the globalisation <strong>of</strong> economic and
22<br />
cultural factors and the reconfiguration <strong>of</strong> political power. Movement<br />
<strong>of</strong> resources and interconnectedness <strong>of</strong> political communities create an<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> overlapping fortunes which require collective answers.<br />
Individual communities no longer can rely only on local and national<br />
support but also require multinational backing if they are to be<br />
sustained and promoted. Complex economic, social and environmental<br />
processes and international agencies affect and even alter what a<br />
national community can ask or expect from its government. Even the<br />
rights and duties <strong>of</strong> individuals entrenched in national constitutions<br />
need to be underwritten by global laws and institutions (McGrew &<br />
Held 2000:22).<br />
2.7 Crucial characteristics <strong>of</strong> globalisation<br />
The brief discussion serves to illustrate that globalisation is no<br />
entrenched given as is <strong>of</strong>ten touted in lay circles, and the debate is<br />
lively. Burbules & Torres (2000:2) mention that the claims <strong>of</strong> global<br />
change may be exaggerated and more limited than argued. Yet<br />
common ground held by protagonists on both sides <strong>of</strong> the polemic can<br />
provide some description <strong>of</strong> a concept which is both paradoxical and<br />
complex. Such a description could read as follows: Recent decades<br />
have seen the growth <strong>of</strong> entrenched and persistent patterns <strong>of</strong><br />
worldwide interconnectedness, which have enmeshed states and<br />
societies in worldwide systems and networks <strong>of</strong> interaction. Hence<br />
there appears an embedding, but not displacement, <strong>of</strong> local, regional<br />
and national orders <strong>of</strong> life in more expansive sets <strong>of</strong> interregional<br />
relations and networks <strong>of</strong> power. Time and space have been<br />
reconfigured since they no longer impose fixed barriers to many forms<br />
<strong>of</strong> social interaction and organisation (Edwards & Usher 2000:19). In<br />
addition, the process in which global and local transformations may<br />
take place is dialectic by nature, affecting the local and global<br />
reciprocally (Giddens 2000:92). The changing nature <strong>of</strong> communication,<br />
the speedy diffusion <strong>of</strong> technical change and the spread <strong>of</strong><br />
capitalist economic development have created new interregional and<br />
global competition in the political, economic and cultural domains<br />
which are challenging old hierarchies and generating new inequalities<br />
<strong>of</strong> wealthy, power privilege and knowledge. Furthermore, transna-
The globalisation debate and implications for higher education 23<br />
tional issues call into question the traditional role, functions and<br />
accountability <strong>of</strong> national governments. While the process does not<br />
imply the existence <strong>of</strong> a new and harmonious world order, the<br />
expansion <strong>of</strong> international governance at regional and global level is to<br />
be observed. Finally, the process should not be seen as universal: it is<br />
experienced unevenly by different communities and countries and<br />
significant segments <strong>of</strong> the world's population are largely untouched<br />
by its workings (Held & McGrew 2000:4; Edwards & Usher 2000:19).<br />
3 IMPLICATIONS OF GLOBALISATION FOR HIGHER<br />
EDUCATION<br />
The globalisation debate has certain implications for higher education<br />
and particularly the university. Alarmist circles have predicted the<br />
demise <strong>of</strong> the university, the diminishing importance <strong>of</strong> scholars and<br />
the corporatisation <strong>of</strong> research. However, at the very least, it creates<br />
the environment in which universities must operate in the twenty first<br />
century. Many trends in the organisational, pedagogical and technological<br />
delivery <strong>of</strong> higher education are underway as a result <strong>of</strong><br />
globalisation. This section examines the impact <strong>of</strong> globalisation on<br />
higher education institutions, primarily focusing on the changing role<br />
<strong>of</strong> the university and <strong>of</strong> scholars who work in higher education with<br />
particular attention to the latter's role in knowledge production. It also<br />
considers the impact <strong>of</strong> information technology and communications<br />
(ITC)onlearningandresearch.<br />
3.1 Performativity and higher education<br />
The question <strong>of</strong> how the university, in its role as producer and<br />
transmitter <strong>of</strong> knowledge is affected by globalising processes was<br />
highlighted as early as 1984 by Lyotard in The postmodern condition.<br />
Among others, the processes focussed on by Lyotard were the impact<br />
<strong>of</strong> information technology and computer-mediated communication<br />
and their link to the idea <strong>of</strong> performativity. Lyotard regarded the<br />
modernist paradigm as reconstructed in terms <strong>of</strong> what can contribute<br />
best to the efficiency and effectiveness <strong>of</strong> the socio-economic system.<br />
The task <strong>of</strong> the university is thus redefined as producing the knowledge<br />
specifically needed by people skilled in those capacities that are
24<br />
indispensable to the contemporary globalised system. This means<br />
particularly the knowledge and skills needed for maintaining a<br />
competitive edge in a cutthroat world market in conditions <strong>of</strong><br />
globalised capital (Lyotard 1984:xxiii).<br />
According to Lyotard (1984:xxiii), higher education is faced with a<br />
scepticism towards the metanarratives or foundational theories<br />
developed during the Enlightenment. As the global economy moves<br />
from Fordist reproduction to a consumption society focussed on<br />
information and services, the grand functions <strong>of</strong> the university, that is,<br />
the metanarratives <strong>of</strong> speculative unity and <strong>of</strong> emancipatory humanism<br />
lose ground (Lyotard 1984:33). The metanarrative <strong>of</strong> speculative unity<br />
sought to unify scientific knowledge by the master discourse <strong>of</strong><br />
metaphysical philosophy. This lent knowledge a legitimacy found in<br />
itself, not in a principle <strong>of</strong> usefulness, either to the State or civil society<br />
(Lyotard 1984:34). The metanarrative <strong>of</strong> emancipatory humanism<br />
refers to individual freedom through knowledge, which, in turn leads<br />
to progress (Lyotard 1984:32). But in the postmodern world <strong>of</strong> the late<br />
twentieth and early twenty first century, these metanarratives have<br />
become epistemologically bankrupt and thus they can no longer<br />
legitimise science or higher education institutions.<br />
This displacement <strong>of</strong> metanarratives permits a redefinition <strong>of</strong> knowledge:<br />
knowledge becomes ``technically useful knowledge''. Knowledge<br />
is exteriorised with respect to the knower while the educational<br />
processes between learner and teacher are reconstituted as a market<br />
relationship between producer and consumer. Knowledge is exchanged<br />
on the basis <strong>of</strong> the value it has for the consumer, it becomes `value<br />
added' (Lyotard 1984:4±5). The world <strong>of</strong> international relations is read<br />
as a place where competitive advantage is based on knowledge and its<br />
applications in the economy (Lyotard 1984:48). Consequently certain<br />
knowledge is more important than other. Technoscience is prominent<br />
because <strong>of</strong> economic usefulness, the creation <strong>of</strong> competitive advantage<br />
and its translatability into information (computer) knowledge (Lyotard<br />
1984:48).<br />
Lyotard's observations are even more incisive than a mere concern
The globalisation debate and implications for higher education 25<br />
about the advantages <strong>of</strong> access to certain disciplines over others. By<br />
removing the traditional basis for legitimising knowledge, the<br />
subjugation <strong>of</strong> science and the university to a new ideological legitimation<br />
is possible. In this climate, the primary goal <strong>of</strong> higher education<br />
(and <strong>of</strong> knowledge) becomes the optimal contribution to the best, the<br />
most efficient performance <strong>of</strong> the social system. Lyotard calls this<br />
criterion for legitimation, performativity, aptly described by Bloland<br />
(1995:536) as ``... the capacity to deliver outputs at the lowest cost, [a<br />
principle] which replaces truth as the yardstick <strong>of</strong> knowledge''.<br />
Subsequently, performativity supplants the agreed upon, rational<br />
criteria for merit and instead efficiency and effectiveness become the<br />
exclusive criteria for judging knowledge, behaviour and social<br />
systems. In particular, the university becomes subject to a postmodern<br />
condition in which its historic claim to have special knowledge, to be<br />
creating special knowledge and to be testing truth, is undermined:<br />
``The question now asked by the pr<strong>of</strong>essionalist student, the State or<br />
institutions <strong>of</strong> higher education is no longer `Is it true?' but `What use<br />
is it?' In the context <strong>of</strong> the mercantilisation <strong>of</strong> knowledge, more <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
than not this question is equivalent to: `Is it saleable?' ... `Is it<br />
efficient?' '' (Lyotard 1984:51). In effect, this removes from the<br />
university its traditional defence against cooption by the state with<br />
regard to its key practices: for example, the decisions affecting the<br />
exclusion or inclusion <strong>of</strong> certain knowledge in the curriculum; the<br />
privileging <strong>of</strong> certain fields <strong>of</strong> study; the introduction <strong>of</strong> new<br />
management practices or new and external definitions <strong>of</strong> excellence.<br />
Instead <strong>of</strong> competence measured by the criteria: true/false, just/<br />
unjust, a technical game <strong>of</strong> efficiency and inefficiency is played in<br />
which the key questions during university decision-making are: ``Is it<br />
sellable? Is it translatable into information?''<br />
Against this background, Lyotard (1984:xxv) predicts a bleak future for<br />
the university which now should ``... create skills, and no longer<br />
ideals'' (Lyotard 1984:48). The university loses its monopoly in the<br />
production <strong>of</strong> knowledge. Instead <strong>of</strong> the acme <strong>of</strong> higher education<br />
system, it becomes a mere component <strong>of</strong> the market made up <strong>of</strong><br />
innumerable competitors ± the technikon (polytechnic) which looms<br />
supreme, private research institutes, think tanks, industrial and
26<br />
government laboratories and corporate classrooms, to mention only a<br />
few. Hence universities are forced increasingly to reconstruct themselves<br />
as commercial enterprises competing in the knowledge business<br />
(Edwards & Usher 1994:175). In this context the scholar's role shifts<br />
from a calling requiring a cultural outlook to one which requires mere<br />
technical expertise (Lyotard 1984:53).<br />
3.2 Higher education's performative role in a global<br />
economy<br />
The traditional role <strong>of</strong> the university, namely the disinterested pursuit<br />
<strong>of</strong> knowledge has been replaced by a view <strong>of</strong> higher education in which<br />
universities are meant to serve society foremostly by supporting the<br />
economy in the provision <strong>of</strong> qualified manpower and the production <strong>of</strong><br />
knowledge (Gibbons 1998:1). Thus governments frequently cast the<br />
need for higher education reform in economic terms, particularly in<br />
relation to the preparation <strong>of</strong> a workforce capable <strong>of</strong> participating in<br />
the knowledge industry within a competitive global market. Education,<br />
and particularly higher education, is described as the key<br />
component <strong>of</strong> a country's ability to improve or even to maintain their<br />
economic welfare. This is also true <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> which is<br />
endeavouring to achieve national economic growth, improve employment<br />
and alleviate poverty while establishing a position within the<br />
southern <strong>Africa</strong>n region and the global economy. Sharp criticism <strong>of</strong> the<br />
higher education sector by government, business and industry has<br />
been framed by the need to produce sufficient numbers <strong>of</strong> higher level<br />
graduates with the cognitive and social skills and competencies needed<br />
to make <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> globally competitive (Council for Higher<br />
Education 2000). As the distinction between knowledge and commodity<br />
are collapsed, the outcomes are visible in shifts <strong>of</strong> government<br />
funding. An analysis <strong>of</strong> higher education in four established industrial<br />
countries (the USA, UK, Canada and Australia) shows that higher<br />
education has indeed been directed towards national wealth creation<br />
and away from its traditional concern with the liberal education <strong>of</strong><br />
undergraduates (Slaughter 1988:56).
The globalisation debate and implications for higher education 27<br />
3.3 New modes <strong>of</strong> knowledge production<br />
New ideas affecting teaching and learning and which type <strong>of</strong><br />
institution are best suited to provide education are impacting<br />
universities worldwide, which are no longer able to determine<br />
internally what and how students should learn. In this regard, Gibbons<br />
(1999:4) has effectively elaborated the new knowledge paradigm and<br />
the dilemmas that it presents to the work <strong>of</strong> higher education. In what<br />
Gibbons has termed Mode One, knowledge production has traditionally<br />
been based on the disciplines, which have provided the guidelines<br />
for what counts as good science and what students need to know if<br />
they are to become good scientists. According to the emergence <strong>of</strong> a<br />
new Mode Two, the new mode <strong>of</strong> knowledge production and<br />
distribution, knowledge is produced and disseminated in the context<br />
<strong>of</strong> application. Knowledge production is multi-disciplinary and<br />
characterised by a heterogeneity <strong>of</strong> skills. Mode Two is more socially<br />
accountable and reflexive and requires an expanded system <strong>of</strong> quality<br />
which is no longer dependent primarily on peer review but on a wider,<br />
more temporary and heterogeneous set <strong>of</strong> practitioners, collaborating<br />
on a problem defined in a specific and localised context (Gibbons<br />
1998:5). This constitutes the major challenge to the core business <strong>of</strong><br />
universities ± teaching and learning and the way research is done. It<br />
also creates the opportunity <strong>of</strong> other knowledge providers to enter the<br />
market for students and brings into question the need for a traditional<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essoriate. Similarly <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n higher education has not<br />
escaped the implications <strong>of</strong> Mode Two. The monopoly held by the<br />
traditional higher education system is increasingly challenged by<br />
private provision <strong>of</strong> higher education. Business and industry provide<br />
new areas for research and the academic disciplines have been<br />
challenged by a new outcomes based programmatic approach to<br />
learning and teaching.<br />
3.4 Information technology and communication and<br />
learning<br />
A new factor only partially realised by Lyotard in the early eighties is<br />
the proliferation and increasing dominance <strong>of</strong> information technology<br />
and communication in the role <strong>of</strong> knowledge production and
28<br />
dissemination. Information technology and communication have<br />
served to accelerate the trend towards individualised learning but not<br />
in the traditional paradigm <strong>of</strong> liberal education (Burbules 2000:384).<br />
Individualised learning through the transmission <strong>of</strong> electronic texts<br />
renders the involvement <strong>of</strong> the learner more active and complex. The<br />
authority <strong>of</strong> texts are undermined as texts become hyper texts in which<br />
the learner becomes an author who can access information, interact<br />
with it and with other learners without attending a traditional<br />
institution through the use <strong>of</strong> the Internet, E-mail, CD ROMS and<br />
hypertext. What learners require is not only disciplinary content as<br />
prior but the ability to use and work with information technology and<br />
communication. This goes far beyond mere technical skills such as the<br />
ability to gather discrete bits <strong>of</strong> information but the ability to arrange<br />
them in new ways to produce knowledge and not merely information.<br />
This calls for the skills and competences <strong>of</strong> symbolic analysis and<br />
creates a kind <strong>of</strong> transdisciplinary in which hitherto compartemenalised<br />
and separate knowledge is brought together and reconfigured as<br />
new knowledge (Edwards & Usher 2000:80). Moreover, the range <strong>of</strong><br />
new technologies allow academic practitioners to move from centre<br />
stage to a ``guide on the side'' as learners increase their ability to<br />
acquire and utilise knowledge. Synchronous and asynchronous learning<br />
activities become possible. Synchronous activities include learning<br />
opportunities with the lecturer present in the same or another location<br />
to the learner. Asynchronous activities can involve accessing archived<br />
learning material anytime and anyplace, thus breaking boundaries <strong>of</strong><br />
time and space (Cogburn 2000:3).<br />
3.5 Information technology and communication and<br />
research<br />
The effect <strong>of</strong> information technology and communication in a<br />
globalising environment has impacted in various ways on one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
primary functions <strong>of</strong> the university, that is research. This has created<br />
virtual communities <strong>of</strong> researchers placed far distant, yet marked by<br />
some measure <strong>of</strong> collegiality and collaboration (Burbules 2000:337).<br />
Increased collaboration has been demonstrated in the fields <strong>of</strong><br />
mathematics, physics, biology and chemistry. Experiments, in particular<br />
in physics, have been conducted among large groups across the
The globalisation debate and implications for higher education 29<br />
Internet. The speed whereby research outputs can be disseminated by<br />
means <strong>of</strong> information technology and communications has allowed<br />
research outputs to impact more swiftly on curriculum and pedagogy,<br />
especially in the forms <strong>of</strong> flexible, open and distance learning (Mason<br />
1998:27). Electronic publishing has affected the market for scholarship<br />
in various ways. Interestingly there has been an expansion <strong>of</strong> paper<br />
based academic and pr<strong>of</strong>essional journals due to the cuts in production<br />
and distribution made possible by globalising technologies. In addition,<br />
research is distributed by means <strong>of</strong> terrestrial and satellite<br />
television, videos, CD ROMs etc. Research conferences are more easily<br />
attended in a globalising world <strong>of</strong> cheaper travel and more permeable<br />
national borders. The World Wide Web has made the distribution <strong>of</strong><br />
papers and conference proceedings possible. Nor is this use restricted<br />
to organisers or institutions but individual academics are creating their<br />
own home pages where interested ``surfers'' may access their research.<br />
Chat rooms, electronic conferencing and bulletin boards make<br />
academic exchange almost instant in a world where time and space are<br />
displaced (Edwards & Usher 2000:82). Finally, new methods <strong>of</strong><br />
collaboration result in changes in status and hierarchy among<br />
researchers. Electronic communication affords fewer clues to status,<br />
rank and gender than face-to-face-communication. Consequently,<br />
discussions made by virtual groups are influenced less by the status <strong>of</strong><br />
the proposer <strong>of</strong> a decision or an idea; cooperation between more junior<br />
academics and more experienced academics stimulates research and<br />
leads to fruitful joint publications and the rates <strong>of</strong> publication are being<br />
seen to increase (Zlatuska 1999:3).<br />
4 CONCLUSION<br />
While the debate surrounding globalisation should not be ignored, it is<br />
a process that enhances the importance <strong>of</strong> knowledge and information.<br />
Thus, it has concomitant implications for knowledge, education and<br />
training. According to an earlier appraisal <strong>of</strong> globalisation, the<br />
dominance <strong>of</strong> performativity as criterion for assessing higher education<br />
endeavours and the dual impact <strong>of</strong> both the latter on higher<br />
education tended to be pessimistic (Margarth 1999:2). However,<br />
educationists in the late 90s have begun to see globalisation, not only
30<br />
as a tool <strong>of</strong> destablisation, but also as an incentive to change and even<br />
re-enchant the university, thereby restoring to it new creativity and<br />
vigour (Davies 1999:1). In this vein, Margrath (1999:22) predicts that<br />
the international push for mass higher education will continue well<br />
into the twenty-first century, strengthened by the increasing availability<br />
<strong>of</strong> virtual campuses, <strong>of</strong>fshore campuses and the demand for<br />
international education. This is corroborated by Blight, Davis &<br />
Olsen's (2000:96) analysis <strong>of</strong> the current demand for higher education<br />
in OECD countries. It is argued that all economies require persons who<br />
are knowledgeable and skilled in the use <strong>of</strong> technology and that a welleducated<br />
population is indispensable for economic growth. Secondly,<br />
the economic value <strong>of</strong> higher education is increasingly important to<br />
national governments which reckon it to be determining factor in<br />
global competitiveness. Thirdly, the concept <strong>of</strong> lifelong learning is<br />
linked to social and economic well-being. Higher education cannot<br />
disregard the demand for lifelong learning; failure to do so is to lose its<br />
market position. Subsequently, in a global economy higher education<br />
institutions must market themselves as necessary elements for the<br />
well-being <strong>of</strong> the economy in order to secure scarce funding and<br />
resources from government, business and non-governmental agencies.<br />
Finally under conditions <strong>of</strong> performativity, higher education appears<br />
to be set for survival even though its scholars are considered<br />
knowledge workers in the business <strong>of</strong> producing relevant knowledge<br />
valorised as a tradable commodity in a global economy.<br />
REFERENCES<br />
Bauman, Z 1998. Globalization: The human consequences. Oxford. Polity press.<br />
Baghadi, A 2000. Globalisation: The new invasion <strong>of</strong> the Third World. www.fav.net/<br />
special issue on globalization.htm. Accessed on 30 May 2001.<br />
Blight, D Davies, B & Olsen, A. 2000. The globalization <strong>of</strong> higher education. In Higher<br />
education reformed, edited by Scott, P. London: New Millennium.<br />
Bloland, H G 1995. Postmodernism and higher education. Journal <strong>of</strong> higher education,<br />
66(5):521±559.<br />
Brown, R H & Schubert, J H (eds) 2000. Knowledge and power in higher education. New<br />
York: Teachers College, Columbia <strong>University</strong>.
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Burbules, N C 2000. Does the Internet constitute a community? In Globalisation and<br />
education: critical perspectives, edited by Burbules, N C & Torres, C A New York:<br />
Routledge.<br />
Burbules, N C & Torres, C A 2000. Globalisation and education: An introduction. In<br />
Globalization and education: critical perspectives, edited by Burbules, NC & Torres,<br />
CA. New York: Routledge.<br />
Capella, J 2000. Globalization, a fading citizenship. In Globalization and education: critical<br />
perspectives, edited by Burbules, N C & Torres, C A. New York: Routledge.<br />
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education, editedbyLemmer,EM.Sandton:Johannesburg.<br />
Cogburn, D L 2001. Globalization, knowledge, education and training in the information<br />
age. Www.unesco.org/webworld/infoethics 2/eng/papers/paper-23.htm. Accessed<br />
29 May 2001.<br />
Council on Higher Education (CHE). 2000. CHE Annual Report 1998/00, Pretoria: Council<br />
on Higher Education.<br />
Davies, P 1999. Globalisation and the local university: some implications for strategy and<br />
management. Paper delivered at the Salzburg Seminar, Universities project,<br />
Salzburg Austria, 23±27 January 1999.<br />
Edwards, & Usher, R 1994. Postmodernism and education. New York: Routledge.<br />
Edwards, R & Usher, R 2000. Globalization and pedagogy: space, place and identity. London:<br />
Routledge.<br />
Gibbons, M 1998. Higher education relevance in the 21st century. Paper delivered at the<br />
UNESCO World Conference on higher Education, Paris, France on October 5±9,<br />
1998.<br />
Held, D & Mc Grew, A (ed) 2000. The global transformations reader. Malden: Oxford Press.<br />
Lyotard, J F 1984. The postmodern condition: A report on knowledge. Manchester: <strong>University</strong><br />
Press.<br />
Mason, R 1998. Globalizing education: trends and applications. London: Routledge.<br />
Margarth, P 1999. Globalization in national and state systems.<br />
Popkewitz, T S 2000. Rethinking decentralization and the state/civil society distinctions:<br />
The state as a problematic <strong>of</strong> governing. In Educational knowledge: changing<br />
relationships between the state, civil society and the educational community, editedby<br />
Popkewitz, T S. Albany: SUNY.<br />
Popkewitz, T S 2000. Globalization/regionalization, knowledge, and the educational<br />
practices: some notes on comparative strategies for educational research. In<br />
Popkewitz, T S (ed). Educational knowledge: changing relationships between the state,<br />
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Scott, P (ed) 2000. Introduction. In Higher Education re-formed, editedbyScott,P.London<br />
& New York: Falmer Press.<br />
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A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> progressive education in the USA 33<br />
A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong><br />
progressive education in<br />
the USA<br />
IACoetzer<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Educational<br />
Studies<br />
Unisa<br />
The aim <strong>of</strong> this research article is to present a survey and to appraise the principles and<br />
practices <strong>of</strong> progressive education in America since its inception around 1890 to its<br />
demise in 1957. The rationale behind this approach was to enable the researcher to<br />
investigate the corresponding principles and practices <strong>of</strong> progressive education in the<br />
USA with that <strong>of</strong> outcomes-based education in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n Schools and to establish<br />
the anticipated success and/or failures <strong>of</strong> the proposed education transformation in the<br />
RSA in a follow-up research article, titled A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> Outcomes-Based<br />
Education (OBE) in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> with reference to progressive education in America.<br />
1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL CONTEXT<br />
Progressive education, also sometimes called ``modern'' or ``new''<br />
education, is the name given to the broad educational reform movement<br />
that sprung up in America around 1890.<br />
Francis W Parker (1837±1902) who was called ``the father <strong>of</strong><br />
progressive education'' (Cremin 1961:129) published his ``Talks on
34<br />
Pedagogics'' in 1894 in which his ideas about the ``new'' education<br />
were explained. His progressive school called the Cook County School<br />
which was established around 1890 was organised as ``a model home, a<br />
complete community and embryonic democracy'' (Cremin 1961:132).<br />
Progressivism in American society was part <strong>of</strong> a larger response in the<br />
Western world to the massive forces <strong>of</strong> industrialism, urbanism,<br />
migration and modernism which were shaking the roots <strong>of</strong> traditional<br />
society since the late nineteenth century. The basic claims by<br />
supporters <strong>of</strong> progressive education are inherent in Western education:<br />
improvement <strong>of</strong> education and vocational training as recruiting<br />
elements in public life and a democratic society (Ro È hrs & Lenhart<br />
1995:11; Cremin 1961:viii; Dewey 1939:4, 115).<br />
During the period 1890 until World War I the progressivists<br />
represented themselves as a resistance or contra-movement against the<br />
so-called essentialists or proponents <strong>of</strong> traditional education who<br />
according to them only educated the young generation for the status<br />
quo. The criticism <strong>of</strong> the progressivists were mainly targeted against<br />
certain tenets <strong>of</strong> traditional education (Kandel 1958:177):<br />
... the daily and hourly routine, the fixed time-schedules, the strict<br />
discipline, rote learning, a curriculum planned in advance, imposition<br />
and examinations on what had been memorized, and, in general,<br />
authoritarianism dominating teachers and pupils alike.<br />
The educational practices <strong>of</strong> the so-called traditional school in the USA<br />
were also observable elsewhere. During 1926±1927, shortly after World<br />
War I, a prominent supporter <strong>of</strong> progressive education, the eminent<br />
American educationalist William Heard Kilpatrick (1871±1965) took a<br />
trip around the world, visiting schools and universities on several<br />
continents. According to Tenenbaum, his biographer, Kilpatrick was<br />
struck by the fact that ``the schools did not prepare students for life in<br />
their immediate environment. They were formal, bookish, dominated<br />
by rigid examinations'' (Tenenbaum 1951:253, 257). Kilpatrick's own<br />
approach to education is discussed in his essay ``The Project Method''<br />
<strong>of</strong> 1918, a genuine product <strong>of</strong> the American progressive education
A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> progressive education in the USA 35<br />
movement. The project method is generally considered a means <strong>of</strong><br />
developing independence and responsibilities in school pupils, and to<br />
instil social and democratic modes <strong>of</strong> behaviour (Ro È hrs & Lenhart<br />
1995:307). To achieve these means Kilpatrick made the motivation <strong>of</strong><br />
the pupil the crucial feature <strong>of</strong> the project method. Whatever the<br />
learner undertook, so long as it was done ``purposefully'', this was a<br />
project. The projects had four phases: purposing, planning, executing<br />
and judging (Ro È hrs & Lenhart 1995:312).<br />
Kilpatrick's project method had a huge impact on progressive<br />
educational reform movements in America. The ``comprehensive<br />
school'' movement, the movement for ``community education'', ``open<br />
curriculum'' and ``practical learning'' make reference to the project<br />
method where implementation <strong>of</strong> their programmes is concerned<br />
(Ro È hrs & Lenhart 1995:307). These movements and eminent progressivists<br />
like Francis Wayland Parker and John Dewey who was the<br />
world's best known progressive educator, scorned the rote learning<br />
and rigid subject-centred instruction <strong>of</strong> the traditional schools. The<br />
``joyless'' education, so they argued, had to be replaced by the<br />
expressiveness and spontaneity <strong>of</strong> the child. J R Squire (1972:328) who<br />
researched progressive education in-depth contends that the discourse<br />
<strong>of</strong> the progressivists can be expressed in a number <strong>of</strong> phrases; namely<br />
the school as a miniature community, learning by doing, project method,<br />
units <strong>of</strong> study, education as development, creativity, growth, activity,<br />
self-expression, experience, play, interest, freedom, meeting the needs and<br />
interests <strong>of</strong> the student, educating the whole child, development <strong>of</strong><br />
personality, social and emotional adjustment and lifelong learning or<br />
continuing education (Squire 1972:328).<br />
In order to be able to accomplish the aim <strong>of</strong> a proper survey and<br />
appraisal <strong>of</strong> the progressivists in America the author deems it essential<br />
to discuss the principles <strong>of</strong> the so-called Progressive Education<br />
Association (PEA) which was founded in 1919 and dissolved in 1955 ±<br />
the last issue <strong>of</strong> its periodical ``Progressive Education'' was published<br />
in 1957 ± and on which the philosophy and educational practices <strong>of</strong> the<br />
progressivists were based.
36<br />
2 THE PRINCIPLES OF THE PROGRESSIVE<br />
EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (1919±1957) IN<br />
AMERICA<br />
2.1 Freedom versus control<br />
Progressive educators fought against direct interference and formal<br />
control by teachers in the classroom. Through their child-centred<br />
approach they instead valued freedom <strong>of</strong> activity and expression by<br />
the child to replace the passive question and answer method <strong>of</strong><br />
traditional education.<br />
Pupils were allowed to move around freely in the classroom to<br />
communicate with fellow learners because the progressivists believed<br />
(Rugg & Shumaker 1969:55±56):<br />
Free the legs, the arms, the larynx <strong>of</strong> a child and you have taken the first<br />
step towards freeing his mind and spirit.<br />
Progressive educators believed in satisfying individual differences ±<br />
no more than twenty pupils were allowed in the classroom ± and they<br />
would mostly agree that one important test <strong>of</strong> a successful classroom is<br />
its effectiveness in eliciting a variety <strong>of</strong> responses from different<br />
children.<br />
2.2 Child-centred versus teacher-centred initiative<br />
In the progressive schools the educator-teacher relinquishes the role <strong>of</strong><br />
instructor and becomes instead an initiator, observer and adviser <strong>of</strong> the<br />
activities <strong>of</strong> the pupils.<br />
Nine years after the Progressive Education Association (PEA) was<br />
formed two eminent American progressivists, H Rugg & A Shumaker<br />
published The Child-Centred School (1928) in which the modus<br />
operandi <strong>of</strong> these schools is explained as follows (Rugg & Shumaker<br />
1969:57)<br />
In the child-centred school ... pupils are alive, active, working hard,<br />
inventing, organising, contributing original ideas, assembling materials,
A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> progressive education in the USA 37<br />
carrying out enterprises ... boys and girls ... share in their own<br />
government, in the planning <strong>of</strong> the program, in the administering <strong>of</strong> the<br />
curriculum, in conducting the life <strong>of</strong> the school.<br />
William Heard Kilpatrick who was an active participant in the group <strong>of</strong><br />
``reconstructionist'' educators who represented the reformist stand <strong>of</strong><br />
progressivists during the 1930's arrived at the conclusion reached by<br />
other American educationalists that innovative, progressive studentcentred<br />
education can survive only in a democratic environment and<br />
school structure, and that ultimately the political context must be<br />
consistent with and support innovative classroom practice (Iversen:<br />
chapter 9). Rugg & Shumaker (1969:2) also emphasised the importance<br />
<strong>of</strong> democracy because the new school so they contended ``is a child's<br />
world in a child-size environment. Here he lives in a democracy <strong>of</strong><br />
youth. His needs, his interests as well as adult insight concerning his<br />
future life, determine what goes on in this school''.<br />
2.3 The activity school<br />
John Dewey (1859±1952) was the world's best-known progressive<br />
educator. His Laboratory School at the <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Chicago (1896±<br />
1903) remains the most-studied experimental school in history, and his<br />
classic Democracy and Education (1916) is one <strong>of</strong> the most important<br />
books on education. Dewey equipped his activity or practice school at<br />
the <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Chicago with the materials and implements <strong>of</strong> real<br />
life. By means <strong>of</strong> activities such as conversation, inquiry, construction,<br />
artistic expression, and a harmonious group life Dewey sought to<br />
promote the child's mental growth ± to enable the pupils to carry over<br />
their school experience into the life <strong>of</strong> the community (Cremin<br />
1961:120±135; Noble 1961:485±6).<br />
In the progressive schools, also sometimes typified as activity or play<br />
schools, the learner is active, growing and competence-directed.<br />
Learning which allows the individual to interact continually in a<br />
purposeful and active way with subject-matter, teachers, peers, and<br />
surroundings, so the progressivists argued, ``seems likely to produce
38<br />
greater growth and more lasting effect than learning which focuses on<br />
the isolated skill or discrete subject. Cognitive thinking cannot be<br />
separated from affective response; intellectual, emotional, social and<br />
physical growth are interrelated''(Squire 1972:376).<br />
The progressive educators valued freedom <strong>of</strong> activity, involvement,<br />
independence <strong>of</strong> learning and problem solving by way <strong>of</strong> the project<br />
method because this approach would foster more spontaneity and<br />
independence and more favourable attitudes towards learning.<br />
A former student <strong>of</strong> Dewey's school at the <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Chicago<br />
reported about the success <strong>of</strong> the activity school (Mayhew & Edwards<br />
1964:407):<br />
The Dewey school gave us the opportunity to form practical, livable<br />
behaviour patterns. As I consider in contrast the average students<br />
passing out <strong>of</strong> school into social and economic conditions, we were armed<br />
for the battle, they were maimed.<br />
2.4 The interest <strong>of</strong> the learner forms the basis <strong>of</strong> the<br />
``new'' curriculum<br />
Since the inception <strong>of</strong> progressive education there is a move away from<br />
adherence to a stipulated canon <strong>of</strong> learning material codified in a rigid<br />
curriculum and towards a preoccupation with the pressing and<br />
unanswered questions posed by the child's own world. For this reason<br />
the progressive schools followed a school program which reflected the<br />
life-world and interest <strong>of</strong> the learner (Rugg & Shumaker 1969:61):<br />
It starts from his needs and interests ... Hence the new school organizes<br />
its program around the centres <strong>of</strong> interest rather than around academic<br />
subjects.<br />
The so-called broad fields curriculum <strong>of</strong> progressive schools grouped<br />
curriculum experiences under general headings such as home life,<br />
citizenship, production, communication and transportation. The<br />
practice was to concentrate study around certain large centres <strong>of</strong><br />
interests. Courses were organized in general mathematics, general
A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> progressive education in the USA 39<br />
science, general language, general social science, general home<br />
economics, and general art. The progressivists countered subject<br />
isolation through the introduction <strong>of</strong>, as Noble (1961:482) calls it<br />
``integration'', ``orientation'' and ``unit study''.<br />
In the extreme form <strong>of</strong> the ``experience curriculum'' the formal subjects<br />
were replaced by informal group activities in response to pupil needs<br />
and the urgency <strong>of</strong> the moment. Noble states that this development<br />
was ``met with criticism from the general public on the ground that it<br />
neglects the moral discipline <strong>of</strong> the pupils'' (Noble 1961:461).<br />
2.5 Creative self-expression<br />
In the progressive schools teachers moved away from the traditional<br />
school or institution with its barrack-like uniformity and towards a<br />
stimulating setting. The authors <strong>of</strong> The Child-Centred School, Rugg &<br />
Shumaker (1969:62±64), paint a vivid picture <strong>of</strong> the school proceedings<br />
to enhance creative self-expression in these schools :<br />
Some will create with words, others with light. Some will express<br />
themselves through the body in dance; others will model, carve, shape<br />
their ideas in plastic materials. Still others will find expression through<br />
oral language, and some through an integrated physical, emotional and<br />
dramatic gesture.<br />
2.6 Personality and social adaptability<br />
The educational endeavours <strong>of</strong> the progressive teachers were oriented<br />
less towards successful performance in examinations and more<br />
towards the formation <strong>of</strong> a responsible personality. In this regard the<br />
education <strong>of</strong> the ``whole'' person in a social context is central in the<br />
progressive education programme. Accordingly there is a strong<br />
emphasis on social and emotional education to supplement the<br />
traditional cultivation <strong>of</strong> intellect. The dimensions <strong>of</strong> social intelligence,<br />
empathy with one's fellows, compassion with social hardship<br />
and a propensity for tactful help were fathomed and encouraged in<br />
progressive schools (Squire 1972:122; Ro È hrs & Lenhart 1995:11±13).
40<br />
These schools were not only child-centred but also at the same time<br />
strongly community-centred because the progressives aspired to<br />
prepare the youth for future social life, and this could be achieved by<br />
making the school a cooperative society on a small scale.<br />
The differences <strong>of</strong> approach to enhance personality development and<br />
the social formation <strong>of</strong> children <strong>of</strong> the traditional schools when<br />
compared with that <strong>of</strong> the progressive schools is clearly illustrated in<br />
the following excerpt (Rugg & Shumaker 1969:66):<br />
... where the old school maintained a noisy silence as the ideal schoolroom<br />
atmosphere, the new removes the ban from speech, encourages communication<br />
as a vehicle for social understanding and personal development.<br />
2.7 Equality and democracy<br />
An important objective <strong>of</strong> the PEA was the creation <strong>of</strong> a global<br />
educational approach that would link people via education in spite <strong>of</strong><br />
political and racial differences separating them. In this regard GS<br />
Counts regarded himself and the American people constantly being<br />
confronted with the age-old ``problems <strong>of</strong> human liberty and equality<br />
in the age <strong>of</strong> science and technology'' (Counts 1971:164). Equality, so<br />
the progressivists believed, can only be achieved in a democratic<br />
society.<br />
3 THE DEMISE AND LEGACY OF THE EARLIER<br />
PROGRESSIVISTS AND THE PROGRESSIVE<br />
EDUCATION ASSOCIATION<br />
Some time between the inception <strong>of</strong> progressive education around 1890<br />
and the demise <strong>of</strong> the PEA on 25 June 1955 in Urbana, Illinois, and its<br />
periodical, Progressive Education in 1957, the phrase ``progressive<br />
education'' shifted from a term <strong>of</strong> praise to one <strong>of</strong> scorn. To the<br />
American public <strong>of</strong> shortly after World War I, progressive education<br />
seemed to be the solution for what was wrong in education; thirty-five<br />
years later most <strong>of</strong> the ills in American education were blamed on it<br />
(Graham 1967:143±145).
A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> progressive education in the USA 41<br />
The survey <strong>of</strong> progressive education in America indicates that the<br />
legacy <strong>of</strong> the progressivists can be typified as a success in certain<br />
instances and a failure in other respects. The following positive<br />
endeavours and practices to reform and improve education in America<br />
in the era around 1890 to 1957 can be highlighted :<br />
. The rigid subject-centred instruction by way <strong>of</strong> the passive<br />
question and answer method <strong>of</strong> teaching and rote learning<br />
prevalent in the traditional public schools were replaced by<br />
the innovative project method which challenged the children's<br />
skills <strong>of</strong> inquiry and problem solving. It also promoted<br />
the independence <strong>of</strong> learning <strong>of</strong> the pupils.<br />
. Whereas the older schools were formal and bookish, the<br />
teachers in the new progressive schools humanised education<br />
and fostered a positive attitude towards learning. They<br />
valued the importance to instill inventiveness, originality,<br />
spontaneity and creative self-expression in the learners. This<br />
could be achieved because the class groups were small in<br />
numbers and the school programme reflected the life-world<br />
andtheneedsandinterests<strong>of</strong>thelearnersinstead<strong>of</strong>being<br />
centred around academic subjects. Learning became a<br />
meaningful experience for the pupils in these schools.<br />
. Co-operative learning and the new ``learning-by-doing''<br />
approach <strong>of</strong> the progressive educators resulted in more<br />
energised and enlivened responses from their students so<br />
that the young ones were questioning, debating and socialising<br />
in an atmosphere <strong>of</strong> democracy and a milieu reflecting<br />
community life. The progressive schools encouraged activity<br />
andfreeconversationwiththeirteachersandpeersinorder<br />
to grant the pupils the opportunity to interact with and to<br />
show empathy and understanding for their fellow human<br />
beings. Communication in groups was also encouraged to<br />
enhance the social understanding and personality development<br />
<strong>of</strong> the pupils.<br />
. The progressivists accepted the need for continuing education<br />
or life-long learning to empower individuals to cope<br />
with the vastly altered educational needs dictated by an
42<br />
increasingly complex society, the knowledge explosion and<br />
galloping technological changes. They acknowledged the<br />
essential role <strong>of</strong> continuing education in preventing human<br />
obsolescence and preserving and furthering the development<br />
<strong>of</strong> American society.<br />
. The humanitarian effort <strong>of</strong> the progressivists to promote<br />
human dignity through the establishment <strong>of</strong> equality and<br />
fairness in their schools in order to fulfill the promise <strong>of</strong><br />
American democracy, must be commended. Boulding<br />
(1988:188), a spokesperson for globalization and equality<br />
shared this dream <strong>of</strong> progressive educators when in 1988,<br />
about 30 years after the demise <strong>of</strong> progressive education, he<br />
stated<br />
As we enter the next millennium we must add the reminder that<br />
education is now only progressive which has a planetary<br />
perspective ± which prepares students for life in an interdependent<br />
global village, and which acknowledges that our<br />
interdependence includes all species with which we share this<br />
endangered planet.<br />
The end <strong>of</strong> an era <strong>of</strong> progressive education in America late in the 1950's<br />
can be ascribed mainly to the following educational failures:<br />
. Freedom has come to have many dimensions for progressive<br />
education. Essentially it has been a freedom from externally<br />
imposed standards and authority and a freedom toward selfdirection<br />
and self-discipline.<br />
Critics interpreted the freedom <strong>of</strong> the child or non-interference<br />
<strong>of</strong> the teacher even in the form <strong>of</strong> guidance and<br />
direction in many <strong>of</strong> the progressive ``schools'' as a call to<br />
chaos and anarchy (Squire 1972:7). Even one <strong>of</strong> the most<br />
eminent prophets <strong>of</strong> ``balanced'' progressive education, John<br />
Dewey, criticized certain progressive schools who allowed<br />
pupils unrestrained freedom. Dewey (1930:205) declared:<br />
... some <strong>of</strong> these schools indulge pupils in unrestrained
A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> progressive education in the USA 43<br />
freedom <strong>of</strong> action and speech, <strong>of</strong> manners and lack <strong>of</strong><br />
manners. Schools farthest to the left ... carry the thing they<br />
call freedom nearly to the point <strong>of</strong> anarchy.<br />
It can thus be stated that the moral discipline <strong>of</strong> the young<br />
generation suffered in these laissez-faire circumstances.<br />
. Progressive educators were reacting against the use <strong>of</strong> books<br />
as texts and a prescribed curriculum that isolated subject<br />
from subject. Instead they advocated the so-called broad<br />
fields curriculum where courses were organized around<br />
study units or large centres <strong>of</strong> interests such as general<br />
science and general mathematics. The de-emphasis by the<br />
progressivists <strong>of</strong> the traditional curriculum and against the<br />
traditional intellectualized forms <strong>of</strong> schooling left its mark on<br />
American education. To ask teachers, especially teachers <strong>of</strong><br />
average endowments, to discard both their traditional<br />
method <strong>of</strong> teaching and their subject matter in textbooks<br />
could lead to only one result ± uninspired and uninformed<br />
progressive teaching.<br />
The anti-intellectualism <strong>of</strong> certain extremes <strong>of</strong> the PEA led<br />
AE Bestor (1953:6) to warn the American people in his book,<br />
Educational Wastelands published in 1953, against the legacy<br />
<strong>of</strong> these progressivists:<br />
If we take education seriously, we can no more afford to<br />
gamble our safety upon inferior intellectual training in our<br />
schools than upon inferior weapons in our armoury.<br />
The dramatic launching <strong>of</strong> the Russian Sputnik I on 4 October<br />
1957 shook the USA as leader <strong>of</strong> the Western world. The<br />
authorities and general public in America were brought to<br />
the realisation by this Sputnik shock that the country's best<br />
brain power had been shamefully neglected up to that stage.<br />
Various investigations were undertaken to find ways and<br />
means <strong>of</strong> identifying deficiencies in the American education
44<br />
system. An education mission was delegated to study the<br />
RussianeducationsysteminRussiatodeterminewhythe<br />
Russians won the ``race in space''. The investigating team's<br />
findings were published in 1959 in a report titled Soviet<br />
Commitment to Education, Report <strong>of</strong> the First Official US<br />
Education Mission to the USSR. From this report it appears<br />
that Russian education placed the emphasis on intellectual<br />
formation far more than was the case in the USA up to 1957.<br />
Before pupils could complete their school career at a Russian<br />
secondary school, they had to take Physics, Biology and a<br />
foreign language for five years, devote their attention to<br />
Astronomy for a year and have a grounding in Mathematics<br />
for as long as ten years. Everything indicated that the<br />
curricula followed in the progressive secondary schools <strong>of</strong><br />
America left a great deal to be desired, especially as concerned<br />
instruction in Mathematics and the natural sciences (Coetzer<br />
& Van Zyl 1989:124).<br />
The fear <strong>of</strong> continued technological domination by the<br />
Russians generated a strong national insistence on new<br />
curriculum programmes by which the learners could benefit.<br />
In the late 1950's JB Conant put into words the sentiment <strong>of</strong><br />
the post-Sputnik shock in a report titled The American High<br />
School Today which appeared in 1959. In it Conant presents a<br />
21-point plan in which he propagates a new approach in the<br />
secondary schools <strong>of</strong> his country. The nucleus <strong>of</strong> his plea is<br />
that challenging intellectual content should feature in the<br />
curricula <strong>of</strong> American schools (Coetzer & Van Zyl 1989:125).<br />
Wirth (1967:268) also refers to a ``post-Sputnik hangover''<br />
that took root in America after 1957. He succinctly summarises<br />
(1967:263) the major educational evils <strong>of</strong> progressive<br />
education as follows:<br />
... s<strong>of</strong>t pedagogy, unruly behaviour <strong>of</strong> children ± and<br />
perhaps even a vague subversive-ism.
A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> progressive education in the USA 45<br />
Finally in a report to the American nation and the Secretary<br />
<strong>of</strong> Education, United States Department <strong>of</strong> Education by the<br />
National Commission on Excellence in Education, published<br />
in April 1983 and entitled A nation at risk: The imperative for<br />
educational reform, failures are also documented that could<br />
at least partly be blamed on progressive education up to the<br />
late 1950s.<br />
Firstly, the report claims that the nation are raising a new<br />
generation <strong>of</strong> Americans that is scientifically and technologically<br />
illiterate. It is pointed out that many 17-year-olds do<br />
not possess the ``higher order'' intellectual skills expected <strong>of</strong><br />
them. Only one-third <strong>of</strong> this group can solve a mathematics<br />
problem requiring several steps and there was a steady<br />
decline in science achievement scores <strong>of</strong> US 17-year-olds as<br />
measured by national assessments <strong>of</strong> science in 1969, 1973<br />
and 1977 (United States National Commission on Excellence<br />
in Education 1983:8±10).<br />
Secondly, the banning <strong>of</strong> textbooks and <strong>of</strong> learning through<br />
reading by progressive schools could have impacted on the<br />
literacy levels <strong>of</strong> pupils. In the report it is stated that some 23<br />
million American adults are functionally illiterate by the<br />
simplest tests <strong>of</strong> everyday reading, writing and comprehension<br />
and that only one-fifth <strong>of</strong> the 17-year-olds can write a<br />
persuasive essay (United States National Commission on<br />
Excellence in Education 1983:8±9).<br />
Lastly the practice <strong>of</strong> the progressivists that the performance<br />
<strong>of</strong> learners should be assessed by themselves, their peers and<br />
by teachers, and their credo that school marks and competitive<br />
examinations should be abolished, fall in the framework<br />
<strong>of</strong> criticism in the report where the necessity for<br />
examinations requiring students to demonstrate their mastery<br />
<strong>of</strong> content and skill is stated. Regarding the importance<br />
<strong>of</strong> content the report states the following:
46<br />
Textbooks and other tools <strong>of</strong> learning and teaching should be<br />
upgraded and updated to assure more rigorous content ... as they<br />
did in the post-Sputnik era (United States National Commission<br />
on Excellence in Education 1983:19, 28).<br />
4 CLOSING COMMENTS<br />
In conclusion the legacy <strong>of</strong> about seventy years <strong>of</strong> progressive<br />
education in America can be appraised both positively and negatively<br />
as outlined in the article. On the positive side a number <strong>of</strong> educational<br />
contributions can be highlighted:<br />
. The formal and bookish instruction through rote learning<br />
and rigid subject-centred instruction <strong>of</strong> traditional schools<br />
was replaced by a school program in progressive schools that<br />
reflected the life-world and interest <strong>of</strong> scholars and which<br />
was organised around units <strong>of</strong> interest rather than detached<br />
academic subjects. Learning became a meaningful experience<br />
in these schools.<br />
. The focus <strong>of</strong> progressive educators on freedom <strong>of</strong> activity,<br />
independence <strong>of</strong> learning, inquiry and problem solving by<br />
way <strong>of</strong> the project-method in progressive schools instilled<br />
spontaneity, creativity and self-expression and more favourable<br />
attitudes <strong>of</strong> scholars towards learning. These<br />
educators realised that a successful learning environment or<br />
classroom is based on its effectiveness in eliciting a variety <strong>of</strong><br />
responses from different scholars and accommodating their<br />
individual differences (a maximum <strong>of</strong> twenty scholars were<br />
allowed in the classroom).<br />
. American progressive educators came to the conclusion that<br />
innovative, progressive, learner-centred education can only<br />
be achieved in a democratic, community-centred and cooperative<br />
school environment. Progressive teachers thus<br />
placed a strong emphasis on social and emotional education<br />
to supplement the traditional cultivation <strong>of</strong> intellect to<br />
prepare the youth for future community life.<br />
. Their global education approach to link people via education<br />
and democracy in spite <strong>of</strong> political and racial differences
A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> progressive education in the USA 47<br />
must also be commended. In their own country American<br />
progressivists aspired to foster human dignity and fairness in<br />
their schools in order to fulfil the promise <strong>of</strong> establishing a<br />
truly American society.<br />
On the negative side criticism can be raised against a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> educational practices in progressive schools, inter alia:<br />
± The laissez-fair approach to discipline where scholars were<br />
allowed a freedom from externally imposed standards and<br />
authority, a freedom that depended on self-direction and<br />
self-discipline impacted negatively on the conduct <strong>of</strong><br />
scholars. The non-interference on the part <strong>of</strong> the progressive<br />
educator-teacher who relinquished the role <strong>of</strong> instructor<br />
who guided and directed learning and instead<br />
became an initiator and facilitator <strong>of</strong> learners' activities<br />
led to unruly behaviour <strong>of</strong> scholars in many progressive<br />
schools.<br />
± The progressivists' de-emphasis <strong>of</strong> the traditional curriculum<br />
as a reaction against the traditional intellectualised<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> schooling left its mark on American education.<br />
The launching <strong>of</strong> the Russian Sputnik 1 in 1957 was mainly<br />
ascribed to the inferior intellectual training being provided<br />
in progressive schools. Americans realised that the<br />
country's best brain power was being greatly neglected,<br />
especially as regards instruction in mathematics and the<br />
natural sciences. The nation realised their schools were in<br />
fact raising a new generation <strong>of</strong> Americans that was<br />
scientifically and technologically illiterate.<br />
± Finally progressive schools' banning <strong>of</strong> textbooks and <strong>of</strong><br />
learning through reading impacted negatively on the<br />
literacy levels <strong>of</strong> pupils in terms <strong>of</strong> their reading, writing<br />
and comprehension ability. This matter is documented in a<br />
report to the American nation and the Secretary <strong>of</strong><br />
Education under the title A nation at risk: The imperative<br />
for educational reform.
48<br />
BIBLIOGRAPHY<br />
Bestor, A E 1953. Educational Wastelands. Urbana: The <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Illinois Press.<br />
Boulding, E 1988. Building a global civic culture; Education for an Independant World.<br />
New York: Teachers College Press.<br />
Counts, G S 1971. A humble autobiography, In: Hariqhurst, RJ (Ed): Leaders in American<br />
Education, Part II. Chicago: <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Chicago Press.<br />
Brehoney, K 1984. Conflict and change in education, a sociological introduction. Block<br />
four, Progressive education. Milton Keynes: Open <strong>University</strong> Press.<br />
Coetzer, I A & Van Zyl, A E 1989. History <strong>of</strong> Education: A few contemporary educational<br />
issues. Pretoria: <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>.<br />
Conant, J B 1959. The Revolutionary Transformation <strong>of</strong> the American High School.<br />
Massachusetts: Cambridge Press.<br />
Counts, G S. 1932. Dare progressive education be progressive? Progressive Education<br />
Vol IX, December.<br />
Cremin, L 1961. The Transformation <strong>of</strong> the School: Progressivism in American Education.<br />
NewYork:Knopf.<br />
Dewey, J. 1930. How much freedom in new schools? The New Republic, 9July.<br />
Dewey, J 1939. Experience and education. New York: The Macmillan Company.<br />
Graham, P A 1967. Progressive education from Arcady to academe: a history <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Progressive Education Association, 1919±1955. New York: Teachers College Press.<br />
Iversen, R W 1959. The Communists and the Schools. NewYork:Harcourt,Brace.<br />
Jervis, K 1991. Progressive education for the 1990s: transforming practice. New York:<br />
Teachers College Press.<br />
Kandel, I L 1958. A controversy ended. Educational Forum Vol 22, January.<br />
Mayhew, K C & Edwards, A C 1964. The Dewey School: The Laboratory School <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Chicago 186±1903. New York: Atherton Press.<br />
Noble, S G 1961. A history <strong>of</strong> American education. NewYork:Holt,Rinehartand<br />
Winston.<br />
Ro È hrs, H & Lenhart, V 1995. Progressive education across the continents: a handbook.<br />
NewYork:P.Lang.<br />
Rugg, H & Shumaker, A 1969. The Child-Centred School. New York: Arno Press.<br />
Squire, J R (Chairman and Editor: ASCD 1972 Yearbook Committee) 1972. A new look at<br />
progressive education. Washington: Association for Supervision and Curriculum<br />
Development.<br />
Tenenbaum, S 1951. William Heard Kilpatrick: Trail blazer in education. New York:<br />
Harper and Brothers.
A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> progressive education in the USA 49<br />
United States. National Commission on Excellence in Education. 1983. A nation at risk:<br />
the imperative for educational reform: a report to the Nation and the Secretary <strong>of</strong><br />
Education, United States Department <strong>of</strong> Education. Washington, DC: The<br />
Commission.<br />
Welter, R 1962. Popular Education and Democratic Thought in America. New York:<br />
Columbia <strong>University</strong> Press.<br />
Winick, M P 1978. The progressive education movement: an annotated bibliography.<br />
NewYork:Garland.<br />
Wirth, AG, 1967. The Deweyan tradition revisited: Any relevance for our time? Teachers<br />
College Record vol 69, December.
50<br />
Let's revisit<br />
competence-based<br />
teacher education<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong> W J Fraser<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Teaching and<br />
Training Studies<br />
<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Pretoria<br />
It is said that a competence-based teacher training (education) model is based upon the<br />
outcomes-based philosophy and that teacher education has to be outcomes-based to<br />
meet the demands <strong>of</strong> the pr<strong>of</strong>ession. However, the teaching and training policies <strong>of</strong> many<br />
teacher training institutions still vest within the positivist or naturalist paradigm <strong>of</strong><br />
thinking, arguing the fact that the pr<strong>of</strong>essional training (education) <strong>of</strong> teachers requires<br />
teaching and assessment models in support <strong>of</strong> the tasks and functions <strong>of</strong> such<br />
practitioners.<br />
This article exposes and describes competence in terms <strong>of</strong> its behavioural foundations<br />
and functional tasks. It qualifies the necessity <strong>of</strong> authentic and performance-based<br />
teacher education, and calls for the design and development <strong>of</strong> teacher education<br />
learning programmes by which means the teaching competences and skills can be<br />
achieved.<br />
Competence-based education (CBE) relies heavily upon the qualification and quantification<br />
<strong>of</strong> performance. It is within the definition <strong>of</strong> CBE that the author validates existing<br />
educational (training) and evidence gathering strategies and related assessment<br />
practices that are linked to teaching and teacher education. The concepts ``instructional<br />
and assessment gaps'' will be raised, illustrating a decline in both teaching and<br />
assessment reliability when teaching and assessment requirements are not met.
Let's revisit competence-based teacher education 51<br />
1 INTRODUCTION<br />
In 1996 the author argued that the Competence-based Teacher<br />
Education (CBTE) paradigm was then regarded as a fairly new<br />
inclusion and newcomer to the <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n teacher education<br />
scenario (Fraser 1996:74±75). With the emphasis then on the development<br />
<strong>of</strong> skills and competences, it replaced the classical product<br />
oriented teacher education model that served society for many years.<br />
The Department <strong>of</strong> Education (2000:10) writes in ``Norms and<br />
Standards for Educators'' that ``(t)he cornerstone ... is the notion <strong>of</strong><br />
applied competence'' and that competence is the ``overarching term<br />
for ... practical competence, ... foundational competence and ... reflexive<br />
competence''. These competences can be achieved through<br />
competence-based or pr<strong>of</strong>iciency-based education and training by<br />
taking the following five important basic aspects into consideration:<br />
the nature (extent) <strong>of</strong> the task to be performed; the realistic<br />
manifestation <strong>of</strong> the teaching experiences (hands-on operation during<br />
training); the possibilities and limitations <strong>of</strong> the education delivery<br />
system; the capability <strong>of</strong> learners to master the tasks (minimum level <strong>of</strong><br />
understanding and performance), and the ability <strong>of</strong> a test task to assess<br />
whether the skills have been mastered and correctly executed (Fraser<br />
1996:75). The following assumptions were then made (Fraser 1996:75):<br />
a<br />
b<br />
c<br />
d<br />
e<br />
Minimum levels <strong>of</strong> competence (exist performance) should be<br />
linked to the nature and expectations <strong>of</strong> a specific task;<br />
Association between the execution <strong>of</strong> a task and expected<br />
human behaviour should be taken into consideration during<br />
the planning phase <strong>of</strong> an operation;<br />
The delivery systems (tuition modes) should be assessed and<br />
adapted in terms <strong>of</strong> outcomes, subject characteristics and<br />
human potential (capabilities);<br />
Education and training should be operationalised in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
human abilities and performance criteria; and<br />
Accountability should be assessed in terms <strong>of</strong> the association<br />
between the nature <strong>of</strong> the task to be performed, human ability<br />
and appropriateness <strong>of</strong> the measuring instrument.
52<br />
2 THE FOUNDATIONS OF COMPETENCE-BASED<br />
TRAINING MODELS<br />
2.1 The behaviourist prescription and functional<br />
analysis approaches towards competencebased<br />
education (CBE)<br />
The competence-based model that will be illustrated in this discussion,<br />
is a deviation from behaviourist psychology that assumes that all<br />
action can be precisely defined and explained (Morgan 1984:198).<br />
According to Short (1985:3) competencies were called behavioural<br />
objectives a generation ago, while the industrial age has also left a<br />
prominent mark on teaching and training. The increasing product<br />
orientation <strong>of</strong> our technological society has resulted in the creation <strong>of</strong><br />
schools patterned after factories, with accompanying priorities <strong>of</strong><br />
efficiency, marketable skills, measurable inputs and outputs, system<br />
models, and social and educational engineering (Morgan 1984:198).<br />
The point <strong>of</strong> departure <strong>of</strong> this specific CBE model lies vested in the<br />
observation that knowledge and understanding underpin performance,<br />
and where possible, are to be tested through it. The system<br />
incorporates aspects <strong>of</strong> logical positivism in assuming that reality is<br />
external to the individual and objective in nature (Hodkinson 1992:31).<br />
Such a model could be regarded as ``behaviouristic'' because it<br />
combines the positivist ontology with a view <strong>of</strong> learning partly based<br />
on behaviourism. It focuses on the elements <strong>of</strong> competence and the<br />
statements that define them (Hodkinson 1992:31). The model rests on a<br />
description <strong>of</strong> behaviour (also called performance) in a mode or form<br />
that can be observed and demonstrated (Norris 1991:332). It is based on<br />
a linear scientific-technological frame <strong>of</strong> mind (Short 1985:3). Hyland<br />
(1993:123) criticizes this specific approach towards CBE as follows:<br />
Generally speaking, there is a tendency for behaviourist strategies to<br />
stifle creativity and imaginative learning, gloss over individual<br />
differences between learners and, through the reduction <strong>of</strong> learning<br />
objectives to measurable outcomes and prespecified ends, to encourage a<br />
mechanical ``teaching to the test'' approach.<br />
In 1986 Popham (1986:381) wrote that authors saw the competence-
Let's revisit competence-based teacher education 53<br />
based (teacher) education approach no longer as the sole outcome <strong>of</strong><br />
some philosophical preference, but actually as a system ``... imposed<br />
on teacher educators by a disenchanted citizenry ... that doubts<br />
whether today's teachers know their stuff''. What is more is that<br />
competence specification, and the adoption <strong>of</strong> a competence-based<br />
education (CBE) model, is a matter <strong>of</strong> ``functional analysis'', and not<br />
necessarily ``behaviour prescription'' (Tomlinson 1995:181). The success<br />
<strong>of</strong> such model depends on a careful ``analysis'' <strong>of</strong> the ``functions''<br />
<strong>of</strong> the occupational roles in order to determine what the ``correct''<br />
elements <strong>of</strong> competence are (Hodkinson 1992:31). Figure 1 illustrates<br />
the functional analysis approach to be followed in the description <strong>of</strong><br />
performance. It illustrates how a task analysis has to be performed and<br />
how assessment has to confirm the acquisition <strong>of</strong> required levels <strong>of</strong><br />
performance. Van der Wagen and Ridley (1997:24) are in resonance<br />
with such point <strong>of</strong> departure and point to the specification <strong>of</strong><br />
workplace performance according to function, outcomes and performance<br />
criteria. Such an approach coincided with the opinion that<br />
competence has to match the rational economic evaluation <strong>of</strong> social<br />
and organisational action (Norris 1991:339). A very clear distinction<br />
should be drawn between what one can achieve, and how this could be<br />
done. If the emphasis falls on the specification <strong>of</strong> the actions required<br />
in order to achieve the outcomes in question, then the model would<br />
surely take on a behaviourist model. Competence is then regarded as a<br />
prescribed behavioural procedure. Competence focuses on the purpose<br />
or outcome, with the emphasis falling on the nature <strong>of</strong> the achievement<br />
in question ± it would then describe the specific features <strong>of</strong> the sort <strong>of</strong><br />
outcome a competent person would be capable <strong>of</strong> achieving. Competence<br />
is then described as outcome achievement capacity (Tomlinson<br />
1995:182). However, one could argue that ``competence'' is not<br />
necessarily ``outcome''. Competence can be taught and mastered ±<br />
outcomes that can be observed and demonstrated as final products, are<br />
not. A designed learning programme is an outcome, but designing the
54<br />
FIGURE 1<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>iling an educator's/teacher's functions by setting standards against the<br />
functional expectations<br />
Task analysis<br />
Identify `best' teachers<br />
!<br />
List ten best attributes<br />
and cluster<br />
competences<br />
!<br />
Decide on validity <strong>of</strong> attributes<br />
Teaching for competence<br />
!<br />
Test construction and<br />
clustering <strong>of</strong> competences<br />
according to attributes<br />
"<br />
Defining attributes as competences<br />
and setting <strong>of</strong> standards<br />
!<br />
!<br />
Test application<br />
Curriculum development<br />
!<br />
Design learning programmes<br />
! !<br />
Assessment <strong>of</strong> competence<br />
3 "<br />
Assessment <strong>of</strong> performance
Let's revisit competence-based teacher education 55<br />
learning programme is a competence to be achieved. A well-managed<br />
school is an outcome, but managing the school to excellence also<br />
requires a competent manager. Outcomes cannot always be equated to<br />
competences. Outcomes are products and competences are the abilities<br />
to perform certain functions at standards <strong>of</strong> efficiency. High quality<br />
outcomes will very seldom be the product <strong>of</strong> incompetent behaviour.<br />
This has lead to the argument that the competence-based approach has<br />
no epistemological basis, implying that the model is only concerned<br />
with what can be done and understood, rather than how skills are<br />
developed and knowledge acquired (Whitty & Willmott 1991:314).<br />
One should take into consideration that teaching methods are likely to<br />
be influenced by the particular definition <strong>of</strong> the competences adopted,<br />
and by the actual competences being encouraged (Whitty & Willmott<br />
1991:314). For example, the competences adopted by the reflexive<br />
teacher will require different methods <strong>of</strong> teaching and learning than<br />
those <strong>of</strong> the industrial instructor. What has become clear is that the<br />
traditional competence-based education (CBE) approach appears to<br />
have adopted both approaches (functional analysis and behaviour<br />
prescriptive), mainly because it failed to keep the distinction between<br />
them clear (Tomlinson 1995:182). Tomlinson (1995:183) and Van der<br />
Horst and McDonald (1998:19) remind us that we need to make this<br />
distinction, because purposeful action always both involves action<br />
(processes) and purpose (content). The same purpose may be achieved<br />
through different actions.<br />
3 DEFINING COMPETENCE<br />
3.1 The meaning <strong>of</strong> competence<br />
Although the competence-based teacher education (CBTE) model has<br />
been incorporated by a variety <strong>of</strong> institutions the past decade, little<br />
consensus was then reached regarding the meaning <strong>of</strong> ``competences''<br />
(Short 1985:4; Whitty & Willmott 1991:309). The authors (p 310) see<br />
competence-based education still as ``a bandwagon in search <strong>of</strong><br />
definition''. What is true is that we have entered an era <strong>of</strong> technical<br />
precision with CBTE. This implies that competences should be easy to<br />
understand, be straightforward and flexible, permit direct observation,
56<br />
be expressed as outcomes, be transferable from setting to setting, and<br />
meet national as opposed to local standards (Norris 1991:331). A<br />
number <strong>of</strong> critical issues have to be raised when competence driven<br />
instructional strategies are discussed. They are the following (Short<br />
1985:2): (a) The different forms competence takes in particular<br />
contexts; (b) The question whether competence can be taught; (c)<br />
Arguments whether competence can be detected; (d) The dilemma<br />
whether the public has the right to hold schools (and therefore also<br />
teacher training institutions) accountable for developing competences<br />
in student teachers and pupils; (e) The question whether legislative<br />
mandates can guarantee minimum levels <strong>of</strong> competence; (f) The<br />
relationship between teacher competence and student competence, and<br />
therefore also student performance.<br />
There is a direct link between occupational competence and the<br />
functions that are associated with an occupation. Occupational<br />
competence can be defined more specifically as the ability to perform<br />
the activities within an occupation or function to the standards<br />
expected in employment (Fraser 1996:76; Saunders 2000:37). This<br />
coincides with the assumption that competency refers to an individual's<br />
demonstrated knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs) performed<br />
to a specific standard (Association Educator 2000:1). Spady (1994:55)<br />
adds another dimension ± that <strong>of</strong> confidence. Functional competence is<br />
something a person is or should be able to do and is therefore the<br />
expression <strong>of</strong> competence in reality (Fraser 1995:7). Many see<br />
competence as something describing an action, behaviour or outcome<br />
in the form that is capable <strong>of</strong> demonstration, observation and<br />
assessment (Norris 1991:332). Tomlinson (1995:181) expresses himself<br />
more explicitly when he writes that competence or skill signifies a<br />
more or less consistent ability to realise particular sorts <strong>of</strong> purposes, to<br />
achieve desired outcomes. The occupational standards referred to in<br />
the opening paragraph, are the expressions <strong>of</strong> competence in reality.<br />
They express what is expected <strong>of</strong> people in a job or work role and also<br />
describe the performance expected <strong>of</strong> people (Fraser 1995:7). They<br />
describe what competence means in a particular occupational area and
Let's revisit competence-based teacher education 57<br />
do so in a manner that allows an individual's competence to be<br />
assessed (Stuart 1990:16). A competent person is capable <strong>of</strong> certain<br />
sorts <strong>of</strong> action: such person is capable <strong>of</strong> the actions required to achieve<br />
the kind <strong>of</strong> intended outcome in question (Tomlinson 1995:181).<br />
One should take cognizance <strong>of</strong> Spady's (1994:54) illustration <strong>of</strong> the<br />
``content'', ``competence'' and ``confidence'' triangle. Spady (p 55)<br />
explains that content or knowledge should be seen as so-called<br />
``enabling instructional objectives'' while competence is defined as<br />
``outcome'' in its own right. But a misinterpretation <strong>of</strong> the OBE<br />
paradigm has created an influential fallacy in the sense that ``content''<br />
and ``knowledge'' acquisition have <strong>of</strong>ten been ridiculed as less<br />
important learning activities. Various authors substantiate and illustrate<br />
OBE's justification for the inclusion <strong>of</strong> ``less'' content in school<br />
curricula (Jacobs, Gawe & Vakalisa 2000:183±185; Kruger & Adams<br />
1998:4±5; Ristau 1995:43). However, Everwijn, Bomers & Knubben<br />
(1993:426±427) have illustrated the necessary link between knowledge<br />
and competence. To them it is important to bridge the gap between<br />
knowledge acquisition and the ability to apply (functional performance).<br />
They come to the following conclusions: Firstly, the range <strong>of</strong><br />
functional and disciplinary knowledge and skills is limited and that<br />
real life tasks and problems differ from the questions and problems<br />
that are dealt with in the classroom (p 427). Secondly, generic<br />
knowledge and skills are sufficiently effective when one deals with<br />
function-specific issues and problems (p 427). Thirdly, knowledge<br />
acquisition without practice and application is insufficient and<br />
students need training and exercise to learn how to apply such<br />
knowledge (p 427). Fourthly, students lacking sufficient domainspecific<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong>ten do not know how to use general skills and<br />
underlying heuristics (De Corte, as quoted by Everwijn, et al.<br />
1993:428). The essence <strong>of</strong> this argument is that subject-specific<br />
knowledge and skills does not imply knowledge and skills beyond that<br />
very subject and that the possession <strong>of</strong> general knowledge and skills<br />
will not imply mastery over specific subject areas (Everwijn, et al.<br />
1993:435).<br />
Talking the above-mentioned into consideration, it becomes reasonable
58<br />
to assume that a specific competence/competency could now be<br />
regarded as an outcome (competence as product <strong>of</strong> the learning<br />
experience) or an ability, skill or technique to achieve the desired<br />
outcome (competence as function, process or action). It is also logical to<br />
conclude that specific knowledge and ways <strong>of</strong> knowing are necessary<br />
and a prerequisite for the acquisition <strong>of</strong> competence. Liddell and<br />
Baumgarten (1995:34) support the observation by arguing that it<br />
remains important to have hands-on experience in conjunction with<br />
theory-based learning. As far as teacher education is concerned, it<br />
appears to be important that disciplines or pr<strong>of</strong>essions with clearly<br />
identified bodies <strong>of</strong> knowledge, have distinct advantages in the<br />
validation <strong>of</strong> their training programmes (Stedman 1985:208).<br />
Where do standards now fit in? Standards are usually thought <strong>of</strong> as<br />
levels <strong>of</strong> achievement or performance (Norris 1991:335) and do not<br />
consider the underlying abilities or traits <strong>of</strong> the individual, but<br />
describe the expectations the individual is required to meet. Standards<br />
in themselves will not ensure effective instruction or learning, and if<br />
inadequate and irrelevant performance objectives are used as a focus<br />
for teaching, then these objectives will adversely affect the value <strong>of</strong><br />
teaching, education and learning (Developing Standards by Reference<br />
to Functions: 1989:2). Standards are therefore competence-based,<br />
criterion referenced, explicit and transparent statements which define<br />
the expected achievement or learning outcome (Fraser 1995:10). The<br />
key elements <strong>of</strong> competence are reflected by standards. What is more<br />
important however, is that new meaning is now given to the concept <strong>of</strong><br />
``standard''. It is no longer an illusive controversy, but a standard can<br />
now be operationalised in terms <strong>of</strong> concrete qualities and assessable<br />
levels <strong>of</strong> expectation. A given standard is expressed in two parts: the<br />
element <strong>of</strong> competence, and its associated performance criteria (Fraser<br />
1996:80)<br />
There are also a number <strong>of</strong> factors to be taken into consideration when<br />
setting and applying standards to any branch <strong>of</strong> teaching, training and<br />
education. They are the following (<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Pretoria & National<br />
Education Group 2000:1±6):
Let's revisit competence-based teacher education 59<br />
a<br />
b<br />
c<br />
d<br />
e<br />
f<br />
Standards are not meant to represent absolute prescriptions to<br />
the teacher or to the teacher educator<br />
Standards provide a clearly defined framework for the<br />
knowledge, skills and experiences that are essential for the<br />
teacher and teacher educator<br />
Standards provide significant guidance for the development<br />
and revision <strong>of</strong> teacher programs<br />
Standards provide criteria for the qualifications necessary to<br />
be appointed as teacher and teacher educator<br />
Standards are meant to focus on the skills, knowledge and<br />
experiences necessary to teach, and<br />
Standards are meant to specify minimum competences <strong>of</strong> wellqualified<br />
teachers in the first place, and also specify the<br />
minimum competences required to teach.<br />
3.2 Knowledge-based and Performance-based<br />
Competences<br />
Competence or competent behaviour is not restricted to the effective<br />
performance<strong>of</strong>certainskillsonly.Twoapproacheshavetobetaken<br />
into consideration in the definition <strong>of</strong> competence, namely competence<br />
in the execution <strong>of</strong> a specific task and competence in knowing. Shores<br />
and Nelson, interviewed by Gable (1991:178) distinguish between<br />
knowledge-based competenc(i)es and performance-based competenc(i)es.<br />
Evans (1993:145), referring to the predicament that has emerged<br />
between the pr<strong>of</strong>essions and society, writes that one should become<br />
aware <strong>of</strong> the crisis <strong>of</strong> confidence in pr<strong>of</strong>essional knowledge and a<br />
parallel crisis <strong>of</strong> confidence in pr<strong>of</strong>essional education. It has become<br />
acceptable to believe that knowledge related to a specific pr<strong>of</strong>ession,<br />
wouldbeaguaranteeforcompetentperformanceinthatspecificfield<br />
<strong>of</strong> interest. Hence the comment <strong>of</strong> Norris (1991:336) that ``knowledge is<br />
evidenced in action''. According to Stodolsky (1984:14), subject matter<br />
is regarded as the overriding factor influencing variation in instruction,<br />
and therefore also in assessment. The same opinion is maintained<br />
by Messick (1984:217) who writes that the nature and power <strong>of</strong> the<br />
student's organised structure <strong>of</strong> knowledge are key aspects <strong>of</strong><br />
educational achievement because it either facilitates or hinders what he<br />
or she can do in a subject area. It includes a variety <strong>of</strong> area-specific and
60<br />
broader cognitive skills or abilities. However, one should take note <strong>of</strong><br />
Stedman's (1985:202) remark that an analysis <strong>of</strong> failures to meet<br />
standards <strong>of</strong> medical performance, revealed that a lack <strong>of</strong> knowledge<br />
was rarely a primary or even a major contributing reason for such<br />
failures. Situational factors played a more prominent role. Golden, in<br />
Stedman (1985:202) came to a more alarming conclusion that no<br />
relationship exists between pr<strong>of</strong>essional performance and formal<br />
certification status for licensed pathologists. Licensed pr<strong>of</strong>essionals<br />
performed no better than those not licensed. Stedman (1985:208)<br />
reminds us that the qualities <strong>of</strong> the faculty, competent pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
trainers and valid testing practices, are valuable attributes that will<br />
eventually ensure competence in the pr<strong>of</strong>essions.<br />
4 ASSESSING COMPETENCE OF STUDENT<br />
TEACHERS IN PRACTICE<br />
Teacher education institutions in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> have much to learn from<br />
the various pr<strong>of</strong>essions when the assessments <strong>of</strong> student teachers or<br />
practising teachers are at stake.<br />
When we assess and evaluate we compare or match a candidate's<br />
(student teacher's) performance and knowledge against the specified<br />
descriptions <strong>of</strong> acceptable evidence or expectations that are expressed<br />
explicitly in terms <strong>of</strong> the performance criteria (Mitchell 1990:34;<br />
Foyster 1990:21; Sims 1991:144). A learner's performance is therefore<br />
measured against assessment criteria or assessment indicators specifying<br />
how the task has to be done or executed. I wrote in 1996 that the<br />
dimensions and specifications <strong>of</strong> the final product could be used as<br />
comparative standard <strong>of</strong> excellence, and also suggested that the<br />
assessment could be done indirectly by weighing the candidate's<br />
performance against the written standards the final product has to<br />
meet (Fraser 1996:82). Assessment is in the first place about developing<br />
measuring instruments, generating evidence and making judgements <strong>of</strong> an<br />
individual's competence against specified descriptions <strong>of</strong> acceptable evidence<br />
(performance and assessment criteria) (Fraser 1996:82). The assessor will<br />
specify and lay down performance criteria (standards), and through<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> a test (measuring instrument) gather evidence to determine<br />
whether a candidate's behaviour meets the criteria (Fraser 1995:12).
Let's revisit competence-based teacher education 61<br />
Assessment will be effective when the teaching has been designed in<br />
relation to criteria that are attainable, observable and measurable, and<br />
which arise directly from performance competences (Christian-Carter,<br />
in Saunders and Race 1992:68).<br />
The issue <strong>of</strong> assessing the identified competences, is framed by Hollins<br />
(1993:97) by means <strong>of</strong> the following question: ``How can teachers<br />
demonstrate their ability to make sense <strong>of</strong> the complex and divergent<br />
experiences, and the social and cultural milieu, <strong>of</strong> the diverse students<br />
they teach in ways that support teaching and learning in the<br />
classroom?'' The assessment issue is further complicated by Norris<br />
(1991:336) who argues that ``there is a massive mismatch between the<br />
appealing language <strong>of</strong> precision that surrounds competency or<br />
performance-based programmes and the imprecise, approximate and<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten arbitrary character <strong>of</strong> testing when applied to human capabilities''.<br />
4.1 Generating evidence<br />
What is the most fundamental and crucial aspect <strong>of</strong> the assessment and<br />
evaluation process? Many scholars see it as the selection <strong>of</strong> a suitable<br />
measuring instrument or device that will eventually be used to<br />
generate evidence in support <strong>of</strong> competent or incompetent behaviour<br />
(Fraser 1995:12; Fraser 1996:82). The evidence required might be <strong>of</strong><br />
practical or functional origin meaning that a learner should be able to<br />
demonstrate how well a given task has to be performed. We therefore<br />
call for the actual physical demonstration <strong>of</strong> competence. On the other<br />
hand, competence could also have a cognitive attribute. In such case<br />
we could refer to a mental representation <strong>of</strong> the competence and we<br />
could request the candidate to write or talk about what they would do<br />
in a particular situation (Mitchell 1990:35). The reliability <strong>of</strong> evidence<br />
supplied (assessment results) and the content or construct validity <strong>of</strong><br />
the measuring instrument or assessment process, will therefore be<br />
determined by the congruency or association between the task and<br />
function to be performed, and the measuring device selected to assess<br />
the outcomes <strong>of</strong> performance. Assessment has to be authentic and be<br />
tied closely to potential performance on-the-job (Foyster 1990:48). If<br />
this is not done, a difference between the evidence that we can
62<br />
reasonably and reliably collect from performance and the evidence<br />
needed to make inferences <strong>of</strong> competence, the so-called ``assessment<br />
gap'' could develop (Understanding Knowledge 1990:2). This implies<br />
that we as assessors should ensure at all times that the conditions<br />
required as pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> performance (task to be performed) are closely<br />
linked or associated with the authenticity <strong>of</strong> the assessment method<br />
(evidence gathering strategy) (Fraser 1995:12; Fraser 1996:82). For<br />
example, the ability to manage a learning environment will best be<br />
assessed by giving the learner the opportunity to demonstrate such<br />
competence in practice. Assessment now becomes authentic. The lack<br />
<strong>of</strong> evidence to support a strong relationship between scores obtained<br />
on a test and the actual teacher performance, has become one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
major attacks against teacher competency testing (Lehr 1986:246).<br />
Two questions remain to be answered: does the maintenance <strong>of</strong><br />
standards depend on reading and writing skills only, and how could<br />
assessment procedures bypass such requirements? Fennell's (1990a:42)<br />
argumentisquitesimplewhenhecommentsthat``workprovidesa<br />
natural source <strong>of</strong> evidence'' . Our basic point <strong>of</strong> departure should be<br />
that ``different methods <strong>of</strong> assessment provide different types <strong>of</strong><br />
evidence about candidates' capabilities'' (Assessment <strong>of</strong> Competence<br />
1989:5). The argument raised in the previous paragraph has already<br />
indicated that the direct observation <strong>of</strong> work activities and the taking<br />
<strong>of</strong> competency tests should be regarded as two important evidencegathering<br />
methods in the assessment <strong>of</strong> competence (see Fennell<br />
1990a:42). Numerous assessment techniques are suitable for continuous<br />
assessment in the learning site and all education and training<br />
practitioners should have a sound knowledge <strong>of</strong> what each technique<br />
<strong>of</strong>fers. Continuous and formative assessment would include using the<br />
following assessment techniques: Diagnostic assessment; Achievement-based<br />
assessment; Self-assessment; Peer assessment; Portfolio<br />
assessment; Performance assessment; Observation sheets; Journals;<br />
Education and training practitioner-made tests; Recognition <strong>of</strong> Prior<br />
Learning (RPL); Project work assessment (self/peer/publicly defended<br />
and assessed).
Let's revisit competence-based teacher education 63<br />
4.2 Merits and disadvantages <strong>of</strong> the direct<br />
observation <strong>of</strong> a performance<br />
Many strategies can be applied during the assessment <strong>of</strong> performance.<br />
However, the direct observation <strong>of</strong> a worker on a given task is<br />
regarded by many pr<strong>of</strong>essions as one <strong>of</strong> the most effective and relevant<br />
performance-based assessment procedures (Stedman 1985:201). Classroom<br />
observation scales, as quoted by Brophy, et al (1975:880±881), are<br />
reliable instruments for measuring classroom process behaviours, and<br />
for obtaining descriptive measures <strong>of</strong> these classroom processes. These<br />
observations could involve checklists <strong>of</strong> behaviours assessed as<br />
present or absent during the observation period, summary ratings<br />
based on the observation, and/or noting the extent to which the<br />
teacher displays or possesses certain personal attributes (Stodolsky<br />
1984:11). Note here the emphasis on ``behaviours absent or present<br />
during the observation period''. The fact that a specific and required<br />
behaviour has not been observed does not necessarily imply that a<br />
candidate is not in possession <strong>of</strong> the required knowledge and skills to<br />
demonstrate the competence. It is a matter <strong>of</strong> ``competence'' and<br />
``performance'' as Norris (1991:333) puts it. Competence is about<br />
potential, while performance reflects the actual behaviour <strong>of</strong> a<br />
candidate. Conklin (1985:13) has already indicated that demonstration<br />
<strong>of</strong> competency in actual teaching situations while under observation<br />
may also be required <strong>of</strong> all teachers. It has the advantage that both the<br />
outcomes and products <strong>of</strong> an activity, as well as the processes involved<br />
in the delivery <strong>of</strong> the final products, may be appraised. Such model <strong>of</strong><br />
assessment rests on the assumption that the characteristics <strong>of</strong> ``good''<br />
or effective teaching are known and recognizable (Stodolsky<br />
1984:11).Where the correct command <strong>of</strong> a language is not necessarily a<br />
requirement for the correct execution <strong>of</strong> a task, the observation <strong>of</strong> an<br />
activity allows for a fairly accurate assessment <strong>of</strong> such procedure.<br />
Peers, administrators, and principals subject advisors and students<br />
could conduct assessment <strong>of</strong> this nature. The role students could play<br />
in the assessment <strong>of</strong> teachers' performance in the classroom remains a<br />
valuable source <strong>of</strong> information to be explored by classical and distance
64<br />
education practitioners. Not only does it apply to pre-service teacher<br />
education but also to in-service training programmes. Killen, et al<br />
(1996) has indicated that student observation <strong>of</strong> ``teachers in action'' is<br />
a feasible evidence generating technique' <strong>of</strong> teacher competence.<br />
This technique (direct observation) requires from candidates to use real<br />
materials and equipment in representative conditions and environments<br />
(Fraser 1995:13). The assessment is usually process orientated,<br />
for example, when candidates are assessed on their ability to execute a<br />
given task, such as the assembly or dismantling <strong>of</strong> a given piece <strong>of</strong><br />
equipment, or the application <strong>of</strong> the science process skills as scientific<br />
competence. The design <strong>of</strong> the measuring instrument (test) should<br />
draw on similar performances to those required in work. This implies<br />
that the measuring instrument has to accommodate or include the<br />
activities or characteristics <strong>of</strong> a task. For example, should we decide to<br />
use an observational checklist to assess whether a candidate has<br />
performed a given task accurately, then this measuring instrument (the<br />
checklist) should contain all elements <strong>of</strong> the ``best'' or ``correct''<br />
performance. Observations also provide information about a candidate's<br />
knowledge and understanding, especially when it is supplemented<br />
by questioning from the assessor (Assessment <strong>of</strong> Competence<br />
1989:5). Unfortunately, research in contemporary testing provides no<br />
evidence that the desired relationship exists with teacher on-the-job<br />
success. Reliable estimates <strong>of</strong> teacher success are almost impossible to<br />
determine (Conklin 1985:15). This means that high scores in certain<br />
fields <strong>of</strong> competences (basic skills, subject area matter, pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
knowledge or actual teaching performance) will not necessarily<br />
guarantee good teaching, while low scores in the same fields will<br />
almost certainly lead to poor teaching. This phenomenon reiterates the<br />
opinion expressed by Ryan and Kuhs (1993:75) that we as educationists<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten recognize good teaching when it occurs, but find it difficult to<br />
arrive at a consensus about what constitutes good teaching.<br />
According to Kagan, in Ryan and Kuhs (1993:78) classroom observations<br />
play an important role in the screening <strong>of</strong> pre-service teachers,<br />
but has limited potential for predicting future effectiveness because it<br />
focuses only on the lowest level <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essional development <strong>of</strong> the
Let's revisit competence-based teacher education 65<br />
teacher. Whitty and Willmott (1991:314) remind us that such approach<br />
has become inappropriate in the assessment <strong>of</strong> high-level pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
skills, and that the knowledge and understanding essential to<br />
performance and skills, cannot always be assessed through direct<br />
observation in the workplace only. One has to take into consideration<br />
that it is also much easier to assess teachers' knowledge about content,<br />
pedagogy, and specific learners than to assess teachers' performance in<br />
delivering instruction that will generate the desired learning outcomes<br />
and personal responses (Hollins 1993:97). Stodolsky (1984) questions<br />
the stability, and therefore the reliability <strong>of</strong> observation as measurement<br />
technique in the assessment <strong>of</strong> student teachers. She requires<br />
information on the number <strong>of</strong> observations to be performed to ensure<br />
reliable estimates <strong>of</strong> teacher behaviours, but immediately reminds us<br />
that the sheer number <strong>of</strong> observations will not improve reliability<br />
(internal consistency) estimates unless the observations are taken<br />
under instructional conditions (on-the-job performance) requiring a<br />
similar repertoire <strong>of</strong> teaching behaviour (Stodolsky 1984:13). It will<br />
therefore be inappropriate to assume that a representative picture <strong>of</strong> a<br />
teacher's competence can be obtained from a small number <strong>of</strong><br />
observations, especially when their observations are done across<br />
different subjects (p 17).<br />
4.3 Main criticism against so-called minimal<br />
competence<br />
It has been argued that assessors who base criterion scores on a concept<br />
<strong>of</strong> minimal competence, fail for two reasons, namely that the model has<br />
no foundation in psychology, and that judges disagree on the<br />
arbitrariness <strong>of</strong> the values when minimal competence has to be<br />
specified (Glass 1978:251). She reaches even further (p 251) by claiming<br />
that the idea <strong>of</strong> minimal competence is bad logic and even worse when<br />
assessed from a psychological point <strong>of</strong> view. Even in the opening<br />
paragraphs <strong>of</strong> the well-documented article ``Standards and Criteria'',<br />
Glass (1978:237±238) writes that mastery or competence cannot be<br />
determined in statistical or psychological ways, and that ``criterion<br />
levels'' or standards cannot be determined other than arbitrarily. This
66<br />
supports Outcomes-based Education's move away from the setting <strong>of</strong><br />
cut-scores as levels <strong>of</strong> minimum competence (Spady 1994:32 & 44) but<br />
does little to resolve the problem <strong>of</strong> distinguishing between excellence<br />
and inadequacy in teaching and teacher education.<br />
Therearetwoargumentsoneshouldtakenote<strong>of</strong>whenstandardsare<br />
being set. The relationship between standards and good practice or<br />
best practice is not at all straightforward. This <strong>of</strong>ten causes standards<br />
to be empirically under-determined. They are very <strong>of</strong>ten also the<br />
product <strong>of</strong> conventional thought, and not that <strong>of</strong> a precise empirical<br />
calculation. Economic and social changes also cause standards that are<br />
set, to become obsolete (Norris 1991:336).<br />
4.4 Why should we test for competence?<br />
According to Lehr (1986:244) and Short (1985:3) the public had been<br />
brought under the impression for many years that students planning<br />
careers in education (teaching), were far from the best and brightest.<br />
Bracey (1996:330) supports this view and goes even further claiming<br />
that people who go into teaching are dumber than people going into<br />
other pr<strong>of</strong>essions. Lehr (1986:244) stressed the fact that those students<br />
planning to major in education had lower achievement scores and<br />
lower grade point averages than students majoring in other subjects<br />
(<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Pretoria and National Education Group 2000:5±8). The<br />
same argument was also <strong>of</strong>ten raised in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> in the past. Many<br />
factors (with specific reference to social-political establishment) had an<br />
influence on a renewed interest in competence-based education and<br />
competence-based assessment. Dissatisfaction with pupil performance<br />
led to dissatisfaction with teacher performance that in turn resulted in<br />
reduced confidence in educators and institutions that prepared<br />
teachers (Stedman 1985:204). The poor performance <strong>of</strong> teachers in<br />
practice, brought along a number <strong>of</strong> performance-assessing strategies.<br />
Three levels <strong>of</strong> competency testing were then identified. They were<br />
(1) the selection tests taken by candidates before entering a teacher<br />
education programme, (2) the testing <strong>of</strong> teachers at the end <strong>of</strong> the
Let's revisit competence-based teacher education 67<br />
teacher education programme, and (3) the assessment <strong>of</strong> practicing<br />
teachersforcertificationpurposesasmandatedbystatesforexperienced<br />
teachers (<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Pretoria & National Education Group<br />
2000:5±8).<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the main reasons for renewed interest into competence-based<br />
assessment originates from the passing <strong>of</strong> competence legislation for<br />
teacher certification in many states in the USA (Wiersma & Gibney<br />
1985:59). The fact that public played an important role in enhancing the<br />
quest toward effective competence-based assessment by questioning<br />
the pr<strong>of</strong>ession's inability to come up with a systematic and widelyaccepted<br />
approach to measure teacher competence, should be noted<br />
(Wiersma & Gibney 1985:59). To use Conklin's (1985:15) comments:<br />
``competency tests made the public feel good'' (<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Pretoria<br />
& National Education Group 2000:5±8). But the problems with CBTE<br />
have not gone unnoticed.<br />
There is however, another factor to be taken into consideration ± that <strong>of</strong><br />
the relationship between competency testing and on-the-job success<br />
(<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Pretoria & National Education Group 2000:5±8). Conklin<br />
(1985:14) claims that reliability estimates <strong>of</strong> teacher success are almost<br />
impossible to determine, and that passing a competency test does not<br />
guarantee that the candidate will be a successful teacher, only less<br />
likely to be incompetent. What is the value <strong>of</strong> high performance scores<br />
in certain fields <strong>of</strong> specialization? Are high scores for teaching practice,<br />
the underpinning theory supporting pedagogy, learning mediation or<br />
classroom management guarantees for teaching success? There are<br />
indications that high scores in mathematics, reading and writing will<br />
not necessarily guarantee good teaching, but that low performance<br />
scores will almost certainly lead to poor teaching (Conklin 1985:15). If<br />
low performance scores can be regarded as sure predictors <strong>of</strong> poor<br />
performance, then the establishment <strong>of</strong> a cut-score as a measure <strong>of</strong><br />
elimination is surely justifiable.<br />
To counteract the view that student teachers have to be assessed<br />
mainly in the workplace, and then through the direct observation <strong>of</strong><br />
demonstrated competences, a number <strong>of</strong> principles have been devel-
68<br />
oped to manage assessment (Whitty & Willmott 1991:315). According<br />
to the authors, assessment should (a) meet national standards, and be<br />
based upon criterion-referenced processes and explicit criteria;<br />
(b) employ a wide and appropriate array <strong>of</strong> methods; (c) include<br />
work-based evaluation <strong>of</strong> candidates' performance; (d) involve collaboration<br />
between candidates, course providers, employers and assessors<br />
(e) be independent <strong>of</strong> the pathway to assessment, and (f) be<br />
available to individual candidates as well as to a cohort <strong>of</strong> students.<br />
5 CONCLUSION<br />
Teacher education and the training/education <strong>of</strong> individuals towards<br />
excellence in a pr<strong>of</strong>ession, finds its point <strong>of</strong> departure within the tasks<br />
and functions required to perform within certain levels <strong>of</strong> expectation.<br />
Standards specify these requirements and prescribe how they should<br />
be outlined within the boundaries <strong>of</strong> the performance indicators/<br />
criteria and the qualifying and quantifying range statements.<br />
However, the distinction between an outcomes-based and competencebased<br />
education model remains vague and avoiding. The justifications<br />
and arguments that support both philosophies or approaches and their<br />
underpinning paradigms <strong>of</strong> logic, easily become highly politicized,<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten neglecting their true values and educational merits.<br />
Occupational functions and accompanying performances require<br />
competent practitioners whose skills and expertise are vested within<br />
the defined tasks and functions <strong>of</strong> a pr<strong>of</strong>ession. Tasks (jobs) and<br />
functions have to be reassessed on a regular basis, and the appropriate<br />
functional analysis will eventually pave the way towards relevant job<br />
descriptions and accompanying appropriate training. A re-analysis <strong>of</strong><br />
teacher education is long overdue and a rejuvenation <strong>of</strong> the pr<strong>of</strong>ession<br />
will be beneficial to the pr<strong>of</strong>ession.<br />
Although the CBE-model linked to a behaviourist learning theory is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten criticized, it contains valuable elements that apply well to the<br />
present outcomes-based paradigm <strong>of</strong> thinking. The measure <strong>of</strong><br />
association between the teaching pr<strong>of</strong>ession, the instructional strategies<br />
selected to achieve the desired levels <strong>of</strong> performance and
Let's revisit competence-based teacher education 69<br />
competence, as well as the assessment strategies selected to measure<br />
the acquired levels <strong>of</strong> performance, call for explicit and task-related<br />
learning opportunities. A dilation and divorce between these three<br />
variables contribute to an increase in the so-called ``assessment gap''<br />
and the error <strong>of</strong> measurement. A high error <strong>of</strong> measurement will<br />
eventually lead to a decrease in the instructional and assessment<br />
reliability, contributing to a false perception <strong>of</strong> occupational excellence.<br />
Authenticity in teaching, learning and assessment is an approach <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
called for when competence and performance are required as measures<br />
<strong>of</strong> excellence. We are already experiencing a return towards classroombased<br />
teacher education and such modification should be interpreted<br />
in terms <strong>of</strong> the requirement put to the pr<strong>of</strong>ession to achieve the desired<br />
job-related outcomes.<br />
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Norris, N. 1991. The Trouble with Competence. Cambridge Journal <strong>of</strong> Education, 21(3):331±<br />
341.<br />
Popham, W J. 1986. Teacher Competency Testing: The Devil's Dilemma. Journal<strong>of</strong>Negro<br />
Education, 55 (3):379±385.<br />
Ristau, K. 1995. Beating the outcome-based blues. Momentum, April/May:42±45.<br />
Ryan, J M & Kuhs, T M. 1993. Assessment <strong>of</strong> Preservice Teachers and the Use <strong>of</strong><br />
Portfolios. Theory into Practice, 32(2):75±81.<br />
Saunders, D & Race, P. (Eds.). 1992. Developing and Measuring Competence. Aspects <strong>of</strong><br />
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American Association <strong>of</strong> School Administrators.<br />
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A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> Outcomes-based Education (OBE) in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> 73<br />
A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong><br />
Outcomes-based<br />
Education (OBE) in <strong>South</strong><br />
<strong>Africa</strong> with reference to<br />
progressive education in<br />
America<br />
IACoetzer<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Educational<br />
Studies<br />
Unisa<br />
The aims <strong>of</strong> this research article are to:<br />
. indicate the differences between the traditional and the new outcomes-based<br />
education (Curriculum 2005) approaches in the RSA<br />
. reflect on the demise <strong>of</strong> C2005 and the introduction <strong>of</strong> Curriculum<br />
21 (C21)<br />
. identify and discuss the corresponding principles and practices <strong>of</strong><br />
outcomes-based education (OBE) in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>, and <strong>of</strong> progressive<br />
education in America<br />
. analyse the anticipated success and/or shortcomings <strong>of</strong> the transformed<br />
education system in the RSA<br />
1 INTRODUCTION<br />
The new constitution implemented after the ANC government came<br />
into power in 1994 enshrined respect for the rights <strong>of</strong> all <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>'s<br />
citizens, with particular emphasis on the recognition <strong>of</strong> diversity. The<br />
new curriculum with its outcomes-based approach is also well-suited
74<br />
for the principle <strong>of</strong> inclusion and redress, and for being focused on<br />
learners who did not receive adequate education and training in the<br />
previous era as can be seen from national education policy developments<br />
since 1994 (Constas 1997:682).<br />
The important issue <strong>of</strong> the right to education in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> is<br />
enunciated in the following statement by Niehaus (2000:19) as follows:<br />
Everyone has the right to a basic education, including adult basic<br />
education and to further education. Everyone has the right to receive<br />
education in the <strong>of</strong>ficial language <strong>of</strong> their choice. The state must respect,<br />
protect, promote and fulfil these rights and should thus take reasonable<br />
legislative and other measures within its available resources to achieve<br />
their progressive realisation.<br />
The following legislative measures contributed towards the progressive<br />
realisation <strong>of</strong> the right <strong>of</strong> access to education.<br />
. National Education Policy Act (Act 27 <strong>of</strong> 1996):<br />
The preamble to this act states that it is necessary to adopt legislation<br />
to facilitate the democratic transformation <strong>of</strong> the national system <strong>of</strong><br />
education into one that serves the needs and interests <strong>of</strong> all the people<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> and upholds their fundamental rights.<br />
. <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n Schools Act (Act 84 <strong>of</strong> 1996):<br />
The preamble to this act states that:<br />
``this country requires a new national system for schools which will<br />
redress past injustices in educational provision, provide an education <strong>of</strong><br />
progressively high quality for all learners and in so doing lay a strong<br />
foundation for the development <strong>of</strong> all our people's talents and capabilities,<br />
advance the democratic transformation <strong>of</strong> society, combat racism and<br />
sexism and all other forms <strong>of</strong> unfair discrimination and intolerance,<br />
contribute to the eradication <strong>of</strong> poverty and the economic well-being <strong>of</strong><br />
society, protect and advance our diverse cultures and languages, uphold<br />
the rights <strong>of</strong> learners, parents and educators ...''
A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> Outcomes-based Education (OBE) in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> 75<br />
The OBE educational approach is usually attractive to politicians,<br />
policymakers and administrators during times <strong>of</strong> educational reform<br />
that follow in the wake <strong>of</strong> sociopolitical reform, as was the case in the<br />
RSA after the installation <strong>of</strong> the new government in 1994. According to<br />
Van der Horst and McDonald (1997:6) this is typical <strong>of</strong> a socialreconstructivistic<br />
view <strong>of</strong> schooling, where education is regarded as a<br />
way to change and improve society.<br />
The present Minister <strong>of</strong> Education, Pr<strong>of</strong> Kader Asmal, has asserted the<br />
necessity <strong>of</strong> a transformed system <strong>of</strong> education for <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> instead<br />
<strong>of</strong> the segregational system <strong>of</strong> the previous government:<br />
The worst effects <strong>of</strong> apartheid were on education, particularly since<br />
education has so many purposes ± education for citizenship, education for<br />
culture, education for freedom and education for economic development<br />
(The Teacher, March 2000:19)<br />
Subsequently Pr<strong>of</strong> Asmal (Pretoria News, 7 June 2000:11) observed that<br />
Curriculum 2005 was an attempt to transform education to be ``humanrights<br />
inspired, lively, activity-based, colourful and learner-centred ...<br />
with the new outcomes-based curriculum, we are combining rather than<br />
separating the acquisition by all learners <strong>of</strong> the knowledge, skills, values<br />
and attitudes that reflect more closely life outside and after school.''<br />
The differences between the old and the new approaches to education<br />
in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> can be illustrated as follows:<br />
Traditional education approach New education approach (2005)<br />
. Passive learners . Active learners<br />
. Exam-driven . Learners are assessed on an<br />
on-going basis<br />
. Rote learning . Critical thinking, reasoning,<br />
reflection and action
76<br />
Traditional education approach New education approach (2005)<br />
. Syllabusiscontent-basedand<br />
broken down in subjects.<br />
. Textbook/worksheet-bound<br />
and teacher centred.<br />
. Syllabusisseenasrigidand<br />
non-negotiable.<br />
. Teachers are responsible for<br />
learning; motivation depends<br />
on teacher's personality.<br />
. Emphasis is on what the<br />
teacher hopes to achieve.<br />
. Content placed in rigid timeframes.<br />
. Curriculum development processnotopentopubliccomment.<br />
. Integration <strong>of</strong> knowledge;<br />
learning is relevant and connected<br />
to real-life situations.<br />
. Learner-centred; teacher is facilitator<br />
and constantly uses<br />
group and teamwork to consolidate<br />
the new approach.<br />
. Learning programmes are seen<br />
as guides that allow teachers<br />
to be innovative and creative.<br />
. Learners take responsibility<br />
for their learning and are motivated<br />
by constant feedback<br />
and affirmation <strong>of</strong> their sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> self-worth.<br />
. Emphasis is on outcomes ±<br />
what the learner becomes and<br />
understands.<br />
. Flexible time-frames allow<br />
learners to work at their own<br />
pace.<br />
. Comment and input from the<br />
wider community is encouraged.<br />
(SA National Department <strong>of</strong> Education 1997:6±7; Burke 1995:58±59)<br />
C2005 in its original format was however reviewed on a number <strong>of</strong><br />
occasions to meet the expectations <strong>of</strong> the learners, teachers and other<br />
stakeholders in education and to streamline outcomes-based education<br />
in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. This important matter is discussed in the next section <strong>of</strong><br />
the article.
A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> Outcomes-based Education (OBE) in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> 77<br />
2 THE DEMISE OF C2005 AND THE INTRODUCTION<br />
OF CURRICULUM 21 (C21)<br />
Curriculum 2005 has been revised four times since its inception in 1995<br />
when it was introduced by the former Minister <strong>of</strong> Education, Pr<strong>of</strong>essor<br />
Sibusiso Bengu, and although it was supposed to have been phased in<br />
for all grades by the year 2005, it was actually phased out in its existing<br />
form in June 2000. The present Minister <strong>of</strong> Education, Pr<strong>of</strong>essor Kader<br />
Asmal, then set up a committee to review the curriculum yet again. The<br />
committee, headed by the <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Natal's Pr<strong>of</strong>essor Linda<br />
Chisholm, proposed that the revised curriculum, to be called Curriculum<br />
21 (C21) after the present century, take the place <strong>of</strong> Curriculum<br />
2005 (C2005). Although C2005 has effectively been discarded, lifelong<br />
learning and outcomes-based education remain at the centre <strong>of</strong> the new<br />
streamlined curriculum approach. The vision is to create an education<br />
system that liberates human potential and enables <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>'s<br />
citizens to take their rightful place in all spheres <strong>of</strong> life, particularly the<br />
economic, social and political so that a highly educated population can<br />
participate in all spheres <strong>of</strong> life with the confidence derived from a<br />
complete education (Pretoria News, 7 June 2000:11; Sunday Times,<br />
2 August 2000:01; The Teacher/Mail & Guardian, 3 August 2000:3).<br />
Various reasons for the failure <strong>of</strong> C2005 are reported in the printed media:<br />
. Assumption <strong>of</strong> the principles <strong>of</strong> OBE meant a unanimous<br />
rejection <strong>of</strong> the apartheid education principles <strong>of</strong> Christian<br />
Natural Education (CNE), but in retrospect it seems that the<br />
ANC government may have been too hasty in its adoption <strong>of</strong><br />
policies to eradicate racism and sexism from the syllabus,<br />
and may not have fully considered the consequences <strong>of</strong> these<br />
policies (Sunday Times, 4 June 2000:22). The time framework<br />
laid down for implementation in all grades by the year 2005<br />
was unrealistic because curriculum reform is a slow process,<br />
even in well-resourced and established education systems.<br />
. The obtuse and sometimes impenetrable curriculum terminology<br />
used by C2005 confused a lot <strong>of</strong> teachers. They could
78<br />
not display any depth <strong>of</strong> understanding <strong>of</strong> what the new<br />
curriculum framework was all about, and they had little<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> how it was supposed to be implemented<br />
(Pretoria News, 7 June 2000:11; Business Day, 2 August 2000:2)<br />
. A significant proportion <strong>of</strong> teachers were insufficiently qualified<br />
for, and some even insufficiently knowledgeable about the<br />
subject matter they were supposed to teach. These teachers were<br />
not only expected to change the content and methodology <strong>of</strong><br />
their teaching, but even to develop their own learning<br />
programmes and teaching materials. More attention had to be<br />
given to teacher orientation, training and support as essential<br />
ingredients <strong>of</strong> curriculum change (The Teacher, March 2000:19).<br />
. The important matter <strong>of</strong> proper management <strong>of</strong> the transformed<br />
curriculum was neglected. In this regard preparatory training<br />
for C2005 mainly focused on teachers and neglected the district<br />
and school managers who had to provide teachers with both<br />
support and supervision (Business Day, 2 August 2000:2).<br />
. Assessment proved to be a major stumbling block for teachers,<br />
as became evident at inter alia parent-teacher meetings where<br />
they had to present parents with the new report cards that had<br />
been devised to reflect OBE practice at their school. Resources<br />
were also constrained, and there was a high staff turnover in<br />
government departments and schools. Textbooks and/or<br />
learning support materials were in short supply in many parts<br />
<strong>of</strong> the country, and the 1995 school register <strong>of</strong> needs showed that<br />
only 30% <strong>of</strong> SA schools had libraries (Business Day, 2August<br />
2000:2). Yet C2005 expected pupils to develop into independent<br />
learners who ask questions, find and analyse information and<br />
solve problems.<br />
. Curriculum designers have tried to avoid prescribing learning<br />
outcomes (including knowledge, skills, values and attitudes) on<br />
a grade-by-grade basis, with the result that teachers were poorly<br />
(if at all) informed about the specific teaching content required<br />
for specific grades (Pretoria News, 25 June 2000:9).<br />
The main differences between the new Curriculum 21 and the former<br />
C2005 can be summed up as follows:
A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> Outcomes-based Education (OBE) in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> 79<br />
Curriculum 21 Curriculum 2005<br />
IN<br />
. A streamlined, revised Curriculum<br />
21<br />
. ANationalCurriculumStatement<br />
is expected in June 2001<br />
that will clearly explain `what<br />
is to be learnt and at what level<br />
it is to be tested'<br />
OUT<br />
. Curriculum 2005 in its current<br />
form<br />
. Existing policy documents on<br />
Curriculum 2005<br />
. Plain English . Complex jargon<br />
. SixlearningareasforGrades4<br />
to 9: language, mathematics,<br />
natural sciences, social<br />
sciences, arts and culture and<br />
life orientation<br />
. History and geography, previously<br />
neglected, will be reinstated<br />
as a key part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
social sciences<br />
. There will be a strong focus on<br />
the teaching <strong>of</strong> maths and<br />
science with 70% <strong>of</strong> classroom<br />
time to be spent on maths and<br />
language teaching in Grades 1<br />
to 3, and 50% from Grade 4<br />
onwards<br />
. There will be learning area<br />
statements that will pin down<br />
what a pupil should know and<br />
be able to do in each <strong>of</strong> the six<br />
learning areas<br />
. Eight learning areas<br />
. Technology and economic and<br />
management sciences are to be<br />
dropped for now in view <strong>of</strong> the<br />
current shortage <strong>of</strong> teachers<br />
and other resources<br />
. The myth that reading and<br />
maths should not be specifically<br />
taught<br />
. The 66 specific outcomes (targets)<br />
against which learners<br />
had to be tested in each grade
80<br />
Curriculum 21 Curriculum 2005<br />
IN<br />
. Learning outcomes or targets<br />
will explain what concepts,<br />
content and skills pupils should<br />
learnineach<strong>of</strong>thesixlearning<br />
programmes in each grade<br />
. Assessment standards will describe<br />
in detail what a pupil<br />
should be able to do and know<br />
in each grade<br />
. There will be a reasonable<br />
time-frame<br />
. Teachers will be trained in the<br />
selection and use <strong>of</strong> textbooks<br />
. Flexibility and teacher discretion<br />
will be allowed in the<br />
classroom<br />
. There will be grade-by-grade<br />
benchmarks or targets<br />
. Curriculum 21 will be introduced<br />
in the intermediate and<br />
the foundation phase when<br />
appropriate and will be done<br />
by phase (Grades 1 to 3 and<br />
Grades 4 to 6) and in the senior<br />
phase by each grade<br />
OUT<br />
. Assessment criteria, range<br />
statements, performance indicators,<br />
expected levels <strong>of</strong> performance<br />
and phase organisers<br />
. Programme organisers or<br />
themes, for example transport,<br />
included by teachers under<br />
language and maths, lead to<br />
boredom among pupils<br />
. Rushed implementation<br />
. Macro-planning ± the practice<br />
whereby schools choose the<br />
same topics to teach different<br />
learning areas<br />
. Group work as the only learning<br />
method<br />
. Evaluation by phase, for example<br />
testing a pupil at the<br />
end <strong>of</strong> Grade 3 rather than<br />
each year from Grades 1 to 3<br />
. A General Education and<br />
Training Certificate in 2002
A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> Outcomes-based Education (OBE) in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> 81<br />
Curriculum 21 Curriculum 2005<br />
IN<br />
OUT<br />
. Subject to negotiation, as from<br />
2006 a General Education and<br />
Training Certificate will be<br />
awarded to pupils when they<br />
complete Grade 9<br />
Myths<br />
. Curriculum 2005 has nothing<br />
to do with content.<br />
. In Curriculum 2005 anything<br />
goes<br />
. Curriculum 2005 will not involve<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> textbooks<br />
. Group work is compulsory for<br />
the implementation <strong>of</strong> Curriculum<br />
2005<br />
Stays<br />
. The principle <strong>of</strong> outcomesbased<br />
education<br />
. Learning is child-centred and<br />
is accomplished through activities<br />
. The same three learning programmes<br />
for Grades 1 to 3:<br />
literacy, numeracy and life<br />
skills<br />
. Critical outcomes or learning<br />
goals that state what a pupil<br />
should be able to learn in every<br />
grade, including maths and<br />
language skills, problem solving<br />
and critical thinking<br />
(Sunday Times, 4 June 2000:6; The Teacher/Mail & Guardian, 12 September 2000:1±4;<br />
Beeld, 1 June 2000:1).<br />
It needs to be noted that Cabinet on 25 July 2000 decided that since the<br />
recommendations <strong>of</strong> the C2005 Review Committee amount to a<br />
strengthening and streamlining <strong>of</strong> C2005 and not its phasing out, and<br />
therefore do not depart from the original underpinning principles, and<br />
since they maintain the thrust <strong>of</strong> the original educational and societal<br />
goals, there is no need to change the name <strong>of</strong> the curriculum to<br />
Curriculum 21.
82<br />
3 COMPARATIVE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF<br />
OBE IN SOUTH AFRICA, AND OF PROGRESSIVE<br />
EDUCATION IN AMERICA<br />
Before the limitations and/or successes <strong>of</strong> OBE in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> and<br />
references to Progressive Education in America can be appraised, it is<br />
deemed necessary to discuss the corresponding educational principles<br />
and practices underpinning the educational approaches in both<br />
countries.<br />
In <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n OBE and American progressive schools:<br />
. rote learning and subject-centred instruction are replaced by<br />
instruction that challenges learners' skills relating to inquiry<br />
and problem solving. These educators value independence <strong>of</strong><br />
learning and problem solving because this approach fosters<br />
more spontaneity and independence and more favourable<br />
attitudes towards learning. Both education approaches aim<br />
at producing thinking, competent future citizens (Burke<br />
1995:58±59; Conradie 1997:8±11; Spady 1993:1±2; Squire<br />
1972:328).<br />
. learners are active, inventing and contributing original ideas;<br />
they interact continually in a purposeful and active way with<br />
subject matter, teachers and peers, and they identify and<br />
solve problems by applying creative and critical thinking.<br />
The principle <strong>of</strong> activity ensures that learners become active<br />
participants in the learning process and have to take more<br />
responsibility for their own learning (Ruben & Spady<br />
1984:37±44; <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>: 6; Cremin 1961:120±<br />
135).<br />
. learning is child- or learner-centred and the emphasis is not<br />
on what the teacher wants to achieve but rather on what the<br />
learner should be able to know, understand, do and become.<br />
The educator-teacher relinquishes the role <strong>of</strong> formal and<br />
prescriptive instructor and instead becomes an initiator,<br />
observer and facilitator <strong>of</strong> pupils' activities. The teachers in<br />
these schools humanise education and foster a positive<br />
attitude towards learning. In the <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n context
A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> Outcomes-based Education (OBE) in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> 83<br />
teachers have the freedom to develop their own learning<br />
programmes based on guidelines provided by the education<br />
department, instead <strong>of</strong> just implementing centrally designed<br />
curricula (SA National Department <strong>of</strong> Education 1998:5, 15;<br />
SA National Department <strong>of</strong> Education 1997:28±29; Rugg &<br />
Shumaker 1969:57).<br />
. the individual needs and interests <strong>of</strong> the student are <strong>of</strong><br />
central importance. In both the American and <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n<br />
approaches learners are recognised as separate, unique<br />
persons with capabilities and a background <strong>of</strong> their own that<br />
are not necessarily shared with others. Learners are also<br />
assisted to progress at their own pace, and learners are<br />
exposed to real-life experiences with a view to accommodating<br />
their individual needs and interests (Rugg & Shumaker<br />
1996:61; <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> 1997:4). In OBE in<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> learning outcomes are also determined by<br />
relevant real-life needs. But whereas individual attention to<br />
each learner was ensured in America's progressive schools<br />
by allowing no more than 20 learners in the classroom, <strong>South</strong><br />
<strong>Africa</strong>n classrooms, especially in rural areas, on average<br />
accommodate in excess <strong>of</strong> 30 learners. The latest statistics<br />
indicate that in the Eastern Cape the teacher/learner ratio is<br />
1:36 and in Gauteng 29:1 (Beeld, 3 November 2000:6).<br />
. themoveisawayfromadherencetoaprescribedcanon<strong>of</strong><br />
learning material as was the case in the so-called traditional<br />
schools in both the USA and <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. In American<br />
progressive schools as well as <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n schools where<br />
the OBE approach to teaching prevails, school programmes<br />
are organised around large centres <strong>of</strong> interest rather than<br />
around academic subjects. In American progressive schools<br />
the progressivists advocated the so-called broad-fields<br />
curriculum where courses are organised around study units<br />
as a reaction against the traditional intellectualised forms <strong>of</strong><br />
schooling (Noble 1961:482). Similarly, in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n<br />
schools where OBE is practised, rather than focusing mainly<br />
on content, learning programmes consist <strong>of</strong> courses or units<br />
<strong>of</strong> learning through which learners can achieve the expected
84<br />
learning outcomes. The object <strong>of</strong> both these education<br />
approaches is to equip all learners with the knowledge,<br />
competencies and orientations needed to be successful in the<br />
world <strong>of</strong> work once they have completed their studies (<strong>South</strong><br />
<strong>Africa</strong> 1998:5±7; Spady 1982:126).<br />
. cooperative learning results in more vigorous and lively<br />
responses from learners so that they question, debate and<br />
socialise in a democratic atmosphere and an environment<br />
that reflects community life. Progressive schools and schools<br />
where the principles <strong>of</strong> OBE are applied are not only learnercentred,<br />
but also strongly community centred because<br />
schools aspire to prepare the youth for future social life. This<br />
ideal is achieved by making the school a cooperative society<br />
on a small scale. The modus operandi <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fering learners the<br />
opportunity to be exposed to a harmonious group life ± they<br />
participate effectively with others in a team, group, organisation<br />
or community ± also serves to empower the young<br />
generation with social and emotional skills and internalised<br />
personality traits (King & Evans 1991:74; Spady & Marshall<br />
1991:68; Van der Horst & McDonald 1997:127±137).<br />
. it is realised that innovative, progressive learner- and<br />
community-centred education can only be achieved in a<br />
democratic environment and school structure, and that it<br />
must be supported by a democratic political dispensation. An<br />
important objective <strong>of</strong> both education approaches is the<br />
creation <strong>of</strong> a global approach that would link people together<br />
through education in spite <strong>of</strong> political and racial differences<br />
that separate them. Human liberty and equality are the<br />
principles to be honoured. In this regard the humanitarian<br />
effort <strong>of</strong> the progressive educators in America was focused<br />
on the promotion <strong>of</strong> human dignity through the establishment<br />
<strong>of</strong> equality and fairness in their schools in order to fulfil<br />
the promise <strong>of</strong> American democracy. In <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> and in<br />
OBE schools in this country it is accepted that equality can<br />
only be achieved in a democratic society that accommodates<br />
a culture <strong>of</strong> human rights, multi-lingualism, gender equality<br />
and sensitivity to the values <strong>of</strong> reconciliation and nation
A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> Outcomes-based Education (OBE) in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> 85<br />
building. The present <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n government therefore<br />
shows awareness <strong>of</strong> the importance <strong>of</strong> effective learning<br />
strategies, responsible citizenship, cultural sensitivity, education<br />
and career opportunities (Sam<strong>of</strong>f, Rensburg, Groener<br />
1994:04; Technical Committee 1997:10±12; Counts 1971:164).<br />
. recognition is given to the essential role <strong>of</strong> continuing<br />
education or lifelong learning outside the school to eradicate<br />
literacy, prevent human obsolence and preserve and further<br />
the development <strong>of</strong> democracy in the RSA and the USA. The<br />
ideal is to empower individuals to cope with vastly altered<br />
education needs dictated by a complex society, the knowledge<br />
explosion and ever increasing technological changes<br />
(Cremin 1961:120±135). In <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> the principle <strong>of</strong><br />
redress ensures that the education needs <strong>of</strong> previously<br />
disadvantaged groups are specifically addressed. In July<br />
1999 the newly appointed Education Minister, Pr<strong>of</strong> Kader<br />
Asmal, outlined the government's blueprint for overhauling<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>'s dysfunctional educational system to ensure<br />
that learning and teaching prepare our citizens for the 21 st<br />
century. Pr<strong>of</strong> Asmal has intimated that the government will<br />
promote lifelong learning and eradicate illiteracy within five<br />
years (presently in rural <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> illiteracy runs as high<br />
as 60%) (Pretoria News, 28 July 1999:5,12). Niehaus (2000:21)<br />
also refers to the government's plan issued in February 1998<br />
that the provision <strong>of</strong> Adult Basic Education and Training<br />
(ABET) be expanded from 37 000 in 1997 to 691 875 by 2001.<br />
. educators are oriented less towards successful performance<br />
in examinations and more towards values and the formation<br />
<strong>of</strong> a balanced personality. In America the progressivists<br />
followed the practice <strong>of</strong> allowing learners, their peers and<br />
teachers to assess learners' performance and they pronounced<br />
that school marks and competitive examinations<br />
should be abolished (Tenenbaum 1951:253, 257). According<br />
to <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>'s OBE approach to learning, assessment is on<br />
an ongoing basis and is used to determine the progress <strong>of</strong><br />
learners and the attainment <strong>of</strong> learning outcomes. A variety<br />
<strong>of</strong> learner activities are assessed by applying different
86<br />
strategies, including project work, presentations, demonstrations,<br />
oral work, group work, interviews, learner journals,<br />
written reports, learner portfolios, and so on<br />
(<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> 1997:19; SA National Department<br />
<strong>of</strong> Education 1997:19; SA National Department <strong>of</strong> Education<br />
s.a: 33±44). It also includes self-assessment and peer assessment.<br />
It is clear from the discussion that the education principles and<br />
practices <strong>of</strong> the OBE approach in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> and <strong>of</strong> Progressive<br />
Education in America are markedly similar regarding the core tenets <strong>of</strong><br />
both education approaches to be appraised in the final section <strong>of</strong> the<br />
article.<br />
4 AN EVALUATION OF THE LIMITATIONS AND/OR<br />
SUCCESSES OF OBE IN SOUTH AFRICA WITH<br />
REFERENCE TO PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION IN<br />
AMERICA<br />
A serious limitation <strong>of</strong> C2005 was that not much specific content was<br />
prescribed. Instead the strongest focus fell on the learning outcomes to<br />
be achieved. A sound content base is naturally always a prerequisite<br />
for critical thinking and problem-solving which have since the<br />
inception <strong>of</strong> C2005 been at the heart <strong>of</strong> OBE teaching and learning. All<br />
the learning outcomes to be attained should focus on core academic<br />
content.<br />
Since the launching <strong>of</strong> C2005 it was accepted that teachers, learners and<br />
the community would be able to participate in the selection <strong>of</strong><br />
appropriate learning content. The reality was ignored that all teachers<br />
do not have the skills, the resources or the time to develop their own<br />
curricula. Curriculum development is a specialised activity and there<br />
is a need to inform teachers about what they should be teaching in each<br />
learning programme in each grade. It is recommended that teachers be<br />
provided with a core curriculum for each grade in each learning<br />
programme. A curriculum with a sound knowledge base will enhance<br />
the learning <strong>of</strong> content by learners and assessment by teachers will be<br />
made easier.
A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> Outcomes-based Education (OBE) in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> 87<br />
The government's decision to remedy the situation by appointing Pr<strong>of</strong><br />
Linda Chisholm to lead a task team to write a National Curriculum<br />
Statement to be completed by the middle <strong>of</strong> 2001 must be applauded.<br />
This Statement will include learning outcomes that specify the<br />
sequence <strong>of</strong> core concepts, content and skills to be taught and learnt in<br />
each learning programme at each grade level. The review committee<br />
chaired by Chisholm has proposed that the said Statement be<br />
developed to replace the specific outcomes, assessment criteria, range<br />
statements, phase organisers and programme organisers (Pretoria<br />
News, 5 June 2000:9).<br />
Another concern about the curriculum is the poor performance <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n learners in mathematics and science. A recent study<br />
claimed that the current school curriculum failed to encourage literacy<br />
in these subjects. <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> the Witwatersrand education researcher<br />
Shireen Motala says when the performance in biology, mathematics<br />
and physical science is compared, maths, at 43% had the lowest pass<br />
rate. The national pass rate for maths was 49,5% in 1996, dropping in<br />
1997 to 46,3%, and to 42,1% in 1998 (Pretoria News, 11 July 2000:6).<br />
A <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n study commissioned by the national Department <strong>of</strong><br />
Education found that Grade 4 learners in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> have among the<br />
worst numeracy skills in <strong>Africa</strong> when compared to 12 other countries<br />
on the <strong>Africa</strong>n Continent. More than 10 000 Grade 4 learners<br />
participated in the SA study and scored an average <strong>of</strong> only 30% for<br />
numeracy ± compared with 51% for Botswana, 49% for Uganda and<br />
36% for Zambia. A large proportion <strong>of</strong> our Grade 4 learners scored<br />
below 25% for the numeracy task, while only about 2% obtained scores<br />
in the 75±100% range (Sunday Times, 16 July 2000:1).<br />
It is interesting to note that the curriculum followed in the progressive<br />
schools <strong>of</strong> America (similar to our C2005) showed the same results,<br />
especially as regards instruction and results in mathematics and the<br />
natural sciences. In a report to the American nation and the Secretary<br />
<strong>of</strong> Education, published in 1983 under the title Anationatrisk:TheA imperative for educational reform, it is claimed that failures to excel in<br />
subjects like mathematics and science could be blamed at least partly
88<br />
on the lack <strong>of</strong> strong content in progressive schools up to the late 1950s.<br />
The report claims that the nation is raising a new generation <strong>of</strong><br />
Americans that is scientifically and technologically illiterate (United<br />
States National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983:8±10).<br />
The solution to the American scenario, also to be considered in <strong>South</strong><br />
<strong>Africa</strong>, was to include challenging intellectual content in their schools.<br />
The Americans realised that the progressive schools' banning <strong>of</strong><br />
textbooks and <strong>of</strong> learning through reading may have contributed to the<br />
low literacy levels <strong>of</strong> their pupils. The Report stated that 23 million<br />
American adults are functionally illiterate by the simplest tests <strong>of</strong><br />
everyday reading, writing and comprehension (United States National<br />
Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983:8±9). Regarding the<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> content, the report (United States National Commission<br />
on Excellence in Education, 1983:19, 28) states the following:<br />
Textbooks and other tools <strong>of</strong> learning and teaching should be upgraded<br />
and updated to assure more rigorous content ... as they did in the post-<br />
Sputnik era.<br />
In the <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n context R80 million was budgeted for textbooks<br />
for the period 1997/1998, compared to R895 million in 1995/96. This<br />
severe budget cut may have contributed to the low literacy rate<br />
mentioned in two studies completed this year. These studies, which<br />
examined 12 countries on the Continent, found that at 48,1% Grade 4<br />
learners in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> have among the worst literacy skills in <strong>Africa</strong><br />
(Beeld, 12 July 2000:8; Sunday Times, 16 July 2000). Pr<strong>of</strong> Kader Asmal,<br />
Minister <strong>of</strong> Education, <strong>of</strong>fered a glimmer <strong>of</strong> hope when in July 2000 he<br />
released a statement setting out his vision for education during his<br />
term <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fice. To ensure the success <strong>of</strong> active learning through<br />
outcomes-based education the Minister has established as a target<br />
performance indicator that all learners must achieve competence in<br />
reading, writing and numeracy by age 9, or at the end <strong>of</strong> Grade 3. Pr<strong>of</strong><br />
Asmal also stated his intention to provide more resources for all the<br />
critical learning materials, and especially textbooks (Education Policy<br />
Unit, October 1999:02). As regards teachers, it is recommended that<br />
they need much greater depth <strong>of</strong> content knowledge in all the learning
A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> Outcomes-based Education (OBE) in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> 89<br />
areas. They also need to be trained to evaluate and select appropriate<br />
learning support materials and to design effective worksheets. The<br />
government's decision to implement a curriculum based on the tenets<br />
<strong>of</strong> outcomes-based education will therefore only be successful if<br />
teachers are adequately prepared and equipped for this challenge at<br />
both the pre-service and in-service level.<br />
In <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> there is a lack <strong>of</strong> responsibility, dedication and<br />
commitment on the part <strong>of</strong> many teachers and learners (Van der Horst<br />
and McDonald, 1997:5). Absenteeism on the part <strong>of</strong> both teachers and<br />
learners is also rife in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n schools. To alleviate this problem<br />
it is recommended that a code <strong>of</strong> conduct ± to be adhered to by both<br />
educators and learners ± be drawn up to ensure that schools function in<br />
an organised manner, and that discipline prevails in our learning<br />
institutions. The new vision should be especially focused on the<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> community ``ownership'' <strong>of</strong> schools, and on factors that<br />
contribute to the establishment <strong>of</strong> a culture <strong>of</strong> learning and teaching.<br />
It is heartening to note that all schools in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> will undergo<br />
rigorous external evaluations from 2001 in a major drive to be<br />
undertaken by the National Department <strong>of</strong> Education to restore<br />
parents' confidence in the public education system. Two hundred<br />
specially trained <strong>of</strong>ficials will visit each <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>'s estimated 28<br />
000 schools, but will prioritise poorly performing institutions. Schools<br />
will be awarded report cards based on their performance. These<br />
government <strong>of</strong>ficials will evaluate the public schools according to a<br />
checklist that lists questions under the following topics:<br />
. The basic functionality <strong>of</strong> the school<br />
. Leadership, management and communication<br />
. The quality <strong>of</strong> teaching and teacher development<br />
. Curriculum provision and resources such as textbooks<br />
. Learners' achievements<br />
. Safety and discipline<br />
. Governance and relationships<br />
. Infrastructure<br />
(Sunday Times, 1 October 2000:04).
90<br />
The author is in agreement with Van der Horst and McDonald<br />
(1997:18) that there is a general concern about standards. The concern<br />
revolves around the matter that schools using an OBE approach to<br />
learning will need to lower their standards to accommodate the slower<br />
learners since not all learners have the same potential to learn to the<br />
same high standards. The reverse agreement to this is that OBE will<br />
hold back the gifted, and slower learners will retard class progress.<br />
Based on the principles <strong>of</strong> freedom, tolerance, caring and democratic<br />
participation, as was the case in the era <strong>of</strong> the progressivists in<br />
America, there is general agreement that OBE in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> is strong<br />
on the important issue <strong>of</strong> human rights. The reason for this is that OBE<br />
is aimed at establishing in learners the skills, values, attitudes and<br />
knowledge that will help them to become adults who can participate<br />
freely and widely in the culturally diverse and rapidly changing<br />
society they live in (Ggobe 1997:319). It is also realised, however, that<br />
the legacy <strong>of</strong> so many years <strong>of</strong> apartheid in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> makes these<br />
aims more difficult to achieve than it may seem because educators are<br />
grappling with multicultural, multiracial, multi-ethnic and multi-faith<br />
classrooms. But there may be a solution at hand. In partnership with<br />
the Electoral Institute <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>, Kagiso Television and the<br />
Human Rights Commission, the magazine The Teacher is launching a<br />
project called ``Celebrating Diversity''. With this project schools will<br />
receive teaching materials through The Teacher that will empower<br />
teachers to tackle issues <strong>of</strong> diversity in the classroom in a constructive<br />
way. Several training workshops will also be held for teachers<br />
throughout the duration <strong>of</strong> the 18-month project. Furthermore the<br />
National Centre for Human Rights Education and Training (Nachret)<br />
aims to respond to the demand for human-rights education by<br />
producing both materials and training programmes. Tolerance <strong>of</strong><br />
racial, religious, cultural and gender differences are issues that need to<br />
be addressed in regard to teaching and schools. Accordingly, teachers<br />
are targeted as an important group for training by Nachret in humanrights<br />
education (The Teacher/ Mail & Guardian, 30 August 2000:1±3).<br />
Kok (2000:2) adds to this that changes in values should take place to<br />
resolve the issue <strong>of</strong> human rights. He rightly suggests that <strong>Africa</strong>
A survey and appraisal <strong>of</strong> Outcomes-based Education (OBE) in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> 91<br />
should take its destiny in its own hands and stop blaming the past and<br />
external powers for its position. Individuality and personal responsibility<br />
should have precedence over collectivity. <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> should<br />
realise that its own visions and expectations for the future will<br />
determineitsdestinyandposition±andnotitsexcessiveconcernwith<br />
the past.<br />
5 FINAL COMMENTS<br />
It is recommended that government and education strategists should<br />
focus on the following significant matters concerning C2005.<br />
It should be realised that a strong content base is fundamental for<br />
critical thinking and problem-solving, both <strong>of</strong> which are at the heart <strong>of</strong><br />
OBE. Government and education strategists should also note that<br />
curriculum development is a specialised activity which requires<br />
teachers to be fully informed concerning the content they should be<br />
teaching in every learning programme in each grade.<br />
The poor performance <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n learners in mathematics and<br />
science needs to be addressed urgently. It is important to note that the<br />
curriculum which was followed in the progressive schools <strong>of</strong> America<br />
(similar to our C2005) showed the same results, especially as regards<br />
instruction and results pertaining to mathematics and the natural<br />
sciences. The solution to the American scenario, also to be considered<br />
in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>, was to include challenging intellectual content in these<br />
schools. As regards teachers, it is recommended that their dire need <strong>of</strong><br />
greater depth <strong>of</strong> knowledge, not only in mathematics and science but in<br />
all learning areas be met. OBE will only be successful if teachers are<br />
adequately prepared and equipped for the challenges outlined above at<br />
both pre-service and in-service level.<br />
Finally it is recommended that a strict code <strong>of</strong> conduct to be adhered to<br />
by both teachers and learners be established to ensure that discipline<br />
and commitment are restored in our learning institutions.
92<br />
BIBLIOGRAPHY<br />
Burke, J (ed) 1995. Outcomes, learning and the curriculum: implications for NVQ's, GNVQ's<br />
and other qualifications. London:FalmerPress.<br />
Beeld, 12 July 2000.<br />
Business Day, 2 August 2000.<br />
Conradie, D 1997. Outcomes based education OBE: What is it? EE Bulletin, April:8±11.<br />
Constas, M A 1997. Apartheid and the socio-political context <strong>of</strong> education in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>: A<br />
narrative account. Teachers College Record 98(4):682±720.<br />
Counts, G S 1971. A humble autobiography, In: Hariqhurst, RJ (Ed): Leaders in American<br />
Education, Part II. Chicago: <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Chicago Press.<br />
Cremin, l 1961. The Transformation <strong>of</strong> the School: Progressivism in American Education. New<br />
York: Knopf.<br />
Education Policy Unit (UNISA). Communique No 2 October 1999:02.<br />
Kgobe, M 1997. The National Qualifications Framework in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> and ``out <strong>of</strong> school<br />
youth'': Problems and possibilities. International Review <strong>of</strong> Education 43(4):317±330.<br />
King, J A & Evans, K M 1991. Can we achieve outcome-based education? Educational<br />
Leadership 51(6):73±75.<br />
Kok, J C 2000. <strong>Africa</strong> Renaissance: A wakening to other values. Unpublished paper delivered<br />
at the EASA Conference, Jan 2000; Bloemfontein.<br />
National Education Policy Act, Act no 27 <strong>of</strong> 1996.<br />
Niehaus, L 2000. Education in Post-apartheid <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> (Key-note presentation delivered at<br />
Quality Learning 2000. Inaugural International Symposium Calgary Board <strong>of</strong><br />
Education in Calgary, Canada:1±4 March 2000).<br />
Noble, SG 1961. A History <strong>of</strong> American education. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.<br />
Pretoria News, 7 June 2000.<br />
Pretoria News, 25 June 2000.<br />
Ruben, S E & Spady, W G 1984. Achieving excellence through outcome-based instructional<br />
delivery. Educational Leadership 41(8):37±44.<br />
Rugg, H & Shumaker, A 1969. The Child-Centred School. New York: Arno Press.<br />
SA National Department <strong>of</strong> Education 1998. Curriculum 2005 report. Pretoria: SA National<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Education.<br />
Sam<strong>of</strong>f, J, Rensburg, I, Groener, Z 1994. From critique to consultation to curriculum:<br />
Education policy in post-apartheid <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. Toronto: <strong>Africa</strong>n Studies Association.<br />
SA National Department <strong>of</strong> Education 1997. Curriculum 2005: Lifelong learning for the 21 st<br />
century. Pretoria: Department <strong>of</strong> Education.
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SA National Department <strong>of</strong> Education. Draft policy on an assessment and examinations<br />
framework for general and further education and training in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. Pretoria: SA<br />
National Department <strong>of</strong> Education.<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n Schools Act, Act no 84 <strong>of</strong> 1996.<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> 1998. Green Paper for Further Education and Training: Preparing for the twentyfirst<br />
century through education, training and work. Pretoria: Government Printer.<br />
Spady, W G 1982. Outcome-based instructional management: A sociological perspective.<br />
Australian Journal <strong>of</strong> Education, 26(2):123±142.<br />
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New-<strong>South</strong> Wales.<br />
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Leadership, 49(2):67±72.<br />
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94<br />
A Historical-educational<br />
perspective <strong>of</strong><br />
urbanisation and its<br />
contribution to the street<br />
child phenomenon in<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> 1<br />
Dr Cheryl le Roux<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Secondary<br />
School Teacher Education<br />
Unisa<br />
The street child phenomenon as a social-educational problem is experienced both<br />
locally and internationally. Presently in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>, there are an estimated 12 000 street<br />
or vagrant children who are predominantly black and male. The question that arises is<br />
why is this the case? What is the etiology <strong>of</strong> the problem and why is it predominantly<br />
limited to one specific population group and gender? Furthermore, one cannot but<br />
wonder what the educational implications for these under-age children are.<br />
The origin <strong>of</strong> this predicament is possibly to be found in the history <strong>of</strong> urbanisation in this<br />
country. Urbanisation as a boon to some, has been the downfall <strong>of</strong> others and the<br />
intention <strong>of</strong> this article is to provide a <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n perspective on the course and impact<br />
<strong>of</strong> urbanisation on children and their education: the focus however, on the plight <strong>of</strong> the<br />
street child. The effect <strong>of</strong> the legislation which has guided and controlled urbanisation<br />
and has resulted in generations <strong>of</strong> street children among the black population group is<br />
ÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐÐ<br />
1 Financial assistance <strong>of</strong> International Science Liaison is acknowledged.
A Historical-educational perspective <strong>of</strong> urbanisation 95<br />
briefly reviewed. In addition, the HIV/AIDS pandemic which is currently devastating the<br />
country, is contributing towards the escalation <strong>of</strong> the number <strong>of</strong> street children as these<br />
children, orphaned and destitute, turn to the streets for their livelihood ± which most<br />
frequently includes prostitution which exposes them to the risk <strong>of</strong> HIV infection. The<br />
article goes on to investigate the educational situation <strong>of</strong> these children who are the<br />
product <strong>of</strong> urbanisation, to highlight the dilemmas faced on a daily basis and to sketch<br />
the educational and career prospects which they have.<br />
The research in preparation for this article relies not only on a review <strong>of</strong> literature on the<br />
issue, but also draws on the results <strong>of</strong> interviews conducted with street children to<br />
determine their opinions on those matters which are <strong>of</strong> concern to their welfare. From an<br />
analysis <strong>of</strong> the interviews it is possible to sketch pr<strong>of</strong>iles <strong>of</strong> street children's<br />
backgrounds, lifestyles, experiences, and also their future prospects. One could ask<br />
whether to these children, cities as products <strong>of</strong> urbanisation, are a light and beacon or<br />
merely a lure promising survival?<br />
1 INTRODUCTION<br />
Despite the publication during the 20th century <strong>of</strong> a variety <strong>of</strong><br />
protocols, charters and international conventions that recognise and<br />
aim to protect the rights and welfare <strong>of</strong> children, the street child<br />
phenomenon as a social-educational problem remains a global<br />
dilemma. Even in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> which could be said to be a country<br />
traditionally renowned for robust family ties and parental warmth<br />
especially among the predominant black cultural groups, there are an<br />
estimated 12 000 street or vagrant children. Most <strong>of</strong> these children are<br />
black and male.<br />
Worldwide, the two primary causes to which the street child<br />
phenomenon tends to be attributed, are poverty and dysfunctional<br />
family contexts. In <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> however, it appears that the problem<br />
has been and continues to be exacerbated by two additional causal<br />
factors: the one factor has historical roots, namely a distinctive<br />
urbanisation process unique to <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>, and the other is a<br />
contemporary crisis, namely the HIV/AIDS pandemic. Furthermore, it<br />
could be hypothesized that the spread <strong>of</strong> HIV/AIDS is also linked to<br />
the urbanisation process.
96<br />
It is the purpose <strong>of</strong> this article to outline the legislation that guided and<br />
controlled early urbanisation in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> and to examine how the<br />
lure <strong>of</strong> the city has adversely impacted on certain children and has<br />
contributed to the street child dilemma. Adjacently, the social<br />
intervention programmes and educational prospects for these children<br />
for whom urbanisation has contributed to their undoing, are succinctly<br />
reviewed.<br />
2 AN OVERVIEW OF THE URBANISATION PROCESS<br />
IN SOUTH AFRICA<br />
Urbanisation is by no means unique to <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. What is unique,<br />
however, are the principles underlying the urbanisation process and<br />
the way in which these principles controlled the movement <strong>of</strong> black<br />
people. The migrant labour system, influx control and the Group Areas<br />
Act pr<strong>of</strong>iled the urbanisation process and it is nowadays conceded that<br />
this politically inspired legislation exacerbated poverty and unemployment<br />
among large sectors <strong>of</strong> the black population. It is further<br />
argued that this legal framework and its consequences have contributed<br />
directly to the proliferation <strong>of</strong> street children in the country<br />
(Donald & Swart-Kruger 1994:111). If an understanding <strong>of</strong> the<br />
urbanisation process is to be gained, it is necessary to view the concept<br />
within its historical legal framework.<br />
2.1 The migrant labour system<br />
Over the years, migrant labour has played a significant role in meeting<br />
the labour needs in inter alia agriculture and the mining industry in<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. During the mid-1800s, Western Cape farmers solved the<br />
perennial problem <strong>of</strong> labour shortage ± which in previous centuries<br />
had been alleviated through the importation <strong>of</strong> slaves ± by recruiting<br />
temporary workers. Agents were tasked to secure labourers ± most <strong>of</strong><br />
whom worked on a contract basis ± to work in the vineyards and<br />
wheatfields. Upon completion <strong>of</strong> their contract, labourers returned to<br />
their homes and families. In Natal a similar situation in relation to the<br />
sugar cane plantations existed and for years the major source <strong>of</strong> labour<br />
was indentured help from India. However, these migrant labourers<br />
were allowed to bring their families with them for the duration <strong>of</strong> the
A Historical-educational perspective <strong>of</strong> urbanisation 97<br />
contract. Although they were allowed to return to India once their<br />
contracts had expired, many choose to settle in the country. Another<br />
example <strong>of</strong> the migrant labour system during the early years is that <strong>of</strong><br />
the teams <strong>of</strong> migrant sheep shearers who moved through the farms <strong>of</strong><br />
the Eastern Cape during the early spring months. It is believed that as<br />
sheep farming expanded to the Orange Free State, these teams <strong>of</strong><br />
shearers who <strong>of</strong>fered their skill and labour for a price, followed<br />
(Wilson 1972:1±2).<br />
Within the mining context, the discovery <strong>of</strong> diamonds in 1866 in<br />
Hopetown and in 1874 in Kimberley, provided work for over 10 000<br />
black migrant diggers who <strong>of</strong>fered their service to the industry. Soon<br />
after the opening <strong>of</strong> the diamond fields, control <strong>of</strong> the diggings became<br />
centralised as employers evolved a system <strong>of</strong> closed compounds to<br />
prevent illicit diamond buying. This meant that workers were<br />
effectively sealed <strong>of</strong>f from all contact with the outside world during<br />
their period <strong>of</strong> service. In effect, a unique migrant labour pattern was<br />
being established whereby men continued to live in the rural areas, but<br />
left their families for several months at a time whilst they went to earn<br />
money on the mines. It is significant to note that at the time, criticism<br />
was levelled at the closed compound system on the grounds that the<br />
family life <strong>of</strong> the 'natives' ± however different from that <strong>of</strong> the<br />
`civilised' white man ± ought to be treated with consideration and<br />
respect. It was argued that it would be unfortunate to break up a tribal<br />
organisation and the free movement <strong>of</strong> blacks in search <strong>of</strong> work and to<br />
create a large mass <strong>of</strong> men without local or family ties (<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n<br />
Native Races Committee 1901:220). Notwithstanding this criticism, the<br />
migrant labour system survived and prevailed as a precedent to be<br />
introduced on the goldfields a decade later.<br />
When gold was discovered on the Witwatersrand in 1886 and sparked<br />
the economic boom that was to change the face <strong>of</strong> the country, the<br />
migrant labour system to work the goldfields was the obvious choice.<br />
Thirteen years after the discovery <strong>of</strong> gold, the mines employed some<br />
100 000 blacks recruited by the Chamber <strong>of</strong> Mines through their Native<br />
Recruiting Corporation from all over sub-Saharan <strong>Africa</strong>. This same<br />
organisation organised migrant labour for the coal mines <strong>of</strong> the
98<br />
Transvaal. Other sectors <strong>of</strong> the economy also patterned their employment<br />
practices on the gold mines' example and the Johannesburg<br />
Municipality, for example, took over one <strong>of</strong> the old mine compounds in<br />
1931 and used it to house some 1 800 electricity department workers.<br />
Similarly, some private firms also built their own compounds to house<br />
their migrant workers (Wilson 1972:5).<br />
Despite the efforts to regulate migrant labour and to provide for the<br />
basic accommodation <strong>of</strong> migrant labourers, the 1920s and 1930s are<br />
characterised by the development <strong>of</strong> black slums in the western (eg<br />
Vrededorp), central (eg Doornfontein) and eastern (eg Jeppe) suburbs<br />
<strong>of</strong> Johannesburg due to the inability <strong>of</strong> the local municipality to<br />
provide sufficient housing for black migrant labourers. Many <strong>of</strong> these<br />
people had brought their entire families with them and the whole<br />
family, children included, were subjected to these abject conditions. It<br />
was under these circumstances that the first generation <strong>of</strong> street<br />
children, as products <strong>of</strong> urbanisation, made their appearance. Boys<br />
from the various slum areas formed themselves into gangs <strong>of</strong> laaities ±<br />
thosewiseintheways<strong>of</strong>thecity±andjealouslyprotectedtheir`beats'.<br />
In Sophiatown, these laaities monopolised the caddying jobs at a golf<br />
course in Auckland Park and together with gangs from Vrededorp<br />
controlled the begging and pickpocketing activities at the market<br />
(Koch in Swart 1990:49).<br />
It could be conjectured that the reality <strong>of</strong> the development <strong>of</strong> these<br />
slums, instigated the drive to pass legislation that would further<br />
control the process <strong>of</strong> black urbanisation.<br />
2.2 Legislation leading up to and controlling black<br />
urbanisation and influx control<br />
Three years after the establishment <strong>of</strong> the Union <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> in<br />
1910, the Land Act <strong>of</strong> 1913 that restricted black access to land in the<br />
rural areas was passed. Large numbers <strong>of</strong> blacks were removed from<br />
`black spots' in white rural areas and resettled in rural, high density<br />
villages which had little economic vitality <strong>of</strong> their own. With no land to<br />
farm and no alternative economic opportunities, the breadwinners had<br />
little choice but to seek work in the urban areas. Black migrant
A Historical-educational perspective <strong>of</strong> urbanisation 99<br />
labourers were obliged to relocate to these centres without their<br />
families due to the restrictions placed on access to the towns by the<br />
Black Urban Areas Act passed in 1923. This Act similarly enforced the<br />
principle <strong>of</strong> racial segregation in the urban areas and prevented blacks<br />
from obtaining land in urban areas on a freehold title basis. It further<br />
determined the conditions <strong>of</strong> entry and residence rights in urban areas<br />
and in effect, permanently institutionalised the migrant labour system<br />
(Nattrass 1983:13±14).<br />
Amendments in 1937 to the Black Urban Areas Act gave municipalities<br />
the power to deal with the redundancy problem and the system <strong>of</strong><br />
control was further rationalised in 1945 when the Native (Urban Areas)<br />
Consolidation Act was passed. In conjunction with the 1942 Bantu Laws<br />
Amendment Act, thisAct defined the system <strong>of</strong> labour control and laid<br />
the foundations for what became known as influx control. Blacks were<br />
prevented from remaining in a prescribed area ± all urban areas ± for<br />
more than seventy-two hours unless they had an exemption. Exemptions<br />
were granted to people born in the area; those who had worked<br />
for one employer continuously for ten years or who had resided<br />
lawfully in an area for fifteen years; the wife or child <strong>of</strong> such a person;<br />
or a person given permission to remain by an <strong>of</strong>ficer managing a labour<br />
bureau. Migrants fell into the last category. The system was<br />
administered by means <strong>of</strong> Pass Laws that demanded that blacks carry<br />
with them at all times passes defining their status and confirming<br />
permission to be in a particular area. It needs to be noted that those<br />
who had this required permission while they sought employment,<br />
were prohibited from bringing their families with them (Whiteside<br />
1988:9).<br />
Influx control was designed specifically to regulate the process <strong>of</strong> black<br />
urbanisation i.e. the movement <strong>of</strong> rural and homeland black persons<br />
together with their families into the towns and cities. The justification<br />
for this regulatory system was the claim that if the urbanisation<br />
process were left unchecked, urban dwellers and new black urban<br />
entrants would suffer lower levels <strong>of</strong> welfare ± unemployment, lack <strong>of</strong><br />
facilities, lower wages due to an oversupply et cetera. Moreover, the<br />
strategy was designed to justify resettlement <strong>of</strong> black communities in
100<br />
homeland towns thereby redirecting black urbanisation into the<br />
independent homeland areas ± giving effect to the geo-political<br />
ideology underpinning separate development (the apartheid ideology)<br />
(Bekker & Humphries 1985:67; Leistner 1968:5).<br />
In 1986, recognising that black urbanisation was inevitable, the<br />
Abolition <strong>of</strong> Influx Control Act was passed that repealed all past laws<br />
relating to influx control.<br />
It was not only legislation regulating the process <strong>of</strong> black urbanisation,<br />
but also legislation that regulated the settlement <strong>of</strong> blacks who<br />
urbanised, that determined the urbanisation plan.<br />
2.3 The Group Areas Act<br />
Further legislation entrenching racial segregation and placing confines<br />
on the ability to acquire immovable property and to occupy land in<br />
areas other than that specifically designated for the different racial<br />
groups, was the Group Areas Act <strong>of</strong> 1950. Separate residential and<br />
business areas for distinct racial groups ± whites, natives and coloureds<br />
± were mandated through this legislation. This legal enforcement<br />
<strong>of</strong> racial segregation made <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> anomalous in international<br />
terms.<br />
The Act implied a particular urban planning framework since<br />
consolidated areas for the different racial groups were, wherever<br />
possible, to be separated by strong natural (eg rivers, valleys) or manmade<br />
(eg railways, highways) barriers. Movement to and from the<br />
work zone was not to cross the residential area <strong>of</strong> another group. This<br />
model was not consistent with the actual patterns <strong>of</strong> settlement that<br />
existed in cities at the time <strong>of</strong> the passage <strong>of</strong> the Act and consequently<br />
significant numbers <strong>of</strong> black people had to be moved. The relocation <strong>of</strong><br />
blacks occurred in all the major cities, but in Johannesburg, this<br />
displacement resulted in an appearance, again, <strong>of</strong> significant numbers<br />
<strong>of</strong> street children because children were unwilling to leave their<br />
neighbourhoods and friends (Swart 1990:49-50; The Urban Foundation<br />
1991:3±4).
A Historical-educational perspective <strong>of</strong> urbanisation 101<br />
It was only in 1994 with the drafting <strong>of</strong> the Constitution <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong><br />
and the inclusion <strong>of</strong> a Bill <strong>of</strong> Rights that all forms <strong>of</strong> racial<br />
discrimination were prohibited and that settlement was prescribed by<br />
economics and not politics.<br />
3 A CURSORY COMMENTARY ON THE<br />
URBANISATION PROCESS<br />
Recognising that currently <strong>of</strong> the approximately 44.3 million strong<br />
population, 45% finds itself in urban areas, it goes without saying that<br />
urbanisation became a reality for a significant proportion <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong><br />
<strong>Africa</strong>n citizens. However, in terms <strong>of</strong> blacks ± since this article focuses<br />
on blacks due to the fact that the overwhelming majority <strong>of</strong> street<br />
children are black ± was the impetus for migration to the cities a<br />
response to the lure <strong>of</strong> a better future or was it the search for survival?<br />
3.1 Urbanisation: response to the lure <strong>of</strong> a better<br />
future or in search <strong>of</strong> a livelihood?<br />
Generally, urbanisation occurs because people believe that the city can<br />
provide opportunities which simply do not exist in rural areas: a<br />
variety <strong>of</strong> employment opportunities; competitive salaries; prospects<br />
<strong>of</strong> a higher standard <strong>of</strong> living; entertainment and recreation opportunities<br />
and the opportunity to reach higher levels <strong>of</strong> independence and<br />
self-actualisation. There are also the prospects <strong>of</strong> better schooling and<br />
further education opportunities for one's children. Certainly the<br />
obvious gains cannot be logically contested, but where they the main<br />
force driving black urbanisation?<br />
Whiteside (1988:3) indicates that the perception that blacks were keen<br />
to seek employment on the mines and the cities needs to be challenged.<br />
It is argued that western values and incentives <strong>of</strong> acquiring material<br />
wealth and economic opportunity were foreign to most blacks at that<br />
time. A reexamination <strong>of</strong> the period evidences that pressure was put on<br />
blacks to sell their labour. Simplistically stated, blacks were forced to<br />
earn hard currency. Taxes were introduced by the various authorities<br />
in terms <strong>of</strong> the Native Taxation and Development Act <strong>of</strong> 1925: a hut tax on<br />
each hut owned, a poll tax on each male older than 18 years ± and all
102<br />
these taxes had to be paid in cash. In addition, deprived <strong>of</strong> their land ±<br />
and the capacity to be self-sustaining ± through the re-settlement<br />
drives, blacks had little alternative but to seek employment on the<br />
mines or elsewhere: not for the luxuries that money in their pockets<br />
would bring them, but for their and their families' basic survival.<br />
3.2 The reality and outcome <strong>of</strong> the urbanisation<br />
process for many black <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n families<br />
The migrant labour system obliged men to be separated from wives<br />
and children for the duration <strong>of</strong> their contracts and consequently, the<br />
traditional authority system within the family ± and also the<br />
community ± was undermined and disrupted. Women who traditionally<br />
lacked authority were left to single-handedly carry the family<br />
responsibilities. Instability within the family and extended family ± the<br />
latter being an essential component <strong>of</strong> the family in black culture ±<br />
ensued. Family ties weakened due to the forced separation and, bereft<br />
<strong>of</strong> rural community norms, many <strong>of</strong> the men adopted urban values and<br />
a general disintegration <strong>of</strong> traditional value systems ensued. Some <strong>of</strong><br />
these migrant labourers entered into second marriages with urban<br />
women and started a second family which too, had to be supported.<br />
When such a man returned home, it was most <strong>of</strong>ten not viable for him<br />
to take along his second wife and their children. The result was that a<br />
fatherless and poverty-stricken family was left behind in the city<br />
(Richter 1988:13).<br />
It becomes evident that the migrant labour system not only disrupted<br />
the constitution <strong>of</strong> the family unit in the rural area from whence the<br />
labourer came, but also led to a disintegration <strong>of</strong> the congruity <strong>of</strong> his<br />
secondary family in the urban area where he was temporarily located.<br />
Apart from the economic depravation that ensued in both situations, it<br />
can also be concluded that it was furthermore difficult to establish a<br />
stable moral and emotional framework imperative for congenial family<br />
functioning and the creation <strong>of</strong> an environment supporting authentic<br />
childrearing in either <strong>of</strong> the families.
A Historical-educational perspective <strong>of</strong> urbanisation 103<br />
The detrimental influence <strong>of</strong> urbanisation as applied in the <strong>South</strong><br />
<strong>Africa</strong>n situation in relation to blacks and their social life is significant.<br />
In summary, some <strong>of</strong> the consequences are listed below.<br />
. Traditional social support systems were broken down as a<br />
result <strong>of</strong> resettlement and migrant labour regulations.<br />
. Family life was seriously disrupted since wives and children<br />
were disallowed by law to follow their husbands or fathers to<br />
the cities and contact between families was consequently<br />
restricted to a limited number <strong>of</strong> weeks a year.<br />
. Family ties were weakened because <strong>of</strong> the absence <strong>of</strong> the<br />
household head.<br />
. Authority structures within the family were undermined.<br />
. Children lacked a father-figure and male role model.<br />
. Migrants spent more on themselves than what was sent back<br />
to their dependents and in many cases where the man entered<br />
into a second (urban) marriage, the limited income had to be<br />
shared between the two families.<br />
. Migrants' interests became urban-oriented to the detriment<br />
<strong>of</strong> the rural family system. This change in focus included an<br />
unveiled challenging <strong>of</strong> traditional value systems.<br />
. Economic insecurity resulted from the fear that mine/<br />
industrial contracts would not be renewed.<br />
. Physical insecurity ± in the case <strong>of</strong> `illegals' ± resulted from<br />
living in fear <strong>of</strong> pass-law raids and <strong>of</strong> eviction in terms <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Illegal Squatting Amendment Act (Dewar, Todes & Watson<br />
1982:39±40).<br />
Urbanisation had a price. The prevalence <strong>of</strong> large, needy and fatherless<br />
black families ± both urban or rural ± can be attributed to the <strong>South</strong><br />
<strong>Africa</strong>n urbanisation process. This fact also <strong>of</strong>fers an explanation for<br />
the fact that most street children are black. The observation is<br />
supported by the hypothesis that the higher the number <strong>of</strong> children a<br />
single woman must support, the greater the possibility <strong>of</strong> the children<br />
ending up on the street (Independent Commission on International<br />
Humanitarian Issues 1986:50). It will be recalled that street children
104<br />
tend to be products <strong>of</strong> poverty and disrupted parent-child relationships<br />
± these conditions as they have arisen in the <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n<br />
situation have a clear link with an uniquely <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n urbanisation<br />
process.<br />
3.3 The struggle for black empowerment: an urban<br />
issue?<br />
An issue which was, in many respects, the outflow <strong>of</strong> urbanisation was<br />
the struggle for black liberation from white dominance. This struggle<br />
was given impetus by the regulations and legislation outlined above.<br />
Duringthelate1970swhenthestrugglereacheditspeak,black<br />
townships and informal settlements were characterised by violence as<br />
people who mobilised to challenge existing separatist legislation were<br />
kept in check by the authorities. A unique community culture came<br />
into being as a generation <strong>of</strong> youth who lacked discipline (due to the<br />
absence <strong>of</strong> parents who, either both worked or were non-existent), had<br />
no respect for their elders (since they perceived them to lack the<br />
courage to stand up for their rights and to challenge an oppressive<br />
system) and who had little regard for authority (since this was viewed<br />
as being illegitimate) took control <strong>of</strong> the townships. A review <strong>of</strong> the<br />
living conditions <strong>of</strong> many <strong>of</strong> these children reveals that these children<br />
lacked a congruous family structure and lived in poverty. Due to the<br />
ensuring violence, life in these townships was hazardous and many<br />
fled and sought safer abodes. It is found that many <strong>of</strong> these township<br />
children turned to the streets as an alternative ± and safer ± home.<br />
3.4 The impact and implications <strong>of</strong> the HIV/AIDS<br />
pandemic: an urban concern?<br />
Apart from the consequences <strong>of</strong> the urbanisation process as outlined<br />
above and the struggle for black liberation which have given rise to the<br />
current generation <strong>of</strong> street children, the HIV/AIDS pandemic which is<br />
currently devastating the country, is also contributing towards the<br />
escalation <strong>of</strong> the number <strong>of</strong> street children.<br />
Severalreasonsarecitedforthespread<strong>of</strong>HIV/AIDSwhichis<br />
currently viewed rather as a social than a health issue: overcrowding as
A Historical-educational perspective <strong>of</strong> urbanisation 105<br />
experienced in squatter settlements which have mushroomed as people<br />
flock to the cities in search <strong>of</strong> employment; poverty; lack <strong>of</strong> education,<br />
and the inferior status <strong>of</strong> women all seem to play a part in the rapid<br />
spread <strong>of</strong> HIV/AIDS. It is estimated that by 2015 ± the year in which<br />
HIV/AIDS is expected to reach its peak ± between 9±12% <strong>of</strong> the<br />
population will be AIDS orphans. In real terms, this interprets to<br />
between 3.6 and 4.8 million children under the age <strong>of</strong> 15 years who will<br />
be without a parent or guardian. UNICEF estimates that there are<br />
currently approximately 700 000 AIDS orphans in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. The<br />
country simply does not have the infrastructure to care for these<br />
children ± either through institutionalisation or through foster care<br />
programmes ± and it is projected that as children become orphaned<br />
and destitute through HIV/AIDS, many will turn to the streets for their<br />
livelihood. One <strong>of</strong> the sources <strong>of</strong> sure income for street children is<br />
prostitution which, under prevailing circumstances exposes them to<br />
the risk <strong>of</strong> HIV infection and consequently contributes to the further<br />
spread <strong>of</strong> the disease (Van Greunen 2001:40±41).<br />
A review <strong>of</strong> the factors which have contributed and which continue to<br />
contribute to the escalation <strong>of</strong> the number <strong>of</strong> children on the streets <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n cities have been outlined and it now becomes necessary<br />
to provide a sketch <strong>of</strong> who these <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n street children indeed<br />
are.<br />
4 A PROFILE OF STREET CHILDREN IN SOUTH<br />
AFRICA<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n street children are known by various names which<br />
describe their circumstances and characteristics. In Cape Town, they<br />
are known as strollers ± a term that describes their loitering and<br />
ambling along the streets, their `free spiritedness' and being an<br />
authority unto themselves. In Johannesburg and elsewhere they are<br />
called twilight children ± children <strong>of</strong> and active in the dark; malunde ±<br />
those that sleep on the streets; and malalapayipi ± those who sleep in the<br />
stormwater pipes. Inherent to these terms, is a portrayal <strong>of</strong> who and<br />
what street children are ± they are children for whom the street <strong>of</strong>fers
106<br />
the opportunity to undertake to manage their own lives and to meet<br />
their own needs; they are children who lack parental or responsible<br />
adult care, the provision <strong>of</strong> basic needs and guidance and who are<br />
consequently vulnerable to exploitation ± including sexual abuse.<br />
The majority <strong>of</strong> street children are black, although Cape Town has a<br />
significant number <strong>of</strong> coloured street children. As has been argued, the<br />
circumstances that have arisen due to the process <strong>of</strong> urbanisation as it<br />
occurred in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>, have resulted in black children being more<br />
vulnerable to poverty and poor parent-child relationships than other<br />
population groups. Children as young as 7 years <strong>of</strong> age are to be found<br />
on the streets. However, the majority <strong>of</strong> children seem to start life on<br />
the streets from about the age <strong>of</strong> 10. Furthermore, the street child<br />
phenomenon in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> appears to be confined to boys with very<br />
few vagrant girls visible on the streets. Unfortunately, this fact<br />
represents the shadowy side <strong>of</strong> the street child culture. It seems that<br />
most <strong>of</strong> the girls who turn to the streets for their livelihood turn to<br />
prostitution and illicit drug dealing as a means <strong>of</strong> income. They are<br />
managed by pimps who effectively ensnare them very soon after their<br />
arrival in the city. These children live in hotel rooms and in brothels<br />
from whence they apply their trade (Du Plessis 1999).<br />
4.1 A classification and etiology <strong>of</strong> street children<br />
and the link between the urbanisation process in<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> and the street child phenomenon<br />
In the practical research undertaken to investigate the current pr<strong>of</strong>ile<br />
<strong>of</strong> the street child in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>, students enrolled for a History <strong>of</strong><br />
Education module in the Honours Bachelor <strong>of</strong> Education, Faculty <strong>of</strong><br />
Education, UNISA between 1998±2000, conducted structured interviews<br />
with street children in various provinces in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> as part<br />
<strong>of</strong> an assignment on the street child phenomenon. The focus <strong>of</strong> the<br />
interview was to establish what the circumstances were that had led to<br />
the child taking to the streets, how life on the streets was experienced,<br />
whether the child still had ties with family members, and how the child<br />
viewed his or her educational and career prospects. The interview was<br />
transcribed and submitted for review.
A Historical-educational perspective <strong>of</strong> urbanisation 107<br />
An analysis <strong>of</strong> the results <strong>of</strong> the interviews revealed that, in the <strong>South</strong><br />
<strong>Africa</strong>n situation, street children can be grouped either as children who<br />
have ties with their families and return home at regular intervals or as<br />
children to whom the street is their only home since they have no<br />
families to return to ± or have consciously chosen not to return to their<br />
families and have broken all ties with the family. In the case <strong>of</strong> the<br />
former group, the streets provide additional income which is used to<br />
support themselves or the family back home. However, to the latter<br />
group, the street is their only known home: they have no other home<br />
and no family ties. They have either by necessity or voluntarily decided<br />
to permanently leave their families and a group <strong>of</strong> children in similar<br />
circumstances forms a substitute family. These findings support<br />
conclusions drawn from other researchers' studies. Previous research<br />
gave rise to a classification <strong>of</strong> these children as children on the street<br />
(i.e. those who can and do return home) and children <strong>of</strong> the street<br />
(those who have no families to return to and for whom the street is<br />
their home) (Le Roux 1992:92±93).<br />
The reasons that the children who were interviewed gave for taking to<br />
the streets can be grouped as follows:<br />
. poverty and the inability <strong>of</strong> parents to provide in the basic<br />
needs for food, clothing, shelter and education<br />
. family dysfunction which generally manifests in some form<br />
<strong>of</strong> pedagogic or physical abuse/neglect<br />
. being orphaned and having no extended family to take care<br />
<strong>of</strong> them (as in the case <strong>of</strong> HIV/AIDS orphans)<br />
. rebellion against authority and an attempt to live a life <strong>of</strong><br />
freedom devoid <strong>of</strong> rules and acquiescence to authority (Le<br />
Roux 2001)<br />
From the reasons cited above, an alternative categorisation <strong>of</strong> street<br />
children appears. One could distinguish between runaways and<br />
castaways: runaways being described as children who voluntarily leave<br />
home without parental/substitute parent permission and castaways<br />
who leave home because their parents or caregivers have either<br />
abandoned them or subjected them to intolerable levels <strong>of</strong> abuse and
108<br />
neglect (Le Roux 2001). It is argued that it is possible to trace most <strong>of</strong><br />
these identified causes for children taking to the streets to inter alia the<br />
process and consequences <strong>of</strong> urbanisation as it took place in this<br />
country. The consequences include<br />
. the disruption <strong>of</strong> the traditionally stable family and community<br />
structures brought about by the migrant labour<br />
system, urban `influx control' and the shortage <strong>of</strong> housing for<br />
blacks in urban areas designated for their abode<br />
. the disruption <strong>of</strong> traditional family ties and consequently<br />
respect for elders which is fundamental to black culture<br />
. the impoverishment <strong>of</strong> rural black families reliant on the<br />
income generated by a household head who invariably took a<br />
second wife and started a second family in the city and<br />
. a generation <strong>of</strong> black youth who grew up in an atmosphere <strong>of</strong><br />
violence during the years <strong>of</strong> the struggle against apartheid<br />
Although street children appear to be self-sufficient, one should not<br />
overlook the fact that they are indeed children. This fact challenges one<br />
to acknowledge that as children, they are entitled to education. What<br />
expectations ± if any ± do street children hold <strong>of</strong> education?<br />
4.2 The educational prospects <strong>of</strong> street children<br />
Since children's attitudes towards learning are influenced by the<br />
attitudes <strong>of</strong> significant others in their immediate environments, it<br />
stands to reason that the home environment would be a determining<br />
factor in forming perceptions about learning (Scott 1994:24). In the<br />
street child's situation, the lack <strong>of</strong> a nurturing parent-child relationship<br />
confounds successful educative intervention activities. Material,<br />
affective and normative support ± essential for pedagogic development<br />
± is absent and it can thus be contested that street children's motivation<br />
to learn will thus be significantly different from that <strong>of</strong> children cared<br />
for in 'normal' households. In the case <strong>of</strong> street children the `parentchild'<br />
emotional void is filled by peers on the street who themselves<br />
lack motivation, educational expectations and direction in life. These<br />
`role models' manifest negative attitudes towards knowledge acquisition,<br />
citizen duties, training and work and these contrary attitudes
A Historical-educational perspective <strong>of</strong> urbanisation 109<br />
become entrenched. Furthermore, life on the streets is characterised by<br />
insecurity, violence and abuse ± invariably at the hands <strong>of</strong> the very<br />
adults to whom they should look up. Success ± in street child terms ±<br />
implies basic survival skills, not academic prowess (Le Roux 2001).<br />
Still, school learning is not aimed only at providing learners with skills<br />
to equip them to support themselves in some form <strong>of</strong> enterprise, but<br />
also to develop the social skills necessary to function effectively within<br />
society. The street child finds himself in a situation where opportunity<br />
for becoming acceptably socialised is minimal. The socialisation<br />
process to which he is exposed is anti-societal and does nothing to<br />
improve his situation. In essence, societal factors and features typical<br />
<strong>of</strong> life on the street, impede the socialisation process <strong>of</strong> the street child,<br />
prohibit the transmitting <strong>of</strong> values and true societal norms and also<br />
inhibit the formation <strong>of</strong> a positive learning culture (Scott 1994:27).<br />
To summarise, the milieu <strong>of</strong> and conditions under which the street<br />
child is expected to realise his educational opportunities could be<br />
described as follows:<br />
. street children live in a negative and disorderly environment<br />
. adults with whom the street child comes into contact are<br />
more <strong>of</strong>ten abusive and abrupt than caring and consequently,<br />
adults tend to be distrusted<br />
. street children prefer to control and manage their own lives<br />
and futures and feel no moral obligation to conform to the<br />
cultural and social values and norms <strong>of</strong> society<br />
. street children lack acceptable role models and a supportive<br />
milieu<br />
. street children have a poor attention span ± a condition<br />
aggravated by substance abuse<br />
. due to inadequate nutrition, their physical ± and mental ±<br />
development is retarded<br />
. they are academically handicapped due to their disrupted<br />
schooling careers
110<br />
. street children focus on the here and now and have little<br />
motivation to learn skills that will help them to realize their<br />
long-term academic potential.<br />
. should these children indeed have the opportunity to attend<br />
school, the fact that they are street children is to their<br />
disadvantage since their peers and teachers tend to discriminate<br />
against them. This discrimination is based on their<br />
appearance, poverty, life-style and inability to cope in the<br />
learning environment (Le Roux 2001; Scott 1994:27)<br />
Street children's `educational' goals are directed at acquiring the skills<br />
that enable them to survive and gain the respect and recognition <strong>of</strong> the<br />
peer group. Needs satisfaction for street children differs from that <strong>of</strong><br />
children growing up in 'normal' households. Their achievements,<br />
competence and recognition are not measured in academic terms, but<br />
in survival and life skills. What they are motivated to know, understand<br />
and master bear no relationship to book learning, but to life<br />
experience. Consequently, the value they attach to school learning and<br />
their expectancy <strong>of</strong> successfully mastering academic endeavours, are<br />
low (Scott 1994:28). Educational programmes aimed at meeting the<br />
needs <strong>of</strong> street children should thus seek to turn each <strong>of</strong> the above<br />
challenges into opportunities.<br />
4.3 Social intervention options<br />
Many organisations and NGO's have done much to alleviate the plight<br />
<strong>of</strong> street children. They have set up institutions to meet these children's<br />
immediate need for shelter and food and many have provided<br />
alternative educational opportunities. However, despite the commendable<br />
work done by these organisations, there are those who<br />
believe that institutions are not the answer. It is argued that children<br />
can never identify themselves with an institution; staff members<br />
cannot replace a parent, and consequently, the relationship between<br />
the child and the staff is untrue and foreign to normal life. Children are<br />
possessive and exclusive in their love and need to be loved in an<br />
exclusive way ± something which is not possible in an institution.<br />
Alternatively, some organisations and groups are committed to
A Historical-educational perspective <strong>of</strong> urbanisation 111<br />
facilitating the re-integration <strong>of</strong> these children into their families and<br />
communities. In cases where re-integration is not possible, children's<br />
homes, but preferably foster homes, are considered as options.<br />
However, re-integration into a dysfunctional family is not the ideal<br />
and it would be irresponsible to suggest that these children should be<br />
returned to their family environments unless the family is rehabilitated<br />
and the environment transformed to ensure that it constitutes a<br />
pedagogically appropriate and accountable setting (Van Niekerk<br />
1990:98).<br />
With the increasing number <strong>of</strong> AIDS orphans on the streets, the ideal <strong>of</strong><br />
re-integration with the family or community is <strong>of</strong>ten impossible to<br />
achieve since whole families are being wiped out by the pandemic. It is<br />
also difficult to find foster care for children who are victims <strong>of</strong> the<br />
AIDS crisis due to the social stigma attached to these children ±<br />
regardless <strong>of</strong> whether they are themselves HIV positive or not.<br />
5 THE WAY FORWARD<br />
Finding a way to address the street child phenomenon is indeed an<br />
awkward dilemma. For many, the street is home and although life is<br />
harsh, it is no worse than that from which they have come. One could<br />
consequently ask whether these children should be taught competencies<br />
and skills that will enable them to fend more adequately for<br />
themselves on the street, or should they be encouraged to reclaim their<br />
childhood?<br />
In <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> today, as in the past, the notion that a child's place in<br />
society is in his or her family home, is still strong ± a point attested to<br />
by the fact that in 1983 [when] the <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n Children's Act was<br />
renamed the Child Care Act. This was done to reflect the general<br />
principle that the family is the typical social and biological structure<br />
within which the child must grow and develop (Robinson 1993:175).<br />
Some argue that this idea <strong>of</strong> the `otherness' <strong>of</strong> children and childhood<br />
is typically western and that it carries with it not only an assumption<br />
about the relative competence <strong>of</strong> children, but also an assumption<br />
about their inferior status (Butler & Williamson 1994:3). In black<br />
culture, it could be argued, a contrasting view exists. Children tend to
112<br />
be treated as active and resilient contributors to their families and their<br />
society. It is not uncommon to find that children are expected to<br />
undertake basic subsistence work and to take on parental responsibilities<br />
<strong>of</strong> younger siblings (Swart-Kruger 1996:233±234). Thus, in this<br />
context, making a living on the streets or contributing to the family<br />
incomethroughworkingthestreets,couldbeviewedasalegitimate<br />
assignment.<br />
However, most people when confronted with the street child situation,<br />
view the dilemma with concern and feel obliged to do something about<br />
the predicament within which these children find themselves. Some<br />
say that the street children phenomenon serves as a barometer <strong>of</strong> the<br />
caring, concern and social consciousness towards the most vulnerable<br />
<strong>of</strong> our society. In the short term, the most that can be done is to help<br />
those street children who want to be helped and attempt to minimise<br />
the dangers to those who do not want to be helped. The long term<br />
solution is far more complicated and has very little to do with the<br />
children themselves. The society from which they come needs to be<br />
restructured:theiniquities<strong>of</strong>thepasthavetoberedressed(Houghton<br />
1996:79), violence has to be restrained; strong family values need to be<br />
rebuilt; unemployment has to be dealt with; AIDS has to be arrested.<br />
These are longterm challenges.<br />
Possibly Ubuntu ± a term which at the political `turn' in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong><br />
was unfortunately exploited as the panacea <strong>of</strong> all social ills and which<br />
consequently, it can be argued, lacks credibility due to the perpetuation<br />
<strong>of</strong> many <strong>of</strong> the unfortunate situations that it was supposed to<br />
ameliorate ± does indeed remain the cornerstone for the betterment <strong>of</strong><br />
the plight <strong>of</strong> these children. Perhaps one should augment the Ubuntu<br />
concept by including the Christian concept <strong>of</strong> compassion, agape,<br />
Christian charity or the Humanist synonyms <strong>of</strong> altruism, humanitarianism<br />
or philanthropism. Surely, in one <strong>of</strong> these expressions each<br />
human individual will feel the compulsion to reach out ± either directly<br />
or indirectly ± to these children who need care and understanding.
A Historical-educational perspective <strong>of</strong> urbanisation 113<br />
BIBLIOGRAPHY<br />
Bekker, S & Humphries, R. 1985. From control to confusion. Pietermaritzburg: Shuter &<br />
Schooter.<br />
Butler, I & Williamson, H. 1994. Children speak: children, trauma and social work. London:<br />
Longman.<br />
Dewar, D, Todes, A & Watson, V. 1982. Theories <strong>of</strong> urbanisation and national settlement<br />
strategy in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. Cape Town: <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Cape Town.<br />
Donald, D & Swart-Kruger, J. 1994. Children <strong>of</strong> the <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n streets, in A. Dawes &<br />
D. Donald (eds.) Childhood and adversity: psychological perspectives from <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n<br />
research. Cape Town: David Philip: 111.<br />
Du Plessis, J. 1999. A brief discussion <strong>of</strong> CCSE with particular reference to the<br />
Johannesburg scenario. http://www.acapa.org.za/A/brief1.htm accessed on 18±<br />
01±1999.<br />
Houghton, S. 1996. Feral children, in <strong>Africa</strong>n panorama 41(2): 73±79.<br />
Leistner, G M E. 1968. Influx control: economic and social aspects <strong>of</strong> physical control over<br />
rural-urban population movements in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> and elsewhere. Pretoria: <strong>Africa</strong><br />
Institute <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>.<br />
Le Roux, C S. 2001. Observations <strong>of</strong> and personal interviews with street children<br />
throughout <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> conducted by B Ed Honours students registered between<br />
1998±2000.<br />
Le Roux, J. 1992. Street children as manifestation <strong>of</strong> an anti-child culture in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong><br />
in Pedagogiek Joernaal 13(2): 87±98.<br />
Nattrass, J. 1983. The dynamics <strong>of</strong> urbanisation in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. Durban: <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Natal.<br />
Richter, L M. 1988. Street children: the nature and scope <strong>of</strong> the problem in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>.<br />
Pretoria: Institute for Behavioural Sciences, <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>.<br />
Robinson, J A. 1993. Children, in WA Joubert (ed) The law <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. Durban:<br />
Butterworths.<br />
Scott, M. 1994. The motivation to learn with special reference to squattter and street<br />
children, in Paidonomia 18(2): 24±33.<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n Native Races Committee. 1901. The natives <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. London:<br />
McGraw.<br />
Swart, J. 1990. Malunde: the street children <strong>of</strong> Hillbrow. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand<br />
<strong>University</strong> Press.<br />
Swart-Kruger, J. 1996. An imperfect fit ± street children and state intervention: the <strong>South</strong><br />
<strong>Africa</strong>n Case, in <strong>Africa</strong> Insight 26(3): 231±236.<br />
The Urban Foundation. 1991. Policies for a new urban future: urban debate 2010±6. Tackling<br />
Group Areas. Braamfontein: The Urban Foundation.
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Van Greunen, A. 2001. Wie gaan na die kinders kyk? in De Kat April 2001: 39±41.<br />
Van Niekerk, P A. 1990. An educational perspective on street children in, Journal <strong>of</strong><br />
Pedagogics 11(2): 90±103.<br />
Whiteside, A. 1988. Labour migration in <strong>South</strong>ern <strong>Africa</strong>. Braamfontein: The <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n<br />
Institute <strong>of</strong> International Affairs.<br />
Wilson, F. 1972. Migrant labour. Johannesburg: SACC.
Preparing <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n educators for school-family-community partnerships 115<br />
Preparing <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n<br />
educators for Schoolfamily-community<br />
partnerships<br />
Dr Noleen van Wyk<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Educational<br />
Studies<br />
Unisa<br />
There is compelling evidence that school-family-community partnerships benefit<br />
learners, parents and schools. However, little is done to prepare educators to work with<br />
families and members <strong>of</strong> the community. In view <strong>of</strong> this, research was undertaken to<br />
determine educators' understanding and practices <strong>of</strong> family-community partnerships in<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. The findings indicate that educators are poorly equipped to deal with this<br />
important aspect <strong>of</strong> their work. The Harvard Graduate School <strong>of</strong> Education (USA) has<br />
developed a framework for educator preparation in family involvement which highlights<br />
content areas and promising training methods. This framework could be used to inform<br />
pre-service and in-service training <strong>of</strong> educators in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. However, it is necessary<br />
to adapt the framework according to the approach to family-community partnership<br />
followed by the particular institution. In this regard a functionalist, parent empowerment,<br />
cultural competence and social capital approach are briefly discussed.<br />
1 INTRODUCTION<br />
Widespread support for family involvement in education is due in part<br />
to compelling evidence that family involvement has a positive effect on<br />
learners' academic achievement. The highly acclaimed book, Anew
116<br />
generation <strong>of</strong> evidence: the family is critical to student achievement, opens<br />
by stating, ``The evidence is now beyond dispute. When schools work<br />
with families to support learning, children tend to succeed not just in<br />
school, but throughout life'' (Henderson & Bela 1994:1). In other major<br />
studies, the link between parent involvement and learner achievement<br />
has also been established (Dauber & Epstein 1993:53; Chavkin 1993:2;<br />
Bastiani 1988:38). Other benefits to learners include: decreased<br />
truancy; improved attitudes <strong>of</strong> learners to their studies; improved<br />
behaviour and a decrease in the drop-out rate (Hamby 1992; Epstein<br />
1990; Swap 1993). Many studies stress that these benefits occur<br />
irrespective <strong>of</strong> the socio-economic class to which the family belongs<br />
(Haberman 1992:33).<br />
The literature also emphasises the positive effects on parents <strong>of</strong><br />
improved family-school relations, such as increased confidence <strong>of</strong> the<br />
parents (Bastiani & Wolfendale 1996:74); better understanding <strong>of</strong> what<br />
is happening in school (Swap 1993:10) and a feeling <strong>of</strong> empowerment,<br />
especially evident in disadvantaged communities (Allen & Martin<br />
1992:49). Swap (1993:10) adds that educators also benefit when familyschool<br />
relationships improve because they experience ...'' support and<br />
appreciation from parents and a rekindling <strong>of</strong> their own enthusiasm for<br />
problem solving''.<br />
In view <strong>of</strong> the above, most policy makers and educators endorse the<br />
need for school-family-community partnerships to improve education.<br />
In spite <strong>of</strong> this little is being done to prepare educators to work with<br />
parents or members <strong>of</strong> the community in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n schools. The<br />
purpose <strong>of</strong> this research article is, therefore, to report on research<br />
findings on <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n educators' perceptions and practices <strong>of</strong><br />
family-school-community partnerships and propose a framework for<br />
educator preparation which highlights content areas and promising<br />
training methods.
Preparing <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n educators for school-family-community partnerships 117<br />
2 THE SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT<br />
Relations between the family and schools in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> have been<br />
fundamentally affected over the last few years by numerous changes in<br />
legislation and government initiatives. These changes have created a<br />
new legal environment for school-family-community partnerships.<br />
In the first place, the changing realities <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n society have<br />
been taken into account by the <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n Schools Act (Republic <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> (RSA) 1996:4), which allows considerable latitude in the<br />
definition <strong>of</strong> `parent'. Thus this term now also includes any person who<br />
is the learner's guardian, or who is legally entitled to custody <strong>of</strong> the<br />
learner, or who has undertaken to fulfil the obligations <strong>of</strong> a parent or<br />
guardian towards the learner's education. This broader definition<br />
encourages schools to acknowledge a variety <strong>of</strong> family types and<br />
household structures and thus, to develop a versatile range <strong>of</strong> practices<br />
<strong>of</strong> family-school linkages.<br />
The <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n Schools Act (RSA 1996:14) also acknowledges the<br />
rights <strong>of</strong> parents to be involved in school governance. Governing<br />
bodies are a significant feature <strong>of</strong> democracy in society and represent a<br />
major move towards empowering parents in schools (Alexander,<br />
Bastiani & Beresford 1995:88). The functions <strong>of</strong> school governing<br />
bodies (SGBs) in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> include developing the mission<br />
statement <strong>of</strong> the school, adopting a code <strong>of</strong> conduct for learners,<br />
determining the language and admission policies <strong>of</strong> the school (within<br />
certain limits set by the <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n Schools Act) and making<br />
recommendations on the appointment <strong>of</strong> teaching and administrative<br />
staff. Allocated functions <strong>of</strong> governing bodies include maintaining and<br />
improving school property, determining curriculum and subject<br />
choice, and purchasing textbooks. The Act was amended in 2000 (RSA<br />
2000a) to ensure that the racial composition <strong>of</strong> the school population is<br />
better represented on school governing bodies. This includes co-opting<br />
members to the SGB who represent the racial and linguistic composition<br />
<strong>of</strong> the learners and giving these members full voting powers (RSA<br />
2000a).<br />
In July 1999 the Minister <strong>of</strong> Education announced a national
118<br />
mobilisation plan for education and training in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> under the<br />
slogan ``Tirisano'', that is, working together (Department <strong>of</strong> Education<br />
(DE) 1999:6). Priority three <strong>of</strong> the nine-point programme set out by the<br />
Minister is titled: Schools must become centres <strong>of</strong> community life. Under<br />
this heading various aspects are discussed, including the role to school<br />
governing bodies. The Minister acknowledges that this is a new<br />
concept for most communities in this country, thus warning that we<br />
must, ...'' put great effort into ensuring that governing bodies,<br />
especially in poor communities, are given the support they need to<br />
become strong and viable'' (DE 1999:9). However, the Minister also<br />
includes the community in the government's plans for the future <strong>of</strong><br />
education in the country.<br />
There is a role in community schools for religious bodies, businesses,<br />
cultural groups, sports clubs and civic associations, both to serve their<br />
own requirements and to contribute to the school's learning programme<br />
both in and out <strong>of</strong> school hours.<br />
In another move, the Department <strong>of</strong> Education has published the<br />
Norms and Standards for Educators, in which seven roles for educators<br />
have been set out (RSA 2000b:12±25). The role entitled: Community,<br />
citizenship and pastoral role, includes the following: ``... the educator<br />
will develop supportive relations with parents and other key persons<br />
and organisations based on a critical understanding <strong>of</strong> community and<br />
environmental issues'' (RSA 2000:14).<br />
This brief exposition <strong>of</strong> recent changes in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n education<br />
indicates that the government is committed to improving schoolfamily-community<br />
partnerships and wants educators to be fully<br />
equipped to deal with this aspect <strong>of</strong> their work. This should include the<br />
development <strong>of</strong> suitable pre-service and in-service training programmes.<br />
With this in mind research was undertaken to determine<br />
how educators understand partnerships with families and the community<br />
and whether prior teacher education has equipped them to deal<br />
with this aspect <strong>of</strong> their work.
Preparing <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n educators for school-family-community partnerships 119<br />
3 RESEARCH DESIGN<br />
The primary aim <strong>of</strong> the research was to understand and describe<br />
educators' perceptions and practices <strong>of</strong> family-school-community<br />
partnerships. The research was designed to be exploratory and<br />
descriptiveandthusnoattemptsweremadetoestablishcauseand<br />
effect relationships under experimental conditions. The research was<br />
conducted over a period <strong>of</strong> four years and included primary and<br />
secondary school educators in independent and public schools.<br />
3.1 Data collection strategies<br />
In 1996 and again in 1999 focus group interviews with educators were<br />
conducted in a number <strong>of</strong> township schools in Gauteng and the Free<br />
State provinces. During these periods a total <strong>of</strong> 25 educators was<br />
included in five focus group interviews. This methodology was<br />
considered appropriate as it provides educators the opportunity to<br />
define their own problems, reducing the risk <strong>of</strong> the researcher<br />
``exporting ready-made solutions to other people's problems'' (quoted<br />
in Lemmer 1992:294). Interviews were audio taped and later transcribed.<br />
Moreover, two questionnaires for educators were used to obtain<br />
further information on school-family-community partnerships in<br />
individual schools. The first survey, answered by 50 educators, was<br />
distributed in selected Pretoria schools during April-May 1997; the<br />
second, answered by 152 educators, was distributed in independent<br />
schools in Johannesburg during March 2000. In general both questionnaires<br />
ask for pr<strong>of</strong>essional judgements about family and community<br />
involvement, the practices educators are currently using, and the<br />
partnership programmes educators would like to see developed or<br />
improved in their schools and classrooms. Both questionnaires<br />
included a number <strong>of</strong> open-ended questions.<br />
3.2 Data analysis<br />
Analysis <strong>of</strong> data obtained from the focus group interviews and<br />
responses to open-ended questions in the questionnaires was done
120<br />
through content analysis, which entailed identifying, coding, and<br />
categorising the primary patterns in the data (Miles & Huberman 1994;<br />
Strauss & Corbin 1990). Initially the participants' responses were read<br />
and reread in order to gain familiarity with them. At this stage the aim<br />
was to use the data `to think with' (Newport 1994:229). In this way<br />
categories and sub-categories started to emerge. Literature, observation,<br />
and experience assisted the researcher in identifying the final<br />
categories.<br />
The ``raw data'' <strong>of</strong> the questionnaires was coded and percentages listed<br />
in each response category for each item. The basic descriptive statistics<br />
produced ``pr<strong>of</strong>iles'' <strong>of</strong> teachers' practices and perspectives <strong>of</strong> schoolfamily-community<br />
partnerships in their respective schools.<br />
4 FINDINGS OF RESEARCH<br />
The most important findings concerning educators' understanding and<br />
practices <strong>of</strong> partnerships with families and the communities in <strong>South</strong><br />
<strong>Africa</strong> include the following.<br />
4.1 Educators have a limited understanding <strong>of</strong> what<br />
constitutes school-family-community<br />
partnerships.<br />
Forty seven percent <strong>of</strong> educators answering the questionnaires felt that<br />
there was a common understanding <strong>of</strong> what was intended by schools<br />
regarding partnership initiatives. In addition, educators interviewed<br />
stated that their schools did not have a written policy on school-familycommunity<br />
partnerships. Likewise, most schools had never discussed<br />
family and community involvement as a way <strong>of</strong> improving schooling.<br />
Generally the educators mentioned using the more conventional ways<br />
<strong>of</strong> involving families such as open-house days, fundraising activities,<br />
volunteer programmes, parent-teacher conferences, et cetera. Many<br />
parents, especially single and dual income parents, are not able to<br />
participate in such activities, yet they want to help their children<br />
succeed in school. However, it does not seem as if educators make
Preparing <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n educators for school-family-community partnerships 121<br />
specific arrangements for such parents to become involved in their<br />
children's education. As Chrispeels (1991:371) notes: ``Most efforts<br />
have been directed at `fixing' parents rather than at altering school<br />
structures and practices.''<br />
The absence <strong>of</strong> a school policy on partnerships with families and the<br />
community, and a lack <strong>of</strong> understanding <strong>of</strong> ways in which families may<br />
be involved is unfortunate as research shows that school programmes<br />
and educator practices are the strongest and most consistent predictors<br />
<strong>of</strong> partnerships between the school and the family (Dauber & Epstein<br />
1993:61; Wanat 1994:644).<br />
4.2 Educators are not convinced that family-school<br />
partnerships are important for learner success.<br />
In spite <strong>of</strong> overwhelming evidence to the contrary, many educators do<br />
not believe that parent involvement is important for learner success. In<br />
the investigation carried out in 1997 only a third <strong>of</strong> the educators felt<br />
that parent involvement would have a positive effect on learner<br />
achievement. This means, among others, that teachers do not readily<br />
discuss learners' progress with their parents. In secondary schools only<br />
42% <strong>of</strong> teachers did so, adding, however, that they only contact parents<br />
<strong>of</strong> weaker students, or in cases where there are ``serious concerns''. A<br />
way <strong>of</strong> convincing educators <strong>of</strong> the importance <strong>of</strong> family and<br />
community partnerships is to teach them the benefits <strong>of</strong> such<br />
partnerships.<br />
4.3 Educators do not involve families in home-work<br />
activities.<br />
Good homework habits <strong>of</strong> learners and the support <strong>of</strong> parents in these<br />
activities prove beneficial to learners. However, involving parents in<br />
homework activities does not seem common practice, particularly in<br />
secondary schools. 74% <strong>of</strong> primary school educators stated that they<br />
had a policy <strong>of</strong> involving parents in learning activities at home, in<br />
contrast with 24% <strong>of</strong> educators in secondary schools. One educator
122<br />
defended the view <strong>of</strong> secondary school educators: ``In high school<br />
homework is for students to do on their own.'' This view is, however,<br />
incorrect as a positive homework policy which involves parents is in<br />
fact aimed at preventing parents doing homework for the learner.<br />
In low socioeconomic school communities, educators argue that<br />
parents are uncooperative when it comes to homework activities. As<br />
one explained: ``The literate parents are the ones that look at a book,<br />
but the illiterate ones don't care.'' An educator at the same school<br />
elaborates:<br />
When I give them homework, I usually tell them where parents should<br />
sign, but you know not all the parents sign. You find that the child would<br />
come and say, `Oh my mother was busy and my father was not at home.'<br />
However, when questioned, all participants admitted that they had<br />
never taught parents how to play a positive role regarding their<br />
children's school work. They also admitted to not knowing how to do<br />
so. This is consistent with the findings <strong>of</strong> Epstein and Dauber<br />
(1991:290) that most parents need help on how to become involved in<br />
their children's education at each grade level.<br />
4.4 Educators do not actively support parents in their<br />
role as educators.<br />
Besides supporting homework activities, families and communities<br />
should provide the rich ``social capital'' learners need to succeed in<br />
life. This, according to Coleman (1987:37), means providing the<br />
`'norms, the social networks, and the relationships between adults and<br />
children that are <strong>of</strong> value for the child's growing up''. A number <strong>of</strong><br />
primary school educators indicated that they encouraged parents to<br />
read to their children or to join a library. In contrast, only 32% <strong>of</strong><br />
secondary school educators said that they endorse learning at home,<br />
stating that this should mainly involve supporting the work learners<br />
do at school. An educator explained: ``... we try to insist on parents<br />
being parents and teachers handling the problems''. Another added:<br />
``The question seems silly to me. In what respect are the parents<br />
qualified ± meaningfully ± to be educators?''
Preparing <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n educators for school-family-community partnerships 123<br />
Most educators seem to agree that parents should teach children<br />
``values, attitudes and behaviour'' at home. Educators working in<br />
deprived communities state that this is <strong>of</strong>ten difficult to achieve. As<br />
one explained:<br />
They are all sleeping in one room with their children. It is difficult for<br />
them to be like parents to their children. Whatever they talk, they say this<br />
in front <strong>of</strong> the children. Whatever they do, they do this in front <strong>of</strong> the<br />
children.<br />
The family is a major socialising agent in society assisting individuals<br />
as they move from childhood to adolescence and eventually adulthood.<br />
No one can adequately take over this role. Moreover, parents benefit by<br />
being alerted to different and more effective ways <strong>of</strong> creating or<br />
developing learning opportunities and stimulating experiences for<br />
their children by parenting programmes (Wolfendale 1992:9). However,<br />
if educators have not been adequately trained they are unlikely to<br />
be able to fulfil this task.<br />
4.5 Educators seem unwilling to include parents in<br />
classroom activities.<br />
Although educators include parent volunteers in fundraising activities,<br />
or to accompany learners on trips away from the school, most seem<br />
unwilling to use volunteers to support learning in the classroom. Only<br />
27% respondents to the questionnaires had ever invited parents into<br />
their classrooms. However, even when invited, parents were not asked<br />
to play an active role. An educator explained: ``When they (parents) are<br />
invitedtoaclassitisonlyasaudience,nevertoparticipateortohelp.''<br />
In the light <strong>of</strong> the high learner : educator ratio in most <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n<br />
schools, this attitude seems counter productive. Moreover, in multicultural<br />
and multilingual classes, the use <strong>of</strong> parents volunteers which<br />
reflect the ethnic and language diversity <strong>of</strong> the class has been found to<br />
benefit all concerned (Swap 1992:62).
124<br />
4.6 Educators seem satisfied with a one-way flow <strong>of</strong><br />
communication.<br />
Most participants in this research indicated that they communicate<br />
with parents by means <strong>of</strong> written communication, school meetings,<br />
parent conferences and by messages passed on through learners.<br />
However, limited opportunities seem to exist for parents to communicate<br />
with the school on their own initiative. Although educators<br />
maintain that parents are free to contact the school if they have a<br />
problem, they do not seem willing to meet parents at a time which is<br />
convenient for both parents and educators. Most argue that parents<br />
should not be given educators' home telephone numbers.<br />
A number <strong>of</strong> educators admitted that parents are mostly contacted<br />
about negative issues, which does not promote a good relationship<br />
between the school and the home. Another educator felt that schools<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten view parents as ``difficult'' and that this negatively affects on<br />
their interpersonal relationships and communication. This teacher<br />
continues: ``If teachers could look beyond this label, the communication<br />
would benefit.''<br />
More than half the respondents to the questionnaires indicated that<br />
they needed training in conducting parent-educator conferences.<br />
4.7 Educators <strong>of</strong>ten believe that the parents' role in<br />
decision making should be limited.<br />
Ingeneral,educatorsfeelthatparents'roleindecisionmakingshould<br />
be limited to voting for, or serving on, the school governing body. In<br />
spite <strong>of</strong> this 38% <strong>of</strong> educators admitted that parents were not being<br />
consulted about decisions which directly affect them. In addition,<br />
educators also remarked that ``only a handful'' <strong>of</strong> the members <strong>of</strong> the<br />
school governing structures were willing to get involved in the<br />
concerns <strong>of</strong> the parents and that little is done to address these concerns.<br />
On the other hand, many educators feel that recent legislation has<br />
given the school governing body too much decision making power and
Preparing <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n educators for school-family-community partnerships 125<br />
that educators as ``enlightened pr<strong>of</strong>essional people who know about<br />
children'' should not be placed in a position where they can be<br />
outvoted by parents. Another educator added that it was inconceivable<br />
that ``illiterates'' should be telling educators what to do.<br />
4.8 Educators have limited knowledge and<br />
experience <strong>of</strong> involving the community.<br />
At times some schools included in this research invite members <strong>of</strong> the<br />
community to address either learners or parents. For example, traffic<br />
inspectors to speak on road safety; nurses on health issues and police<br />
on crime and crime prevention. Likewise, various agencies inform<br />
parents and learners on AIDS, drugs and other related issues. Often the<br />
people invited to speak are also parents at the school. Some school<br />
premises are also used by outside agencies for Adult Basic Education and<br />
Training courses, or for other extra-mural activities such as sewing<br />
classes, computer courses and English lessons.<br />
Schools should also, however, realise that community must be defined<br />
to include all groups affected by the quality <strong>of</strong> education, not just<br />
people living near the school (Epstein 1995:702). Greater awareness <strong>of</strong><br />
community resources which could be used by the parents and children<br />
should also receive attention and this information passed on to those<br />
needing help. The problem is serious for all educators, particularly<br />
those who teach in economically disadvantaged communities. Little, if<br />
any, attention has been paid to the need to prepare educators to work<br />
with the community or to link community resources to the goals <strong>of</strong><br />
learners, families and schools.<br />
4.9 Educators tend to blame parents for the lack <strong>of</strong><br />
effective school-family-community partnerships.<br />
Most educators list a number <strong>of</strong> barriers to effective partnerships<br />
relating to the role <strong>of</strong> parents. These include:<br />
Limited time: This is true where both parents work, but particularly so<br />
in the case <strong>of</strong> single working mothers. As one educator said, ``They are<br />
not involved because <strong>of</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> time and a feeling that they have
126<br />
enough on their hands anyway.'' In township schools an additional<br />
problem is the fact that parents only get back from work very late and<br />
all meetings have to be scheduled during weekends. This is difficult as<br />
one educator pointed out, ``On weekends, parents have also got<br />
weddings, funerals, all these things.''<br />
Problematic life situations: Many families living in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> are<br />
experiencing stress which affects the way they relate to their children<br />
and the school. As one educator put it: ``Many parents are in extremely<br />
traumatic life situations and are struggling to survive.'' This <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
leads to parents avoiding the school for ``fear <strong>of</strong> being forced into<br />
positions <strong>of</strong> authority and responsibility''. In the townships schools the<br />
situation is worse as many parents are unemployed and are grappling<br />
with urgent problems <strong>of</strong> survival, leaving little time or energy for<br />
school involvement.<br />
Uncooperative parents: The general apathy <strong>of</strong> parents to the school was<br />
mentioned by many educators. One stated that on the whole parents<br />
just ``dump children at school'' and then expect the ``job to be done''.<br />
Educators in township schools agree, adding ``Parents don't care. They<br />
feel that everything at school is the teacher's responsibility.'' Another<br />
educator gave a similar explanation: ``Parents don't want to contribute<br />
or get involved. They just put their children in school and forget about<br />
their needs. It is like the school is babysitting for them.''<br />
Parents' lack <strong>of</strong> education: In <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> it is estimated that 37% <strong>of</strong> the<br />
population is unable to read or write (Shindler & Bot 1999:1). This,<br />
according to educators, seriously affects their involvement in school<br />
activities. One explained:<br />
Now the problem <strong>of</strong> the teacher, we are trying to call parents sometimes,<br />
but it seems most <strong>of</strong> our parents think they are not educated ± they thus<br />
run away from teachers, and that brings a problem.<br />
Another educator is willing to accept part <strong>of</strong> the blame: ``Maybe<br />
parents think when they come to me, I am going to ignore them,<br />
because they are not educated or on my level. The blame is maybe with
Preparing <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n educators for school-family-community partnerships 127<br />
the teacher.''Although the above barriers as mentioned by educators<br />
are valid, parents should certainly be helped so that they can meet the<br />
challenge <strong>of</strong> providing the support their children need to succeed in<br />
life (Carrasquillo & London 1993:109). In this they need guidance from<br />
educators or similarly trained people. In reality, most educators<br />
interviewed felt that many parents were hard to reach and attributed<br />
this to the parents themselves or to their communities and cultures.<br />
4.10 Educators are not trained to initiate or improve<br />
school-family-community partnerships.<br />
Many respondents to the questionnaires mentioned that they had not<br />
been adequately equipped to involve families and the community in<br />
their schools. As one educator explained:<br />
We are only taught how to manage a class, controlling the books. The part<br />
<strong>of</strong> where the parent comes in, is not there ... So the parents are not part <strong>of</strong><br />
the package <strong>of</strong> management. I think we basically need workshops.<br />
Likewise, an educator in an independent school admitted that staff are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten intimidated by parents and needed assistance in dealing with<br />
them. Another educator stated that the lack <strong>of</strong> willingness <strong>of</strong> educators<br />
to involve parents is that they had never been taught the benefits <strong>of</strong><br />
parent involvement. It also seems as if not all educators are aware <strong>of</strong><br />
the different aspects <strong>of</strong> parent involvement as illustrated by this<br />
comment: ``I don't understand what you mean by parent involvement.<br />
In what spheres would they be involved?''<br />
A survey <strong>of</strong> educators in the state <strong>of</strong> Maryland in the United States <strong>of</strong><br />
America revealed that few educators attributed their practices <strong>of</strong><br />
parent involvement to knowledge gained in their formal training<br />
(Epstein, Sanders & Clark 1999:1). Moreover, it was reported that<br />
although students in undergraduate training programmes had positive<br />
attitudes about all types <strong>of</strong> involvement, most felt minimally prepared<br />
to conduct partnerships with families and the community (Epstein et al<br />
1999:2). Judging by the responses <strong>of</strong> educators in this research which<br />
was conducted over a period <strong>of</strong> four years, educators in this country<br />
are, likewise, in need <strong>of</strong> training.
128<br />
5 PREPARING EDUCATORS FOR SCHOOL-FAMILY-<br />
COMMUNITY PARTNERSHIPS<br />
Schools cannot work successfully in isolation from learners' families<br />
and communities. This requires higher education institutions involved<br />
in pre-service training <strong>of</strong> educators and institutions and agencies<br />
involved in their in-service training to reexamine the skills, knowledge<br />
and attitudes that educators will need to work effectively in the schools<br />
<strong>of</strong> the future. Shartrand, Weiss, Kreider and Lopez (1997:21) <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Harvard School <strong>of</strong> Education developed a framework <strong>of</strong> content areas<br />
for educator preparation. This framework illustrates the range <strong>of</strong><br />
training for family involvement and focusses on the attitudes, skills and<br />
knowledge that educators need to work effectively with families and the<br />
community. As such it differs from other typologies <strong>of</strong> family<br />
involvement, which consists <strong>of</strong> actual types <strong>of</strong> involvement activities<br />
carried out in schools. By providing a range <strong>of</strong> types <strong>of</strong> training, the<br />
framework overcomes the fragmentation in the way in which educators<br />
generally learn about family involvement. The framework for educator<br />
training includes the following areas <strong>of</strong> content which, it is argued, all<br />
educators need to master in order to work effectively with families and<br />
the community.<br />
5.1 General family involvement<br />
Family involvement efforts are most successful when educators and<br />
schools assume that all parents want what is best for their children and<br />
can make important contributions to their children's education. Thus,<br />
educators need to understand the benefits and barriers to family<br />
involvement. Educator preparation will, therefore, include knowledge<br />
<strong>of</strong>, skills in, and positive attitudes towards involving parents<br />
(Shartrand et al 1997:23).<br />
5.2 General family knowledge<br />
In this regard, Shartrand et al (1997:26) suggest improving the<br />
educator's (or student educator's) knowledge <strong>of</strong> different families'<br />
cultural beliefs, child rearing practices, family structures and living<br />
environments. In a country which was, until recently, racially divided,<br />
this is important. An objective <strong>of</strong> this `learning area' is to promote an
Preparing <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n educators for school-family-community partnerships 129<br />
awareness and understanding <strong>of</strong> different backgrounds and lifestyles<br />
<strong>of</strong> families. This preparation can provide knowledge and understanding<br />
and <strong>of</strong>fer educators a learning experience that can bridge the<br />
world <strong>of</strong> home and school.<br />
5.3 Home-school communication<br />
The objective <strong>of</strong> this area <strong>of</strong> training is to provide various techniques<br />
and strategies to improve two-way communication between home and<br />
school (and/or parent and teacher). This is necessary as effective<br />
communication between the home and the school can strengthen<br />
family involvement in a child's education. Through open and honest<br />
communication, parents and educators begin to understand one<br />
another's ideas about learning, discipline, and other topics. Such<br />
communication helps parents and educators to work together to<br />
improve an individual child's performance and to contribute to school<br />
wide policies which benefit all students in the school. Educator<br />
preparation can equip educators with the skills to improve two-way<br />
communication between home and school, especially when difficult<br />
and sensitive issues have to be discussed (Shartrand et al 1997:30).<br />
5.4 Family involvement in learning activities<br />
Educator preparation can equip educators with the skills to develop<br />
two-way learning between the home and school. Educators can<br />
promote family involvement in children's learning and development<br />
by acting as facilitators rather than experts. They can recommend<br />
activities that help parents promote their children's learning, including<br />
reading to their children, creating a physical setting conducive to<br />
study, and showing an interest in their children's schoolwork. Equally<br />
important, educators can learn from parents ± about child rearing<br />
practices and family skills and resources ± and tailor suggestions for<br />
involvement activities to meet the individual circumstances <strong>of</strong> each<br />
family (Shartrand et al 1997:33).<br />
5.5 Families supporting schools<br />
Here the student-educator gains knowledge on ways to involve parents
130<br />
in helping the school, both within and outside the classroom. This is<br />
important, for when families and the community as a whole support<br />
schools, schools gain a vast network <strong>of</strong> resources. Preparing educators<br />
to involve families in their children's schooling can help teachers<br />
understand families, communicate with them, negotiate distances, and<br />
build a consensus. This training enables educators to participate in<br />
forums for parents, educators and other citizens to establish collective<br />
support for learning and student achievement. Educators also develop<br />
the skills to involve parents and other family and community members<br />
as resources for the school (Shartrand et al 1997:37).<br />
5.6 Schools supporting families<br />
Schools support families by providing opportunities to strengthen<br />
parenting skills, enhance parent networks, and minimise the stresses <strong>of</strong><br />
parenting. Increasingly, educators deal with learners and families<br />
challenged by poverty. Such stressful circumstances can inhibit<br />
effective parenting practices, and as a result, have negative effects on<br />
children's development and school achievement. Although educators<br />
should not be held responsible for meeting the needs <strong>of</strong> such families<br />
directly, they can learn to understand the connections between<br />
poverty, family functioning, and child rearing. They can also learn to<br />
support families through parent education programmes, parent centres<br />
and referrals to other community or social services. In short, educators<br />
can be trained to work in ``full-service schools'' that provide families<br />
additional support services such as health and mental care, adult<br />
education and social services (Shartrand et al 1997:40).<br />
5.7 Families as change agents<br />
Schools and educators can promote informed decision making among<br />
families by treating them with care and respect, and by <strong>of</strong>fering them<br />
opportunities for critical reflection and participation. The range <strong>of</strong><br />
decision making is broad and includes such diverse activities as<br />
promoting an individual child's learning, improving school facilities<br />
and programmes and implementing school reform. Educators can be<br />
prepared to support and involve parents and families in various types<br />
<strong>of</strong> decision making. Such preparation should focus on helping
Preparing <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n educators for school-family-community partnerships 131<br />
educators develop and understand the principles <strong>of</strong> an empowerment<br />
approach. It should also involve their acquiring skills in managing<br />
group dynamics, problem solving, and conflict resolution (Shartrand et<br />
al 1997:43).<br />
In conclusion: The above framework provides the content studenteducators<br />
need to master in order to work effectively with families and<br />
communities. Should someone have acquired the knowledge, skills and<br />
attitudes set out in the seven areas identified above, the problems<br />
described by the <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n educators participating in the research<br />
could be addressed. In other words, educators trained in the seven<br />
areas would understand the benefits <strong>of</strong> and barriers to family and<br />
community involvement, sympathise and communicate effectively<br />
with all types <strong>of</strong> families, involve families in a variety <strong>of</strong> school-based<br />
activities, teach families to support learning at home, and support and<br />
involve families in decision making, advocacy and school policy<br />
development.<br />
6 APPROACHES TO SCHOOL-HOME-COMMUNITY<br />
PARTNERSHIPS<br />
The framework as set out by Shartrand et al (1997) does not advocate a<br />
specific approach to school-family-community partnerships. The<br />
framework recognises that there are a number <strong>of</strong> approaches to family<br />
involvement and acknowledges that the seven areas <strong>of</strong> content will be<br />
presented in a different manner, depending on the approach <strong>of</strong> the<br />
institution to family and community partnerships in education.<br />
Shartrand et al (1997:20) list four approaches:<br />
6.1 A functional approach<br />
This approach emphasises the different roles and responsibilities <strong>of</strong><br />
educators and parents in promoting learner achievement. An example<br />
<strong>of</strong> a functional approach is that <strong>of</strong> Epstein (1996). Epstein (1996:214)<br />
developed a theoretical perspective called overlapping spheres <strong>of</strong><br />
influence. This is based on a social organisational perspective that<br />
posits that the most effective families and schools have overlapping<br />
shared goals and missions concerning children and conduct some work
132<br />
collaboratively. In other words, the model assumes that there are<br />
mutual interests and influences <strong>of</strong> families and schools that can be<br />
more or less successfully promoted by the policies and programmes <strong>of</strong><br />
the organisation and the actions <strong>of</strong> the individuals in the organisation.<br />
The Epstein model illustrates that anytime, in any school, and in any<br />
family, parent involvement is a variable that can be increased or<br />
decreased by the practices <strong>of</strong> educators, parents and learners.<br />
Initially a framework <strong>of</strong> five major types <strong>of</strong> involvement that fall<br />
within the areas <strong>of</strong> overlap in the spheres <strong>of</strong> influence was identified<br />
(Davis 1991:377). These include: Basic obligations <strong>of</strong> families, communication<br />
between school and home and home and school, volunteers,<br />
learning activities at home, and decision making. A sixth type <strong>of</strong><br />
partnership was added later: collaborating with the community<br />
(Epstein 1995:704).<br />
6.2 A parent empowerment approach<br />
This approach emphasises the strengths <strong>of</strong> disenfranchised families.<br />
One example <strong>of</strong> such an approach is the work <strong>of</strong> Cochran and Dean<br />
(1991). The empowerment approach is based on the belief that schools<br />
are key institutions in local communities and thus are in a special<br />
position to enhance or retard the empowerment process. Initially the<br />
programme targeted families with children in the age-group 3±6 years.<br />
By means <strong>of</strong> home visits, schools encourage mothers in particular to<br />
believe in and care for themselves. The second step is encouraging<br />
mothers to become involved in social action in the community by<br />
joining other parents in neighbourhood support clusters, aimed at<br />
getting to know each other, share impressions <strong>of</strong> family life in the<br />
community and later to progress to neighbourhood improvement. The<br />
thirdstepisbecomingactiveintheschoolstheirchildrenare<br />
attending. Thus the programme includes several different aspects <strong>of</strong><br />
empowerment, beginning with an individual's view <strong>of</strong> herself and<br />
progressing through relations with nearby others to interactions with<br />
more distant organizations and institutions (Cochran & Dean<br />
1991:262). The empowerment approach is built on the assumption that<br />
all families have strengths and the most useful knowledge about<br />
rearing children can be found in the community itself ± in the older
Preparing <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n educators for school-family-community partnerships 133<br />
generations, in social networks, and in ethnic and cultural traditions.<br />
Educators who are to be trained in the empowerment approach must be<br />
taught how to empathise with parents and recognise their strengths,<br />
make the most <strong>of</strong> parent-teacher conferences, and find creative ways to<br />
involve parents in school activities (Cochran & Dean 1991:264).<br />
6.3 A cultural competence approach<br />
This approach is based on the belief that the school is an inclusive,<br />
respectful setting where diversity is welcomed. This approach is<br />
described in the work <strong>of</strong> Moll, Amanti, Neff and Gonzalez (1992) and is<br />
based on a research model that shows how classroom practice can be<br />
developed, transformed and enriched by drawing on existing ``funds <strong>of</strong><br />
knowledge'' in minority learners' households. The term ``funds <strong>of</strong><br />
knowledge'' is used to refer to those historically accumulated and<br />
culturally developed bodies <strong>of</strong> knowledge and skills essential for<br />
household or individual functioning and well-being (Moll et al<br />
1992:133). The community component <strong>of</strong> the approach involves<br />
teachers entering households for the purpose <strong>of</strong> discerning the<br />
household's socio political and economic context, and social and<br />
labour histories. The result is that teachers are more likely to view the<br />
households as repositories <strong>of</strong> funds <strong>of</strong> knowledge capable <strong>of</strong> providing<br />
opportunities for learning rather than seeing the homes <strong>of</strong> minority<br />
children as a hindrance to academic progress. Consequently, teachers<br />
view learners coming from these households with more respect and<br />
understanding, and are better able to tie the academic content to the<br />
formerly hidden talents and abilities they have discovered in these<br />
learners. Parent volunteers are also used to enrich the lessons planned<br />
as a result <strong>of</strong> these home visits.<br />
6.4 A social capital approach<br />
This approach is built on the concept <strong>of</strong> community support for<br />
education. An example <strong>of</strong> this approach is the work <strong>of</strong> Coleman.<br />
Coleman (1987) proposed that the home and school provide different<br />
inputs for the socialisation process <strong>of</strong> children. One category <strong>of</strong> inputs,<br />
namely, opportunity, demands and reward comes from schools. The
134<br />
second category <strong>of</strong> inputs comes from the child's closer, more intimate<br />
and more persistent environment. These inputs can be loosely<br />
described as attitudes, effort and conception <strong>of</strong> self, which are instilled<br />
mainly by the social environment <strong>of</strong> the household. Education<br />
outcomes result from the reciprocal interaction between the qualities<br />
the child brings from the home and the qualities <strong>of</strong> the school.<br />
Coleman (1987:37) argues that families provide the social capital needed<br />
by schools to optimise learners' outcomes. However, the social capital <strong>of</strong><br />
the home is declining as reflected by the absence <strong>of</strong> parents in the home<br />
and a decrease <strong>of</strong> exchange between parents and children about<br />
academic, social, economic and personal matters. The social capital that<br />
exists in the community should, therefore, also be used to support<br />
learners and schools.<br />
It is also suggested that parents' uncertainty, anxiety and fear increase<br />
as the child progresses in school, since they feel unable to respond to<br />
their child's linguistic and social capital needs (Clark 1988:95). This<br />
anxiety is more pr<strong>of</strong>ound among parents in the low socioeconomic<br />
strata. To help parents, schools need to include ways for teachers to<br />
share information that empowers parents to function as effective<br />
mentors in the family.<br />
Should an institution wish to teach a specific approach or programme<br />
<strong>of</strong> school-family-community partnerships to its students (or to<br />
educators receiving in-service training), the attitudes, knowledge and<br />
skills as identified by Shartrand et al (1997) will need to be adapted to<br />
the specific programme or approach. Two approaches will be used to<br />
illustrate this (set out in Table 1).
Preparing <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n educators for school-family-community partnerships 135<br />
TABLE 1<br />
Attitudes, knowledge and skills for educator training programmes<br />
(Adapted from Shartrand et al 1997:21±45)<br />
Framework<br />
for training<br />
General<br />
family in-<br />
volvement<br />
General<br />
family<br />
knowledge<br />
Home-<br />
school<br />
communi-<br />
cation<br />
A functional approach (ie<br />
the Epstein approach)<br />
Knowledge <strong>of</strong> the goals,<br />
benefits and barriers to<br />
school-home-community<br />
partnerships.<br />
Skills in involving parents<br />
<strong>of</strong> all backgrounds.<br />
Knowledge <strong>of</strong> different<br />
cultural beliefs, lifestyles,<br />
child rearing practices,<br />
family structures and<br />
living environments.<br />
Attitude <strong>of</strong> respect for<br />
different backgrounds<br />
and lifestyles is included.<br />
Skills in effective interpersonal<br />
communication.<br />
Skills in using active listening<br />
and effective<br />
communication to understand<br />
families and to<br />
build trust and cooperation.<br />
A social capital approach<br />
(ie the Coleman<br />
approach)<br />
Knowledge <strong>of</strong> the idea <strong>of</strong><br />
social capital and parental<br />
investment in their<br />
children's learning.<br />
Knowledge that schools<br />
and homes have different<br />
valuesandthatsuchdifferences<br />
influence partnerships<br />
between the<br />
home and schools.<br />
Skills in communicating<br />
expectations and values<br />
in order to build a sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> trust among members<br />
<strong>of</strong> the community.
136<br />
Framework<br />
for training<br />
Family in-<br />
volvement<br />
in learning<br />
activities<br />
Families<br />
supporting<br />
schools<br />
Schools<br />
supporting<br />
families<br />
Families as<br />
change<br />
agents<br />
A functional approach (ie<br />
the Epstein approach)<br />
Skills in involving parents<br />
in their children's<br />
learning outside schools.<br />
Skills in sharing teaching<br />
skills with parents<br />
Skills in involving<br />
parents in the school and<br />
classroom.<br />
Knowledge <strong>of</strong> how<br />
schools can support<br />
families' social and<br />
educational needs.<br />
Skills in referral<br />
procedures.<br />
Skills in supporting and<br />
involving parents as<br />
decision makers.<br />
Skills in sharing leadership<br />
with and transferring<br />
it to parents<br />
A social capital approach<br />
(ie the Coleman<br />
approach)<br />
Skills in motivating<br />
family involvement in<br />
home learning activities.<br />
Skills in home-visits.<br />
Skills in fostering community<br />
participation in<br />
education activities.<br />
Skills in fostering parent<br />
investment in their children<br />
in school, through<br />
volunteering, attendance<br />
at school events and<br />
fundraising.<br />
Skills in utilising<br />
resources for other<br />
community groups.<br />
Skills in identifying the<br />
expectations and goals <strong>of</strong><br />
families.<br />
Knowledge <strong>of</strong> how school<br />
social events can create<br />
social capital.<br />
Attitudes that shared<br />
decision making is an<br />
essential ingredient to<br />
establish and maintain a<br />
common set <strong>of</strong> core<br />
values.
Preparing <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n educators for school-family-community partnerships 137<br />
If educators are to link learning in the classroom and in the home, how<br />
are they being prepared to accomplish this task? What knowledge and<br />
skills do they need? How should these be taught and learned?<br />
Although the above does not provide all the answers, having a<br />
framework <strong>of</strong> content areas, which can be adapted to a specific<br />
approach is a good starting point for anyone developing pre-service<br />
and in-service programmes in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>.<br />
7 CONCLUSION<br />
Theresults<strong>of</strong>theinterviewsandthequestionnairesincludedinthe<br />
empirical investigation indicate that educators have a limited understanding<br />
<strong>of</strong> school-family-community partnerships, <strong>of</strong> the benefits <strong>of</strong><br />
such partnerships, and <strong>of</strong> strategies which may be used to involve<br />
families and the community in the school. Educators also tend to blame<br />
families, particularly those in poor socioeconomic environments, for<br />
any lack <strong>of</strong> involvement. This is to be expected as educators in <strong>South</strong><br />
<strong>Africa</strong> get little help in developing their skills and knowledge <strong>of</strong><br />
collaborating with families and the community. Likewise, few receive<br />
training in this field during their pre-service training. This lack <strong>of</strong><br />
initial training is not compensated for by in-service training, except in<br />
the rare school districts. Thus, most educators must rely on their<br />
accumulated experiences in dealing with families. Hamby (1992:61)<br />
points out that this lack <strong>of</strong> training by educators is serious as parents<br />
are unlikely to become involved without intervention from the school.<br />
By taking cognisance <strong>of</strong> the areas <strong>of</strong> content set out in the above<br />
framework, and adapting it to the particular approach to schoolfamily-community<br />
partnership advocated by the institution, effective<br />
programmes for educators can be developed to address this need.<br />
BIBLIOGRAPHY<br />
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Bastiani, J 1988. Parents and teachers: from policy to practice. Berkshire: Nfer-Nelson.
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development. London: David Fulton.<br />
Carrosquillo, A L & London, CBG 1993. Parents and schools: a source book. New York:<br />
Garland.<br />
Chavkin, N F 1993. Families and schools in a pluralistic society. Albany: State <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
New York.<br />
Chrispeels, J H 1991. Effective schools and home-school-community partnership roles: a<br />
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Clark, R M 1988. Parents as providers <strong>of</strong> linguistic and social capital. Educational<br />
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student achievement. Columbia: National Committee for Citizens in Education.<br />
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using a qualitative approach to connect homes and classrooms. Theory into practice,<br />
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140<br />
Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior<br />
learning Ð a few words<br />
<strong>of</strong> caution<br />
M M Nieman<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Educational<br />
Studies<br />
Unisa<br />
Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning (RPL) enables individuals to receive formal recognition for<br />
skills and knowledge they already possess. The rationale for the recognition <strong>of</strong> prior<br />
learning is based on the premise that learning experientially may be as valuable as<br />
learning through theory. Implementing a prior learning assessment programme has many<br />
advantages, however, it is a complex process that does not come without its share <strong>of</strong><br />
impediments. When an institution <strong>of</strong> higher learning intends to implement RPL, then there<br />
are a number <strong>of</strong> factors that should be considered to obviate any impediment to<br />
successful implementation. In this article these factors are discussed.<br />
1 INTRODUCTION<br />
The recognition and accreditation <strong>of</strong> prior learning (RPL) has been<br />
introduced successfully since the seventies in the United States; since<br />
the eighties in the United Kingdom and Canada and currently it is<br />
being implemented in Australia, New Zealand and several other<br />
countries. However, it is only recently, with the establishment <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n Qualifications Authority (SAQA) and the National<br />
Qualifications Framework (NQF) that this practice has been addressed,<br />
formally, in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n educational documentation. On account <strong>of</strong><br />
these initiatives and changes in the area <strong>of</strong> education and training (eg
Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning ± a few words <strong>of</strong> caution 141<br />
outcomes-based education), there will have to be accreditation <strong>of</strong><br />
learners' achievements in all areas and at all levels (irrespective <strong>of</strong> the<br />
routetheyfollowedinordertoreachtherequiredoutcomes),the<br />
institution where the outcomes were reached, as well as the pace at<br />
which this was accomplished. Focus thus needs to be shifted to the<br />
learner and the learning that took place, the way in which learning<br />
took place, how long this took, and where it happened.<br />
Whereas the debate about recognition and accreditation <strong>of</strong> prior<br />
learning has abated in many countries, in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> it is still the<br />
topic <strong>of</strong> much discussion. The benefit that may be gained by<br />
institutions <strong>of</strong> higher education in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>, from what has taken<br />
place in other countries, is that there is no need to reinvent the wheel.<br />
Local institutions may build on other countries' findings, and in this<br />
way pitfalls and misconceptions may be averted. This article is<br />
informed directly by these findings, since the main objective is to point<br />
out some <strong>of</strong> the misconceptions and problems that one should guard<br />
against in order not to jeopardise the successful implementation <strong>of</strong><br />
RPL. Furthermore, this article aims to highlight certain aspects that<br />
should be kept in mind when RPL is implemented. One <strong>of</strong> the most<br />
important requirements for successful implementation <strong>of</strong> RPL is the<br />
actual informing <strong>of</strong> all stakeholders. In this way a further objective is<br />
reached with this article, as information about RPL is disseminated to a<br />
potential group <strong>of</strong> RPL candidates, (ie the current readers <strong>of</strong> this<br />
article).<br />
2 WHAT DOES RECOGNITION AND ACCREDITATION<br />
OF PRIOR LEARNING COMPRISE?<br />
Recognition and accreditation <strong>of</strong> prior learning are generic terms that<br />
are used for the process in which persons <strong>of</strong> all ages and backgrounds<br />
are <strong>of</strong>fered the opportunity to receive formal recognition (usually<br />
academic credits) for the competency and knowledge they have<br />
already obtained. Steenholdt (1998:1) clarifies this process by stating<br />
simply: ``RPL involves matching what an individual already knows<br />
and can do (their competencies) with learning outcomes <strong>of</strong> modules in<br />
an accredited course.'' From an analysis <strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> website pages<br />
(Stannard 1999; <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Ballarat TAFE Division1999; Steenholdt
142<br />
1998; Universities and Colleges Admissions Service for the UK 1999)<br />
and from other sources (Harris & Saddington 1995:7; Sansregret<br />
1985:17; New Zealand Qualifications Authority 1993:7), it appears that<br />
the knowledge and competencies could have resulted from:<br />
. Teaching Ð That is any certified learning that took place by<br />
studying a course at a recognised educational institution, or<br />
work performed at a non-governmental organisation (NGO),<br />
as well as any other course that has been done overseas, this<br />
all makes up this category <strong>of</strong> teaching.<br />
. Job experience Ð This includes paid work, for instance work<br />
in an <strong>of</strong>fice as well as unpaid work in an <strong>of</strong>fice or, for<br />
example, helping in a family business.<br />
. Life experience Ð This includes all recreation activities,<br />
hobbies, uncertified learning by study for self-enrichment;<br />
free-will work in the community or in welfare organisations,<br />
the running <strong>of</strong> a household, the taking care <strong>of</strong> others,<br />
etcetera.<br />
The last two categories are <strong>of</strong>ten grouped with ``Prior Experiential<br />
Learning'' (cf Section 4 below, for the necessity <strong>of</strong> this distinction).<br />
Accreditation <strong>of</strong> prior learning may be in the nature <strong>of</strong> admission to a<br />
study programme, or it may be study for an advanced standing within<br />
a study programme, or merely to obtain the recognition <strong>of</strong> credits for<br />
the achievement <strong>of</strong> a qualification. This amounts to the idea that a<br />
candidate's knowledge and competencies which had been obtained<br />
elsewhere and that are relevant for a particular course, may accrue for<br />
exemption from certain components for a course since these are<br />
equivalent to certain credits. The credits that are awarded in this way<br />
are <strong>of</strong> equal value to credits that the learners obtain by following a<br />
more traditional route, for instance by means <strong>of</strong> either contact or<br />
distance teaching (Universities and Colleges Admissions Service for<br />
the UK 1999:3).<br />
3 BENEFITS OF ASSESSMENT AND ACCREDITATION<br />
OF PRIOR LEARNING<br />
The acknowledgement and accreditation <strong>of</strong> prior learning are espe-
Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning ± a few words <strong>of</strong> caution 143<br />
cially <strong>of</strong> importance to adult learners who want to make a re-entry into<br />
education, or who want to shorten the period <strong>of</strong> time for their<br />
curriculum (Universities and Colleges Admissions Service for the UK<br />
1999:5, 6). Adults are usually averse to the duplicating <strong>of</strong> learning.<br />
Therefore they are <strong>of</strong>ten unwilling to register and pay for a course in<br />
which they will hear things they already know. To be forced to repeat<br />
the same learning activities is the main stumbling block in the way <strong>of</strong><br />
lifelong learning and it is in any case expensive for the individual, for<br />
the business sector and for broader society. An important benefit <strong>of</strong><br />
RPL in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> is that it can redress the unjustices <strong>of</strong> the past,<br />
since it is one <strong>of</strong> the most effective ways to provide opportunities <strong>of</strong><br />
access to individuals who did not have the opportunity to enter higher<br />
education previously. These individuals who have been estranged<br />
from traditional learning systems, either on account <strong>of</strong> time, finances,<br />
phase <strong>of</strong> life, distance or other factors, were just not able to obtain<br />
access to higher education. They now set their hope on the accreditation<br />
<strong>of</strong> their experience. This, in turn, can lead to the provision <strong>of</strong><br />
additional opportunities <strong>of</strong> access to job opportunities.<br />
The acknowledgement <strong>of</strong> learning and the process <strong>of</strong> reflection that is<br />
necessary to compile an RPL application <strong>of</strong>ten leads to heightened selfconfidence.<br />
The recognition <strong>of</strong> learning by experience Ð <strong>of</strong>ten against<br />
all expectations Ð influences the learners' motivation in a positive<br />
way. Students obtain confidence in their capabilities as learners and<br />
they develop a greater understanding <strong>of</strong> the value <strong>of</strong> lifelong learning.<br />
Moreover, the preparation <strong>of</strong> an application for RPL facilitates the<br />
development <strong>of</strong> independent self-study skills. Reflection on learning<br />
by experience heightens the relationship between theory and practice,<br />
and this leads to the heightened concept <strong>of</strong> reciprocal flow between<br />
academic learning and practice (Universities and Colleges Admissions<br />
Service for the UK 1999:8; Toop & Burleigh 1993:14±16).<br />
Thus, RPL has the potential to broaden the potential for access, to<br />
ensure a supple curriculum and to inculcate a positive value for<br />
learning outside the sphere <strong>of</strong> academic learning. It may be seen as a<br />
means whereby learners can integrate and appreciate theory and<br />
practice, and whereby reflective practice can be enhanced. By
144<br />
identifying learning by means <strong>of</strong> experience and then in turn applying<br />
this learning in changing practice reflection on learning is encouraged.<br />
However, RPL is not only beneficial for the individual: it also contains<br />
benefits for higher education institutions, businesses, society and the<br />
State. According to a number <strong>of</strong> researchers (Toop & Burleigh 1993:14±<br />
16; Sansregret 1985; Universities and Colleges Admissions Service for<br />
the UK 1999:8; Steenholdt 1998:2, and Unisa 2000:2), it is beneficial to<br />
employers and managers <strong>of</strong> RPL candidates, since RPL leads to a<br />
higher level <strong>of</strong> interest in all aspects <strong>of</strong> practice and motivation <strong>of</strong><br />
employees when previously acquired skills are graded. RPL can lead to<br />
an acceleration in the obtaining <strong>of</strong> a qualification, and this in turn,<br />
means that employees need to spend less time away from work while<br />
trying to obtain an additional qualification. In this way, RPL is a<br />
mechanism to overcome the shortage <strong>of</strong> trained human resources and a<br />
way <strong>of</strong> improving multi-skilling. RPL is cost-effective, since it<br />
eliminates unnecessary ``lockstep'' re-training and duplication. Moreover,<br />
the process <strong>of</strong> reflection on practice <strong>of</strong>ten leads to new ideas and<br />
developments in the work place and the ties between industry<br />
(practice) and education (theory) are strengthened. RPL can also<br />
identify unused or underutilised skills in the workforce.<br />
A number <strong>of</strong> sources point out that higher education personnel can<br />
benefit in their support <strong>of</strong> learners who submit RPL applications (see<br />
Toop & Burleigh1993:14±16; Sansregret 1985; Universities and Colleges<br />
Admissions Service for the UK 1999:9; Steenholdt 1998:4 and Unisa<br />
2000:2). These benefits include:<br />
. The learning outcomes approach encourages curriculum<br />
development, in the sense that a student's RPL application<br />
may suggest ideas for new modules and the updating and<br />
development <strong>of</strong> existing modules, or new techniques for<br />
assessment.<br />
. The importance <strong>of</strong> issues in the work or recreation environment<br />
is stressed, and faculties could utilise learners' existing<br />
knowledge in their programmes.<br />
. The process encourages study to be relevant to pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
and personal development, and this ensures a stronger link
Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning ± a few words <strong>of</strong> caution 145<br />
between classroom learning and real world experiences. The<br />
mechanisms for assessment <strong>of</strong> prior learning <strong>of</strong>ten demand<br />
that faculties should reflect on the changing <strong>of</strong> their<br />
established assumptions about teaching and learning. This<br />
reflection <strong>of</strong>ten encourages changing <strong>of</strong> course content and<br />
assessment, in order to produce learning outcomes that are<br />
more meaningful.<br />
. RPL applications are <strong>of</strong>ten based on recent experiences, and<br />
therefore represent up-to-date and dynamic interaction with<br />
the world <strong>of</strong> work, and yield material for discussion and<br />
research.<br />
. Learning and teaching partnerships with employers are<br />
encouraged, in that the learning outcomes that are connected<br />
with the current work practice can be negotiated. Sansregret<br />
(1985:24) views this as ``dialogue between the academic and<br />
business worlds''.<br />
. Students are inclined to study at institutions where their<br />
prior learning is recognised, rather than to study at institutions<br />
where this is not the case. They <strong>of</strong>ten return to the same<br />
institution where this recognition took place, to upgrade<br />
knowledge still further.<br />
. Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning not only frees students from<br />
having to unnecessarily study required modules or courses,<br />
but since the demand for higher education is universally at a<br />
premium,RPLalsoallowsinstitutionsto<strong>of</strong>fermoretraining<br />
opportunities to other students, who do have to study<br />
required modules or courses. Thus those to whom prior<br />
learning recognition had been granted, do not take up space<br />
unnecessarily at training institutions.<br />
4 THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN CERTIFIED<br />
LEARNING AND LEARNING BY EXPERIENCE<br />
One factor concerning recognition and accreditation that could<br />
possibly cause confusion, is the series <strong>of</strong> acronyms which has been<br />
amassed, and the fact that various countries and institutions use<br />
various acronyms for the same concepts. So for instance the term<br />
``prior learning assessment'' (PLA) is used in the USA and Canada,
146<br />
whilethisconceptisknowninAustralia,NewZealandasthe<br />
``recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning'' (RPL). In the UK the ``accreditation <strong>of</strong><br />
prior learning'' (APL) is used as an umbrella term, which both includes<br />
former certified learning as well as learning by experience (Universities<br />
and Colleges Admissions Service for the UK 1999:6). Thus in the<br />
accreditation <strong>of</strong> prior learning, two categories are used, namely:<br />
. APCL Ð The accreditation <strong>of</strong> prior certified learning; that is<br />
learning for which a certificate, a diploma or a degree has<br />
been awarded by other educational institutions or by other<br />
teaching or training providers.<br />
. APEL Ð The accreditation <strong>of</strong> prior learning by experience.<br />
This refers to the uncertified learning that has been obtained<br />
by means <strong>of</strong> experience. Sometimes there is reference to<br />
APEL as RPEL (``recognition <strong>of</strong> prior experiential learning'').<br />
The distinction between these two types <strong>of</strong> recognition and accreditation<br />
<strong>of</strong> prior learning is made by Nyatanga, Forman and Fox (1998:7).<br />
They explain that the accreditation <strong>of</strong> prior learning was initially<br />
associated with certified prior learning:<br />
APL, therefore, relates to such prior learning as may be gained<br />
through organised courses, modules, workshops, seminars and<br />
similar activities. Thus, in the broad sense, APL covers two aspects<br />
<strong>of</strong> prior learning, namely (a) prior learning intentionally organised<br />
for which certification marks successful completion, and (b)<br />
organised prior learning such as seminars where certification is not<br />
necessarily issued.<br />
APEL, however, is associated with former incidental learning: ``APEL<br />
therefore relates to such prior learning as may be gained through<br />
leisure pursuits, family experiences, and unstructured work experience.''<br />
Since such learning is seldom awarded with a certificate,<br />
reference is made to ``uncertified prior learning'' (Nyatanga et al<br />
1998:7).<br />
Although both forms <strong>of</strong> prior learning focus on learning as experience,
Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning ± a few words <strong>of</strong> caution 147<br />
and on the outcome process, rather than on the experience itself, the<br />
distinction between the two concepts is important, since the way in<br />
which the candidates gather and present pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> their competencies<br />
will differ considerably. APCL candidates will be enabled to submit<br />
relevant certificates as well as syllabi or cardinal points <strong>of</strong> modules, in<br />
order to support their applications. The candidate can also submit a<br />
concise portfolio which only contains the main points <strong>of</strong> that which has<br />
been learned. The main points will then be used as a basis for further<br />
elaboration during the assessment interview, or to write a summary in<br />
which it is explained how the learning actually took place, and how<br />
this concurs with the actual outcomes. This type <strong>of</strong> recognition is not<br />
usually problematic and institutions <strong>of</strong> higher learning are usually in<br />
possession <strong>of</strong> clear guidelines in this connection. In contrast to this<br />
APEL is <strong>of</strong>ten problematic. It usually depends on various methods <strong>of</strong><br />
assessment, such as the presentation <strong>of</strong> complete portfolios which<br />
should concur with the envisaged learning outcomes and a given<br />
programme or a module (Nyatanga et al 1998:8); a written or oral test;<br />
examples <strong>of</strong> completed work; an interview; an enactment; a demonstration,<br />
etcetera. Since learning needs to be accredited, and not<br />
experience as such, it is <strong>of</strong>ten very difficult to prove whether learning<br />
actually took place, and whether the actual outcomes were achieved.<br />
5 THE RPL PROCESS<br />
Although every institution has its own policy and procedures that need<br />
to be followed when a candidate applies for RPL, it appears from the<br />
various sources (Nyatanga et al 1998:7, 8; Fawcett 1998; Steenholdt<br />
1998:2±4; New Zealand Qualifications Authority 1993:4,13), that the<br />
process that is followed, comprises seven main steps:<br />
. Data gathering: The applicant obtains the necessary information<br />
about RPL and the outcomes that are to be associated. It<br />
is essential that during this phase the candidate receives the<br />
necessary support and guidance.<br />
. Application: The applicant compares his/her own competencies<br />
with the learning outcomes that are expected, and then<br />
completes the institution's prescribed RPL application form.<br />
. Gathering and the presentation <strong>of</strong> pro<strong>of</strong>: The candidate gathers
148<br />
together pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> his/her knowledge and competencies in<br />
order to support his/her application. The kinds <strong>of</strong> pro<strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong>ten used are examples <strong>of</strong> completed work, certificates <strong>of</strong><br />
completed courses, portfolios and demonstrations. The<br />
candidate should ensure in this instance that the competencies<br />
and knowledge are current; only current competence is<br />
relevant and valid.<br />
. Assessment: The pro<strong>of</strong> is assessed, and if necessary, the<br />
candidate may be asked for an interview. The assessors make<br />
recommendations for recognition <strong>of</strong> credits, or they recommend<br />
refusal. The institute or the pr<strong>of</strong>essional body verifies<br />
the recommendations.<br />
. Post-assessment support: The candidate receives feedback<br />
regarding his/her application. If necessary, a learning or<br />
development plan is recommended.<br />
. Recording: Reports are compiled by an assessor, and the<br />
results are recorded and made available to the applicant, in<br />
writing.<br />
. Appeal: If the candidate is <strong>of</strong> the opinion that the decision<br />
taken is disputable, then he/she may appeal for reconsideration.<br />
6 CONSIDERATIONS IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF<br />
RPL<br />
The recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning is a complex matter, which does not<br />
come without its share <strong>of</strong> impediments. When an institution <strong>of</strong> higher<br />
learning intends to implement RPL, there are a number <strong>of</strong> factors to<br />
which consideration has to be given, to obviate any impediment to<br />
successful implementation. These factors will now be discussed.<br />
6.1 General misconceptions and malpractices to be<br />
avoided<br />
There are a number <strong>of</strong> misconceptions and malpractices concerning<br />
RPL that can jeopardise the entire process. Quality assurance is<br />
partcularly important to maintain sound RPL practice, as well as good<br />
administrative standards. Points to guard against include:
Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning ± a few words <strong>of</strong> caution 149<br />
. The awarding <strong>of</strong> credits on the bases <strong>of</strong> ``time served'' or experience<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the misconceptions regarding RPL is, that experience can be<br />
accredited. Experience merely implies that a task has been completed;<br />
in no way does it imply that learning had actually taken place. Thus it<br />
is important that credits are awarded for learning that can be<br />
demonstrated, and not for the experience itself or for the duration <strong>of</strong><br />
experience (Universities and Colleges Admissions Service for the UK<br />
1999:3; Fawcett 1998:1; Evans 1983:9). Sansregret (1991:3) makes this<br />
clear: ``This is because the number <strong>of</strong> years <strong>of</strong> experience especially<br />
today, does not necessarily mean competence, since people must learn<br />
constantly to adjust. A routine job could prove to be the opposite.'' She<br />
explains further that<br />
[t]o merely record that an individual worked as a purchasing agent<br />
or as a small business owner for three years documents only the<br />
time. The intention <strong>of</strong> prior learning assessment is to take the<br />
process a step further and to explore what the person learned from<br />
the experience about purchasing, business ownership or management.<br />
What skills and knowledge were acquired? Are the competencies<br />
equivalent to competencies achieved in courses <strong>of</strong>fered at<br />
colleges and universities?<br />
. Basing assessment fees on the number <strong>of</strong> credits awarded<br />
RPL is a service to students, and the purpose is to maximise potential<br />
for an individual. It also acknowledges the right to equal admission<br />
opportunities. For this reason it is important that the fees levied should<br />
correlate to the service provided, and not the number <strong>of</strong> credits that are<br />
awarded. The fees that are levied should be standardised and should<br />
be known before the time, so that students can decide whether they can<br />
afford such an assessment. Nyatanga et al (1998:39) warn that if fees<br />
are levied according to credits awarded, it can give rise to the<br />
following problems: ``In being charged fees per credit, students are<br />
unlikely to know the cost until their portfolio has actually been<br />
submitted and assessed. The dilemma this creates is that ability to pay<br />
and indeed withholding information on credits after a lot <strong>of</strong> effort has<br />
gone into producing a portfolio.''
150<br />
. Making no distinction between the roles <strong>of</strong> the RPL advisor and that <strong>of</strong> the<br />
assessor<br />
Personnel who help students to prepare their pro<strong>of</strong>, should not play a<br />
direct role in the final academic assessment <strong>of</strong> the evidence. This<br />
distinction is <strong>of</strong> cardinal importance to ensure objectivity (Evans<br />
1988:7; Nyatanga et al 1998:39). Evans (1988:7) explains that ``[t]he<br />
simple point here is to avoid confusion between advocate and judge.''<br />
. Promises <strong>of</strong> RPL service without regard for resources, personnel development<br />
and expertise in the area<br />
It is <strong>of</strong>ten accepted that one only needs sound judgement to implement<br />
RPL, and that coordinated service and quality assurance mechanisms<br />
are not really necessary. No RPL programme can be implemented<br />
successfully if all the personnel that should be involved have not been<br />
trained very well (Nyatanga et al 1998:39). Evans (1988:23) stresses that<br />
``[c]learly it is irresponsible to launch any APEL scheme without being<br />
assured that the academic colleagues who will be asked to assess the<br />
prior learning are fully briefed on the nature <strong>of</strong> the undertaking and<br />
support in it.'' The crucial necessity <strong>of</strong> continuous training and<br />
development <strong>of</strong> personnel regarding RPL policy, principles and<br />
procedures is also accentuated by the New Zealand Qualifications<br />
Authority (1993:14): ``Positive and appropriate strategies to respond to<br />
all types <strong>of</strong> inquiries are needed. Sensitivity to diverse cultures and<br />
abilities, gender and age <strong>of</strong> the candidates is essential. There must be<br />
sufficient numbers available to communicate in languages preferred by<br />
the candidates.''<br />
. No strategy in place to monitor inconsistencies and RPL malpractices, and<br />
<strong>of</strong>fering only uncoordinated and invalid services<br />
When an institution is committed to RPL, then the RPL service should<br />
comply with the same standards and quality requirements as all their<br />
other services. There should be mechanisms in place to disclose<br />
malpractice (Nyatanga et al 1998:38).
Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning ± a few words <strong>of</strong> caution 151<br />
. Neglect to disclose rules, regulations and criteria for RPL assessment<br />
beforehand<br />
The requirements that need to be complied with, and the type <strong>of</strong> pro<strong>of</strong><br />
that needs to be submitted, need to be spelled out very clearly,<br />
beforehand. For example, if a portfolio needs to be submitted, then<br />
students should receive very clear criteria for the composition <strong>of</strong> this<br />
submission. Transparency regarding all aspects is important, at all<br />
times.<br />
. Neglect <strong>of</strong> feedback to applicants<br />
Feedback to students regarding the outcome <strong>of</strong> their assessment is an<br />
important aspect <strong>of</strong> RPL service. Students should know why they were<br />
successful or unsuccessful, and it should be possible to appeal. For this<br />
process too there should be clear guidelines (Nyatanga et al 1998:40).<br />
6.2 The risk factor involved in RPL<br />
Changing circumstances and revolutionary approaches, such as RPL,<br />
demand that institutions should thoroughly scrutinise and reconsider<br />
existing assessment and evaluative methods. Conventional assessment<br />
and evaluation, at best, reflect a number <strong>of</strong> serious shortcomings and<br />
are far from perfect. This is also the case with prior learning. Windham<br />
(1981:2) makes a valid point when he voices his concern about the<br />
``ability <strong>of</strong> any examination or other evaluative instruments to<br />
substitute for the learning experiences <strong>of</strong> the classroom''. According to<br />
Toop and Burleigh (1993:17), there is <strong>of</strong>ten the perception that RPL<br />
involves a ``second class'' or inferior assessment. However, they<br />
ascribe this to the fact that ``the critic has set up in his/her mind an<br />
idealised assessment situation which is rarely met in reality.''<br />
During conventional assessment, the full spectrum <strong>of</strong> knowledge and<br />
competencies that are covered in a course, are seldom tested fully; only<br />
a sample is tested during a limited number <strong>of</strong> assessment sessions, for<br />
instance in one or two assignments, in a multiple choice test on theory,<br />
or in a practical test. Such previous experiences <strong>of</strong> assessment <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
cause RPL candidates to underestimate their own competencies, with<br />
the result that they apply for less recognition than they would have
152<br />
been awarded. This can partially be ascribed to the fear <strong>of</strong> failure and<br />
the conviction that they are inadequate in a critical facet <strong>of</strong> the work.<br />
There is an additional factor: Many students are convinced that if they<br />
receive exemption, then they will not be able to cope with more<br />
important aspects when they are in a formal test situation (Toop &<br />
Burleigh 1993:18). The criteria <strong>of</strong> objectivity, validity and reliability<br />
should thus be in place at all times during assessment <strong>of</strong> prior learning.<br />
Over and above the fact that the criteria <strong>of</strong> objectivity, validity and<br />
reliability might be lacking during assessment <strong>of</strong> prior learning, there<br />
is also another risk factor linked to RPL. In Figure 1, which has been<br />
adapted from Toop & Burleigh (1993:18), this risk factor is indicated.<br />
When a student requires recognition for an entire module, or when he/<br />
she applies to be declared competent in the performance <strong>of</strong> high risk or<br />
complex competence, then there is a high risk involved. If full<br />
recognition is obtained in such a case, then there is no further training<br />
or assessment involved, and then there is no safety net in place to<br />
compensate for a lack <strong>of</strong> knowledge, or for wrong assessment. A lower<br />
level<strong>of</strong>riskisinvolvedwhenonlypartialrecognitionisrequiredfora<br />
single study unit, module or even units <strong>of</strong> competencies, since this will<br />
result in further training and assessment, during which it can be<br />
assured that a candidate reaches the outcomes <strong>of</strong> a qualification. Since<br />
there is a risk involved, there need to be a few safety nets in place.<br />
These safety nets are in the form <strong>of</strong> the capacity that the assessors have<br />
to<br />
. specify further training and/or experience that the candidate<br />
has to obtain.<br />
. reserve the right to reassess the candidate at a later stage<br />
regarding further training or experience, as has been<br />
stipulated.<br />
. to withdraw the provisional recognition.<br />
The risk factor implies that an increasing measure <strong>of</strong> meticulousness needs<br />
to be applied, as the level <strong>of</strong> risk increases. This can take place in two ways,<br />
namely the required amount and quality <strong>of</strong> evidence that should be<br />
presented, and the involvement <strong>of</strong> more than one assessor, to assess the
Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning ± a few words <strong>of</strong> caution 153<br />
evidence, and to take the final decision (Toop & Burleigh 1993:18). A high<br />
risk application can for instance include a variety <strong>of</strong> evidence such as:<br />
observation in the work place; a challenge test; a trade test; confirmation <strong>of</strong><br />
competence by a supervisor or an employer; assignments; a portfolio <strong>of</strong><br />
completed work (for example <strong>of</strong> real objects) and further oral interviews.<br />
The implementation <strong>of</strong> a panel <strong>of</strong> judges to assess the evidence, brings<br />
more expertise and more viewpoints into play in the assessment situation,<br />
and could lead to a more balanced decision.<br />
The risk factor also entails that it should be taken into consideration<br />
that some competencies or modules are more important, or more<br />
critical than others. ``The person may only be applying for recognition<br />
<strong>of</strong> 10 per cent <strong>of</strong> the course, but it may be the most critical 10 per cent <strong>of</strong><br />
the whole course and deserving <strong>of</strong> rigorous assessment'' (Toop &<br />
Burleigh 1993:19). In a low risk situation where fewer crucial modules<br />
are involved, the assessment outcome can, however, be taken by an<br />
expert and the evidence provided need not be so comprehensive.<br />
6.3 Personnel involvement in the implementation <strong>of</strong><br />
RPL<br />
According to Evans (1988:23), workloads and attitudes are the most<br />
important factors that need to be considered regarding personnel<br />
involved in RPL. She warns regarding workload that ``[w]ork with<br />
APEL can lead some students into enormous amounts <strong>of</strong> work as they<br />
delve into their experiences. They get fascinated by it. This can result in<br />
some wanting to make disproportionate demands on tutors' time.''<br />
This problem can be solved to some extent, when clear objectives are<br />
set for the required evidence, and for transparent assessment. The<br />
latter implies that students should understand why and according to<br />
which criteria they are going to be assessed, and how the marks are to<br />
be interpreted. If they are unsuccessful, then reasons should be<br />
provided (Wood 1990:39).<br />
Evans (1988:23) as well as Cohen and Whitaker (1994:52) point out that<br />
personal and academic inclinations can influence the assessment<br />
process. According to Cohen and Whitaker (1994:52), there are<br />
institutions that regard RPL as an external activity, or regard it to be
154<br />
k<br />
SKILLS/COMPETENCY DEVELOPMENT<br />
INCREASING EXTENT OF RECOGNITION SOUGHT<br />
FIGURE 1<br />
Risk management <strong>of</strong> recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning<br />
FULL COMPETENCE Ð FULL RECOGNITION<br />
. High risk/limited ``safety-net''<br />
. Skills to be assessed are very complex and<br />
possibly multi-disciplinary<br />
. Full interview panel<br />
. Self-assessment is an essential part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
student's learning approach<br />
. Moderate risk/further opportunity<br />
for assessment<br />
. Skills to be assessed are confined to a<br />
limited field eg finance or engineering<br />
. Self-assessment is still part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
learning acquisition process<br />
. Low risk/considerable future<br />
assessment opportunity<br />
. Skills to be assessed are confined<br />
to a single domain eg<br />
organic chemistry<br />
. Single interviewer<br />
k<br />
MORE EVIDENCE OF COMPETENCE REQUIRED<br />
MORE RIGOUROUS ASSESSMENT REQUIRED AND<br />
MORE ASSESSORS INVOLVED<br />
LIMITED SKILLS Ð NO RECOGNITION<br />
(Adapted from: Toop & Burleigh 1993:18.)
Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning ± a few words <strong>of</strong> caution 155<br />
similar to traditional admission procedures. Some academics are <strong>of</strong> the<br />
opinion that RPL lowers academic standards and it is a s<strong>of</strong>t option;<br />
while others just cannot accept that there can be authentic learning<br />
outside the lecture hall, without the aid <strong>of</strong> a lecturer.<br />
Academyics who fear that RPL could lead to a lowering <strong>of</strong> academic<br />
standards are especially concerned about the assessment <strong>of</strong> outcomes,<br />
when the learning process, and other academic thought processes such<br />
as reasoning, debating and logic, cannot be assessed. In their summary<br />
<strong>of</strong> papers read at the 1994 International Experiential Learning<br />
Conference, Cohen and Whitaker (1994:51) quote from Hindmarsh's<br />
paper:<br />
Perhaps the most common concern raised by university staff new to<br />
RPL is the fear that RPL, especially if for credit, would decrease the<br />
quality and the nature <strong>of</strong> learning as valued by `the liberal<br />
university'. For example, in our study at Victoria <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
Wellington some staff, including those in more vocationally<br />
oriented programs feared that RPL could require pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
competence to be defined so that it served narrow, technicist<br />
vocational interests and thus de-emphasized capacities to develop<br />
critical analyses <strong>of</strong> social and economic injustices and the holistic<br />
nature <strong>of</strong> learning Ð as valued by the university.<br />
This fear is linked to an assumption that RPL is inevitably rooted in<br />
a technicist, industry-led and conservative ideology <strong>of</strong> education<br />
with an emphasis on minimal standards and finite course outcomes<br />
which are only valid if capable <strong>of</strong> reduction into `objective'<br />
measurable and observable behaviours. Such an education model is<br />
in direct opposition to features valued by western liberal and/or<br />
humanist views <strong>of</strong> the purpose <strong>of</strong> education Ð excellence, integrative<br />
and holistic learning, the extension <strong>of</strong> human potential to<br />
realms still unknown and the importance <strong>of</strong> learning processes as<br />
much as learning outcomes. Debate, analysis and critical thinking<br />
are highly valued in such universities, which it is contended can not<br />
be reduced and packaged in small, finite unit outcomes.
156<br />
6.4 The necessity <strong>of</strong> quality control<br />
In order to obviate a lowering <strong>of</strong> standards, thorough quality assurance<br />
is a very important prerequisite for successful RPL implementation.<br />
Students, employers and taxpayers expect that institutions <strong>of</strong> higher<br />
learning will maintain high standards, and that quality graduands will<br />
be produced for society. Thus these stakeholders become more and<br />
more critical <strong>of</strong> graduates who are not able to perform the tasks<br />
required or expected <strong>of</strong> them. Most students also prefer that the<br />
qualification that they obtain from a university or an institution <strong>of</strong><br />
higher learning attracts the necessary respect from their employers<br />
(Sansregret 1985:40). Thus there remains a need for quality, quality<br />
assurance and quality control. According to Coetzee (2000:1) quality<br />
can be regarded as the ``degree <strong>of</strong> excellence'', while assurance should<br />
be understood as the ``formal guarantee or positive declaration''.<br />
According to her, quality assurance, therefore, means ``a formal<br />
guarantee <strong>of</strong> a degree <strong>of</strong> excellence''.<br />
Quality assurance is absolutely essential for the success <strong>of</strong> any RPL<br />
programme. Quality may be seen as the degree <strong>of</strong> confidence that<br />
students or others <strong>of</strong> a particular institution have in those who are<br />
involved in the RPL procedures. According to Nyatanga et al (1998:30)<br />
quality assurance regarding RPL includes total quality management<br />
(TQM) as well as continuous quality improvement (CQI). These<br />
concepts may be described as ``doing the right thing the first time, on<br />
time and to strive always for improvement and customer satisfaction.''<br />
Doing things correctly within RPL terms means that there will be an<br />
infrastructure and processes in place for the maintenance and for the<br />
continual improvement <strong>of</strong> RPL practice. Nyatanga et al (1998:30)<br />
observe in this connection that RPL can only complement the quality<br />
and the commensurate student experiences if it is based on a clear<br />
policy, sound commitment and critical judgement by the users.<br />
Sansregret (1985:40) quotes Sachs (1980), who warns institutions<br />
against the temptation to give away credits, he furthermore ``deplores<br />
`the lack <strong>of</strong> standards' with the easy assurance that comes from
Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning ± a few words <strong>of</strong> caution 157<br />
superficial knowledge''. In an attempt to draw students, institutions<br />
can also easily recognise learning where that registration is not entirely<br />
justified. According to Sachs there are four key areas that can assure<br />
quality control:<br />
. that the learning be at college level;<br />
. that it falls within the kind <strong>of</strong> creditable work congruent with<br />
the mission and goals <strong>of</strong> the collegiate institution;<br />
. that the awards result from technically sound assessment,<br />
heeding concerns <strong>of</strong> both validity and reliability, and<br />
. that institutional integrity be maintained in the advertising<br />
<strong>of</strong> the learning and crediting options, in the reporting and<br />
labelling <strong>of</strong> the assessment findings and in the fiscal<br />
procedures developed to support the assessment service.<br />
It is very important to keep in mind when prior learning is assessed<br />
that, firstly, the learning that has taken place should be measurable.<br />
Assessors should focus on knowledge and competencies that can be<br />
demonstrated, since there is no other way in which the value <strong>of</strong><br />
experience can be measured. Secondly, it is important that the learning<br />
should contain both a theoretical as well as a practical component.<br />
Many adults are adept when it comes to the application <strong>of</strong> knowledge,<br />
but <strong>of</strong>ten they do not have the theoretical substructure. Thirdly, the<br />
learning that took place should be at a higher education level. A person<br />
may only receive credit for that which can be compared to what is<br />
taught at institutions <strong>of</strong> higher education. The learning should,<br />
fourthly, be applicable outside <strong>of</strong> the specific context in which it was<br />
learned, in order to serve as foundation for further learning. The<br />
learnershouldthusbeabletoapplyhis/herknowledgeand<br />
competencies in more than one situation. Lastly, the learning should be<br />
<strong>of</strong> a recent nature. A person cannot expect to receive academic credits<br />
for knowledge and experience that had been obtained long ago and has<br />
probably already become obsolete, or is no longer current (Sansregret<br />
1985:41). There need to be mechanisms in place that prevent a person<br />
from being accredited more than once for the same prior learning.
158<br />
In order to ensure sound practice and quality in RPL, it is necessary<br />
that institutions see to it that the following are in place (Nyatanga et al<br />
1998:32):<br />
. a clear policy on RPL, and admission to it;<br />
. regulations and guidelines to train both personnel and<br />
potential applicants;<br />
. specific <strong>of</strong>fices or persons that are responsible for the making<br />
operational RPL and quality control;<br />
. specific roles that the institution and the personnel need to<br />
fulfil regarding RPL issues, which may emerge on a day-today<br />
basis;<br />
. how an institution and its programmes will be seen by those<br />
outside, such as relevant pr<strong>of</strong>essional bodies, and<br />
. how an institution will obtain the opinions and experiences<br />
<strong>of</strong> students and others involved in the RPL process, and how<br />
to assimilate these.<br />
An important quality assurance mechanism is the continuous evaluation<br />
and revision <strong>of</strong> RPL procedures. The New Zealand Qualification<br />
Authority (1993:19) mentions that ``[t]hose who have been piloting RPL<br />
practices in New Zealand affirm that RPL systems evolve and are in<br />
constant need <strong>of</strong> modification. RPL systems that have been in place in<br />
overseas for 20 years continue to be revised''.<br />
6.5 Costs involved in RPL<br />
The financial implications <strong>of</strong> RPL should never be left out <strong>of</strong> the<br />
equation. It is logical that RPL could influence registration numbers <strong>of</strong><br />
students, and this implies a potential gain or loss for institutions. RPL<br />
could imply the possibility <strong>of</strong> subsidisation <strong>of</strong> students by the state.<br />
On the one hand, it may be argued that RPL programmes provide an<br />
opportunity for students who would otherwise not have registered for<br />
a qualification. Most RPL programmes are also aimed to draw nontraditional<br />
students: adults, wives and working individuals who<br />
cannot afford the time and the cost <strong>of</strong> the usual registration for courses.<br />
Thus, this can lead to a rise in student numbers. Wagner (1981:2),
Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning ± a few words <strong>of</strong> caution 159<br />
however, investigated the situation at various institutions, and points<br />
out that this assumption cannot be accepted merely as a datum, since<br />
``[t]aken together, these findings provide little evidence to indicate an<br />
increase in enrollments, particularly from groups not traditionally<br />
served by higher education, as a result <strong>of</strong> RPL programs''. Nyatanga et<br />
al (1998:43), on the other hand, do not agree, and aver that RPL has the<br />
potential to generate income, since it can raise the numbers <strong>of</strong> parttime<br />
students in particular.<br />
On the other hand it may be reasoned that RPL creates the possibility<br />
that students may complete a qualification in a shorter time, and that<br />
this could influence the registration numbers for courses, since it<br />
precludes students who would have had to follow the usual route <strong>of</strong><br />
preliminary courses on account <strong>of</strong> RPL. Cohen and Whitaker (1994:51),<br />
however, observe in a conclusion in papers that were read at the 1994<br />
International Experiential Learning Conference, that very few <strong>of</strong> the<br />
speakers complained about the financial implications, and only one<br />
person referred to the ``loss <strong>of</strong> business'' on account <strong>of</strong> RPL. According<br />
to them, RPL supports growth in academic courses rather than<br />
impeding it.<br />
However, it cannot be denied that RPL programmes involve direct<br />
costs for institutions <strong>of</strong> higher learning where RPL is implemented.<br />
Development <strong>of</strong> tests and validation, portfolio assessment, the<br />
conducting <strong>of</strong> interviews, <strong>of</strong>ten on a one-to-one basis, etcetera, can be<br />
very costly. Even when standardised tests are used, the costs involved<br />
in the marking, frequent standardising and evaluation studies, test<br />
administration, keeping <strong>of</strong> records and the personnel that are involved,<br />
can accrue to a considerable amount (Wagner 1981:7, Windham<br />
1981:11). According to Toop and Burleigh (1993:22), there are also the<br />
initial costs that are involved. This includes the time that is spent on<br />
the development <strong>of</strong> an RPL policy for a particular institution,<br />
determining the assessment criteria and the development <strong>of</strong> assessment<br />
methods and instruments such as for instance the use <strong>of</strong><br />
checklists for self-assessment, or for the use by assessors, key questions<br />
for interviews, practical or challenge tests, computer-based tests,<br />
etcetera. This also includes the costs involved in the time that is spent
160<br />
in the development <strong>of</strong> advertising materials (brochures, pamphlets,<br />
posters, etc.) And the process materials (application forms, pro forms<br />
for the recording <strong>of</strong> assessment outcomes) and the keeping <strong>of</strong> records<br />
(eg data bases, portfolios, passports <strong>of</strong> competencies, etc). A great<br />
expense associated with RPL is the cost involved in the training <strong>of</strong><br />
personnel for the assessment process.<br />
Apart from initial costs, there are also certain maintenance costs that<br />
can amount to considerable sums. The time that is spent in the<br />
management <strong>of</strong> the system, and in the marketing and the advertising,<br />
the handling <strong>of</strong> general inquiries and the dissemination <strong>of</strong> documentation,<br />
the time that is spent in the deliberation (``counselling'') with<br />
applicants, before and after assessment, the actual assessment and the<br />
making available <strong>of</strong> suitable space for <strong>of</strong>fices and other assessment<br />
activities, especially if the assessment does not take place at the<br />
candidate's place <strong>of</strong> work, the upgrading <strong>of</strong> RPL advisors, are all<br />
aspects that contribute to the maintenance costs.<br />
Although students need to pay for the opportunity to be considered for<br />
RPL, it is uncertain whether the real costs <strong>of</strong> RPL assessment could be<br />
reimbursed from the students' payment <strong>of</strong> fees, later on. In Section 6.1,<br />
it was pointed out that the assessment fees cannot be based on the<br />
number <strong>of</strong> credits that will be awarded. The reimbursement <strong>of</strong> costs<br />
from the student gives rise to another problem. Applying for RPL can<br />
be very intensive and demands so much time, inputs and monies from<br />
students that it may appear cheaper instead, to register for the course<br />
for which they are trying to obtain exemption. This is why Cohen and<br />
Whitaker (1994:53) remark that ``[t]he challenge is to develop<br />
procedures which are rigorous without being unduly onerous or<br />
intrusive and economical for all concerned.''<br />
7 CONCLUSION<br />
The acknowledgement and accreditation <strong>of</strong> prior learning have become<br />
a reality in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>, and for this reason both academics as well as
Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning ± a few words <strong>of</strong> caution 161<br />
learners should be prepared for its implementation. Misconceptions<br />
and malpractices need to be pointed out early, so that the process will<br />
not be impeded, or retarded, or implemented in such a way that the<br />
standards are lowered.<br />
It seems clear that recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning requires a change <strong>of</strong><br />
attitude for academics. It needs to be realised that institutions <strong>of</strong> higher<br />
learning do not hold a monopoly over learning, and that they are not<br />
the only providers <strong>of</strong> teaching. Businesses, individuals, voluntary<br />
organisations, churches and other institutions have also ventured into<br />
the teaching arena, and learning that has taken place there is as valid as<br />
that which has been initiated by academic institutions. Moreover,<br />
adults acquire valuable knowledge and competencies, through their<br />
experiences (outside the academic milieu), which equates academic<br />
learning. Sansregret (1987:4) points out that there are two possible<br />
styles <strong>of</strong> learning: theoretical and practical experience. Some persons<br />
learn better after they have experienced something first, they then<br />
apply what they have learned by experience, and after the learning task<br />
has been completed, they understand the general concepts and<br />
principles better. Others first learn the general principles and concepts,<br />
and then apply these to a specific situation. The latter is the traditional<br />
way <strong>of</strong> learning, and unfortunately some academics accept this as the<br />
only valid way <strong>of</strong> learning. In order to bring the credibility <strong>of</strong> RPL<br />
home to academics, and to convince the ``unbelievers'' <strong>of</strong> the merits <strong>of</strong><br />
RPL, one should begin, well in time, to inform personnel, and obviate<br />
misconceptions about the practice <strong>of</strong> RPL.<br />
Thorough training <strong>of</strong> personnel involved with RPL is a prerequisite for<br />
its implementation. It is important to distinguish between those who<br />
have to help the candidate with his/her application and those who are<br />
going to assess that application. Provision should also be made for<br />
moderators and external examiners who are to verify the assessment. It<br />
is absolutely essential that the assessors and the moderators should be<br />
subject specialists. However, it is not only personnel that need to be<br />
trained ± the students will also need to be trained in order to prepare<br />
their RPL applications.
162<br />
Since there are risks involved in the implementation <strong>of</strong> RPL, there<br />
should be built-in safety precautions, and it should be ensured that the<br />
assessing that takes place, complies with the requirements <strong>of</strong><br />
objectivity, validity and reliability. Teaching institutions should<br />
formulate their policy regarding RPL in such a fashion, that the<br />
assessor will be empowered to grant provisional recognition, to<br />
propose further training and to reserve the right to reassess the<br />
candidate later on regarding the proposed training. The more, the more<br />
difficult and more important and the higher the risk the courses or<br />
modules pose, for which the candidates have applied to obtain<br />
recognition, the more comprehensive the safety nets should be. These<br />
`'nets'' could for instance consist <strong>of</strong> a larger panel <strong>of</strong> assessors, or there<br />
could be more stringent implementation <strong>of</strong> various kinds <strong>of</strong> assessments.<br />
In order to ensure that standards are not compromised on account <strong>of</strong><br />
recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning, it is essential that there should be<br />
rigorous quality control during the entire process. To ensure quality,<br />
certain academic and administrative standards need to be set. Among<br />
others this includes transparency, clear policy, supportive infrastructure,<br />
adequate and consistent training <strong>of</strong> personnel and accountable<br />
assessing practices. The RPL procedures need to be revised<br />
continually.<br />
It will benefit institutions to consider very thoroughly the financial<br />
implications connected with RPL, before the process is implemented.<br />
Factors such as the cost involved in the training <strong>of</strong> personnel, the initial<br />
cost, maintenance cost and administrative cost (eg keeping <strong>of</strong> records)<br />
<strong>of</strong> RPL, need to be considered, against the potential increase in student<br />
numbers. Other factors to be considered are the costs that students<br />
incur by submitting an RPL application. It could for instance be<br />
expensive and time consuming to prepare a complete portfolio. The<br />
cost involved should therefore be communicated clearly to students.<br />
8 CONCLUDING REMARKS<br />
RPL <strong>of</strong>fers individuals, academic institutions, and the pr<strong>of</strong>essional
Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning ± a few words <strong>of</strong> caution 163<br />
world, the opportunity to adapt to changing circumstances in work<br />
and life. However, how to implement RPL accountably, without risk,<br />
quickly, economically and with the necessary quality control remains<br />
the key question to be answered by each respective discipline.<br />
BIBLIOGRAPHY<br />
Coetzee, M 2000. Quality assurance. Paper read at the Workshop for the Advanced<br />
Programme for Trainers. July. Pretoria: Unisa.<br />
Cohen, R & Whitaker, U 1994. Assessing learning from experience. Perspectives on<br />
Experiential learning. The 1994 International Experiential Learning Conference.<br />
9±12 November 1997. Washington, DC.<br />
Evans, N 1983. Curriculum opportunity. A map <strong>of</strong> experiential learning in entry requirements<br />
to higher and further education in award bearing courses. A project report. London:<br />
Further Education Unit.<br />
Evans, N 1988. The assessment <strong>of</strong> prior experiential learning. Report <strong>of</strong> a CNAA<br />
Development Fund Project conducted at the Learning form Experience Trust. London:<br />
Council for National Academic Awards.<br />
Fawcett, B 1998. AOQ (SA) Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning (RPL) policy. http://<br />
www.aoq.asn.au/rpl.html. (Accessed on 1999/09/20).<br />
Harris,J&Saddington,T1995. The recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning (RPL): International models<br />
<strong>of</strong> assessment and their impact on the <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n education and training practice.<br />
Cape Town: <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Cape Town.<br />
Nayatanga, L, Forman, D & Fox, J 1998. Good practice in the accreditation <strong>of</strong> prior learning.<br />
London: Cassell.<br />
New Zealand Qualifications Authority. 1993. The recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning. Quality<br />
assurance in education and training. Wellington: New Zealand Qualifications<br />
Authority.<br />
Sansregret, M 1985. Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning. Administrator's guide. Quebec: Quebec<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Education.<br />
Sansregret, M 1987. A rationale for assessing adults' prior learning. Information analysis.<br />
Sansregret, M 1991. Recognition <strong>of</strong> practical knowledge through a prior learning<br />
assessment program. Paper delivered at the 40th Annual Adult Education<br />
Conference, 14±20 October 1991. Montreal, Quebec, Canada.<br />
Stannard, L 1999. Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning. http://www.swtafe.vic.edu.au.info.rpl.htm.<br />
(Accessed on 1999/09/20).<br />
Steenholdt, P 1998. Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning (RPL). http://www.dvet.tas.gov.au/train/<br />
trai7255.htm. (Accessed on 1999/09/20).
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Toop, L & Burleigh, J 1993. Arrangements for the recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning in Australia.<br />
Canberra: Australian Department <strong>of</strong> Employment, Education and Training.<br />
Universities and Colleges Admissions Service for the UK. 1999. Accreditation <strong>of</strong> prior<br />
learning. http://search1.ucas.co.uk/higher/candq/apl/right.html. (Accessed on 1999/<br />
09/20).<br />
<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Ballarat TAFE Division. 1999. Recognition <strong>of</strong> prior learning.<br />
http://swww.ballarat.edu.au/olp/olprpl.htm. (Accessed on 1999/09/20).<br />
<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. 2000. Draft policy on assessment and accreditation <strong>of</strong> experiential<br />
learning. Pretoria: Unisa.<br />
Wagner, A P 1981. A research agenda for `RPL' programs. Paper delivered at the 5th<br />
International Conference on Higher Education at the <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Lancaster. 1±4<br />
September.<br />
Windham, D M 1981. The economics <strong>of</strong> recognizing prior learning. Paper delivered at the<br />
5th International Conference on Higher Education at the <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Lancaster.<br />
1±4 September.<br />
Wood, R 1990. Assessing occupational competence: key operational precepts gained from<br />
work on the ground. Competence and Assessment Compendium no 1:37±38.
Die bepaling van 'n realistiese prestasievlak 165<br />
Die bepaling van<br />
'n realistiese<br />
prestasievlak<br />
GBester<br />
Departement Opvoedkundestudies<br />
Unisa<br />
The aim <strong>of</strong> the investigation was to determine which variables can be used to account for<br />
the largest proportion <strong>of</strong> the variance in achievement and which instruments can be used<br />
to measure these variables. A sample <strong>of</strong> 124 grade 11-learners (61 boys and 63 girls)<br />
was used in the investigation. General Intelligence, Aptitude, Self-concept, Motivation,<br />
Interest (brain-preference) and Study-orientation were used as prediction variables.<br />
Achievement was used as the criterion variable. In total 64% <strong>of</strong> the variance in<br />
achievement could be accounted for by the prediction variables <strong>of</strong> which General<br />
Intelligence, Study-orientation and Gender accounted for 50%. A further 10% was<br />
accounted for by Brain-preference(A), Calculations and Short-term Memory. The<br />
remaining variables accounted for an additional 4% <strong>of</strong> the variance in achievement.<br />
Finally, the educational value <strong>of</strong> realistic achievement levels was discussed.<br />
Die doel van die ondersoek was om te bepaal watter veranderlikes gebruik kan word om<br />
die grootste proporsie van die variansie in prestasie te verklaar en watter instrumente kan<br />
gebruik word om die veranderlikes te meet. 'n Steekproef van 124 graad 11-leerders (61<br />
seuns en 63 dogters) is in die ondersoek gebruik. As voorspellingsveranderlikes is<br />
Intelligensie, Aanleg, Selfkonsep, Motivering, Belangstelling (breinvoorkeur) en StudieorieÈntasie<br />
gebruik. Die kriteriumveranderlike was prestasie. In totaal kon 64% van die<br />
variansie in gemiddelde prestasie deur die voorspellingsveranderlikes verklaar word,<br />
waarvan Algemene Intelligensie, StudieorieÈntasie en geslag 50% verklaar het. 'n Verdere
166<br />
10% is verklaar deur Breinvoorkeur (A), Berekeninge en Korttermyngeheue. Die<br />
oorblywende veranderlikes het 'n addisionele 4% van die variansie in prestasie verklaar.<br />
Die opvoedkundige waarde van realistiese prestasievlakke word ten slotte bespreek.<br />
1 INLEIDING<br />
Die werklikheid moet nie van 'n kind weerhou word nie. Die kind moet<br />
eerder met die werklikheid gekonfronteer word en uitgenooi word om<br />
op 'n eerlike wyse daaroor te besin, sodat hy/sy tot 'n beter begrip kan<br />
kom van wie en wat hy/sy is (Corey 1996:43). Die  opdrag le à op die pad<br />
van die opvoeder aangesien dit die opvoeder is wat die kind van sy/<br />
haar moontlikhede en beperkinge bewus moet maak sonder om die<br />
kind af te kraak <strong>of</strong> wonderlike bel<strong>of</strong>tes van onmoontlikhede aan hom/<br />
haar voor te hou.<br />
Akademiese prestasie is een terrein waar leerders, ouers en ook<br />
onderwysers dikwels onrealistiese afleidings stel en maak. In die<br />
meeste gevalle is dit omdat daar nie voldoende inligting oor die leerder<br />
beskikbaar is nie. In gevalle waar 'n intelligensietelling byvoorbeeld<br />
nie beskikbaar is nie, word verwagte prestasie r<strong>of</strong>weg geskat in stede<br />
daarvan dat dit wetenskaplik bereken word. As 'n intelligensietelling<br />
wel beskikbaar is, let baie onderwysers slegs op die telling as 'n<br />
aanduiding van potensiaal sonder om affektiewe veranderlikes soos<br />
selfbeeld en motivering in berekening te bring, faktore wat beslis ook<br />
met prestasie verband hou. Dit is veral gedurende die hoe È rskooljare<br />
dat laasgenoemde faktore 'n toenemend groter rol met betrekking tot<br />
prestasie begin speel. Baie hoe È rskoolleerders raak met verloop van tyd<br />
agter ten opsigte van hulle skoolwerk omdat hulle daardeur oorweldig<br />
word. Dit gee aanleiding tot 'n lae selfbeeld en gebrekkige motivering,<br />
aangesien die leerders van mening is dat hulle nooit die mas sal opkom<br />
nie. Dit het tot gevolg dat hulle nie genoegsaam studeer nie en wanneer<br />
hulle dan swak presteer, versterk dit hulle eie selfvernietigende<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>esie (Ames 1992:261±271). Een geslaagde manier om uit hierdie<br />
sirkel weg te breek is om realistiese prestasievlakke vir die leerder daar
Die bepaling van 'n realistiese prestasievlak 167<br />
te stel wat hy/sy in alle waarskynlikheid sal bereik. Dit is om hierdie<br />
rede vreemd dat dit nie 'n algemene praktyk by skole is om realistiese<br />
prestasievlakke vir leerders in die vernaamste skoolvakke te bepaal<br />
nie.<br />
In 'n voorondersoek het die skrywer twaalf hoe È rskole in die Pretoriaomgewing<br />
gekontak en nie een van hierdie skole bepaal realistiese<br />
prestasievlakke op 'n wetenskaplike wyse nie. 'n Rowwe skatting word<br />
in die meeste gevalle van oor- en onderprestasie gemaak. So 'n praktyk<br />
is ongewens en onnodig aangesien rekenaarprogramme dit moontlik<br />
maak om vir elke leerder in verskillende vakgebiede 'n redelik<br />
akkurate en realistiese prestasiepunt te bereken.<br />
In verskeie ondersoeke is daar reeds pogings aangewend om die<br />
verband tussen verskillende faktore en akademiese prestasie te bepaal.<br />
Hierdie ondersoeke lei egter nie tot praktykveranderinge nie omdat die<br />
mees geskikte faktore nie in aanmerking geneem word nie. Sommige<br />
ondersoeke betrek slegs een veranderlike <strong>of</strong> 'n klein aantal veranderlikes<br />
wat voorspelling bemoeilik omdat die interaksie tussen verskeie<br />
veranderlikes geõ È gnoreer word. Byvoorbeeld, in Brodnick en Ree<br />
(1995:583±594) se ondersoek is slegs intelligensie en sosio-ekonomiese<br />
status met prestasie in verband gebring. Intelligensie het 45% van die<br />
variansie in prestasie verklaar maar sosio-ekonomiese status kon geen<br />
verdere bydrae lewer nie. Belangrike affektiewe veranderlikes soos<br />
selfkonsep en motivering wat wel tot die variansie sou kon bydra, was<br />
egter nie in die ondersoek betrek nie. Die skrywers self het dit as 'n<br />
leemte uitgewys. In ander ondersoeke soos die  van Monteith (1987)<br />
word verskeie veranderlikes wel gebruik, maar nie die gewenste<br />
veranderlikes nie. Gevolglik is die variansie in prestasie wat deur die<br />
veranderlikes verklaar word, nie voldoende nie. In Monteith (1987:45)<br />
se ondersoek byvoorbeeld, kon slegs 36% van die variansie in<br />
wiskundeprestasie by seuns en 32% by dogters verklaar word. Aanleg<br />
is nie as 'n veranderlike ingesluit nie terwyl veranderlikes soos<br />
oplettendheid, mobiliteit, identiteitsekerheid en leesspoed, wat wel<br />
ingesluit was, min tot die verklaring van die variansie in wiskundeprestasie<br />
bygedra het.
168<br />
Twee probleme kom na vore wanneer 'n poging aangewend word om<br />
realistiese prestasievlakke te bepaal, naamlik die keuse van veranderlikes<br />
en die keuse van instrumente om hierdie veranderlikes te meet.<br />
Indien 'n groot getal veranderlikes betrek word wat die toepassing van<br />
verskeie meetinstrumente impliseer, word dit 'n moeilik uitvoerbare<br />
opdrag wat nie byval by voorligters en vakonderwysers sal vind nie.<br />
Die minimum veranderlikes en meetinstrumente moet geselekteer<br />
word waarmee die maksimum variansie in prestasie verklaar kan<br />
word. Verder sou dit raadsaam wees om sover moontlik van meetinstrumente<br />
gebruik te maak wat vir die onderwyser bekend is, soos<br />
die JAT (Junior Aanlegtoets), SAT (Senior Aanlegtoets) <strong>of</strong> die OSGH<br />
(Opname Studiegewoontes en -houdings). Nie alleen is die toetse<br />
gestandaardiseer nie, maar dit is ook toetse wat vir ander doeleindes<br />
(soos beroepskeuse) gebruik word wat die eenmalige afneem daarvan<br />
'n ekonomiese en bruikbare oefening maak.<br />
In die lig van die voorafgaande kan die probleem van die ondersoek<br />
formeelasvolggestelword:Watter veranderlikes kan gebruik word om die<br />
grootste proporsie van die variansie in prestasie te verklaar en watter<br />
instrumente kan gebruik word om die veranderlikes te meet?<br />
'n Bruikbare model om die leerhandeling te struktureer en veranderlikes<br />
wat leer beõ È nvloed te identifiseer, is die  van Bloom (1976:11).<br />
Bloom onderskei drie ho<strong>of</strong>veranderlikes wat met akademiese prestasie<br />
verband hou, naamlik:<br />
. Kognitiewe intreeveranderlikes: Dit is veranderlikes soos<br />
intelligensie, aanleg en denke waarmee die leerder tot die<br />
leertaak toetree.<br />
. Affektiewe intreeveranderlikes: Dit is veranderlikes soos<br />
belangstelling, motivering en selfkonsep waarmee die leerder<br />
tot die leertaak toetree.<br />
. Kwaliteit van onderrig: Dit sluit aspekte in soos goeie<br />
verduideliking, deelname aan die leergebeure, toepassing<br />
van leerinhoude en gereelde evaluering.
Die bepaling van 'n realistiese prestasievlak 169<br />
Kognitiewe en affektiewe veranderlikes is intreeveranderlikes wat in<br />
die leerder self gelee È is en die leerhandeling voorafgaan. Kwaliteit van<br />
onderrig word deur die onderwyser bepaal en is daarom buite die<br />
leerder gelee È . Verder wissel dit van onderwyser tot onderwyser.<br />
In 'n hoe È rskoolsituasie waar verskillende vakke deur verskillende<br />
onderwysers onderrig word, is dit moeilik om 'n veranderlike soos<br />
kwaliteit van onderrig na te vors. Dit is om hierdie rede meer gewens<br />
om te fokus op 'n eienskap van die leerder wat by die leerhandeling<br />
betrokke is. In plaas van te let op die onderrig wat die leerder ontvang,<br />
kan daar eerder op die leerder se studiegewoontes en studiehouding<br />
(studieorie È ntasie) gefokus word.<br />
'n Gewysigde model van Bloom sal skematies soos volg daar uitsien:<br />
Intreekenmerke van Leerhandeling Leeruitkomste<br />
die leerder<br />
Kognitief<br />
Affektief<br />
"<br />
"<br />
Leerinhoud<br />
~<br />
"<br />
Prestasie<br />
Studieorie È ntasie<br />
2 KOGNITIEWE INTREEKENMERKE VAN LEERDERS<br />
2.1 Intelligensie<br />
Die vernaamste kognitiewe veranderlike wat prestasie beõ È nvloed is<br />
intelligensie. Algemene intelligensie is een van die vernaamste<br />
voorspellers van akademiese prestasie aangesien dit die faktor is wat<br />
op sigself die grootste proporsie van die variansie in prestasie verklaar.<br />
Horn ea (1993:464±478) het bevind dat algemene intelligensie ongeveer<br />
21% van die variansie in prestasie verklaar, terwyl Brodnick & Ree<br />
(1995:583±594) aangetoon het dat algemene intelligensie tot soveel as<br />
45% van die variansie in prestasie verklaar. Bennet ea (in Gustafsson &<br />
Blake 1993:407±434) het 'n korrelasie van 0,53 tussen algemene
170<br />
intelligensie en akademiese prestasie aangetoon, wat aandui dat<br />
algemene intelligensie ongeveer 28% van die variansie in prestasie<br />
verklaar. In laasgenoemde ondersoek is vakke soos Engels, Wiskunde,<br />
Wetenskap, Sosiale studies en Handelsvakke as kriteriumveranderlikes<br />
gebruik.<br />
Gustafsson en Blake (1993:407±434) het 'n omvattende navorsingsprojek<br />
geloods om die voorspellingswaarde van intelligensie met<br />
betrekking tot skoolprestasie te bepaal. In totaal is 16 aanlegtoetse by<br />
866 graad 6-leerders afgeneem en die aanlegtoetse is in verband<br />
gebring met prestasies in 17 vakgebiede. Soos in die ondersoeke van<br />
Brodnick en Ree asook Horn ea wat hierbo genoem is, is Gustafsson en<br />
Blake se bevinding ook dat algemene intelligensie die belangrikste<br />
voorspeller in die meeste vakgebiede was en ongeveer 30% van die<br />
variansie in prestasie verklaar (die hoogste was 41% in Wiskunde). Ten<br />
spyte van hulle bevindinge argumenteer die navorsers dat spesifieke<br />
aanlegte nie buite rekening gelaat kan word wanneer prestasie<br />
voorspel word nie. Die rede hiervoor is dat algemene intelligensie wel<br />
die beste kognitiewe voorspeller in die meeste vakgebiede is, maar die<br />
relatiewe belangrikheid van algemene intelligensie verskil van vakgebied<br />
tot vakgebied. Waar algemene intelligensie 41% van die<br />
variansie in wiskundeprestasie verklaar het, kon dit in die geval van<br />
geskiedenisprestasie slegs 25% verklaar (alhoewel dit nog steeds die<br />
beste voorspeller was). Die afleiding wat hieruit gemaak kan word, is<br />
dat die gebruik van algemene intelligensie sowel as spesifieke aanlegte<br />
die aangewese manier is om realistiese prestasievlakke te voorspel.<br />
3 AFFEKTIEWE INTREEKENMERKE VAN LEERDERS<br />
Naas kognitiewe intreekenmerke is affektiewe intreekenmerke die<br />
vernaamste groep veranderlikes wat prestasie op skool beõ È nvloed. Die<br />
affektiewe intreekenmerke wat meestal met prestasie op skool in<br />
verband gebring word, is die selfkonsep, motivering en soms ook<br />
belangstelling in die leerinhoud (Van der Lith 1991:74±81).<br />
3.1 Selfkonsep<br />
'n Sterker verband word tussen akademiese selfkonsep en prestasie
Die bepaling van 'n realistiese prestasievlak 171<br />
aangetoon as die  tussen 'n algemene selfkonsep en prestasie. Die<br />
korrelasie tussen algemene selfkonsep en prestasie blyk in die orde van<br />
0,2 te wees terwyl die korrelasie tussen akademiese selfkonsep en<br />
prestasie ongeveer 0,4 is (Byrne 1996:299±302). Ten einde prestasie te<br />
voorspel, sou dit dus wensliker wees om 'n instrument te gebruik wat<br />
die akademiese selfkonsep van die leerder meet.<br />
Sowat 16% van die variansie in prestasie kan deur akademiese<br />
selfkonsep verklaar word, wat dit een van die vernaamste affektiewe<br />
faktore maak om prestasie te voorspel. Bloom (1976:95) het vroee È r<br />
reeds akademiese selfkonsep uitgesonder as die sterkste affektiewe<br />
faktor om prestasie te voorspel. Uit navorsingsresultate wat hy<br />
aanhaal, kan akademiese selfkonsep sowat 25% van die variansie in<br />
prestasie verklaar. Enige model wat poog om prestasie te voorspel<br />
moet akademiese selfkonsep as veranderlike insluit. Om 'n realistiese<br />
prestasie vir 'n leerder te bepaal is dit belangrik om te weet hoe<br />
realisties hy/sy oor homself as leerder dink.<br />
3.2 Motivering<br />
Die wisselende aard van leerders se motivering hou verband met<br />
wisselende prestasievlakke. Oor die algemeen word hoe È motivering<br />
met hoe È prestasie in verband gebring. Wentzel (1991:196) het goeie en<br />
swak presteerders op hoe È rskoolvlak vergelyk en gevind dat 84% van<br />
die goeie presteerders doelstellings nagestreef het soos om take betyds<br />
af te handel en om suksesvol, onafhanklik en verantwoordelik ten<br />
opsigte van hulle studies te wees. Slegs 13% van die swak presteerders<br />
het hierdie doelstellings nagestreef.<br />
Pekrun (1993:166±175) onderskei tussen 'n verwagtingskomponent en<br />
'n inspanningskomponent as deel van motivering. Wanneer 'n persoon<br />
sekere uitkomste verwag, motiveer dit hom tot optrede (inspanning).<br />
In 'n leersituasie toon Pekrun 'n korrelasie van 0,46 aan tussen die<br />
verwagtingskomponent en inspanningskomponent van graad 8-leerders,<br />
asook 'n korrelasie van 0,14 tussen die inspanningskomponent en<br />
akademiese prestasie. 'n Ondersoek wat hierby aansluit, is die  van
172<br />
Salili (1995:106±109) wat die verband tussen prestasiemotief, prestasiestrategie<br />
en akademiese prestasie bepaal het. 'n Korrelasie van 0,47<br />
is aangetoon tussen prestasiemotief en akademiese prestasie terwyl die<br />
korrelasie tussen prestasiestrategie en akademiese prestasie 0,12 was.<br />
Fortier, Vallerand en Guay (1995:257±274) het Deci en Ryan se<br />
selfdetermineringsmodel gebruik om die verband tussen motivering en<br />
prestasie te ondersoek. Prestasie in Geografie, Frans, Wiskunde en<br />
Biologie is as kriteriumveranderlikes gebruik. Die korrelasie was in die<br />
orde van 0,3 wat aandui dat sowat 9% van die variansie in prestasie<br />
deur motivering verklaar kan word. Dit stem ooreen met 'n ondersoek<br />
van Prus en Hatcher (1995:7±26) wat 'n korrelasie van 0,32 tussen<br />
motivering en prestasie aangetoon het.<br />
3.3 Belangstelling<br />
Budhal (1993:94) toon 'n korrelasie van 0,35 (p
Die bepaling van 'n realistiese prestasievlak 173<br />
4 STUDIEORIEÈ NTASIE<br />
Thombs (1995:280±288) het eerstejaarstudente wat toelating gehad het,<br />
vergelyk met die  wat as gevolg van akademiese redes voorwaardelik<br />
toegelaat is. Benewens hoe È rskoolprestasie was studiemetodes die<br />
vernaamstefaktorwatdietweegroepevanmekaaronderskeihet.<br />
Wilhite (1990:696±700) het bevind dat studiemetodes 5% meer van die<br />
variansie in prestasie verklaar wat nie alreeds deur geheue, lokus van<br />
kontrole en selfkonsep verklaar is nie. In 'n soortgelyke ondersoek het<br />
Elliott en Godshall (1990:203±207) bevind dat studiemetodes tussen 9%<br />
en 11% van die variansie in prestasie verklaar wat nie alreeds deur<br />
ander faktore soos geslag, aanleg en probleemoplossing verklaar is nie.<br />
Prus en Hatcher (1995:7±26) het bevind dat studiemetodes op sigself<br />
ongeveer 12% van die variansie in prestasie verklaar. Saam met ander<br />
veranderlikes (onder andere intelligensie) kan dit slegs 5% meer van<br />
die variansie in prestasie verklaar wat nie alreeds verklaar is nie. Uit<br />
die ondersoek van Prus en ook die ander ondersoeke wat hier genoem<br />
is, kan die afleiding gemaak word dat studieorie È ntasie 'n veranderlike<br />
is wat prestasie kan beõ È nvloed alhoewel dit nie een van die vernaamste<br />
veranderlikes blyk te wees nie. Dit kan egter nie geõ È gnoreer word nie<br />
en behoort opgeneem te word as 'n veranderlike in 'n voorspellingsmodel.<br />
Uit die voorafgaande kan afgelei word dat intelligensie, akademiese<br />
selfkonsep, motivering, belangstelling en studieorie È ntasie belangrike<br />
veranderlikes is wat met akademiese prestasie verband hou. Om vas te<br />
stel watter proporsie van die variansie in prestasie deur die veranderlikes<br />
verklaar word en watter instrumente gebruik kan word om<br />
die veranderlikes mee te meet, is die volgende empiriese ondersoek<br />
uitgevoer.
174<br />
5 DIE NAVORSINGSONTWERP VAN DIE EMPIRIESE<br />
ONDERSOEK<br />
5.1 Steekproef<br />
Daar is besluit om van graad 11-leerders gebruik te maak en wel om die<br />
volgende redes:<br />
. Gedurende graad 11 word prestasie vir die leerder toenemend<br />
belangrik omdat hy/sy reeds in graad 11 begin<br />
voorberei vir die matriekeindeksamen. Prestasie in graad 11<br />
is ook belangrik omdat leerders reeds in graad 11 loopbaanbeplanning<br />
begin doen. Punte wat in graad-11 behaal is,<br />
word toenemend meer in aanmerking geneem vir toelating<br />
tot tersie à re inrigtings, aansoeke vir beurse <strong>of</strong> vakatures.<br />
. Sekere toetse wat vir beroepskeuse in graad 11 afgeneem<br />
word (soos intelligensie- en aanlegtoetse), kan ook vir<br />
prestasievoorspelling gebruik word wat die afneem daarvan<br />
meer ekonomies maak.<br />
. Graad 11 is die middelste van die drie senior sekonde à re<br />
grade en deur graad 11-leerders te betrek kan met groter<br />
sekerheid aanvaar word dat die leerders senior sekonde à re<br />
status bereik het. Verder skep dit die moontlikheid om 'n<br />
voorspellingsmodel vir die senior sekonde à re fase te ontwikkel.<br />
'n Skool wat bereid was om aan die ondersoek deel te neem, is op<br />
ewekansige wyse betrek. Hierdie skool bestaan uit leerders vanuit 'n<br />
lae, 'n gemiddelde en 'n hoe È sosio-ekonomiese status. Die steekproef<br />
het al die graad 11-leerders van die betrokke skool ingesluit. In totaal<br />
was daar 124 leerders, 61 seuns en 63 dogters. Die gemiddelde<br />
ouderdom was 16,9 met 'n standaardafwyking van 0,44.<br />
5.2 Meetinstrumente<br />
Intelligensie en aanleg<br />
Die Senior Aanlegtoets (SAT) is gebruik om intelligensie en aanleg te<br />
meet. Die toets is in 1978 hersien en word meestal gebruik om<br />
intelligensie en aanleg in die senior sekonde à re fase te meet. In die
Die bepaling van 'n realistiese prestasievlak 175<br />
ondersoek is die volgende tien subtoetse van die SAT gebruik (die<br />
betroubaarheid van elk word in hakkies verskaf): Verbale begrip(0,71);<br />
Berekeninge(0,91); Woordbou(0,76); Vergelyking(0,76); Patroonvoltooiing(0,81);<br />
Figuurreekse(0,85); Ruimtelik 2±D(0,92); Ruimtelik 3±<br />
D(0,85); Geheue vir paragrawe(0,76); Geheue vir simbole(0,84). Deur<br />
middel van 'n kombinasie van subtoetse kan 'n Algemene Intelligensietelling<br />
bereken word.<br />
Selfkonsep en motivering<br />
'n Toets wat deur Waetjen ontwikkel is genaamd ``Selfconcept as<br />
learner scale'' is met toestemming van die outeur gebruik om<br />
selfkonsep en motivering te meet. Die toets bestaan uit die volgende<br />
vier afdelings, (vgl. Burns 1979:141): Motivering om te leer, Taakorie<br />
È ntering, Probleemoplossing, Klaslidmaatskap en Selfkonsep in<br />
geheel. Die betroubaarheid van elke afdeling is as volg: Motivering om<br />
te leer(0,61); Taakorie È ntering(0,81); Probleemoplossing(0,73); Klaslidmaatskap(0,75)<br />
en Selfkonsep in geheel(0,90).<br />
Breinvoorkeur<br />
Aangesien belangstelling op persoonlike voorkeur dui (Swanepoel<br />
1986:20; Budhal 1993:11) is besluit om 'n breinvoorkeurtoets as 'n<br />
belangstellingsindeks te gebruik. Hierdie toets is in 'n afsonderlike<br />
ondersoek deur die navorser self ontwikkel. Vier breinkwadrante word<br />
onderskei (Du Plessis 1994:214±228).<br />
Kwadrant A:<br />
Kwadrant B:<br />
Kwadrant C:<br />
Kwadrant D:<br />
'n Persoon wat daaraan voorkeur gee om logies te<br />
redeneer ± om korrekte afleidings uit gegewens te<br />
maak.<br />
'n Persoon wat daaraan voorkeur gee om by die<br />
organisasie van mense <strong>of</strong> instansies betrokke te wees.<br />
'n Persoon wat verkies om emosioneel by 'n saak<br />
betrokke te raak.<br />
'n Persoon wat graag sy verbeelding gebruik en<br />
fantaseer.
176<br />
Met die afneem van die toets word 'n telling vir elk van die kwadrante<br />
verkry. Die toets is by 537 hoe È rskoolleerders afgeneem ten einde norme<br />
en betroubaarhede te bereken. Die betroubaarheid van elke kwadrant<br />
is as volg: A (0,83); B (0,78); C (0,91); D(0,83)<br />
StudieorieÈntasie<br />
Om 'n aanduiding van leerders se studieorie È ntasie te kry, is 'n<br />
meetinstrument gebruik wat bekend staan as Opname van Studiegewoontes<br />
en Houdings (OSGH). Vier subtoetse word in die toets<br />
onderskei, naamlik:<br />
Vermyding van uitstel:<br />
Werkmetodes:<br />
Onderwysergoedkeuring:<br />
Aanvaarding van onderwys:<br />
Dit dui aan in watter mate die leerder sy<br />
take stiptelik afhandel en nie geneig is<br />
tot onnodige tydverkwisting nie.<br />
Dit gee 'n aanduiding van die leerder se<br />
gebruik van doeltreffende studiemetodes.<br />
Dit gee 'n aanduiding van die leerder se<br />
houding teenoor die onderwyser.<br />
Die subtoets meet 'n leerder se opvoedkundige<br />
ideale en doelstellings<br />
Studieorie È ntasie is die somtotaal van bogenoemde subtoetse.<br />
Die betroubaarheid van elke subtoets is as volg: Vermyding van<br />
uitstel(0,85); Werkmetodes(0,86); Onderwysergoedkeuring(0,87);<br />
Aanvaarding van onderwys(0,86); Studieorie È ntasie(0,91).<br />
Akademiese prestasie<br />
Toetse om die voorspellingsveranderlikes te meet is gedurende Mei<br />
afgeneem. Die gemiddelde prestasie wat in die Junie-eksamen behaal<br />
is, is as kriteriumveranderlike gebruik.<br />
5.3 Navorsingsprosedure<br />
Die leerders het op een bepaalde dag al die toetse afgele à .Die
Die bepaling van 'n realistiese prestasievlak 177<br />
aanlegtoets is vroegoggend afgeneem om moegheid te voorkom. Die<br />
aanlegtoets (SAT) is streng volgens die voorgeskrewe prosedures<br />
afgele à . Na 'n pouse van 20 minute is die Selfkonseptoets en die<br />
Breinvoorkeurtoets afgeneem wat ongeveer 1 uur geduur het. Daarna<br />
is 'n tweede pouse van 20 minute toegelaat. Na die tweede pouse is die<br />
OSGH afgeneem.<br />
Prestasietellings is na die Julie-vakansie (in Augustus) verkry. Al die<br />
inligting van elke leerder is op kodeervelle aangebring waarna die<br />
gegewens deur 'n rekenaar verwerk is.<br />
6 RESULTATE VAN DIE EMPIRIESE ONDERSOEK<br />
As nulhipotese is gestel dat daar geen beduidende korrelasie tussen die<br />
gemete veranderlikes en akademiese prestasie bestaan nie. Ten einde die<br />
gestelde nulhipotese te toets, is korrelasiekoe È ffisie È nte tussen die<br />
voorspellingsveranderlikes en die gemiddelde prestasie van elke<br />
leerder bereken. Hierdie korrelasiekoe È ffisie È nte verskyn in Tabel 1.<br />
Behalwe vir die B- en C-kwadrant, kan die nulhipotese vir al die ander<br />
veranderlikes verwerp word. Die veranderlike wat die sterkste<br />
verbandmetprestasietoonisAlgemeneIntelligensie.Ditstrookmet<br />
bevindinge van Brodnick en Ree (1995:583±594), Horn e.a (1993:464±<br />
478) asook Gustafsson en Blake (1993:407±434). In die ondersoeke is<br />
aangetoon dat Algemene Intelligensie die belangrikste voorspeller in<br />
die meeste vakgebiede is en ongeveer 30% tot 33% van die variansie in<br />
prestasie verklaar. In hierdie ondersoek verklaar Algemene Intelligensie<br />
ongeveer 38% van die variansie in prestasie.<br />
Naas Algemene Intelligensie toon Verbale begrip en Korttermyngeheue<br />
ook 'n beduidende verband met prestasie. Die veranderlikes<br />
verklaar onderskeidelik 31% en 25% van die variansie in prestasie.<br />
Langtermyngeheue verklaar ongeveer 23% van die variansie in<br />
prestasie.<br />
Die affektiewe veranderlike wat die sterkste verband met prestasie<br />
toon, is selfkonsep en dit verklaar ongeveer 20% van die variansie in<br />
prestasie.
178<br />
TABEL 1<br />
Die verband tussen die voorspellingsveranderlikes en gemiddelde prestasie<br />
Voorspellingsveranderlike<br />
Korrelasie met prestasie en<br />
gemiddelde prestasie<br />
Intelligensie r = 0.62*<br />
Verbale begrip r = 0,56*<br />
Berekeninge r = 0,40*<br />
Woordbou r = 0,46*<br />
Vergelyking r = 0,26*<br />
Patroonvoltooiing r = 0,46*<br />
Figuurreekse r = 0,37*<br />
Ruimtelik (2D) r = 0,36*<br />
Ruimtelik (3D) r = 0,37*<br />
Geheue (langtermyn) r = 0,48*<br />
Geheue (korttermyn) r = 0,50*<br />
A Kwadrant r = 0,37*<br />
B Kwadrant r = 0,01<br />
CKwadrant r = 70,11<br />
DKwadrant r = 70,21**<br />
Selfkonsep r = 0,45*<br />
Studieorie È ntasie r = 0,40*<br />
*p 5 0,01 **p 5 0,05<br />
Om te bepaal hoe 'n kombinasie van veranderlikes saamgestel moet<br />
word om die maksimum variansie in prestasie te verklaar, is 'n<br />
regressie-analise uitgevoer. As voorspellingsveranderlikes is intelligensie,<br />
aanleg, selfkonsep (waarby motivering ingesluit is), belangstelling<br />
(breinvoorkeur), studieorie È ntasie en geslag (as biografiese<br />
veranderlike) gebruik. Die kriteriumveranderlike was prestasie. In<br />
totaal kon 64% van die variansie in gemiddelde prestasie verklaar<br />
word waarvan Algemene Intelligensie, studieorie È ntasie en geslag 50%<br />
verklaar het. 'n Verdere 10% is verklaar deur Breinvoorkeur (A),<br />
Berekeninge en Korttermyngeheue. Die oorblywende veranderlikes het<br />
'n addisionele 4% van die variansie in prestasie verklaar. (Sien tabel 2).
Die bepaling van 'n realistiese prestasievlak 179<br />
TABEL 2<br />
Verklaring vir die variansie in gemiddelde prestasie<br />
Veranderlike R 2 F* gv<br />
Algemene Intelligensie (IK) 0,38 68,12 (1,112)<br />
Studieorie È ntasie (SO) 0,46 47,49 (2,111)<br />
Geslag (G) 0,50 36,07 (3,110)<br />
A-Kwadrant (A) 0,55 33,08 (4,109)<br />
Berekeninge (R) 0,58 29,83 (5,108)<br />
Korttermyngeheue (KG) 0,60 26,35 (6,107)<br />
C-Kwadrant (C) 0,61 23,58 (7,106)<br />
Patroonvoltooiing (P) 0,62 21,06 (8,105)<br />
Selfkonsep (SK) 0,62 18,09 (9,104)<br />
Vergelyking (V) 0,63 17,23 (10,103)<br />
B-Kwadrant (B) 0,63 15,86 (11,102)<br />
D-Kwadrant (D) 0,64 14,69 (12,101)<br />
Ruimtelik ± 3D (RDDD) 0,64 13,62 (13,100)<br />
Ruimtelik ± 2D (RDD) 0,64 12,61 (14,99)<br />
* In al die gevalle is p 5 0,01<br />
Die vernaamste twee veranderlikes wat 'n groot proporsie van die<br />
variansie in prestasie verklaar, is Algemene Intelligensie en studieorie<br />
È ntasie. Ander prominente veranderlikes is geslag en Breinvoorkeur-A.<br />
Alhoewel akademiese selfkonsep as enkele faktor sterk met<br />
prestasie verband gehou het, het dit in kombinasie met ander<br />
veranderlikes nie 'n vername bydrae tot die verklaring van die<br />
variansie in prestasie gelewer nie.
180<br />
7 GEVOLGTREKKING EN AANBEVELINGS<br />
Bloom (1976:171) noem dat kognitiewe en affektiewe faktore gesamentlik<br />
ongeveer 64% van die variansie in prestasie kan verklaar. Dit is<br />
inderdaad die persentasie wat in hierdie ondersoek aangetoon is.<br />
Bloom (1976:169,174) beweer verder dat kwaliteit van onderrig (wat<br />
nie in die ondersoek as veranderlike betrek is nie) 'n verdere 15% tot<br />
25% van die variansie in prestasie kan verklaar wat nie alreeds deur<br />
kognitiewe en affektiewe veranderlikes verklaar is nie. As dit in ag<br />
geneem word, kan aanvaar word dat die veranderlikes wat in hierdie<br />
ondersoek betrek is, saam met kwaliteit van onderrig, ten minste 80%<br />
van die variansie in gemiddelde prestasie verklaar, wat dit 'n<br />
aanvaarbare en bruikbare voorspellingsmodel maak.<br />
'n Leerprobleem <strong>of</strong> enige ander probleem wat manifesteer as swak<br />
prestasie, kan makliker geõ È dentifiseer en hanteer word indien 'n<br />
realistiese, voorspelde punt tot die onderwyser se beskikking is. Indien<br />
'n leerder byvoorbeeld 45% gemiddeld behaal, kan dit as laag (swak)<br />
beskou word, maar indien sy voorspelde punt 50% is, word 'n punt van<br />
45% anders beoordeel. Indien 'n leerder byvoorbeeld 55% gemiddeld<br />
behaal terwyl sy voorspelde punt 72% is, is eersgenoemde punt<br />
bepaald swak en moet daar na redes vir onderprestasie gesoek word.<br />
Vanuit die literatuur en die empiriese gegewens het dit geblyk dat<br />
swak prestasie met 'n swak selfbeeld en gebrekkige motivering<br />
verband hou. Die een gee aanleiding tot die ander, wat 'n vernietigende<br />
kringloop tot gevolg kan he à . 'n Realistiese voorspelde punt kan<br />
die kringloop breek. 'n Leerder kan 'n swak selfbeeld ontwikkel omdat<br />
hy/sy 53% in 'n vak behaal terwyl sy/haar eie verwagting, <strong>of</strong> die  van<br />
die ouers <strong>of</strong> onderwysers 70% is. Indien 'n voorspelde punt van<br />
byvoorbeeld 60% bereken word, is die werklike punt nog steeds laer,<br />
maar die ideaal waarna gemik word is nou meer realisties en makliker<br />
bereikbaar. Indien 'n gemiddelde punt van 60% wel bereik word, kan<br />
dit positiewe affektiewe gevolge he à , wat nie daar sou wees indien 'n<br />
onrealistiese punt van byvoorbeeld 70% aanhoudend, sonder welslae<br />
nagestreef is nie.<br />
Wat die voorspelling van punte betref, blyk dit dat Algemene
Die bepaling van 'n realistiese prestasievlak 181<br />
Intelligensie, studieorie È ntasie en Breinvoorkeur-A van die vernaamste<br />
veranderlikes is wat met prestasie verband hou. Die  bevindinge lig 'n<br />
belangrike taak van die onderwyser uit. Daar kan op hoe È rskoolvlak<br />
min gedoen word om 'n leerder se intelligensie en aanleg te verhoog,<br />
maar heelwat kan gedoen word om studieorie È ntasie te verbeter. Die<br />
onderwyser kan prestasie bevorder deur effektiewe studiemetodes aan<br />
leerders oor te dra en studieprogramme vir individuele leerders te<br />
ontwikkel.<br />
Wat breinvoorkeur betref, moet aanvaar word dat nie alle persone<br />
linkerbreingeorie È nteerd is nie, terwyl die meeste vakke op skool<br />
linkerbreinaktiwiteite vereis. Om hierdie rede sal leerders wat<br />
regterbreingeorie È nteerd is, baat vind by denkprogramme wat linkerbreinaktiwiteite<br />
ontwikkel. Die ontwikkeling en aanbieding van sulke<br />
programme word op grond van die resultate van hierdie ondersoek<br />
sterk aanbeveel.<br />
Ten slotte is dit belangrik om daarop te let dat probleme soos stres en<br />
depressie by leerders ontstaan indien hoe È akademiese eise aan hulle<br />
gestel word, hetsy deur hulleself <strong>of</strong> deur ouers en onderwysers. Sekere<br />
leerders reageer aggressief op sulke eise wanneer hulle nie daaraan kan<br />
voldoen nie. 'n Realistiese prestasievlak kan help om onrealistiese<br />
oortuigings by leerders, ouers en onderwysers bloot te le à . In sekere<br />
gevalle ontstaan gedragsprobleme wanneer leerders daarvan oortuig is<br />
dat hulle no  o  it sukses sal behaal nie. Vir sulke leerders is sukses<br />
dikwels 'n onrealistiese punt (soos 80%) wat hulle weliswaar nie kan<br />
bereik nie en dit versterk hulle oortuiging. 'n Realistiese doelstelling<br />
kan in die opsig help om 'n onrealistiese oortuiging te weerle à . Wanneer<br />
'n realistiese voorspelde punt met 'n leerder bespreek word, is dit<br />
belangrik om die leerder daarop te wys dat die  punt op grond van sy<br />
spesifieke kognitiewe en affektiewe eienskappe bereken is en daarom<br />
binne sy bereik is. Dieselfde boodskap moet ook waar nodig aan<br />
vakonderwysers en ouers oorgedra word sodat hulle realistiese<br />
verwagtings sal koester.<br />
SUMMARY<br />
The aim <strong>of</strong> education is to lead a person to self-actualisation or stated
182<br />
differently, to help him to develop his/her full potential. This aim,<br />
which is also applicable to a learning situation, is difficult to attain if a<br />
learner is unaware or unrealistic about his/her potential. Such a<br />
learner will benefit from an educational programme in which realistic<br />
achievement levels are determined. In order to develop such a<br />
programme a teacher should know which variables relate to academic<br />
achievement and with which instruments these variables should be<br />
measured.<br />
From the literature study three possible categories <strong>of</strong> variables might<br />
relate to academic achievement, namely:<br />
cognitive variables such as intelligence and aptitude;<br />
affective variables such as motivation, academic self-concept and interest<br />
(brain preference) and<br />
study orientation.<br />
To determine which variables account for the largest proportion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
variance in achievement, an empirical investigation was carried out. A<br />
sample <strong>of</strong> 124 grade 11-learners (61 boys and 63 girls) was used in the<br />
investigation. General Intelligence, Aptitude, Academic Self-concept,<br />
Motivation, Interest (brain-preference) and Study-orientation were<br />
used as prediction variables. Achievement was used as the criterion<br />
variable. In total 64% <strong>of</strong> the variance in achievement could be<br />
accounted for by the prediction variables <strong>of</strong> which General Intelligence,<br />
Study-orientation and Gender accounted for 50%. A further 10%<br />
was accounted for by Brain-preference (A), Calculations and Shortterm<br />
Memory. The remaining variables accounted for an additional 4%<br />
<strong>of</strong> the variance in achievement.<br />
The most important educational implication <strong>of</strong> developing a model to<br />
predict achievement lies in the identification <strong>of</strong> possible learning<br />
problems. Once a realistic mark is available, a teacher is in a better<br />
position to judge current achievement. If a learner obtains a mark <strong>of</strong><br />
55% while the predicted mark is 72%, the obtained mark is low and
Die bepaling van 'n realistiese prestasievlak 183<br />
under achievement might be present. However, if a learner obtains a<br />
mark <strong>of</strong> 45%, it can be considered a low mark, but if the predicted mark<br />
is 50% a mark <strong>of</strong> 45% seems realistic and is therefore interpreted<br />
differently. This different interpretation places less pressure on the<br />
child to obtain a level <strong>of</strong> achievement far beyond his/her reach which<br />
will cause less stress and the development <strong>of</strong> a low self-concept.<br />
BIBLIOGRAFIE<br />
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Educational Psychology, 84:261±271.<br />
Athanasou, J A 1994. Some Effects <strong>of</strong> Career Interests, Subject Preferences and Quality <strong>of</strong><br />
Teaching on the Educational Achievement <strong>of</strong> Australian Technical and Futher<br />
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Bloom, B S 1976. Human characteristics and school learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.<br />
Brodnick, RJ & Ree, MJ 1995. A structural model <strong>of</strong> academic performance, socioeconomic<br />
status, and Spearman's g. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 55:583±594.<br />
Brown, N W 1994. Cognitive, Interest, and Personality Variables Predicting First-<br />
Semester GPA. Psychological Reports, 74:605±606.<br />
Budhal, R S 1993. The development <strong>of</strong> interest in mathematics with reference to secondary school<br />
pupils. Ongepubliseerde MEd-proefskrif. Pretoria: Universiteit van Suid-Afrika.<br />
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York: Longman.<br />
Byrne, B M 1996. Academic Self-Concept: Its Structure, Measurement, and Relation to<br />
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achievement. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 28:407±434.
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Sportsielkunde as komponent in die opleidingsprogram van vakonderwysers 185<br />
Sportsielkunde as<br />
komponent in die<br />
opleidingsprogram<br />
van vakonderwysers<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong> JG le Roux<br />
Dr GE Pienaar<br />
Departement Opvoedkundestudies<br />
Unisa<br />
In the Republic <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> (RSA), most <strong>of</strong> the subject teachers in our schools are<br />
involved with the coaching <strong>of</strong> sport, sometimes against their will. The training<br />
programmes <strong>of</strong> these teachers do not really provide for the inclusion <strong>of</strong> sport psychology.<br />
In fact, a survey at universities and teachers colleges all over the country revealed that<br />
only two <strong>of</strong> these institutions <strong>of</strong>fer sport psychology as a subject to their subject<br />
teachers. Enquiries at schools in the RSA indicated that subject teachers, involved as<br />
sport coaches, experience frustrations because <strong>of</strong> their lack <strong>of</strong> ability with regard to inter<br />
alia the following:<br />
. motivation <strong>of</strong> their athletes<br />
. dealing with anxiety, conflicts and crises in sport<br />
. the application <strong>of</strong> concentration and relaxation techniques.<br />
These frustrations lead to a deterioration in relationships between coaches and athletes<br />
and eventually affect sport achievements negatively. This investigation clearly indicates<br />
that a very low percentage <strong>of</strong> subject teachers in the RSA know anything about sport<br />
psychology, but the majority involved in the investigation are <strong>of</strong> the opinion that sport<br />
psychology should be included in the training programme <strong>of</strong> subject teachers.
186<br />
1 INLEIDING EN PROBLEEMSTELLING<br />
Sportsielkunde het ho<strong>of</strong>saaklik ontstaan uit organisasies, skrywes en<br />
instellings wat na die Tweede We à reldoorlog gevestig is, en dit is<br />
verder ontwikkel deur internasionale en nasionale organisasies wat<br />
hulle oorsprong in die sestigerjare gehad het (Cratty 1983:23).<br />
Sportsielkunde het noue bande met ander sub-areas van sport en<br />
bewegingskunde. Dit sluit onder andere die volgende in (Gill 1986:4):<br />
. bewegingsfisiologie ± hou verband met anatomie en fisiologie<br />
. biomeganika ± pas die beginsels en kennis van fisika toe op<br />
die meganika van menslike beweging<br />
. sportsosiologie ± ondersoek die sosiologiese dimensies van<br />
sport<br />
Omdat sportsielkunde deel is van die multi-dissipline à re veld van sport<br />
en oefening, deel dit in die teoriee È , konstrukte en metings van die<br />
ander sportwetenskappe asook van sielkunde in die algemeen.<br />
Nideffer (in Silva en Weinberg 1984:41) onderskei dan ook tussen die<br />
kliniese sportsielkundige, die opvoedkundige sportsielkundige en die<br />
navorsingsportsielkundige. Volgens Williams en Straub (in Williams<br />
1993:9) is sportsielkunde ± as die jongste van die sportwetenskappe ±<br />
gemoeid met die psigologiese faktore wat deelname aan sport en<br />
oefening beõ È nvloed en met die psigologiese effekte wat voortvloei uit<br />
hierdie sportdeelname. Silva en Weinberg (red) (1984:6) sluit mooi<br />
hierby aan deur te beweer dat ``... audience effects, anxiety, motivation,<br />
group dynamics, personality, confidence, and concentration are all psychological<br />
factors affecting the performer, whereas participation in physical<br />
activity can affect the performer in terms <strong>of</strong> anxiety reduction, personality<br />
development, aggressive behavior, and the enhancement <strong>of</strong> well-being''. Daar<br />
is dus 'n voortdurende, wederkerige proses tussen die deelnemer en sy<br />
sportaktiwiteite aan die gang.<br />
Volgens Gill (1986:3) is sportsielkunde 'n vertakking van sport ± en<br />
bewegingskunde (exercise science) ``... that seeks to provide answers to<br />
questions about human behavior in sport''. Sy praat ook van ``... the
Sportsielkunde as komponent in die opleidingsprogram van vakonderwysers 187<br />
scientific study <strong>of</strong> human behavior in sport'' (p 6). Volgens haar sluit die<br />
term sportsielkunde nie alle aspekte van sielkunde in nie (alhoewel die<br />
term dit impliseer) en behoort slegs gekonsentreer te word op<br />
persoonlikheids- en sosiale sielkunde (social psychology) (p 7). Soos<br />
sosiale sielkunde, fokus sportsielkunde op betekenisvolle sosiale<br />
gedrag, eerder as op afdelings van gedrag (portions <strong>of</strong> behavior). Dus,<br />
die term sportsielkunde ``... should be interpreted as referring to the<br />
influence <strong>of</strong> personality and social factors on meaningful behavior in a<br />
variety <strong>of</strong> sport and exercise settings'' (Gill 1986:7). Sportsielkunde is<br />
egter nie onverbiddelik beperk tot persoonlikheids- en sosiale sielkunde<br />
nie, maar spreek ook ander aspekte van die sielkunde aan soos<br />
ontwikkelingsielkunde, kognitiewe sielkunde en fisiologiese sielkunde.<br />
Samevattend kan die terrein van die sportsielkunde soos volg omskryf<br />
word:<br />
. Sportsielkunde as wetenskap is gemoeid met die identifisering<br />
en omskrywing van daardie aspekte wat die sportprestasies<br />
sowel as die gedrag van atlete kan beõ È nvloed. Van<br />
hierdie aspekte is motivering, persoonlikheid, toeskouergedrag,<br />
aktivering (arousal), kompetisie en kompetisie-angs,<br />
aggressie, teruvoering en nog vele meer. Dit sal veral op die<br />
terrein van die navorsingsportsielkundige le à .<br />
. Die invloed van bogenoemde aspekte op die prestasies van<br />
atlete word deur die sportsielkundige ondersoek, sowel as<br />
die invloed van sportdeelname op die gedrag van atlete,<br />
byvoorbeeld angs kan veroorsaak dat die atleet gespanne<br />
raak en swak presteer op sport- sowel as akademiese gebied,<br />
maar sportdeelname <strong>of</strong> oefening kan weer tot verminderde<br />
angs lei. Dit sal veral die sosiale sportsielkundige wees wat<br />
hierin belangstel.<br />
. Metodes en strategiee È moet gevind word om bogenoemde<br />
aspekte met sukses toe te pas, met ander woorde die afrigter<br />
moet weet, <strong>of</strong> bewus gemaak word hoe om sy/haar atlete
188<br />
optimaal te motiveer, <strong>of</strong> hoe om hulle teenoor die intimidering<br />
van opponente en toeskouers voor te berei. Dit sal<br />
veral die toegepaste sportsielkunde se funksie wees om hier 'n<br />
bydrae te lewer.<br />
. Situasies kan ontstaan wat nie deur die afrigter hanteer kan<br />
word nie, byvoorbeeld atlete raak buitengewoon depressief,<br />
<strong>of</strong> ly aan die uitbrandingsindroom, <strong>of</strong> raak verslaaf aan<br />
verdowingsmiddels en opkikkers ensovoorts. Dan moet die<br />
atleet na 'n deskundige verwys word en sal dit veral die<br />
opvoedkundige sportsielkundige en die kliniese sportsielkundige<br />
se taak wees om in te gryp.<br />
Sportsielkunde speel 'n al groterwordende rol in die we à reld van sport.<br />
Dit geld veral in lande soos die Verenigde State van Amerika (VSA),<br />
Europa en Australie È (Salmela 1991; Williams 1993; Kremer & Scully<br />
1994). In Suid-Afrika geniet sport hoe È aansien. Vir sy relatief klein<br />
populasie presteer Suid-Afrikaanse atlete we à reldwyd op verskeie<br />
gebiede. Koerante verwys na Suid-Afrikaners as ``sportmal''. Ook in<br />
ons skole word sport baie beklemtoon. Sportuitslae geniet soms meer<br />
aandag as akademiese resultate, veral in sportsoorte soos rugby, netbal<br />
en atletiek. Dis nie meer onbekend nie dat sportsterre deur skole gelok<br />
word met spesiale aanbiedinge. Geld en moeite word nie ontsien om<br />
sport in ons skole te bevorder nie (Le Roux 1999). Sportsielkunde kry<br />
egter nog nie die erkenning in Suid-Afrika wat dit toekom nie. Daar<br />
kleef nog 'n stigma aan die term ``sportsielkundige''. Afrigters en<br />
spelers/atlete re en dat hulle `'normaal'' is en nie die hulp van 'n<br />
sielkundige benodig nie. Gelukkig is die situasie besig om te verander<br />
en hoor en lees 'n mens al meer van Suid-Afrikaanse sportspanne wat<br />
van die bystand en ondersteuning van sportsielkundiges gebruik<br />
maak.<br />
Sportafrigting in Suid-Afrikaanse skole word oorwegend deur vakonderwysers<br />
waargeneem. Enkele van die groter en meer gegoede skole<br />
maak van die dienste van private <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essionele afrigters gebruik,<br />
maar dan ook net vir sekere sportsoorte. Die oorgrote meerderheid
Sportsielkunde as komponent in die opleidingsprogram van vakonderwysers 189<br />
skole steun op hulle vakonderwysers om sportafrigting te behartig.<br />
Sportafrigting is daarom gewoonlik een van die aanstellingsvoorwaardes<br />
van vakonderwysers. Baie vakonderwysers raak dus by die<br />
afrigting van sport betrokke, <strong>of</strong> hulle daarvan hou <strong>of</strong> nie.<br />
Die opleidingsprogram van vakonderwysers in Suid-Afrika maak baie<br />
min voorsiening vir sportsielkunde. 'n Steekproef by universiteite en<br />
onderwyskolleges regoor die land het getoon dat slegs twee van<br />
hierdie inrigtings wel sportsielkunde aan die vakonderwyser bied.<br />
Meer van hierdie inrigtings bied wel 'n kursus <strong>of</strong> kursusse in<br />
sportsielkunde vir ingeskrewe menslikebewegingskundestudente aan,<br />
maar nie vir ingeskrewe vakonderwysers nie.<br />
'n Besoek aan die VSA het ook getoon dat onderwysers daar nie<br />
spesifiek opleiding in sportsielkunde ontvang nie. Die neiging is eerder<br />
om kursusse in sportsielkunde by te woon en so hulself te bekwaam.<br />
Navraag by skole in die RSA het getoon dat vakonderwysers soms<br />
heelwat frustrasies as sportafrigters beleef, byvoorbeeld:<br />
. Hulle weet nie altyd hoe om hulle atlete <strong>of</strong> spanne behoorlik<br />
te motiveer nie. Hiervan getuig sportleerlinge self.<br />
. Hulleweetniealtydhoeomhullesportleerlingeteaktiveer<br />
(``psych up'') vir bepaalde byeenkomste nie. Sportleerlinge<br />
bereik hul psigiese hoogtepunte te vroeg <strong>of</strong> te laat.<br />
. Vakonderwysers beskik nie altyd oor die nodige kennis om<br />
bepaalde fokus- en ontspanningstegnieke op hulle sportleerlingetoetepasnie.Hulleweetookniehoeomhulle<br />
sportleerlinge voor te berei om die intimiderende gedrag van<br />
toeskouers en opponente te hanteer nie.<br />
. Aspekte soos aggressie in sport, krisis- en konflikhantering<br />
binne sportverband, die uitbrandingsindroom binne sportverband,<br />
angs (``choking'') in sport en vele ander sake wat<br />
verband hou met die sportsielkunde en wat 'n dinamiese rol<br />
speel in die sportdeelname van leerlinge, word deur onderwysers<br />
as afrigters nagelaat, juis omdat hulle nie hierin enige<br />
opleiding ontvang het nie.
190<br />
Die gevolge van 'n sportonderwyser se gebrekkige opleiding in<br />
sportsielkunde hou vele implikasies in:<br />
. Verkeerde motiveringstegnieke versuur die verhouding<br />
tussen afrigter en sportleerling. Leerlinge weier soms om aan<br />
sport deel te neem, juis as gevolg van die kwetsende en<br />
dreigende opmerkings wat deur onderwysers as<br />
motiveringstegnieke ingespan word.<br />
. Gebrekkige kennis in ontspannings- en fokustegnieke beteken<br />
dat sportleerlinge nie optimaal presteer nie. Onvermoe È<br />
deur sportleerlinge om angs (``choking'') en aggressie te<br />
hanteer, het dieselfde gevolge.<br />
. Waar sportleerlinge nie geleer word om die intimiderende<br />
gedrag van toeskouers en opponente te hanteer nie, kan<br />
spelpatrone en algemene deelname aan sport grootliks ontwrig<br />
word.<br />
Samevattend kan gese à word dat, indien die vakonderwyser wat as<br />
sportafrigter optree, nie oor die nodige kennis beskik om bepaalde<br />
aspekte van die sportsielkunde in sy afrigtingstegnieke toe te pas nie,<br />
dit uiteindelik die sportleerling is wat daaronder gaan ly. Inderwaarheid<br />
se à Evans ( in Morris & Summers 1995:520) dat afrigters wat nie in<br />
hul afrigting aan die behoefte van kinders voldoen nie, ``... may well<br />
deter children from further sport participation because <strong>of</strong> their lack <strong>of</strong><br />
knowledge and insensitivity to problems''. Dit noodsaak 'n ondersoek na<br />
die moontlikheid en noodsaaklikheid om sportsielkunde ingesluit te<br />
kry in die akademiese opleidingspakket van die vakonderwyser.<br />
Uit die voorafgaande bespreking blyk dit duidelik dat 'n sportafrigter<br />
nie sy/haar taak na behore kan verrig nie, tensy die persoon in staat is<br />
om bepaalde aspekte van die sportsielkunde binne sy/haar afrigtingsprogram<br />
te kan toepas. Opleiding in sportsielkunde blyk dus van<br />
essensie È le belang te wees vir die persoon wat belangstel <strong>of</strong> verplig is<br />
om as sportafrigter op te tree. Vakonderwysers wat as sportafrigters<br />
moet <strong>of</strong> wil optree, ondergaan nie altyd die nodige opleiding in
Sportsielkunde as komponent in die opleidingsprogram van vakonderwysers 191<br />
sportsielkunde nie, en daarom kan die probleem onder bespreking as<br />
volg geformuleer word: Hoe groot is die noodsaaklikheid en wat is die<br />
moontlikheid dat sportsielkunde ingesluit word in die opleidingspro-<br />
gram van vakonderwysers?<br />
2 EMPIRIESE ONDERSOEK<br />
Die volgende stappe is geneem ten einde die empiriese ondersoek<br />
suksesvol uit te voer:<br />
. Die ontwerp en samestelling van 'n vraelys (Afrikaans en<br />
Engels)<br />
. Die seleksie van proefpersone<br />
. Die toepassing van die vraelys op die gekose persone<br />
. Die verwerking en bespreking van die resultate<br />
3 DIE ONTWERP EN SAMESTELLING VAN DIE<br />
VRAELYS<br />
Die doel van die vraelys was:<br />
. Om ondersoek in te stel na die huidige toedrag van sake in<br />
die RSA met betrekking tot die opleiding van vakonderwysers<br />
as sportafrigters, gesien in die lig van die feit dat die<br />
meeste vakonderwysers by sportafrigting in ons skole<br />
betrokke raak. Daar is spesifiek vasgestel hoeveel opleiding<br />
vakonderwysers in sportsielkunde ontvang en op welke<br />
wyse.<br />
. Om vas te stel hoe belangrik vakonderwysers die insluiting<br />
van sportsielkunde in die opleidingsprogram van onderwysers<br />
ag.<br />
. Om vas te stel watter aspekte van sportsielkunde ingesluit<br />
behoort te word in die opleidingsprogram van vakonderwysers.<br />
. Om vas te stel <strong>of</strong> vakonderwysers van mening is dat, indien<br />
sportsielkunde deel uitmaak van die opleidingsprogram van<br />
vakonderwysers, dit 'n driemaandelikse, halfjaarlikse <strong>of</strong> 'n<br />
jaarkursus moet wees.
192<br />
4 SELEKSIE VAN DIE PROEFPERSONE<br />
Altesaam 7 hoe È r- en 3 laerskole is op ewekansige wyse uit die Pretoriaomgewing<br />
(insluitende Mamelodi) geselekteer (Mulder 1989:57). Elke<br />
skool is versoek dat alle vakonderwysers wat sport afrig, die vraelys<br />
voltooi.<br />
5 TOEPASSING VAN DIE VRAELYS<br />
Die vraelys is na die geselekteerde skole geneem en met behulp van die<br />
skoolho<strong>of</strong>de is geree È l dat dit afgeneem word. Die sportorganiseerders<br />
was gewoonlik uiters behulpsaam. Die vraelys is ingeneem en<br />
gekontroleer vir enige weglatings <strong>of</strong> onleesbaarheid van die gegewens.<br />
Besonderhede van die proefpersone verskyn in tabelle 1 en 2.<br />
TABEL 1<br />
Verdeling van ondersoekgroep volgens skooltipe en geslag<br />
Skole<br />
Mans<br />
Vroue<br />
Totaal<br />
Hoe È rskool 38 55 93<br />
Laerskool 13 28 41<br />
Totaal 51 83 134<br />
TABEL 2<br />
Verdeling van ondersoekgroep volgens jare diens<br />
Aantal jare diens<br />
Skole<br />
0±5 jr 6±10jr<br />
11±15jr<br />
16±20jr<br />
21±30jr<br />
430jr<br />
Totaal<br />
Hoe È r 16 30 25 15 6 1 933<br />
Laer 3 14 12 3 7 2 41<br />
Totaal 19 44 37 18 13 3 134
Sportsielkunde as komponent in die opleidingsprogram van vakonderwysers 193<br />
6 DIE VERWERKING VAN DATA EN BESPREKING VAN<br />
DIE RESULTATE<br />
Die inligting van die vraelys is hierna statisties verwerk deur gebruik te<br />
maak van die SAS-rekenaarpakket. Die volgende resultate is verkry:<br />
6.1 Item 4 van die vraelys<br />
Die proefpersone moes aandui <strong>of</strong> hulle opleiding in sportafrigting<br />
ondergaan het <strong>of</strong> nie. Die resultate verskyn in tabel 3.<br />
TABEL 3<br />
Opleiding in sportafrigting<br />
Geslag<br />
Ja<br />
Nee<br />
Totaal<br />
Mans 45 66 51<br />
Vroue 65 18 83<br />
Totaal 110 24 134<br />
Volgens tabel 3 het 82,09% (110/134) van die vakonderwysers wat<br />
sport afrig, opleiding in die afrigting van sport ontvang, met ander<br />
woordehulleisgeleerhoeomdiespiesvastehouentewerp,<strong>of</strong><br />
byvoorbeeld hoe om die diskus te gooi <strong>of</strong> hoe om die korrekte<br />
hoogspringtegniek toe te pas. Van die mans het 88,24% (45/51) en van<br />
die vroue 78,36% (65/83) opleiding in sportafrigting ontvang.<br />
6.2 Item 5 van die vraelys<br />
Die respondente moes aandui waar hulle sportafrigting ontvang het<br />
byvoorbeeld aan 'n kollege <strong>of</strong> universiteit <strong>of</strong> deur middel van kursusse<br />
ensovoorts. Die resultate verskyn in tabel 4.
194<br />
TABEL 4<br />
Lokaliteit van sportafrigting<br />
Instansie<br />
Aantal %<br />
Onderwyskollege 8 7.3%<br />
Technikon 2 1.8%<br />
Universiteit 13 11.8%<br />
Kursusse 40 36.4%<br />
Kombinasie van bogenoemde 42 38.2%<br />
Ander 5 4.5%<br />
Totaal 110 100.0%<br />
Volgens tabel 4 is dit duidelik dat die meeste onderwysers hul<br />
opleiding in sportafrigting deur middel van kursusse ontvang het, wat<br />
'n verdere aanduiding is tot watter mate sportafrigting vir onderwysers<br />
aan ons tersie à re inrigtings afgeskeep word.<br />
6.3 Item 6 van die vraelys<br />
Die proefpersone moes aandui <strong>of</strong> hulle opleiding in sportsielkunde<br />
ontvang het. Die resultate verskyn in tabel 5.<br />
TABEL 5<br />
Opleiding in sportsielkunde<br />
Geslag<br />
Ja<br />
Nee<br />
Totaal<br />
Mans 7 44 51<br />
Vroue 15 68 83<br />
Totaal 22 112 134<br />
Volgens tabel 5 het 83,58% (112/134) van die vakonderwysers wat<br />
sport afrig, geen opleiding in sportsielkunde ontvang nie. Van die<br />
mans het 86,27% (44/51) en van die vroue het 81,93% (68/83) geen<br />
opleiding in sportsielkunde ontvang nie.
Sportsielkunde as komponent in die opleidingsprogram van vakonderwysers 195<br />
'n Verdere statistiese ontleding is gedoen om vas te stel hoeveel van die<br />
proefpersone opleiding in sowel sportafrigting as sportsielkunde<br />
ontvang het. Die resultate verskyn in tabel 6.<br />
TABEL 6<br />
Opleiding in sowel sportsielkunde as sportafrigting<br />
Opleiding in sportsielkunde<br />
Opleiding in sportafrigting<br />
Ja<br />
Nee<br />
Totaal<br />
Ja 20 90 110<br />
Nee 2 22 24<br />
Totaal 22 112 134<br />
Volgens tabel 6 het slegs 14,93% (20/134) van die vakonderwysers<br />
opleiding in sowel sportafrigting as sportsielkunde ontvang en 16,42%<br />
(22/134) het nie opleiding in o  fsportafrigtingo  f sportsielkunde<br />
ontvang nie. Slegs 2 persone (1,49%) het nie opleiding in sportafrigting<br />
ontvang nie maar wel in sportsielkunde. Die meeste vakonderwysers<br />
naamlik 67,16% (90/134) het opleiding in sportafrigting ontvang, maar<br />
nie in sportsielkunde nie.<br />
6.4 Item 7 van die vraelys<br />
Die respondente moes aandui waar hulle opleiding in sportsielkunde<br />
ontvang het. Die resultate verskyn in tabel 7.<br />
TABEL 7<br />
Lokaliteit van opleiding in sportsielkunde<br />
Instituut<br />
Aantal %<br />
Universiteit 13 59.1%<br />
Kursusse 4 18.2%<br />
Kombinasie van bogenoemde 5 22.7%<br />
Totaal 22 100.0%
196<br />
Volgens tabel 7 het die meeste onderwysers hulle opleiding in<br />
sportsielkunde aan 'n universiteit behaal.<br />
6.5 Item 8 van die vraelys<br />
Die proefpersone moes op 'n skaal van 1 tot 6 aandui tot watter mate<br />
hulle hul sportafrigting geniet. Sleutel: 1 = geniet dit glad nie; 6 =<br />
geniet dit baie. Die resultate verskyn in tabel 8.<br />
TABEL 8<br />
Belewenis van sportafrigting<br />
N x}} s<br />
133 4,92 1,32<br />
x}} = Die gemiddelde telling wat uit 'n maksimum van 6 behaal is.<br />
Volgens tabel 8 geniet onderwysers dit tot 'n groot mate om sport af te<br />
rig. Van die belangrikste redes wat genoem is, is dat dit hulle nader aan<br />
die atlete bring, dat hulle die atlete op 'n ander vlak leer ken en dat<br />
hulle self lief is vir sport.<br />
6.6 Item 9 van die vraelys<br />
Die proefpersone moes op 'n skaal van 1 tot 10 aandui hoe belangrik ag<br />
hulle bepaalde aspekte van sportsielkunde om ingesluit te word in die<br />
opleidingspakket van vakonderwysers. Altesaam 34 veranderlikes is in<br />
die vraelys ingesluit (Roberts 1992; Coakley 1994; Weinberg & Gould<br />
1995; Butler 1996) (Kyk tabel 9).
Sportsielkunde as komponent in die opleidingsprogram van vakonderwysers 197<br />
TABEL 9<br />
Belangrikheid die verskillende aspekte van sportsielkunde<br />
Veranderlikes<br />
Gemid.(x}})<br />
Standaard-<br />
afw.(s)<br />
V 9 = Hantering van konflik 8.87 1.67<br />
V 10 = Motivering 9.44 1.28<br />
V 11 = Doelwitstelling 9.10 1.60<br />
V 12 = Konsentrasie 9.12 1.51<br />
V 13 = Aggressie 7.60 2.37<br />
V 14 = Angs 7.48 2.56<br />
V 15 = Spanbou 9.09 1.42<br />
V 16 = Kompetisie 8.22 2.00<br />
V 17 = Toeskouergedrag 7.57 2.29<br />
V 18 = Wen versus sukses 8.51 1.90<br />
V 19 = Selfvertroue 9.35 1.35<br />
V 20 = Onderprestasie 7.82 2.32<br />
V 21 = Leierskap 8.53 1.88<br />
V 22 = Uitbranding 7.60 2.17<br />
V 23 = Aktivering (arousal) 7.57 2.18<br />
V 24 = Perfeksionisme versus voortreflikheid<br />
7.91 1.94<br />
V 25 = Kognitief-geestelike taaiheid 8.83 1.62<br />
V 26 = Kinders in sport 8.32 1.95<br />
V 27 = Besluitneming in sport 8.50 1.70<br />
V 28 = Kommunikasie 8.91 1.54<br />
V 29 = Ontspanningstegnieke 8.53 1.83<br />
V 30 = Visualisering (beelding) 8.01<br />
V 31 = Persoonlikheid 8.17 2.14<br />
V 32 = Selfkennis 8.69 2.06<br />
V 33 = Krisishantering in sport 8.59 1.66<br />
V 34 = Wen versus verloor 8.51 1.97<br />
V = Veranderlike<br />
x} = Die gemiddelde telling behaal uit 'n maksimum van 10<br />
N=134
198<br />
Volgens tabel 9 reken vakonderwysers wat sport afrig (mans en vroue)<br />
dat die volgende aspekte die belangrikste is wat ingesluit behoort te<br />
word in die akademiese opleidingsprogram van onderwysers<br />
(x} 4 9,0): (LW: Die waarde 4 9,0 is as afsnypunt gekies omdat dit die<br />
seleksie van belangrike aspekte vergemaklik. Indien bv 4 8,0 as<br />
afsnypunt gekies word, sou daar doodeenvoudig te veel aspekte<br />
ingesluit word om sinvolle afleidings te kan maak. Verder, die<br />
belangrikheid van die verskillende aspekte word bepaal volgens<br />
verskille in rekenkundige gemiddeldes, maar die verskille is nie<br />
noodwendig statisties betekenisvol nie).<br />
V 10 = Motivering; V 19 = Selfvertroue; V 12 = Konsentrasie;<br />
V11=Doelwitstelling;V15=Spanbou<br />
Dieenkelemeesbelangrikeaspekismotiveringmotivering (V 10; x} = 9,44). Die<br />
aspek wat die mins belangrike geag word, is angs in sport (V 14;<br />
x} = 7,48).<br />
Vervolgens is vasgestel tot watter mate mans- en vroueonderwysers<br />
afsonderlik die belangrikheid van sportsielkunde, as deel van die<br />
opleidingsprogram van vakonderwysers, beoordeel (Tabelle is nie<br />
ingesluit nie om ruimte te bespaar).<br />
Mansonderwysers se beoordeling van die belangrikheid van sport-<br />
sielkundige aspekte (N = 51):<br />
Mansonderwysers beskou die volgende aspekte van sportsielkunde as<br />
die mees belangrike om ingesluit te word in die opleidingsprogram<br />
van vakonderwysers (x} 4 9,0):<br />
V 10 = Motivering; V 19 = Selfvertroue; V 11 = Doelwitstelling;<br />
V 12 = Konsentrasie; V 15 = Spanbou; V 25 = Kognitief-geestelike<br />
taaiheid; V 28 = Kommunikasie in sport<br />
Die enkele mees belangrike aspek om ingesluit te word (volgens<br />
mansonderwysers) is motivering (V 10; x} =9,77)endieminsbelangrike<br />
is angs in sport (V 14; x} = 7,19).
Sportsielkunde as komponent in die opleidingsprogram van vakonderwysers 199<br />
Vroueonderwysers se beoordeling van die belangrikheid van sport-<br />
sielkundige aspekte (N = 82):<br />
Vroueonderwysers wat sport afrig, beskou die volgende aspekte van<br />
sportsielkunde as die mees belangrike om ingesluit te word in die<br />
opleidingspakket van vakonderwysers (x} 4 9,0):<br />
V 10 = Motivering; V 19 = Selfvertroue<br />
Weereens, die enkele mees belangrike aspek (volgens vroueonderwysers)<br />
is motivering (V 10; x} = 9,24) en die mins belangrike aspek is<br />
toeskouergedrag (V 17; x} = 7,43).<br />
Daar is ook bepaal op welke wyse hoe È r- en laerskoolonderwysers<br />
afsonderlik die belangrikheid van die verskillende sportsielkundige<br />
aspekte, as deel van die opleidingspakket van vakonderwysers,<br />
beoordeel. Die resultate verskil min en lyk soos volg (tabelle uitgelaat):<br />
Hoe È rskoolonderwysers: Hulle beskou die volgende aspekte as die<br />
mees belangrike (x} 4 9,0):<br />
V 10 = Motivering; V 19 = Selfvertroue; V 11 = Doelwitstelling;<br />
V 12 = Konsentrasie; V 15 = Spanbou<br />
Die enkele aspek wat hulle die mees belangrike ag is motivering (V 10;<br />
x} = 9,58) en die mins belangrike is toeskouergedrag (V 17; x} = 7,26).<br />
Laerskoolonderwysers: Hulle beskou die volgende aspekte as die mees<br />
belangrike<br />
(x} 4 9,0):<br />
V 19 = Selfvertroue; V 12 = Konsentrasie; V 15 = Spanbou;<br />
V 10 = Motivering; V 28 = Kommunikasie<br />
Die enkele aspekte wat hulle die mees belangrike ag is konsentrasie en<br />
selfvertroue (V 12 en V 19; x} = 9,23) en die mins belangrike is<br />
onderprestasie (V 20; x} = 6,71).
200<br />
Ten slotte is ondersoek ingestel na die wyse waarop vakonderwysers<br />
wat opleiding in sportafrigting ontvang het en die  wat nie opleiding<br />
ontvang het nie, die verskillende aspekte van sportsielkunde beoordeel<br />
as van belang om ingesluit te word in die opleidingsprogram van<br />
vakonderwysers.<br />
Vakonderwysers wat opleiding in sportafrigting ontvang het<br />
(N = 110):<br />
Hierdie onderwysers beskou die volgende aspekte as van essensie È le<br />
belang om ingesluit te word in die opleidingspakket van vakonderwysers<br />
(x} 4 9,0):<br />
V 10 = Motivering; V 19 = Selfvertroue; V 11 = Doelwitstelling;<br />
V 15 = Spanbou; V 12 = Konsentrasie<br />
Die enkele mees belangrike aspek is motivering (V 10; x} = 9,50) en die<br />
mins belangrike aspek is angs in sport (V 14; x} = 7,59).<br />
Vakonderwysers wat nie opleiding in sportafrigting ontvang het nie<br />
(N = 24):<br />
Hierdie onderwysers beskou die volgende aspekte as van essensie È le<br />
belang om ingesluit te word in die opleidingspakket van vakonderwysers<br />
(x} 4 9,0):<br />
V10 = Motivering; V 19 = Selfvertroue<br />
Die mees belangrike aspekte is motivering en selfvertroue (V 10 en<br />
V19; x} =9,17)endieminsbelangrikeaspekteisangsangs in sport en<br />
aggressie in sport (V 13 en V 14; x} = 6,74).<br />
6.7 Item 10 van die vraelys<br />
Die respondente moes aandui <strong>of</strong> hulle sou belangstel om 'n sertifikaat/<br />
diploma in sportsielkunde te verwerf. Die resultate verskyn in tabel 10.
Sportsielkunde as komponent in die opleidingsprogram van vakonderwysers 201<br />
TABEL 10<br />
Belangstelling om 'n diploma/sertifikaat in sportsielkunde te verwerf<br />
Stel belang in diploma<br />
Opleiding in<br />
sportafrigting<br />
Ja<br />
Nee<br />
Totaal<br />
Ja 77 33 110<br />
Nee 12 12 24<br />
Totaal 89 44 134<br />
Volgens tabel 10 stel 70% (77/110) van vakonderwysers wat opleiding in<br />
sportafrigting ontvang het, daarin belang om 'n diploma <strong>of</strong> sertifikaat in<br />
sportsielkunde te verwerf. Van die  wat nie opleiding in sportafrigting<br />
ontvang het nie, stel 50% (12/24) daarin belang om 'n diploma <strong>of</strong><br />
sertifikaat in sportsielkunde te verwerf. Altesaam stel 66,42% (89/134)<br />
van die vakonderwysers wat deelgeneem het aan die projek, daarin<br />
belang om 'n diploma <strong>of</strong> sertifikaat in sportsielkunde te verwerf.<br />
6.8 Item 11 van die vraelys<br />
Die respondente moes aandui hoe lank hulle reken 'n opleidingsprogram<br />
in sportsielkunde vir vakonderwysers moet duur. Die resultate<br />
lyk soos volg:<br />
'n Semester = 50 proefpersone<br />
'n Halfjaar = 32 proefpersone<br />
'n Jaar = 52 proefpersone<br />
Totaal<br />
= 134 proefpersone<br />
Dit wil dus voorkom <strong>of</strong> die meerderheid proefpersone (vakonderwysers)<br />
o  f'nsemestero  f 'n jaarlikse opleidingsprogram in sportsielkunde<br />
vir vakonderwysers verkies. Instansies wat dit sou beoog om so 'n<br />
program in te stel, behoort hiervan kennis te neem.
202<br />
6.9 Samevatting van die vakonderwysers se<br />
response<br />
Volgens die gegewens verkry, het die vakonderwysers wat aan die<br />
ondersoek deelgeneem het, soos volg gereageer:<br />
. Altesaam 82,09% (110/134) van die vakonderwysers wat<br />
sport afrig, het opleiding in sportafrigtingstegnieke ontvang,<br />
maar slegs 16,42% (22/134) het opleiding in sportsielkunde<br />
ontvang, terwyl 14,93% (20/134) opleiding in beide sportafrigting<br />
en sportsielkunde ontvang het.<br />
. Vakonderwysers wat sport afrig, ag die volgende aspekte<br />
van sportsielkunde as die mees belangrike om ingesluit te<br />
word in die opleidingspakket van vakonderwysers:<br />
Motivering<br />
Doelwitstelling<br />
Konsentrasie<br />
Spanbou<br />
Selfvertroue<br />
Kognitief-geestelike taaiheid<br />
Kommunikasie in sport<br />
Die aspekte wat die mins belangrike geag word, is die<br />
volgende:<br />
Angs in sport<br />
Toeskouergedrag<br />
Onderprestasie<br />
Aggressie in sport<br />
Die meeste vakonderwysers het motivering as die enkele<br />
mees belangrike aspek uitgelig en angs in sport as die enkele<br />
mins belangrike aspek.<br />
. Altesaam 70% (77/110) van die vakonderwysers wat<br />
opleiding in sportafrigting ontvang het, stel daarin belang
Sportsielkunde as komponent in die opleidingsprogram van vakonderwysers 203<br />
om 'n diploma <strong>of</strong> sertifikaat in sportsielkunde te verwerf,<br />
terwyl 76,12% (102/134) van die proefpersone (vakonderwysers)<br />
o  f'nsemestero  f 'n jaarlikse opleidingsprogram in<br />
sportsielkunde vir vakonderwysers verkies.<br />
7 FINALE SAMEVATTING EN AANBEVELINGS<br />
Die belangrikste gevolgtrekkings wat uit hierdie ondersoek gemaak<br />
kan word, is die volgende:<br />
. Baie min vakonderwysers in die RSA ondergaan enige<br />
opleiding in sportsielkunde.<br />
. Vakonderwysers wat sport afrig, is oorweldigend ten gunste<br />
daarvan dat sportsielkunde ingesluit moet word in die<br />
opleidingspakket van vakonderwysers.<br />
Daar word dus ten sterkste aanbeveel dat alle tersie à re inrigtings wat<br />
gemoeid is met die opleiding van vakonderwysers, aandag sal skenk<br />
aan die moontlikheid om sportsielkunde in te sluit in die opleidingsprogramme<br />
van hulle onderwysers. As vertrekpunt vir die opstel van<br />
so 'n program word die verskillende aspekte van sportsielkunde van<br />
meer belangrik na minder belangrik gerangskik, soos deur die<br />
proefpersone bepaal. Die resultate verskyn in tabel 11.<br />
Volgens tabel 11 word 'n aspek soos ``Krisishantering in sport ``wat as<br />
sulks nie in die literatuur verskyn nie, as die 10de belangrikste geag<br />
deur vakonderwysers om ingesluit te word in 'n opleidingsprogram vir<br />
vakonderwysers. Dis ook insiggewend dat 'n oe È nskynlik belangrike<br />
komponent soos ``Kinders in sport'' en ``Angs in sport'' so laag op die<br />
lys verskyn. (LW: Daar moet net weer beklemtoon word dat hierdie<br />
rangskikking van die aspekte volgens gemiddeldes, net as 'n riglyn<br />
dien, aangesien die verskille tussen die gemiddeldes nie noodwendig<br />
statisties betekenisvol is nie).
204<br />
TABEL 11<br />
Aspekte van sportsielkunde gerangskik volgens belangrikheid soos deur<br />
vakonderwysers beoordeel<br />
V x}} s<br />
V 10 = Motivering 9.44 1.28<br />
V 19 = Selfvertroue 9.35 1.35<br />
V 12 = Konsentrasie 9.12 1.51<br />
V 11 = Doelwitstelling 9.10 1.60<br />
V 15 = Spanbou 9.09 1.43<br />
V 28 = Kommunikasie 8.91 1.54<br />
V 9 = Hantering van konflik 8.87 1.67<br />
V 25 = Kognitief-geestelike taaiheid 8.83 1.62<br />
V 32 = Selfkennis 8.69 1.66<br />
V 33 = Krisishantering in sport 8.59 1.87<br />
V 29 = Ontspanningstegnieke 8.53 1.83<br />
V 21 = Leierskap 8.53 1.83<br />
V 34 = Wen versus verloor 8.51 1.97<br />
V 18 = Wen versus sukses 8.51 1.89<br />
V 27 = Besluitneming in sport 8.50 1.70<br />
V 26 = Kinders in sport 8.32 1.95<br />
V 16 = Kompetisie 8.22 2.00<br />
V 31 = Persoonlikheid 8.17 2.06<br />
V 30 = Visualisering 8.01 2.14<br />
V 24 = Perfeksionisme versus voortreflikheid<br />
7.91 1.94<br />
V 20 = Onderprestasie 7.82 2.32<br />
V 22 = Uitbrandingsindroom 7.60 2.17<br />
V 13 = Aggressie 7.60 2.37<br />
V 17 = Toeskouergedrag 7.57 2.29<br />
V 23 = Aktivering (arousal) 7.57 2.18<br />
V 14 = Angs in sport 7.48 2.56<br />
V = Veranderlikes<br />
x} = Gemiddeldes<br />
s = Standaardafwyking<br />
N = 134
Sportsielkunde as komponent in die opleidingsprogram van vakonderwysers 205<br />
Dit wil ook voorkom <strong>of</strong> aspekte soos aggressie in sport en angs in sport<br />
nie so belangrik geag word deur vakonderwysers nie.<br />
Tot dusver is ho<strong>of</strong>saaklik oorweging geskenk aan daardie aspekte wat<br />
in die vraelys aangespreek is. Daar is egter nog ander aspekte wat in<br />
die teorie voorkom, byvoorbeeld geslag in sport, gesindheid teenoor<br />
sport, die individu in die span, terugvoering en versterking, selfgesprek<br />
ensovoorts, wat ook in gedagte gehou sal moet word by die<br />
samestelling van 'n opleidingsprogram in sportsielkunde vir vakonderwysers.<br />
Die finale samestelling van 'n opleidingsprogram in sportsielkunde vir<br />
vakonderwysers sal berus by die bepaalde instansie wat so 'n program<br />
wil instel. Daar sal onder andere gekyk moet word na faktore soos:<br />
. Hoe lank gaan die kursus duur, met ander woorde gaan dit 'n<br />
semester-, halfjaar- <strong>of</strong> jaarkursus wees?<br />
. Hoeveel lesings <strong>of</strong> lesure gaan afgestaan word om die kursus<br />
te onderrig?<br />
. Hoe lyk die studente-samestelling? Mans- en vroueonderwysers<br />
en hoe È r- en laerskoolonderwysers verskil byvoorbeeld<br />
in hul beoordeling van die belangrikheid van<br />
sportsielkundige aspekte.<br />
8 SLOTWOORD<br />
Vakonderwysers in die RSA wat sport afrig, beskik oor weinig<br />
opleiding in sportsielkunde. Dit was die prime à re doel van hierdie<br />
ondersoek om hierdie leemte uit te wys en om riglyne te probeer neerle Ã<br />
waarvolgens 'n instansie dit kan oorweeg om 'n opleidingsprogram in<br />
sportsielkunde vir sy vakonderwysers in te stel. Hopenlik sal die<br />
bevindinge van hierdie ondersoek die leser, en meer spesifiek ons<br />
onderwysowerhede, bewus maak van die noodsaaklikheid daarvan om<br />
sportsielkunde ingesluit te kry as komponent in die opleidingsprogram<br />
vir vakonderwysers.
206<br />
SUMMARY<br />
Sport psychology is becoming more and more important in the world<br />
<strong>of</strong> sport, especially in countries like the USA, Europe and Australia. In<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> sport psychology is still regarded as ``unnecessary'' or <strong>of</strong><br />
little importance. Fortunately this attitude is changing.<br />
In our schools in the RSA, most <strong>of</strong> the subject teachers are involved in<br />
the coaching <strong>of</strong> sport, whether they like it or not. The training<br />
programme <strong>of</strong> these subject teachers does not really provide for the<br />
inclusion <strong>of</strong> sport psychology. In fact, a survey at universities and<br />
teacher colleges all over the country indicated that only two <strong>of</strong> these<br />
institutions <strong>of</strong>fer sport psychology to their subject teachers (Note: For<br />
students in Human Movement the picture looks different).<br />
Enquiries at schools in the RSA revealed that subject teachers<br />
experience frustrations as sport coaches for example:<br />
1 They do not always know how to motivate their teams or<br />
individual athletes.<br />
2 They do not always know the difference between psyching up<br />
athletes and motivating them. Furthermore, they battle to<br />
psych their athletes up to optimum performance on the day/<br />
moment <strong>of</strong> a big event Ð the athletes either peak too early or<br />
too late.<br />
3 Subject teachers do not always possess the necessary knowledge<br />
to apply certain focus and relaxation techniques.<br />
4 They battle to deal with aspects like aggression in sport, crisis<br />
and conflict situations in sport, the burning out syndrome etc.<br />
The result <strong>of</strong> subject teachers' inadequate training in sport psychology<br />
leads to a number <strong>of</strong> implications, inter alia the deterioration <strong>of</strong><br />
relationships between coach and athlete and consequently poor sport<br />
achievements. It therefore deemed necessary to launch an investigation<br />
into the necessity and possibility <strong>of</strong> including sport psychology as a<br />
component in the training programme <strong>of</strong> subject teachers.<br />
The results <strong>of</strong> the investigation clearly indicate the following:
Sportsielkunde as komponent in die opleidingsprogram van vakonderwysers 207<br />
. Approximately 84% <strong>of</strong> the subject teachers in the RSA who<br />
are involved in the coaching <strong>of</strong> sport, did not receive any<br />
training in sport psychology.<br />
. Subject teachers who are involved in the coaching <strong>of</strong> sport<br />
are overwhelmingly in favour <strong>of</strong> the inclusion <strong>of</strong> sport<br />
psychology in their training programmes.<br />
. The aspects <strong>of</strong> sport psychology subject teachers regard as<br />
the most important to be included in their training programmes<br />
are motivation, self-confidence, concentration,<br />
setting goals and team building.<br />
BIBLIOGRAFIE<br />
Butler, R J 1996. Sports Psychology in action. London: Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd.<br />
Coakley, J J 1994. Sport in society: Issues and controversies. 5th edition. London: Mosby-<br />
Yearbook Inc.<br />
Cratty, B J 1983. Psychology in contemporary sport: Guidelines for coaches and athletes. 2nd<br />
edition. London: Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs.<br />
Gill, D L 1986. Psychological dynamics <strong>of</strong> sport. Illinois: Human Kinetics Publishers, Inc.<br />
Kremer, J & Scully, D 1994. Psychology in sport. London:Taylor&FrancisLtd.<br />
Le Roux, J G 1999. Sportsielkunde as komponent in die opleidingsprogram van vakonderwysers.<br />
'n Ongepubliseerde MEd-verhandeling. Pretoria: Unisa.<br />
Morris, T & Summers, J (red) 1995. Sport Psychology: Theory, applications and issues. New<br />
York: John Wiley & Sons.<br />
Mulder, J C 1989. Statistiese tegnieke in opvoedkunde. Pretoria: Haum.<br />
Roberts, G C (red) 1992. Motivation in sport and exercise. Illinois: Human Kinetics Books.<br />
Salmela, J H 1991. The world sport psychology sourcebook. Leeds: Mouvement Publications.<br />
Silva, J M & Weinberg, R S (red) 1984. Psychological foundations <strong>of</strong> sport. Illinois: Human<br />
Kinetics Publishers, Inc.<br />
Vernacchia, R V, McGuire, R & Cook, D 1996. Coaching mental excellence. Portola Valley,<br />
California: Warde Publishers.<br />
Weinberg, R S & Gould, D 1995. Foundations <strong>of</strong> sport and exercise psychology. Illinois:<br />
Human Kinetics Books.<br />
Williams, J M (red) 1993. Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance. 2nd<br />
edition. Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company.
208<br />
The Swiss missionaries'<br />
educational endeavour<br />
as a means for social<br />
transformation in <strong>South</strong><br />
<strong>Africa</strong> (1873±1975)<br />
BMC Masumbe<br />
IA Coetzer<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Educational<br />
Studies<br />
Unisa<br />
Social transformation is as old as humanity. It is the product <strong>of</strong> human thought and<br />
action. People have always been striving to bring about change aimed at improving their<br />
living conditions. Each generation has surpassed its predecessor in terms <strong>of</strong> the socioeconomic<br />
and political changes it brought to bear on society. Before the advent <strong>of</strong><br />
colonialism and western education, home (informal) education was an important catalyst<br />
for social development among <strong>Africa</strong>n communities. The arrival <strong>of</strong> missionaries <strong>of</strong><br />
different denominations led to the introduction <strong>of</strong> formal education among the indigenous<br />
populace as literacy was viewed as a means for evangelisation. In <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> both<br />
mission education and colonial education played a very significant role in the<br />
acculturation, detribalisation and modernisation <strong>of</strong> the indigenous populations to the<br />
level where they are today. Social transformation is a life-long process.<br />
1 INTRODUCTION<br />
The aim <strong>of</strong> this article is to survey the contributions <strong>of</strong> the Swiss<br />
missionaries in bringing about social transformation in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>,
The Swiss missionaries' educational endeavour 209<br />
with special reference to the north-eastern parts <strong>of</strong> the erstwhile<br />
Transvaal. The discussion is based on the reality that social transformation<br />
as spearheaded by the different missionary societies obviously<br />
took place in a political environment that naturally tended to inform<br />
the policies formulated by different churches during the period under<br />
review. Churches either felt constrained to pursue social justice by<br />
challenging policies formulated by colonial or local state authorities, or<br />
they acted as agents, whether deliberately or by default, <strong>of</strong> the<br />
prevailing political dispensation imposed by the local state authority<br />
or an overseas colonial power.<br />
Social transformation as pursued by the Swiss clerics was subject to the<br />
condition that it had to occur without regard to race, creed, gender or<br />
religious affiliation, but the Swiss Missionary Society's personnel<br />
individually or collectively straddled both sectarianism and nonpartisanship.<br />
The Swiss missionaries regarded themselves as important<br />
role players in the quest to put the indigenous populace on the<br />
road to national development, which in their view had to cover various<br />
facets <strong>of</strong> life, for instance socio-economic and cultural development.<br />
Missionaries across denominational boundaries saw their mandate as<br />
spreading the Gospel <strong>of</strong> Jesus Christ, the Saviour <strong>of</strong> mankind. The<br />
execution <strong>of</strong> this religious task had to be paralleled by the performance<br />
<strong>of</strong> charitable deeds to benefit what were rightly perceived to be<br />
disadvantaged communities. Missionaries established schools in the<br />
<strong>Africa</strong>n territories as they regarded formal education as a means to an<br />
end, namely the conversion <strong>of</strong> the heathen masses so that they could<br />
also partake <strong>of</strong> the Glory <strong>of</strong> God. Formal education provided the<br />
indigenous populace with writing and reading skills that were<br />
indispensable to the extension <strong>of</strong> the Kingdom <strong>of</strong> God. Missionaries<br />
identified their mandate with Jesus Christ's exhortation to his<br />
disciples: ``Go ye and teach all nations, baptizing them in the name <strong>of</strong><br />
the Father, and <strong>of</strong> the son, and <strong>of</strong> the Holy Ghost, teaching them to<br />
observe all things whatsoever I have commanded you ... . (Cuendet,<br />
1949:2).
210<br />
2 THE GENESIS OF THE SWISS MISSIONARY<br />
SOCIETY IN SOUTH AFRICA (1874)<br />
The young ministers <strong>of</strong> the Swiss Missionary Society who were<br />
seconded to work as missionaries under the Paris Evangelical Society<br />
in Basutoland came from the French-speaking western part <strong>of</strong><br />
Switzerland known as the small Canton <strong>of</strong> Vaud. The religious fervour<br />
<strong>of</strong> these young clerics was inspired by the Rev Louis Bridel who taught<br />
them during their ministerial training at Lausanne. The Paris<br />
Evangelical Missionary Society had been operative in Basutoland since<br />
1833.<br />
The Free Church <strong>of</strong> the Canton <strong>of</strong> Vaud was founded in 1847. It was<br />
strongly opposed to setting up autonomous foreign missions to<br />
evangelize pagans spread throughout the world because it lacked the<br />
funds required to sustain such ventures. But the young clerics<br />
graduating from the Academie de Lausanne pressured their church<br />
leadership incessantly to establish an independent missionary society<br />
that could dispatch them to remote territories such as <strong>South</strong>ern <strong>Africa</strong>,<br />
Australasia, India and even China to evangelise the heathen masses.<br />
The church finally bowed to this pressure by agreeing to lend the<br />
young ministers to friendly churches (Phillips 1949:3, 14).<br />
The first batch <strong>of</strong> volunteers from Switzerland who joined the Paris<br />
Evangelical Missionary Society in the mountain kingdom <strong>of</strong> Basutoland<br />
included the following: Paul Germond, Louis Duvoisin, Adolphe<br />
Mabille and D.F. Ellenberger. These clerics arrived in Basutoland<br />
between the years 1859 and 1861. One missionary, namely Rev Henri<br />
Gonin, decided to join the Dutch Reformed Church and served among<br />
the Tswana people <strong>of</strong> Saulspoort, near Rustenburg. This step was<br />
surprising since the Dutch Reformed Church had never been classified<br />
as an ally <strong>of</strong> the Free Church, but the Free Church never voiced any<br />
qualms about it (Cuendet 1950:8±9).<br />
Another church hailed as an ally <strong>of</strong> the Free Church was the Basel<br />
Mission. This researcher knows very little about the Free Church,<br />
except that it had mission fields elsewhere in <strong>Africa</strong>. The first recruits<br />
to the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society appear to have been
The Swiss missionaries' educational endeavour 211<br />
content with being welcomed as assistants to the Paris Mission, and to<br />
have made no effort to persuade the Free Church to establish an<br />
autonomous missionary society that would labour in <strong>Africa</strong>, the socalled<br />
``Dark Continent''.<br />
This task was left to the Reverends Paul Berthoud and Ernest Creux,<br />
two close friends whose strongly worded letter to the Church Synod in<br />
1869 made it hard for the leadership to ignore their petition. The letter<br />
was discussed in depth and the feeling was that the church had a duty<br />
to send ministers far and wide to proclaim the Gospel <strong>of</strong> Christ.<br />
Indications were that the Reverends Creux and Berthoud would<br />
eventually have their wish, but they had to go through the Paris<br />
Mission in Basutoland before they could establish mission stations<br />
under the Free Church. The church leadership was still raising the<br />
difficulty <strong>of</strong> financial incapacity in response to requests to set up<br />
independent mission stations for the Free Church. However, the<br />
difficulties were overcome to the extent that Creux and his English wife<br />
set <strong>of</strong>f for the Cape in 1872, followed by Berthoud and his wife a year<br />
later (Phillips 1949:14±15).<br />
3 THE FOUNDING OF AN INDEPENDENT<br />
MISSIONARY SOCIETY BY THE FREE CHURCH OF<br />
THE SMALL CANTON OF VAUD, SWITZERLAND<br />
The yearning <strong>of</strong> Reverends Ernest Creux and Paul Berthoud for the<br />
establishment <strong>of</strong> an autonomous missionary society was soon fulfilled.<br />
It seemed providential at the time that the Paris Evangelical<br />
Missionary Society could not expand its enterprises to include<br />
Sekhukhuniland in the Northern Province, from which its Morija<br />
Pastoral School drew some <strong>of</strong> its students, because this created an<br />
opportunity that would help the Reverends Creux and Berthoud as<br />
well as the Shangaans. But before this happened, a succession battle<br />
had to cross the missionaries' path. Sekhukhuni, paramount chief <strong>of</strong><br />
the Bapedi in the Northern Province, was involved in a bitter struggle<br />
with his brother Mampuru for the seat <strong>of</strong> power vacated by their<br />
deceased father Sekwati (1824±1860) (Davenport 1987:59).<br />
The entry <strong>of</strong> Reverends Alexander Merensky and Albert Nachtigal into
212<br />
the fray in support <strong>of</strong> the rival Mampuru infuriated Chief Sekhukhuni<br />
to the point where he regarded missionaries with distaste. When the<br />
Reverends Adolphe Mabille and Paul Berthoud arrived in Sekhukhuniland<br />
in terms <strong>of</strong> an earlier agreement to open up the missions called<br />
for by students from the territory, they found to their astonishment<br />
that the chief had already adopted a very hostile attitude towards all<br />
the messengers <strong>of</strong> God. He balked at allowing the missionaries to<br />
proselytize among his subjects. Fortunately for Mabille and Berthoud,<br />
the Rev Stephanus H<strong>of</strong>meyr <strong>of</strong> the Dutch Reformed Church advised<br />
them to proceed further north to the Zoutpansberg District where the<br />
Gwambas, or Shangaans (also known as Knobneusen) hadn't yet heard<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Word <strong>of</strong> God. Chief Joao Albasini <strong>of</strong> Goedewensch, who was the<br />
absolute ruler <strong>of</strong> the Shangaans, was consulted by the Swiss<br />
missionaries, accompanied by a retinue <strong>of</strong> Basuto Eevangelists. Chief<br />
Albasini duly granted the Swiss clerics permission to evangelise his<br />
subjects. The missionaries then bought the farm Klipfontein from Mr<br />
John Watt, a Scottish trader, in 1873. This area was earmarked as the<br />
site for the first mission station for the Swiss. On 17 August 1873 Rev<br />
Adolphe Mabille delivered his first sermon to a group <strong>of</strong> inquisitive<br />
Shangaans before he and his colleague, Berthoud, returned to Basutoland<br />
to report on the abortive bid to evangelise the Bapedi (EPCSA's<br />
Programme for Jubilee Celebrations, 7±9th July 2000:8±9, Du Plessis;<br />
1911:330±331).<br />
4 THE BASUTO EVANGELISTS' TURN TO<br />
EVANGELISE THE SHANGAANS OF VALDEZIA<br />
Many historians who covered the ``scramble for the <strong>Africa</strong>n mission<br />
fields'' as well as clerics <strong>of</strong> different religious households or<br />
denominations in the past tended to regard black evangelists as mere<br />
porters with no skills to <strong>of</strong>fer to the pagan communities. This is a<br />
complete distortion <strong>of</strong> facts. Black evangelists were as good as their<br />
missionary mentors in preaching the gospel to the heathen communities.<br />
It is certainly no exaggeration to say that they were even better<br />
than white missionnaries by virtue <strong>of</strong> their superior knowledge <strong>of</strong> the<br />
rugged <strong>Africa</strong>n conditions, language and culture. Various factors,<br />
namely interstate trade and other ties, apparently made the transition<br />
from primitivity to modernity a lot easier during the period under
The Swiss missionaries' educational endeavour 213<br />
review. Thus the departure <strong>of</strong> the Reverends Adolphe Mabille and Paul<br />
Berthoud for Morija, Basutoland (now Lesotho) created an opportunity<br />
for Eliakim Matlanyane and Asser Segagabane, the two evangelists<br />
who were left in charge <strong>of</strong> the Klipfontein farm, to demonstrate their<br />
evangelistic skills. The two, assisted by their crew, started catechism<br />
lessons and literacy classes, and also taught their proselytes some<br />
hymnal songs. But Segagabane was not destined to stay for a long<br />
period in Klipfontein, for he first returned to Basutoland in 1874 before<br />
joining the Rev Francois Coillard's trek party who travelled through<br />
the Banyayi territory, eventually reaching the Zivi ± Zimuto territories<br />
along the Zambezi River, in <strong>South</strong>ern Rhodesia (now known as<br />
Zimbabwe) in 1876 (Beach 1973:25±39).<br />
The utility value <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Africa</strong>n evangelists need not be emphasised by<br />
this researcher, except to quote Beach (1973:27): ``A great deal <strong>of</strong> the<br />
work was carried out by devoted and determined <strong>Africa</strong>n evangelists,<br />
and in many ways the establishment <strong>of</strong> Christianity was as much an<br />
<strong>Africa</strong>n achievement as a European one''. It is gratifying that the Swiss<br />
Missionaries acknowledged this plain truth upon their return to<br />
Valdezia (Klipfontein) in 1875 when they praised the Basuto evangelists<br />
for their sterling efforts.<br />
5 THE SOCIALISATION OF PEOPLE IN TRANSITION<br />
FROM PRIMITIVITY TO MODERNITY<br />
Mr George Kenrich du Plessis <strong>of</strong> Reiger Park (New Nation, 11 April<br />
1990:17) spelt out the role <strong>of</strong> education as drawing ``out from the<br />
individual <strong>of</strong> the very best <strong>of</strong> which he/she is capable''. This<br />
description <strong>of</strong> education presupposes that without education an<br />
individual will be unable to exercise his/her cultural mandate as he/<br />
she should because his/her potential will remain untapped, with the<br />
result that his/her skills will not be sufficiently developed. This is why<br />
the skills possessed by the Shangaans <strong>of</strong> Valdezia were in a crude state<br />
and needed refinement by the missionaries. A new form <strong>of</strong> education,<br />
namely formal education, had to be phased in to build the necessary<br />
capacity for modern needs. Such formal education was indeed<br />
introduced in the Zoutpansberg District by the missionaries.
214<br />
Truly formal education among the Shangaans was introduced for the<br />
first time by the black evangelists who were left at Valdezia by the<br />
Reverends Adolphe Mabille and Paul Berthoud after the exploratory<br />
visit <strong>of</strong> 1873 which was designed to open up missions for the Free<br />
Church in the now defunct Transvaal. It is therefore a pity that some<br />
missionaries do not give due credit to the pioneering efforts <strong>of</strong> black<br />
evangelists. Mathebula (1989:7) notes that some missionaries refused<br />
to acknowledge the sterling efforts <strong>of</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n evangelists in that they<br />
chronicled 1875 as the year in which Swiss missionary activities<br />
commenced in Valdezia, while remaining silent about the preceding<br />
two years during which <strong>Africa</strong>n evangelists were predominantly active<br />
in the area. The reason for this omission is presumably the perception<br />
that black evangelists belonged to a ``dark continent'' that was<br />
inhabited by ``barbarians'' who were thought to be less creative and<br />
inventive than their white counterparts.<br />
6 THE INTRANSIGENCE OF THE ZUID<br />
AFRIKAANSCHE REPUBLIEK (ZAR) TOWARDS THE<br />
FRENCH-SPEAKING SWISS IMMIGRANTS<br />
(1875±1876)<br />
Officials <strong>of</strong> the ZAR apparently had very different views from those <strong>of</strong><br />
the Dutch Reformed Church, who seem to have welcomed the new<br />
arrivals as colleagues in the service <strong>of</strong> the Lord. The Swiss clerics were<br />
given permission to set up their mission stations by the unsuspicious<br />
General Piet Joubert, caretaker president <strong>of</strong> the ZAR during the<br />
absence <strong>of</strong> President Thomas Francois Burgers, who was <strong>of</strong>f to the<br />
Netherlands (Holland) on a fundraising visit for the construction <strong>of</strong> a<br />
railway line linking his landlocked republic with the sea. But when<br />
President Burgers returned he revoked this right as he suspected that<br />
the French-speaking missionaries were the ones who allegedly gave the<br />
Free State Boers problems by covertly supporting King Moshoeshoe's<br />
warriors in the gruelling wars that nearly wiped out the Boer Republic<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Orange Free State. President Burgers ordered the arrest <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Swiss missionaries in 1876 and they were locked up in Marabastad near<br />
Pietersburg for six weeks, and thereafter released without formal<br />
charges. Apparently, Magistrate Detl<strong>of</strong> Mare could see no cause for<br />
their continued imprisonment (Mathebula 1989:3).
The Swiss missionaries' educational endeavour 215<br />
Evidence surfacing after this debacle, suggested that President<br />
Burgers's actions were motivated by worry over his dwindling image<br />
after embarassing the finances <strong>of</strong> his republic and pursuing an<br />
educational policy that was abominable to the inhabitants <strong>of</strong> the<br />
erstwhile Transvaal Republic and its electorates. The annexation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Transvaal Republic by Sir Theophilus Shepstone and his British forces<br />
in 1877 was the final nail in the c<strong>of</strong>fin <strong>of</strong> President Burgers's term in<br />
<strong>of</strong>fice.<br />
During the so-called First War <strong>of</strong> Liberation (First Anglo Boer War,<br />
1880±1881) the British were defeated at Majuba by the Transvaal<br />
forces, and the Boers returned to power under President Paul Kruger.<br />
According to Rev Ernest Creux, President Kruger was not hostile to the<br />
advances <strong>of</strong> the Swiss missionaries. Thus from the moment the Swiss<br />
Missionaries were released from the Marabastad holding cells in 1876,<br />
the Swiss Missionary Society, which was founded in 1874, operated<br />
with minimal hindrances. The only sources <strong>of</strong> worry were the Makhado<br />
wars and the fear <strong>of</strong> what was to follow after the Bapedi <strong>of</strong> Sekhukhuni<br />
had inflicted a humiliating defeat on the Transvaal Boers in 1876.<br />
Another inhibiting factor was the shortage <strong>of</strong> manpower, which could<br />
not be overcome without considerable expenditure <strong>of</strong> capital. The new<br />
political climate led to a consistent increase in the number <strong>of</strong> Christian<br />
converts. For instance, Lydia Shihlomulo became the first Tsonga<br />
woman to be baptized on 1 October 1876. She had been ostracised and<br />
divorced by her polygamous husband after having had the misfortune<br />
<strong>of</strong> three abortive pregnancies in succession. Other Christian converts<br />
were Makhabane, Masiya, and Sekhutu and his wife Navani. The 8th <strong>of</strong><br />
July 1877 was particularly eventful in this regard as the Reverends Paul<br />
Berthoud and Ernest Creux baptized seven adults and ten children on<br />
that date (Cuendet 1950:17±18).<br />
7 EXPANSION OF EVANGELISM INTO AREAS THAT<br />
WERE BASTIONS OF HEATHENISM (1876±1900)<br />
The combined strength <strong>of</strong> the Basuto evangelists and the local<br />
Christians in Valdezia (named after the Canton <strong>of</strong> Vaud, Switzerland,<br />
from which most <strong>of</strong> the Swiss missionaries originated) led to a steady
216<br />
increase in the number <strong>of</strong> Christians. This was followed by the<br />
establishment <strong>of</strong> annexes at Barcelona, situated between Valdezia and<br />
Elim; Barotta, between Valdezia and Tshakhuma; and the annex cum<br />
mission station <strong>of</strong> Elim (1879), in Chief Njakanjaka's territory. Around<br />
1877 Phillips (1949:6) estimated that 18 months' work at Valdezia had<br />
produced around 40 Christian converts. It was therefore not surprising<br />
that Chief Njakanjaka ultimately agreed to let missionaries establish<br />
the second mission station <strong>of</strong> Elim (1879). Black evangelists had<br />
s<strong>of</strong>tened his resistance to Christianity, which had been established for<br />
more than four years at Valdezia Mission Station. Migrants who had<br />
been to the Kimberley diamond mines and Pretoria, namely Yakobo<br />
Mbizana Mabulele, and John Songele, a close friend <strong>of</strong> Timoteo<br />
Mandlati, clearly intimated to their kinsmen that education was an<br />
important catalyst in the transformation process (Cuendet 1950:16±18).<br />
The combination (merging) <strong>of</strong> formal schooling with evangelisation<br />
was especially helpful in the expansion <strong>of</strong> evangelism into the hitherto<br />
heathen strongholds. Education, as Du Plessis (1990:17) correctly<br />
stated, was indispensable for the social upliftment <strong>of</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>ns during<br />
the missionary era since it was, and still remains, a means for the<br />
transmission <strong>of</strong> cultural norms and values from one generation to<br />
another. Yet, for formal education to be really effective as a moulding<br />
tool, it needed to build on the strong foundation laid by home<br />
educators, thereby reinforcing and consolidating the cultural values<br />
that helped to form well-mannered individuals with a strong sense <strong>of</strong><br />
values even before the teaching-learning situation, otherwise known as<br />
the classroom, was introduced.<br />
The researchers strongly believe that the coalescence <strong>of</strong> traditional<br />
cultural etiquette with that <strong>of</strong> the Western school system was mainly<br />
responsible for the fact that black ministers managed to extend the<br />
Kingdom <strong>of</strong> God far and wide. It is therefore highly unlikely that Josefa<br />
Mhalamhala and Eliaxib, would have been accepted in 1882 as<br />
missionaries at Magudu (Antioka) and Nondwane (Rikatla) respectively<br />
if they had completely disowned their <strong>Africa</strong>n values. The Chiefs<br />
in whose territories these two missionaries introduced Christianity
The Swiss missionaries' educational endeavour 217<br />
must have welcomed them with open arms because they displayed<br />
their vumunhu (humaneness/ubuntu) in their interaction with their<br />
kith and kin, while respectfully showing why social transformation<br />
was desirable in those years.<br />
Missionaries were regarded as hypocrites because <strong>of</strong> the double<br />
standards that were <strong>of</strong>ten evident in their application <strong>of</strong> the mission<br />
statutes they formulated, for example the one whereby religious rites<br />
at gravesides were prohibited for <strong>Africa</strong>ns while whites maintained a<br />
conspicuous presence at the graves <strong>of</strong> their loved ones on the pretext <strong>of</strong><br />
tending the graves. The realization that missionaries were inconsistent<br />
in their application <strong>of</strong> rules made many converts and potential<br />
converts stay away from church buildings, thus making it necessary for<br />
church workers to pay home visits in order to win Christian converts<br />
(Ntsan'wisi 1956:2).<br />
The Swiss missionaries' hypocritical imposition <strong>of</strong> strictures had a<br />
devastating effect on <strong>Africa</strong>n cultures, for example in that converts<br />
were expected to cease watching heathen dances (swigubu) and to stop<br />
indulging in games classified as heathen. Boys and girls had to be<br />
members <strong>of</strong> the Pathfinders and Wayfarers clubs respectively. These<br />
social clubs had junior ranks, respectively known as the Trackers and<br />
Sunbeams. The manner in which missionaries went about their task <strong>of</strong><br />
evangelizing the <strong>Africa</strong>n masses was akin to stripping a person who is<br />
not given to nudity <strong>of</strong> his/her clothes and then still expecting him/her<br />
to walk nonchalantly through multitudes <strong>of</strong> people. This is why the<br />
Xhosa chiefs <strong>of</strong> the Eastern Cape, amazed by the depth <strong>of</strong> this<br />
hypocrisy, especially when it came to the slighting <strong>of</strong> indigenous<br />
cultures, referred to ``Christianity as a religion for old women and<br />
children, too childish to take seriously'' (Ashley 1980:36±37).<br />
Comments such as these were made by <strong>Africa</strong>n chiefs and their subjects<br />
because <strong>of</strong> the erosion <strong>of</strong> traditional values, such as beer-brewing,<br />
polygamy, initiation ceremonies and payment <strong>of</strong> lobola, to name but a<br />
few <strong>of</strong> the customs that were unique to the premodern era.
218<br />
8 THE IMPLANTATION OF FORMAL EDUCATION AND<br />
ALLIED SERVICES WITHIN THE SWISS MISSION<br />
FIELDS<br />
From the moment Eliakim Matlanyane and his colleagues introduced<br />
literacy classes in Valdezia there was no turning back. Formal<br />
education grew steadily at this mission station and its annexes. By<br />
1892, when Rev Maswingidzi Malale assumed his teaching duties at<br />
Valdezia, the number <strong>of</strong> pupils stood at 50, rocketing to 126 in 1896 and<br />
exceeding 300 by 1897. In 1896 the Rev Malale was a lone figure who<br />
had to deal with the rampant demands <strong>of</strong> children endeavouring to<br />
make the most <strong>of</strong> the education he was handing out to them. In 1897<br />
Joshua Marule, Frank Hlaise and Cornel Marivate were appointed as<br />
his assistants. During this period English was not allowed at schools,<br />
apparently due to the rivalry between the British and the government<br />
<strong>of</strong> President Paul Kruger, which culminated in the outbreak <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Second Anglo-Boer War/<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n War (1899±1902).<br />
TheRevSMMalaledidnotallowhisplanstobederailedbystate<br />
legislation. He taught English clandestinely, even though missionaries<br />
were against it, fearing a recurrence <strong>of</strong> the <strong>of</strong>ficial displeasure that<br />
ended in 1876 with the missionaries' imprisonment and appearance<br />
before Magistrate Detl<strong>of</strong> Mare at Marabastad near Pietersburg. The<br />
Rev Malale's steadfastness instilled courage into the heart and mind <strong>of</strong><br />
the Rev Paul Rosset, who was the resident missionary at Valdezia. He<br />
(Rosset) bought English books and negotiated with the Rev WEC<br />
Clarke, Inspector <strong>of</strong> Native Schools, and later Secretary to the<br />
Education Department, to have the Valdezia school <strong>of</strong>ficially registered<br />
(Malale 1937:3±4). But this expansion <strong>of</strong> education was not only<br />
confined to Valdezia. On the contrary, there was rapid development in<br />
different parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> and beyond, where the seeds <strong>of</strong><br />
Christianity had been sown by the Swiss clerics and their black elite.<br />
The number <strong>of</strong> converts concentrated in the mission stations, though<br />
insignificant compared to the spate <strong>of</strong> conversions taking place in the<br />
heathen villages, was very encouraging to the missionary authorities.<br />
They therefore sought funds that would enable them to establish more<br />
schools and colleges that would produce manpower that would
The Swiss missionaries' educational endeavour 219<br />
minister to the church's needs. These efforts resulted in the establishment<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Shiluvane Training College in 1899 under the directorship<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Rev HA Junod, as part <strong>of</strong> a concerted effort to entrench<br />
Christianity and to eliminate heathenism, which seemed to mock<br />
missionary efforts through the ostracism <strong>of</strong> Christian converts. The<br />
closure <strong>of</strong> Shiluvane Training College in 1905 necessitated the<br />
founding <strong>of</strong> Lemana Training Institution in 1906 on the Rossbach farm<br />
which was previously owned by Captain Adolf Schiel (Junod 1899:22±<br />
23; Rademeyer 1943:18).<br />
A separate college was founded at Rikatla for the Mozambicans<br />
because the Portuguese were no longer keen to grant their colonial<br />
subjects permission to study in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> (Cuendet 1950:61).<br />
Lemana Training Institution produced eminent musicians and leaders<br />
such as the late Rev DC Marivate (Mabunda, 1995:56; Maphophe 1956).<br />
The realisation by <strong>Africa</strong>n parents that education was a means to better<br />
employment prospects resulted in an increasing number <strong>of</strong> students<br />
being sent to Lemana Training Institution for their higher education.<br />
These teacher-evangelists ventured into different corners <strong>of</strong> the<br />
country, imparting knowledge that contributed in no small measure to<br />
the socio-economic and political development <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> and her<br />
neighbours. Lemana and her sister college <strong>of</strong> Rikatla in Mozambique<br />
had very broad curricula, catering for all aspects <strong>of</strong> life, namely<br />
spiritual matters as well as industrial and agricultural skills. Hygiene<br />
was one <strong>of</strong> the subjects seriously taught at the two colleges, given the<br />
superstitious nature <strong>of</strong> the indigenous populace during the pioneering<br />
years. The superstition surrounding the causes <strong>of</strong> disease and death<br />
had to be removed from the minds <strong>of</strong> proselytes and replaced by<br />
rational thinking and knowledge <strong>of</strong> cause and effect that was<br />
justifiable in terms <strong>of</strong> medical science (Egli & Krayer 1996:28±29).<br />
Although the Swiss missionaries believed that the ``heads <strong>of</strong> natives''<br />
could not cope with sophisticated technical and scientific education,<br />
nursing training was eventually introduced at Elim hospital in 1932<br />
when seven students were admitted to the nursing course. The<br />
introduction <strong>of</strong> high-school education at Lemana in 1933 was therefore<br />
aimed at giving female students an opportunity to diversify their
220<br />
studies to include the nursing pr<strong>of</strong>ession. Before 1932 the only course<br />
open for girls was the Native Teachers Certificate. The secondary<br />
classes established at Lemana Secondary School were intended to<br />
qualify girls for nursing, which till then had been undertaken by<br />
missionary nurses (Egli & Krayer 1996:28±29).<br />
9 FURTHER ADVANCES IN THE PROVISION OF<br />
MEDICAL AND NURSING CARE WITHIN THE SWISS<br />
MISSION FIELDS<br />
The medical and nursing services introduced at Elim hospital were<br />
extended to other mission stations within <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> and Mozambique<br />
to make it possible for Christians to abandon their traditional<br />
medicinal practices, including those related to midwifery. Masana and<br />
Shiluvane Hospitals had reached a stage where it was no longer<br />
possible for missionary doctors and nurses to cope with the demand for<br />
advanced medical and nursing care. The introduction <strong>of</strong> nursing<br />
training at Masana Hospital was pioneered by Violette Rosset (Egli &<br />
Krayer 1996:47±50). During those years it was not uncommon for<br />
nurses to invade the privacy <strong>of</strong> villagers in a bid to induce them to<br />
relinquish their traditional medicinal and midwifery practices.<br />
According to Gelfand (1984:132), alluding to developments in Shiluvane<br />
Hospital: ``A school was started in 1950 to train <strong>Africa</strong>n nurses for<br />
the Transvaal Provincial Diploma and in 1962 the <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n<br />
Nursing Council recognised it as a nursing school for auxiliary<br />
nurses''. Although the Swiss Mission in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> was making big<br />
strides in the training <strong>of</strong> nurses, albeit belatedly, it was regrettable and<br />
even deplorable to note that there seemed to be no encouragement for<br />
<strong>Africa</strong>n students to gain entry into the medical pr<strong>of</strong>ession. Could it be<br />
that <strong>Africa</strong>ns were still regarded as inherently lacking in the<br />
intellectual capacity required for this and similar careers? Available<br />
evidence in the national archives suggests that the Swiss clerics simply<br />
could not rid themselves <strong>of</strong> racist rhetoric, a case in point being the<br />
allusion to the ``heads <strong>of</strong> natives'' in the expression <strong>of</strong> the naõ È ve<br />
misconception that blacks were incapable <strong>of</strong> coping with subject matter<br />
requiring advanced thinking skills. It is utterances such as these that
The Swiss missionaries' educational endeavour 221<br />
dented many a student's self-concept for many years, thus robbing<br />
rural areas <strong>of</strong> a fair chance to catch up with urban centres as far as<br />
socio-economic and political development was concerned (N'wandula<br />
1988:45±46).<br />
But despite the shortcomings outlined above we cannot ignore the fact<br />
that missionaries did a lot <strong>of</strong> good to <strong>Africa</strong>ns in areas where<br />
government intervention should have been forthcoming since the<br />
advent <strong>of</strong> Western civilization on this continent. It goes without saying<br />
that the principal task <strong>of</strong> missionaries is evangelization, and not<br />
establishing schools, hospitals, clinics and health centres, which is<br />
primarily the responsibility <strong>of</strong> government. This researcher would like<br />
to concur with the observation <strong>of</strong> Staff Nurses V Mawila and C Mtebule<br />
that missionaries should be thanked for providing evangelism and<br />
education, and for eliminating heathenism in this country. As in the<br />
rest <strong>of</strong> the world, problems will keep on arising in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. This<br />
means that vigilant awareness <strong>of</strong> the need for social transformation<br />
will probably always be required, as will the need for sustained and<br />
effectiveimplementation<strong>of</strong>suchtransformation(Mawila&Mtebule<br />
1956:2).<br />
10 THE SWISS MISSIONARIES AND COLONIALISM:<br />
WERE THEY USED AS AGENTS OF COLONISERS?<br />
Missionaries' roles in <strong>Africa</strong> have been subjected to different interpretations.<br />
There are analysts who view some <strong>of</strong> them as having played<br />
a very significant role in the civilization <strong>of</strong> the native populace by<br />
providing formal education and medical and nursing care, by teaching<br />
the Word <strong>of</strong> God, and by fighting for social justice. Another group<br />
believes that missionaries <strong>of</strong> different denominations served as agents<br />
for colonisers. In this latter role, missionaries would explore territories,<br />
establish mission stations and thereafter call on the colonial government<br />
to send soldiers and police <strong>of</strong>ficers to protect their enterprises<br />
against hostile heathens ± a transparent ploy to serve the purposes <strong>of</strong><br />
colonisation. The beneficiaries <strong>of</strong> Swiss Missionary education and<br />
related services reject what they claim to be a baseless allegation made<br />
by ``radical elements'' to the effect that ``Christianity was used as a
222<br />
hunting dog by the colonisers''. They claim that the charge is baseless<br />
with regard to their church since Switzerland (where the missionaries<br />
<strong>of</strong> this church come from) was not a colonising country (EPCSA's<br />
Programme for Jubilee Celebrations, Valdezia 7±9 July 2000:8).<br />
However, the position <strong>of</strong> Switzerland as far as colonialism is concerned<br />
is not at stake here. The Swiss government had no control over private<br />
organizations such as the church, which freely sent out its personnel to<br />
distant countries in terms <strong>of</strong> its policies or mission statutes. What is at<br />
issueisthechurchanditsworkforceandthedegree<strong>of</strong>autonomyit<br />
enjoyed out in the field by virtue <strong>of</strong> its Synods or Mission Boards. And<br />
what needs to be probed is the behaviour <strong>of</strong> individual missionaries or<br />
groups <strong>of</strong> clerics in their relations with the ruling oligarchy, and in<br />
doing so we need to guard against having our perceptions clouded by<br />
sentiment.<br />
The following observation by Mafeje (1952:7) implies that all missionaries<br />
were guilty <strong>of</strong> acting as agents <strong>of</strong> colonialism: ``... if the ruling<br />
minority can enslave the mind <strong>of</strong> the people, control their ideas and<br />
their whole way <strong>of</strong> thinking, they have found an even more efficient<br />
weapon for subjugating them than the use <strong>of</strong> force, the military and<br />
police. For them the people themselves assist on their own enslavement.<br />
If the rulers can make the people believe that they are inferior,<br />
wipe out their past history or present it in such a way that they feel, not<br />
pride but shame, then they create the conditions that make it easy to<br />
dominate the people''.<br />
Like Dr H A Junod, Dr Samuel Jaques was advocating instruction to<br />
equip <strong>Africa</strong>ns for manual labour, with very little, if any academic<br />
education. But the claim by Dr Jaques that European missionaries were<br />
not aware <strong>of</strong> the circumstances <strong>of</strong> those for whom they advocated a<br />
separate education system at a time when a uniform education system<br />
had already been introduced elsewhere in the country is less than<br />
candid. Indeed, in the light <strong>of</strong> the evidence it is hard to resist the<br />
suspicion <strong>of</strong> collusion between missionaries and colonisers to disadvantage<br />
<strong>Africa</strong>ns by subjecting them to differentiated education that
The Swiss missionaries' educational endeavour 223<br />
would prepare them for the menial tasks that would be consistent with<br />
their being drawers <strong>of</strong> water and hewers <strong>of</strong> wood, that is to say for the<br />
destiny that the missionaries sought to implant in the minds <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Africa</strong>ns as an inevitable, divine dispensation.<br />
It was the transparency <strong>of</strong> the aim alluded to by Mafeje, namely landgrabbing<br />
and the assertion <strong>of</strong> White supremacy, that prompted Mr<br />
Etienne A Tlakula, Co-Editor <strong>of</strong> The Valdezia Bulletin (July 1932<br />
Vol II), and a resident <strong>of</strong> Elim, to make this clarion call: ``When shall<br />
we own farms?''. Besides the Swiss missionaries, this call was<br />
addressed to the colonists who owned vast tracts <strong>of</strong> fertile farming<br />
lands at a time when only the Black elite owned some miniature plots.<br />
The question was intended to shock readers into awareness <strong>of</strong> the<br />
inequitable distribution <strong>of</strong> land which left the majority <strong>of</strong> blacks living<br />
in grinding poverty. Missionaries pretended to be apolitical philanthropists,<br />
but they connived at the pursuit <strong>of</strong> aims envisaged by the<br />
Union Government, which actually consulted them for expert advice<br />
on many an issue. They (missionaries) signaled a sense <strong>of</strong> natural<br />
entitlement to authority and to intellectual superiority in their<br />
pronouncements. For example, during the 1930s when the land<br />
question was again a dominant theme in view <strong>of</strong> the Native Trust and<br />
Land Act (1936), it was widely held among the ranks <strong>of</strong> Swiss<br />
missionaries that the land which would be available upon the passing<br />
<strong>of</strong> this Act should be occupied by whites who would utilise it<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>itably. A Mr EA Rooth, Member <strong>of</strong> Parliament for Louis Trichardt,<br />
was favourably disposed towards white farmers as opposed to blacks,<br />
in earnest <strong>of</strong> which he advised white farmers (including Swiss clerics)<br />
to implore the Union Government ``to place at their disposal land<br />
which has been released for Native purchase because much <strong>of</strong> this<br />
ground, even if it were occupied by Natives, would never be<br />
beneficially used by them'' (Senator JD Rheinallt-Jones, SAIRR's Letter<br />
to Rev Rene' Cuenod <strong>of</strong> Lemana Training Institute dated 29th March<br />
1935).<br />
Missionaries, state <strong>of</strong>ficials and the farming community appeared to<br />
blame blacks for their ineptitude in tilling the land, oblivious <strong>of</strong> the<br />
many factors that militated against better accomplishment in this area.
224<br />
Firstly, the education system did not go deep enough to prepare<br />
potential crop farmers or stock farmers to achieve success on the land.<br />
Secondly, even if they did receive education in agriculture science at an<br />
appropriate level, their lack <strong>of</strong> land ownership would render them<br />
impotent as far as food production and the supply <strong>of</strong> raw materials<br />
were concerned. It is a fact that one can only be motivated to the hilt<br />
when conditions are conducive to activity aimed at self-improvement,<br />
that is when sufficient resources in their varied forms are available. But<br />
as matters stood it was difficult with the government and the<br />
missionaries effecting land reforms in bad faith (City Press, 9<br />
November 1998).<br />
It would be wrong, <strong>of</strong> course, to suggest that Swiss missionaries were<br />
not there when their proselytes needed them most. On the contrary,<br />
they sided with their Christian converts in opposing the planned<br />
relocation <strong>of</strong> the Valdezia-Elim communities and Elim Hospital to the<br />
Malamulele District to make way for the BaVenda during the 1960s,<br />
thus forcing the Nationalist Government to abandon the proposed<br />
relocation <strong>of</strong> the said communities (Jaques 1970:5±7). Although this<br />
gesture needs to be noted with approbation, the land hunger on the<br />
part <strong>of</strong> blacks remained unsolved as the church owned more than its<br />
converts and applied rules that were not dissimilar to those <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Nationalist regime with regard to rentals, ``squatting'', numbers <strong>of</strong><br />
livestock to be kept, farm labour and cropping (Rheinallt-Jones<br />
1935:20±45).<br />
11 THE SWISS MISSIONARIES' FORMULATION AND<br />
IMPLEMENTAION OF POLICIES WITHIN THEIR<br />
MISSION FIELDS IN SOUTH AFRICA<br />
Swiss missionary policies were sometimes based on racial prejudice<br />
and paternalism. One <strong>of</strong> the Swiss clerics, the Rev Henri Gonin <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Dutch Reformed Church at Saulspoort, was quite eloquent about<br />
<strong>Africa</strong>ns' intellectual capacity when he said: ``The Natives definitely<br />
do not have a systematic mind'' (Gonin 1882). This perspective<br />
transcended denominational boundaries. Missionaries <strong>of</strong> the Swiss<br />
Mission in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> also subscribed to this view as could be<br />
discerned from the Rev HA Junod's statement quoted in N'wandula
The Swiss missionaries' educational endeavour 225<br />
(1988:46) when he said that the blacks have `'not been accustomed for<br />
generations to school attendance and to mental work, and would be apt<br />
quickly to get headaches, nervous exhaustion arising from overstudy if<br />
he has not as a diversion the bodily excercise <strong>of</strong> outdoor life. We feel<br />
moreover that to accustom the Native teachers to work with their<br />
hands is to give them ... a sense <strong>of</strong> dignity <strong>of</strong> labour''.<br />
The above perspective tied up with the desire to prepare <strong>Africa</strong>ns for<br />
life in the rural areas where they would exercise their socio-economic<br />
and political rights in line with their mental capabilities, instead <strong>of</strong><br />
being thrown into the high lifestyles that were prevalent in the cities,<br />
and that could only be maintained with high thinking skills to which<br />
whites considered themselves to have an exclusive claim. Mission<br />
education was aimed at producing a new black elite who would serve<br />
asrolemodelstotheirkithandkininthereserves(bantustans/<br />
homelands). Whatever form <strong>of</strong> education <strong>Africa</strong>ns received had to<br />
prepare them for their franchise in a bantustan parliament and not in a<br />
multiracial parliament. Black franchise in a multiracial parliament had<br />
to be kept in abeyance until <strong>Africa</strong>ns attained the mental maturity to<br />
think systematically and creatively. In Dr HA Junod's view it would<br />
take <strong>Africa</strong>ns 100 years, commencing from 1907, to reach a level <strong>of</strong><br />
intellectual development that would make them sufficiently competitive.<br />
The achievements <strong>of</strong> John Mavuma Nembula, who graduated as a<br />
medical doctor in the United States <strong>of</strong> America in the 1880s and<br />
subsequently became a District Surgeon in Zululand, were ignored for<br />
reasons <strong>of</strong> religious-ideological expediency, as was Cecilia Makiwane's<br />
success in the nursing examinations written by both blacks and whites<br />
in 1907, even though she was registered with the Colonial Medical<br />
Council in token <strong>of</strong> her achievement (Pienaar 1990:23±24; Gelfand<br />
1984:44±75, 102±276).<br />
12 FINAL COMMENTS<br />
Education may be regarded as a catalyst for social change that<br />
develops people's potentialities and equips them to meet the demands<br />
<strong>of</strong> life. Indeed, education is the primary cause <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>ound social<br />
change. This is what missionaries <strong>of</strong> different denominations realised<br />
when they founded different categories <strong>of</strong> schools as they pursued
226<br />
their activities in this country. The Swiss missionaries in particular<br />
established different categories <strong>of</strong> schools, churches and hospitals to<br />
bring about multifaceted change within their mission fields. Christian<br />
converts were enjoined to shed their traditional customs and relocate<br />
to mission villages situated next to mission stations or outstations.<br />
Although the Swiss clerics were keen to provide formal education for<br />
blacks, they were careful not to load curricula with advanced technical<br />
and scientific education as, in Rev HA Junod's view: ``... the head <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Native is not able to sustain the strain <strong>of</strong> mental study so well as the<br />
heads <strong>of</strong> Whites'' (N'wandula 1988:46). This view and the obstructionist<br />
tendencies <strong>of</strong> past political regimes that decided the destiny <strong>of</strong><br />
blacks are the underlying reason why few <strong>Africa</strong>ns are qualified to<br />
practise medical and other pr<strong>of</strong>essions in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. The aim <strong>of</strong> the<br />
approach adopted to the education <strong>of</strong> blacks was to enable white<br />
entrepreneurs to exploit cheap black labour. This approach needs to be<br />
changed, to which end the active support <strong>of</strong> the population at large<br />
will have to be mobilized.<br />
The Swiss Missionaries' transformation efforts at Lemana Training<br />
Institution (1906) and Elim Hospital (1899) attracted Xhosas, Zulus,<br />
Tswanas, Swazis, Ndebeles, Coloureds, Vendas, not to mention the<br />
Shangaans from <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> and the neighbouring Mozambique. The<br />
Swiss Mission had <strong>of</strong>fices in all the provinces, namely the Orange Free<br />
State, Cape, Natal and the Transvaal to cater for the interests <strong>of</strong> its<br />
Christians.<br />
But as far as support for indigenous cultures was concerned, the Swiss<br />
missionaries were given to condemning rather than retaining traditional<br />
customs like lobola (bride-price). This is what prompted Maboko<br />
to pose the following questions: ``What is lobola? Why is it there? Why<br />
should you protest against it? Briefly I will answer these questions for<br />
you. Lobola is a present claimed by the parents <strong>of</strong> the bride from the<br />
bridegroom. This may be in the form <strong>of</strong> money or cattle. In days <strong>of</strong> old<br />
we read from the Bible how Jacob got his wife. He paid lobola. The<br />
same applies to those who came after him, they all paid lobola ... Why
The Swiss missionaries' educational endeavour 227<br />
should we not give them (the parents) the present they claim for? This<br />
is our custom which must not be rejected merely for the sake <strong>of</strong> copying<br />
the White man'' (F Maboko, The Valdezia Bulletin, Vol V, No 57,<br />
September 1935:1).<br />
BIBLIOGRAPHY<br />
Ashley, M J 1980. Universe in collision: Xhosa, missionaries and education in <strong>South</strong><br />
<strong>Africa</strong>. Journal <strong>of</strong> Theology for <strong>South</strong>ern <strong>Africa</strong>.<br />
Beach, D N 1973. The initial impact <strong>of</strong> Christianity on the Shona: The Protestants and the<br />
<strong>South</strong>ern Shona, in JA Dachs' Christianity <strong>South</strong> <strong>of</strong> the Zambezi. Gwelo: Mambo<br />
Press.<br />
City Press, 9 November 1998.<br />
Cuendet, F A 1949. Editorial comment, The Tsonga Messenger April±June. Morija: Morija<br />
Printing Works, Basutoland.<br />
Cuendet, F A 1950. Rivoningo emunyameni: ntirho was evangeli xikarhi ka Vatsonga na<br />
Varhonga (Light in darkness: evangelism among the Vatsonga and Varhonga<br />
people). Johannesburg: Swiss Mission in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>.<br />
Davenport, T R H 1987. <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>: A Modern History (3rd edition), Johannesburg: Mac<br />
Millan.<br />
Du Plessis, G K 1990. Viewpoints: education is socialisation, New Nation, 5±11 April.<br />
Johannesburg.<br />
Du Plessis, J 1911. A History <strong>of</strong> Chistian Missions in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. London: Longman, Green<br />
&Co.<br />
Egli, M & Krayer, D 1996. ``Mothers and daughters''. The training <strong>of</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n nurses by the<br />
Swiss Mission in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Zu È rich, Switzerland.<br />
EPCSA's Programme for Jubilee Celebrations at Valdezia 7±9 July 2000. Johannesburg:<br />
Sasavona Publishers & Booksellers.<br />
Gelfand, M 1984. Christian Doctor and Nurse: the history <strong>of</strong> medical missions in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong><br />
1799±1976. Marianhill: Marianhill Printing Press.<br />
Gonin, H 1882. Letter to missionaries <strong>of</strong> the Mission Suisse Romande dated 1882, Saulspoort,<br />
Rustenburg.<br />
Jaques, P H 1970. Elim Hospital annual report for the period 1969±1970.<br />
Jaques, S 1951. Education: A good or bad thing? The Tsonga Messenger, January±March.<br />
Morija Printing Works: Basutoland.<br />
Junod, H A 1899. Shikolo sha Madzaha (Boys' School) Nanga ya ba-Thonga (The Tsonga<br />
Trumpet). N Jaques Publisher, ZAR: Pretoria.<br />
Maboko, F 1935. Lobola should not be entirely abolished. The Valdezia Bulletin no 57.
228<br />
Mabunda, D C 1995. A historico-educational survey and evaluation <strong>of</strong> Swiss missionnary<br />
education at Lemana, M.Ed. dissertation. <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>, Pretoria.<br />
Mafeje, N 1952. Therole<strong>of</strong>missionariesinConquest.Juta: Cape Town.<br />
Maphophe, S J 1956. Jubilee ya Lemana (Lemana Jubilee), Mahlahle Welkom: Swiss Mission<br />
in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>.<br />
Masumbe, B M C 2000. Face to face interview with Mt & Mrs I Furumele at their Bungeni<br />
Village Residence. Northern Province.<br />
Mathebula, M I 1989. The relationship between some ecumenical bodies and the Evangelical<br />
Presbyterian Church in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> ± Swiss Mission. (1905±1975): a historical study.<br />
MTh Dissertation. <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>, Pretoria.<br />
Mawila, V & Mtebule, C 1956. Xibedlhele xa ka Shilubane (Shiluvane Hospital), Mahlahle<br />
(Morning Star) Welkom: Swiss Mission in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>.<br />
Ntsan'wisi, H E 1956. Muti wa ka Shiluvane Khale (The history <strong>of</strong> Shiluvane Village)<br />
Mahlahle, June. Welkom: Swiss Mission in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>.<br />
N'wandula, C 1988. ``The Head <strong>of</strong> the Native''. Swiss Mission Education at Lemana 1899±<br />
1954 Perspectives in Education 1988, Vol 10, No 1, 43±52.<br />
Phillips, L 1949. The beginning <strong>of</strong> the Swiss Mission II ± Their letter to the Synod, The<br />
Tsonga Messenger July ± September. Morija: Morija Printing Works, Basutoland.<br />
Pienaar, C L 1990. Missionary education in the north-eastern Transvaal: The Swiss Mission and<br />
Lemana 1906±1948. <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Cape Town, Cape Town.<br />
Rademeyer, J I 1943. Die oorlog teen Magato (M'pefu). Pretoria: <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Pretoria.<br />
Rejoice/Dzunisani 1975. Morija: Morija Printing Works, Basutoland.<br />
Rheinallt-Jones, J D 1935. Letter to Rev R Cuenod Lemana Training Institution dated 29th<br />
March 1935 pertaining to land acquisition in the Zoutpansberg District Johannesburg:<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n Institute <strong>of</strong> Race Relations. cf. Rules and Regulations <strong>of</strong> the Swiss Mission<br />
Farms and Regulations <strong>of</strong> the Swiss Mission in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> ±undated.<br />
Shillito, E 1923/ Francois Coillard: A wayfaring Man. London: Student Christian Movement.<br />
Swiss Mission students' letter dated 19 October 1881 to the Magwamba<br />
Assembly about conditions at Morija Pastoral School, Basutoland.<br />
Tlakula, A E 1932. When shall we own Farms? The Valdezia Bulletin, Vol II Alexandra<br />
Township: The Spes Bona Printing Works.
Coping skills for street children 229<br />
Coping skills for<br />
street children<br />
Dr H M Vogel<br />
Secondary School Teacher<br />
Education<br />
Unisa<br />
The phenomenon <strong>of</strong> street children is a growing problem in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. Increased teen<br />
homelessness may also have been stimulated by greater societal tolerance regarding the<br />
homeless condition and way <strong>of</strong> life in major cities. Current social services are<br />
uncoordinated and fragmented. This becomes a major impediment in efforts to help<br />
children, who have multiple needs, as is characteristic <strong>of</strong> all homeless, runaway or<br />
expelled-from-home children. Current research shows a trend toward long-term homelessness<br />
for runaway adolescents. Furthermore, the majority <strong>of</strong> these children come from<br />
dysfunctional families and are in a desperate need for positive social skills.<br />
This article addresses a programme <strong>of</strong> life skill training for street children. Peer<br />
facilitators were trained to model and facilitate new ideas on conflict management and<br />
social skills to these children.<br />
1 INTRODUCTION<br />
Healthy societies are characterised by good family relationships and<br />
personal happiness <strong>of</strong> its individual members. On this premise, many<br />
theorists have studied misbehaviour in youth that results in unhappiness,<br />
including the phenomenon <strong>of</strong> street children. Research shows<br />
several reasons for young people leaving their homes for a life on the<br />
streets <strong>of</strong> big cities. (Adams, Gullotta & Clancy 1985:720, Cemane<br />
1990:3). These include: a lack <strong>of</strong> family support, a lack <strong>of</strong> parental
230<br />
guidance and negative or the absence <strong>of</strong> role modelling by parents<br />
(Packard 1983:54). These factors contribute to the fact that young<br />
people do not have acceptable social skills or skills that could help<br />
them live independently when they arrive in the city. They find it<br />
difficult to cope without qualifications or skills and turn to street<br />
drugs, prostitution and other forms <strong>of</strong> socially unaccepted behaviour<br />
to make a living.<br />
Although there are a variety <strong>of</strong> different views in different countries<br />
concerning the street child phenomenon, all bear similarities. There is<br />
consensus that the children feel they can no longer trust themselves in<br />
the hands <strong>of</strong> society, and have undertaken to manage their lives and<br />
futures on their own by taking total control <strong>of</strong> their lives. It is also<br />
agreed that in this situation, the children are vulnerable to exploitation<br />
in an anti-child culture (Raffaelli 1996, Aptekar 1988, Adams et al<br />
1985). An anti-child culture can be defined as:<br />
. an anti-child socio-educational milieu in which the child is<br />
brought up<br />
. an educational situation in which the child's development is<br />
seriously inhibited by educational and social factors<br />
. a society that the child increasingly experiences as a situation<br />
in which he/she cannot be adequately accommodated (Le<br />
Roux 1996:57).<br />
UNICEF's category <strong>of</strong> ``children in especially difficult circumstances''<br />
include refugees, children with disabilities, children affected by<br />
organized violence, children in disasters as well as working and street<br />
children. They are children from an anti-child culture and now without<br />
family contact (UNICEF 1986:15).<br />
Contrary to this, is the modern Western view <strong>of</strong> circumstances for a<br />
proper childhood: ``a proper childhood is where a child has a carefree,<br />
safe, secure and happy existence'' (Panter-Brick & Smith 2000:4).<br />
Although <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>ns frequently believe a lack <strong>of</strong> education to be
Coping skills for street children 231<br />
the cause for the problems experienced by what is referred to as the<br />
``lost generation'' they also see poverty, child abuse and neglect and<br />
youths with behavioural problems as reasons for them becoming<br />
runaways (Maphatane & Shurinck 1993:24).<br />
The problem <strong>of</strong> street children is one <strong>of</strong> the four welfare priority areas<br />
identified by the Independent Development Trust in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>.<br />
Various initiatives in response to this problem are undertaken by<br />
individuals, groups and non-governmental organizations (Schurink,<br />
Maphatane & Rip 1993:67). The children who come into contact with<br />
such organizations and programmes either report themselves or are<br />
brought in by concerned people, friends, or outreach co-ordinators.<br />
The aims <strong>of</strong> the different organizations include the return <strong>of</strong> the child<br />
to his/her home, job skills training and the reintegration <strong>of</strong> the child<br />
into the community <strong>of</strong> origin.<br />
In <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>, street children were <strong>of</strong>ten referred to as the ``lost<br />
generation''. The increasing prevalence <strong>of</strong> disruption <strong>of</strong> the traditional<br />
structures <strong>of</strong> authority that accompanied the political situation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
1970's lead to a dysfunctional situation at home without sufficient<br />
primary educational circumstances. The role <strong>of</strong> the father as authority<br />
figure in the traditional extended family became less important. The<br />
parents <strong>of</strong>ten both had to work far from the family home and the role <strong>of</strong><br />
the extended family became irrelevant. Without adequate authority or<br />
loving care, many children left home. Running away is considered as<br />
being a way for alienated young people to express themselves. They<br />
feel alienated from homes characterised by violence and conflicts or<br />
feelings <strong>of</strong> insignificance or inferiority (Holdaway & Ray 1992:94,<br />
Bandura & Walters 1958:52±90).<br />
Running away is also seen as an expression <strong>of</strong> rebellion against a form<br />
<strong>of</strong> restrictive life and an oppressive society (Maphathane & Shurinck<br />
1993:24). Research shows that the danger <strong>of</strong> becoming a criminal<br />
increases in direct relation to the length <strong>of</strong> time the child lives a street
232<br />
life (Smit in Schurick 1993:124). Research also shows that socially<br />
rejected children, especially those who are aggressive and lack conflict<br />
management skills, are in a great need <strong>of</strong> social skills training (Elliott &<br />
Gresham 1993:288).<br />
A child that enters street life is adopted by a group and there is some<br />
measure <strong>of</strong> structure in street life. The groups have leaders who are<br />
typically taller, stronger, more clever and more streetwise than their<br />
six or seven mates. They learn the language and coping skills from the<br />
older ones: they learn how to obtain money, food and clothes through<br />
begging (Smit in Schurink 1993:112).<br />
2 AIM OF RESEARCH<br />
A programme designed to teach positive life skills seemed to be a<br />
necessity in the prevention <strong>of</strong> a life style <strong>of</strong> crime. Street children has to<br />
be motivated to change their poor skills in conflict management and<br />
peer relationships, and learn new positive skills. The training <strong>of</strong> new<br />
skills involves the modelling <strong>of</strong> skills by peer facilitators, followed by<br />
an open and critical discussion (cognitive restructuring) amongst the<br />
participants <strong>of</strong> what has been observed and imparted. Peer facilitators<br />
facilitates others to think about themselves. They facilitate a group<br />
discussion or activity by using skills that promote effective communication<br />
and personal exploration (Myrick & Erney 1985:10). Street<br />
children can be exposed to new life skills but has a choice to accept or<br />
reject it.<br />
It was the aim <strong>of</strong> this research to involve trained peer facilitators in the<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> the basic needs in street children as well as the<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> certain values such as regard for dignity, understanding<br />
differences and empathy. The peer facilitators were to model<br />
life skills to street children under controlled circumstances through a<br />
facilitative process <strong>of</strong> cognitive restructuring and behaviour modification<br />
techniques. Street children had to be motivated to change their<br />
poor conflict management and relationship skills and learn new skills<br />
by watching and taking part in role plays.
Coping skills for street children 233<br />
3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK<br />
According to Waghid (2000:27) the most important dimension <strong>of</strong><br />
critical theory is the fact that it is driven by emancipatory interest:<br />
``that it's purpose is to contribute to change in people's understanding <strong>of</strong><br />
themselves and their practices and thus free them from constraints <strong>of</strong> society;<br />
(it) aims to generate critical action in others and gives rise to conditions to<br />
replace one distorted set <strong>of</strong> practices with another, hopefully less distorted set<br />
<strong>of</strong> practices (Carr & Kemmis in Waghid 2000:27).<br />
The rational emotive behaviour approach (REBT) tries to help people<br />
achieve what it calls ``a pr<strong>of</strong>ound philosophic or attitudinal change''<br />
and not merely to modify their unrealistic attributions and inferences<br />
(Walen, DiGuiseppi & Dryden 1992:23). Cognitive therapies used for<br />
the training <strong>of</strong> coping skills are based on theories that describe the way<br />
people think about, interpret and experience their world, their goals<br />
and their behaviour. Cognitive therapists makes the assumption that<br />
cognitive activity affects behaviour, but can be monitored and altered<br />
to change to desired behaviour (Maag & Webber 1997:71). According to<br />
the Social Learning Theory (Bandura 1958:22±75), children learn<br />
appropriate responses through observation and subsequent consequences.<br />
The behavioural modification approach in combination with<br />
open discussions was used by Bandura to illustrate that a child who<br />
believes that engaging in a behaviour will bring rewarding consequences<br />
is more likely to perform that behaviour. Behaviour modification<br />
is described by Martin and Pear (1992:71) as a changing<br />
behaviour based on systematic use <strong>of</strong> rewards and punishment. Sundel<br />
and Sundel (1983:36) expands on this viewpoint and writes that<br />
behaviour modification is brought about by applying the principles <strong>of</strong><br />
the learning process.<br />
BF Skinner's version <strong>of</strong> behaviourism (Skinner 1974:32) has had a significant<br />
influence on the development <strong>of</strong> school curriculum and on educational<br />
theory in general. According to him, by arranging the learning environment<br />
in a certain way, and by including certain stimuli in the environment, it is
234<br />
highly probable that learners will respond and display certain behaviour.<br />
Behavioural modification does not subordinate people, but by supporting<br />
them toward personal growth and understanding it can serve as a learning<br />
theory for life skills (Frankel 1984:97).<br />
The development <strong>of</strong> positive social skills is one <strong>of</strong> the most important<br />
outcomes <strong>of</strong> the learning process (Van Wyk 1999:78). Many children<br />
with social interaction difficulties who are not accepted by their<br />
families, peers or the community are at risk for behaviour reflecting<br />
poor self-image and poor academic performances. A programme for<br />
social interaction skills and conflict management skills has to be part <strong>of</strong><br />
an intervention plan with street children.<br />
In this research cognitive restructuring and behaviour modification were<br />
incorporated by peer facilitators under supervision <strong>of</strong> the researcher (Martin<br />
& Pear 1992:45, Maag & Webber 1997:71). Peer facilitators are learners who<br />
receive training in interpersonal and communication skills in their schools<br />
through aN initial training phase by the school guidance teacher. Later they<br />
go to the field to practice these skills with other young people. Other terms<br />
to identify them are peer helpers, peer leaders, peer mediators, peer pals, big<br />
brothers and sisters and can also be peer tutors (Johnson, Johnson & Holubec<br />
1994:102).<br />
The group <strong>of</strong> peer facilitators, who played a pivotal role in this<br />
research, had to demonstrate conflict management, communication<br />
and relationship skills to a group street children through role plays<br />
(Munichin 1974:22±35). The peer facilitators had to acquire skills such<br />
as individualisation, empathy, communication skills and regard for<br />
human dignity through their initial training phase. Although the peer<br />
facilitators have to be well prepared for their task as role models in<br />
conflict management and relationship skills training, they <strong>of</strong>ten have<br />
initial anxiety to enter into intervention with peers. Having them<br />
practice their skills in the classroom setting under the watchful eyes <strong>of</strong><br />
a teacher is different than the field experience. The training <strong>of</strong> peer<br />
facilitators (from now Group A) and later training by Group A <strong>of</strong> the<br />
street children (from now Group B) through role-play, observing and
Coping skills for street children 235<br />
re-modelling entail knowledge about psychological needs and values <strong>of</strong><br />
the street child. It is important to keep in mind that when training is<br />
effected through a group context the psychological needs <strong>of</strong> individuals<br />
can never be underestimated.<br />
Peer facilitators have to be trained in knowledge about psychological<br />
needs and values <strong>of</strong> other children, such as street children. The<br />
following learning objectives in the training <strong>of</strong> Group A, also formed<br />
assessment criteria during role plays when repeated by Group B:<br />
3.1 Needs<br />
The need for belonging: fulfilled by loving, sharing, and cooperating<br />
with others.<br />
The need for power: fulfilled by achieving, accomplishing, and being<br />
recognized and respected by others, assertiveness and cooperation<br />
during conflict situations. Cooperation can be characterized by<br />
behaviour such as helping others, sharing materials with peers and<br />
complying with rules.<br />
The need for freedom: fulfilled by making own responsible choices.<br />
The need for fun: fulfilled by laughing and playing.<br />
Iftheimportance<strong>of</strong>theseneedsweretobedisregardedbymembers<strong>of</strong><br />
Group A, and the needs were to be left unsatisfied in members <strong>of</strong><br />
Group B, there would be a strong likelihood <strong>of</strong> a continuing urge to<br />
behave in a certain way and no motivation for behaviour change would<br />
take place (Bodine & Crawford 1998:23).<br />
3.2 Values<br />
Specific values were developed in peer counsellors:<br />
3.3 Orientation abilities<br />
Ð<br />
Orientation abilities such as fairness, trust, justice. tolerance,<br />
empathy, self-respect, respect for others, celebration <strong>of</strong><br />
diversity and appreciation <strong>of</strong> controversy.
236<br />
Ð<br />
These abilities can be developed through teaching activities<br />
that promote cooperation and reduction <strong>of</strong> prejudice.<br />
3.4 Perception abilities<br />
These include the ability to encompass the understanding that conflict<br />
does not lie in objective reality but in how people perceive that reality:<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
empathising in order to see the situation as the other side sees<br />
it<br />
self-evaluating to recognize personal fears and assumptions<br />
suspending judgement and blame to facilitate a free exchange<br />
<strong>of</strong> views<br />
reframing solutions to allow for face saving and to preserve<br />
self-respect and self-image<br />
These abilities enable peer facilitators to develop self-awareness and to<br />
assess the limitations <strong>of</strong> their own perceptions and to understand<br />
others' points <strong>of</strong> view.<br />
3.5 Emotional abilities<br />
Emotional abilities help to overcome or manage feelings <strong>of</strong> anger,<br />
frustration and fear:<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Learning the language and developing the courage to make<br />
emotions explicit<br />
Expressing emotions in non-aggressive, non-inflammatory<br />
ways<br />
Exercising self-control in order to control one's reaction to<br />
others' emotional outbursts<br />
These abilities lead to self-confidence and self-control needed to<br />
confront and resolve conflict. This includes the acknowledgement <strong>of</strong><br />
emotions in conflict.
Coping skills for street children 237<br />
3.6 Communication abilities<br />
These include listening and speaking as way <strong>of</strong> exchanging feelings:<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Listening to understand<br />
Speaking to be understood<br />
Reframing emotionally charged statements into neutral, less<br />
emotional terms<br />
The skills <strong>of</strong> listening will enable one to listen actively, which allows<br />
for attentive listening to the other person's message, to summarize the<br />
message, to check out what was heard, and to ask open-ended<br />
questions.<br />
The skills <strong>of</strong> speaking are aimed at one being understood, rather than<br />
how well one is able to debate; to refrain from speaking about oneself<br />
and the impact <strong>of</strong> a problem on one's own life, and to have a speaking<br />
style that makes it easy for the other to understand. The skill <strong>of</strong><br />
reframing with acknowledging emotions, is highly useful.<br />
3.7 Creative-thinking abilities<br />
These abilities help people to use creative thoughts and be innovative<br />
in problem definition and decision making:<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
To be able to see the problem from different sides<br />
To approach the problem with different possibilities in mind<br />
Brainstorming to enhance a variety <strong>of</strong> options<br />
These skills help peer facilitators to understand why they want what<br />
they want, flexibility in responding to situations and in accepting or<br />
elaborating on a variety <strong>of</strong> choices and different solutions.<br />
3.8 Critical-thinking abilities<br />
These skills include the ability to analyse, hypothesise, predict,<br />
compare and evaluate.<br />
Ð<br />
Recognising and formulating criteria
238<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Applying criteria as the basis for choosing options<br />
Planning future behaviors<br />
These skills became practical in the program <strong>of</strong> life skills for the street<br />
children.<br />
The following principles for efficient peer facilitating were followed:<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Understanding the conflict as it had to be a learning approach<br />
Understanding the above-mentioned human needs<br />
Acknowledging and appreciating differences in human beings<br />
It had to lead to positive behavioural change<br />
The programme had to build on each person's strengths<br />
The atmosphere had to create opportunities for individual selfworth<br />
development<br />
The people involved had to be separated from the problem<br />
Focus was on interests, not positions<br />
4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY<br />
There is a very close connection between thinking, self-talk and<br />
feelings. The challenge here was to find irrational ideas in the lives <strong>of</strong><br />
these young people, and model rational interpretations <strong>of</strong> the<br />
disturbing events. For example, a street child might be taught to tell<br />
himself that although his situation may be annoying or inconvenient, it<br />
is not catastrophic and there are usually things he can do to improve it.<br />
They can be helped not only to overcome their emotional disturbances,<br />
but also achieve healthy personal adjustment and new hopes for the<br />
future, even under difficult circumstances.<br />
Social skill interventions focus on positive behaviours and most <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
use non-aversive methods (e.g. modeling and reinforcement) to<br />
improve behaviour. It is believed that `'utilization <strong>of</strong> these methods<br />
may enhance treatment acceptability and integrity'' (Elliott & Gresham<br />
1993:289). Elliott and Gresham (1993:288) identified five major<br />
responses <strong>of</strong> social skills that facilitate peer interaction: cooperation,<br />
assertion, responsibility, empathy and self-control.
Coping skills for street children 239<br />
For research purposes, six street children staying in a home <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Child Welfare Society were selected by the class teacher <strong>of</strong> the school<br />
situated on the premises <strong>of</strong> the shelter. They were chosen specifically<br />
for their lack <strong>of</strong> conflict management skills and poor relationships.<br />
Secondary aims were to assist the children in developing a positive<br />
self-concept and communication skills'.<br />
The following assumptions were made regarding the acquirement <strong>of</strong><br />
life skills for Group B:<br />
1 Social skills are primarily acquired through learning that<br />
involves observation, modelling, rehearsal and feedback.<br />
2 Social skills comprise specific and discrete verbal and non<br />
verbal behaviours<br />
3 Social skills are interactive by nature and entail effective and<br />
appropriate responsiveness.<br />
The reason for the above-mentioned was that these assumptions<br />
provided direction to the interaction process between the two groups<br />
as well as to the intervention and assessment activities.<br />
The researcher planned weekly two-hour training sessions for three<br />
months for the peer facilitators and the street children to meet. Specific<br />
topics regarding conflict management and social skills themes through<br />
role plays by Group A were outlined. This was followed up by open<br />
discussions (logical analysis and philosophical disputation) on the<br />
effectiveness <strong>of</strong> the suggested behaviour and role plays by Group B on<br />
similar situations. For the intervention and facilitation processes to be<br />
successful opportunities for practicing <strong>of</strong> skills for each participant <strong>of</strong><br />
Group B was recorded on video and discussed by all participants after<br />
the session.<br />
The weekly sessions consisted <strong>of</strong> discussions on topics around conflict<br />
management skills, self-empowerment, relationship building and<br />
reinforcement <strong>of</strong> new behaviour. The learning process included role-
240<br />
plays, video recordings <strong>of</strong> the role plays, and discussions by the two<br />
groups. Validation and assessment <strong>of</strong> new skills as observed from the<br />
video recordings were made by both groups. Each session was planned<br />
in advance by the researcher. (One example will briefly be discussed):<br />
Ð<br />
Purpose:<br />
To help all participants gain more accurate understanding <strong>of</strong> ``perceptions''<br />
and help them to see themselves as others see them.<br />
Ð<br />
Materials:<br />
Video camera<br />
Ð Procedure:<br />
1 One person volunteer to talk about three minutes on the<br />
subject: Something I believe is true in life.<br />
2 Others listen. After three minutes, another member takes over<br />
and imitates the first speaker by expressing the same idea.<br />
3 Everyone in the group watch the video recording and discuss<br />
how accurate the person's potrayal was. Comments are made<br />
on choice <strong>of</strong> words, tone <strong>of</strong> voice, body posture and other<br />
observations.<br />
Ð<br />
Helpful hints:<br />
1 They must be encouraged to be as much as the other person as<br />
they can, same ideas, same choice <strong>of</strong> words<br />
2 All must have an opportunity to comment on the resemblance<br />
Ð Discussion<br />
1 How accurate was the role reversal?<br />
2 How did the person assuming the role feel afterwards?<br />
3 Does the first person feel, after watching the role reversal that<br />
he was accurately understood?<br />
5 PERSONAL PARTICULARS OF PARTICIPANTS<br />
The researcher interviewed six selected street children (Group B) in the<br />
home.
Coping skills for street children 241<br />
A group <strong>of</strong> six peer facilitators who ``had a proper childhood'' (see<br />
``Introduction''), were selected by the school guidance teacher from a<br />
school (Group A). They had just completed training in peer facilitating<br />
and indicated to their teacher that they would like to become involved<br />
in welfare work for homeless young people. They were willing to<br />
undergo more training in order to understand the specific needs <strong>of</strong> the<br />
street child. They were positive in taking part in weekly sessions with<br />
the street children. A motivation for the small sample size is that a<br />
common problem for street children is loneliness. In a large group most<br />
children would not have the opportunity to share their feelings and<br />
opinions, nor would time allow each one to take part acting out role<br />
plays. In addition, there were also restrictions on the research design in<br />
the form <strong>of</strong> the physical environment <strong>of</strong> the children's home: the<br />
lounge <strong>of</strong> the home, where the sessions would have to be conducted,<br />
could not accommodate more than twelve children.<br />
The background investigation <strong>of</strong> each participant consisted <strong>of</strong> biographical<br />
questionnaires that were completed during individual interviews<br />
with the street children. Their freedom <strong>of</strong> choice regarding<br />
participation on a weekly basis over a three month period was also<br />
then confirmed. For clear observation and evaluation <strong>of</strong> the background<br />
and situation <strong>of</strong> each participant, the following areas were<br />
investigated:<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Interpersonal and family relations<br />
Personal development: self-image<br />
Personal functioning: how they cope with frustration and<br />
conflict<br />
The six street children from Group B, were runaways from homes and<br />
temporarily housed in the shelter run by the Child Welfare Organization,<br />
where they slept, and were given three meals per day. During the<br />
mornings they attended school on the premises, which was run by a<br />
qualified teacher. In the afternoons they had to help with some<br />
household tasks and maintain the vegetable garden.
242<br />
Open-ended questions that were asked during the interviews describe<br />
each street child's situation as follows:<br />
Participant 1<br />
Age: 14<br />
School grade: 5<br />
Family background: His parents were divorced. He stayed with his<br />
mother and her male friend before he ran away from home. He was<br />
physically and emotionally abused by his mother's friend. He left his<br />
mother and a younger sister behind, and was still feeling guilty about<br />
leaving his sister. This made him angry with everybody.<br />
He told the teacher that he was interested in learning and making new<br />
friends, but she saw him always alone during lunch breaks.<br />
Participant 2<br />
Age: 13<br />
School grade: grade 5<br />
Family background: He lived with both parents under poor economic<br />
conditions before he left home. His father lost his job as part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
employers' new policy to use more skilled workers. His mother had no<br />
income as she was a housewife. He was one <strong>of</strong> six children. He and his<br />
younger brother decided to leave the family home together without<br />
telling the parents. They still did not know where they were. In the<br />
shelter he indicated to the teacher that he was interested in making<br />
friends.<br />
During the interview he expressed a longing to be educated and to be<br />
successful in life.<br />
Participant 3<br />
Age: 12<br />
School grade: 3<br />
Family background: His parents were separated. He stayed with his<br />
mother before he left and last saw his father five years before when the<br />
father left the family home. His mother had several live-in male<br />
friends. He never had good relationships with these friends, and when
Coping skills for street children 243<br />
the last one started to abuse him sexually, he decided to leave. He came<br />
in one session later than the rest but had a positive attitude towards the<br />
project. He had come to the shelter <strong>of</strong> his own volition as life on the<br />
street was too difficult for him. He was hungry and cold.<br />
Participant 4<br />
Age: 15<br />
School grade: 4<br />
Family background: He had no contact with his biological parents as he<br />
was left by them in the care <strong>of</strong> his grandmother. He seldom attended a<br />
school and they lived in a typical shack in one <strong>of</strong> the many townships<br />
in and around Johannesburg. He left home because they lived under<br />
unbearably poor conditions and he was convinced that life would be<br />
better on the streets.<br />
He showed interest in learning new things and was noticed by the<br />
teacher for having leadership potential, but his social skills were<br />
poorly developed.<br />
Participant 5<br />
Age: 10<br />
School grade: 5<br />
Family background: He lived with both parents before he left. His<br />
father abused his mother and the children when under the influence <strong>of</strong><br />
alcohol. The father was a good worker with a regular income but drank<br />
heavily.Thefamilyquarrelsandhomeviolencebecameunbearablefor<br />
him and he left home with an older friend.<br />
He still loved his parents but was afraid <strong>of</strong> the violence at home. He<br />
still had hope for his family but realised they were a family-in-need,<br />
and he did not know how to handle conflict.<br />
Participant 6<br />
Age: 14<br />
School grade: 6<br />
Family background: He, his mother and two sisters lived with his
244<br />
grandmother in a two-roomed hut on a farm where the mother was a<br />
farm worker before he ran away. The children were all born out <strong>of</strong><br />
wedlock from different fathers. He loved his mother and grandmother,<br />
but found life particularly hard being the only male and the eldest. He<br />
left home with the intention <strong>of</strong> going back one day and taking money<br />
for food with him. He became disillusioned on the streets and asked for<br />
help at the shelter. He desired to be reconciled with his family and was<br />
worried about them. He felt guilty towards them for leaving them on<br />
their own. He wanted to become financially independent. He was eager<br />
to study and be successful in life.<br />
6 FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS<br />
According to the above-mentioned principles for efficient peer<br />
facilitating under: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK, the following was<br />
found:<br />
Understanding the conflict as it had to be a learning approach<br />
The street children talked about their reasons for leaving their homes<br />
and why they would not go back. They had all left home between the<br />
ages <strong>of</strong> 10±14. They described feelings <strong>of</strong> anger, physical abuse, neglect<br />
by parents and extended family members, and poor school facilities as<br />
reasons.<br />
Acting out behavior such as aggression, stealing, drug taking and poor<br />
socialisation were examples <strong>of</strong> negative behaviour amongst all six<br />
participants <strong>of</strong> Group B. They all talked about deep feelings <strong>of</strong><br />
loneliness and abandonment. After role plays with Group A, they<br />
discussed openly their lack <strong>of</strong> self-confidence and feelings <strong>of</strong> depression.<br />
Group A gave attention not only to verbal responses but also<br />
nonverbal expressions such as gestures, posture, and tone <strong>of</strong> voice in<br />
facilitating these feelings within the context <strong>of</strong> genuineness and sincere<br />
caring. According to their descriptions, it can be assumed that all the<br />
street children came from dysfunctional families where neglect, sexual<br />
molestation and family violence occurred on almost a daily basis.
Coping skills for street children 245<br />
Duringtheroleplaysanddiscussionstheywereabletoseethe<br />
problem from different sides, approach the problem with different<br />
possibilities in mind and brainstorm to enhance a variety <strong>of</strong> options to<br />
handle conflict or difficult social situations in the future.<br />
Facilitating coping skills through role modeling, analysis and logical<br />
discussions removed dysfunctional thinking patterns and replaced<br />
them with more rational beliefs. After each session, street children<br />
confirmed that they learnt new coping skills. According to the school<br />
teacher, their behaviour in school changed from becoming less<br />
involved in fighting and more willing to discuss their disputes with<br />
other learners. Better language control developed following positive<br />
self-talk and positive social skills. The programme was an effective<br />
way to develop communication and relationships skills.<br />
Acknowledging and appreciating differences in human beings<br />
Peer facilitators and street children became friends: the atmosphere<br />
when discussing each other's behaviour during role plays was relaxed<br />
and open. There was emotional support between participants <strong>of</strong> both<br />
groups. These factors made it easier for open discussions, and for<br />
restructuring <strong>of</strong> negative thinking patterns. The atmosphere created<br />
opportunities for individual self-worth development.<br />
Positive behavioural change<br />
Fairness, tolerance and empathy became realities in the interaction<br />
between participants. They were able to listen to each other, speak to<br />
be understood and were able to reframe emotionally charged<br />
statements into neutral, less emotional terms. These changes indicated<br />
changed communication skills and a fresh new way to look at old<br />
problems.<br />
The street children watched their appearances on the television (video<br />
recordings) with amazement. They talked about feeling proud <strong>of</strong><br />
themselves to be able to control themselves during arguments by<br />
commenting with ``feeling in better shape'', ``feeling in control'',<br />
``feeling strong'', and `'not feeling shy anymore''. All participants <strong>of</strong>
246<br />
Group B showed more positive feelings towards family situations and<br />
agreed that they changed their ideas on and around family life. They<br />
expressed hope to be reunited with their families in the future and<br />
inspired each other in making plans to go home for Christmas.<br />
For the street child with an impulsive nature, reward or reinforcement<br />
should not be postponed, as is <strong>of</strong>ten suggested in Behaviour<br />
Modification Therapy (Martin & Pear 1992:58). Street children find<br />
security in being given immediate feedback on behaviour. This ensures<br />
that the behaviour becomes effective and internalised. The greater the<br />
reinforcement the more effective it will be. When new behaviour is<br />
acquired it is essential to provide a reaction after each form <strong>of</strong> positive<br />
behaviour. This leads to motivation to provide and sustain the desired<br />
behaviour. Reinforcement by peer facilitators and reward through<br />
acceptance for individuality, were important factors that encouraged<br />
the street children. Peer facilitating supports positive behaviour in<br />
street children where insensitive or ignorent parents or caregivers,<br />
failed.<br />
It was clear that children trying to survive on the streets <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong><br />
<strong>Africa</strong> do suffer extensive abuse at the hands <strong>of</strong> certain members <strong>of</strong> the<br />
public, as they do appear to have become specific targets. The children<br />
were initially scared to talk about incidents <strong>of</strong> sodomy, sexual<br />
molestation and the overall anti-child culture on the streets. The<br />
atmosphere <strong>of</strong> confidentiality opened the doors to trust between the<br />
two groups <strong>of</strong> young people. For Group A it was also a learning<br />
experience: They commented by confirming their willingness to be<br />
there for the street children as buddies, by appreciating for the first<br />
time their own families and a need to apply new knowledge on conflict<br />
management and relations skills even more to their own lives.<br />
This research confirmed that the family has an extremely important<br />
moulding effect on the personality and identity <strong>of</strong> the each <strong>of</strong> its<br />
members.Therefore,thestudywastobefollowedupincooperation<br />
with social workers from the Child Welfare Society. It is recommended<br />
that the social workers visit the homes <strong>of</strong> parents <strong>of</strong> the street children<br />
where they could reach them. They should bring new knowledge on
Coping skills for street children 247<br />
child rearing and conflict management styles to these parents or<br />
caregivers. The formation <strong>of</strong> a positive identity needs two elements:<br />
belonging and independence. These are the elements vital to the<br />
establishment <strong>of</strong> a secure home environment.<br />
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Adolescent substance abuse: perspectives on club drugs 249<br />
Adolescent substance<br />
abuse: perspectives<br />
on club drugs<br />
S M Hoberg<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Educational<br />
Studies<br />
Unisa<br />
This article contends that in drug abuse prevention is still better than cure. Substance<br />
abuse trends in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> vary from region to region and from population group to<br />
population group. Dagga (cannabis or marijuana) and dagga and Mandrax smoked<br />
together in a pipe remain the drugs most favoured by school-going adolescents. The<br />
adolescent rave scene contributed largely to the extensive increase in the use <strong>of</strong> the<br />
designer club drug Ecstasy, while other club drugs are also becoming more popular.<br />
Many adolescent substance abusers start with alcohol abuse and progress rapidly to the<br />
abuse <strong>of</strong> other drugs. The qualitative research in this article examines the issues in the<br />
adolescent substance abuser's life-world experiences and adolescent peer group<br />
clusters' increased use <strong>of</strong> club drugs.<br />
1 INTRODUCTION<br />
In <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> although the media <strong>of</strong>ten report on increased substance<br />
abuse, there is a dearth <strong>of</strong> adequate or accurate quantitative estimates<br />
or in-depth qualitative research analysis available. <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>ns have<br />
only a vague conception <strong>of</strong> the escalating extent <strong>of</strong> local drug abuse;<br />
especially the alarming increase in the popularity <strong>of</strong> club drugs. In<br />
recent years illicit substance abuse has increased tremendously on a<br />
global scale. According to the United Nations Office for Drug Control
250<br />
and Crime Prevention's World Drug Report (2001:29), the 1980s and<br />
1990s saw an unprecedented increase in the illicit drug trade with the<br />
most severe impact among vulnerable school-going adolescents and<br />
the marginalised members <strong>of</strong> society. This trend is also clearly<br />
noticeable in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>.<br />
According to the <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n Narcotics Bureau (Pretoria News 4<br />
January 2001:2), currently one in three school-going adolescents<br />
experiments with drugs and many appear in court for possession <strong>of</strong> or<br />
dealing in drugs. Since the late 1990s there has been an alarming<br />
increase in club drug abuse among school-going adolescents in <strong>South</strong><br />
<strong>Africa</strong>. While drug taking has become the ``in'' thing among schoolgoing<br />
adolescents, few school principals will openly admit to such a<br />
problem as the drug taking occurs after school hours and usually not<br />
on the school premises.<br />
The trends in drugs consumed in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> vary from region to<br />
region and population group to population group, with so-called ``club<br />
drugs'', namely Dagga (cannabis or marijuana), Dagga and Mandrax as<br />
a mixture, Ecstasy and alcohol, being favoured most by the youth at<br />
present. Ecstasy, the recreational, elite, designer club drug, is to the<br />
young adolescents <strong>of</strong> the 1990s what LSD was to the hippies or ``flower<br />
children'' <strong>of</strong> the 1960s. Adolescents take drugs like heroine and cocaine<br />
to a lesser extent, probably because <strong>of</strong> the high purchase price.<br />
However, even in this area an increase has been reported (Pretoria News<br />
8 February 2001:6).<br />
This article discusses the concept club drugs and the findings <strong>of</strong> a brief<br />
qualitative study in 2000 on the use <strong>of</strong> club drugs by adolescent peer<br />
group clusters. In conclusion, recommendations are made for further<br />
research.<br />
2 DEFINING ADOLESCENCE<br />
There are various definitions <strong>of</strong> the period <strong>of</strong> growth and development<br />
called adolescence. Most <strong>of</strong>ten it refers to the rather long period between<br />
childhood and mature adulthood, characterised by quantitative and<br />
qualitative changes.
Adolescent substance abuse: perspectives on club drugs 251<br />
According to Krech, Crutchfield and Livson (1969:70), adolescence<br />
``refers to the age between puberty and adulthood. Although the<br />
beginning <strong>of</strong> adolescence can be set quite accurately (as it is defined by<br />
the specific physiological criterion <strong>of</strong> sexual maturity), the terminal<br />
point <strong>of</strong> adolescence can only be approximated, for there is no sharp<br />
differentiation between adolescence and adulthood.'' For Botvin,<br />
Schinke and Orlandi (1995:14), adolescence extends from approximately<br />
11 to 20 years <strong>of</strong> age. Papalia and Olds (1975:27) state that the<br />
physical, cognitive, normative and social development <strong>of</strong> adolescence<br />
does not occur in isolation, but that each <strong>of</strong> these affects the other.<br />
Muus (1970:35) cites Hall, who found that in adolescence ``energy<br />
exaltation and supernatural activity are followed by indifference,<br />
lethargy and loathing ... exuberant gaiety, laughter and euphoria<br />
makes place for dysphoria, depressive gloom and melancholy ...<br />
egotism, variety and conceit are just as characteristic <strong>of</strong> this period <strong>of</strong><br />
life as are abasement, humiliation and bashfulness ... there is a<br />
yearning for idols and authority that does not exclude a revolutionary<br />
radicalism directed against any kind <strong>of</strong> authority''.<br />
McCoy, Metsch and Inciardi (1996:46) state that adolescent growth is<br />
characterised by:<br />
. the breaking <strong>of</strong> parental bonds<br />
. the development <strong>of</strong> a unique identity which is related to<br />
independent decision making, sexuality, attaining a personal<br />
value structure, career orientation and peer relations<br />
. establishing a position within a peer group and defining<br />
social parameters.<br />
With regard to adolescent attitudes, beliefs and behaviour, Ausubel,<br />
Montemayor and Svajian (1977:48) point out that adolescence is a<br />
distinct stage, characterised by sequential physical, psychological and<br />
psycho-social growth, which is hormonally induced and which<br />
manifests during early adolescence. For Hall (1904:14), Ofer and Ofer<br />
(1969:36), Ofer, Ostrove and Howard (1981:59), Weiner (1970:40) and<br />
Wenar (1990:40), the biological changes that occur during adolescence<br />
result in turbulence and struggle. However, from an anthropological
252<br />
point <strong>of</strong> view, Papalia and Olds (1975:541) found that the Western<br />
experience <strong>of</strong> adolescence is not a universal phenomenon and in other<br />
cultures it was ``<strong>of</strong>ten remarkably free from the storm and stress that<br />
have impressed Hall and most other observers <strong>of</strong> adolescents''.<br />
Thornburg (1975:29) refers to Margaret Mead, an anthropologist, who<br />
studied adolescence in Samoa and New Guinea from 1920 to 1930. In<br />
her qualitative study, Mead found that adolescents in these primitive<br />
societies did not experience the same stressful development growth<br />
pattern as adolescents in Western society and concluded that cultural<br />
influences during adolescent development have much to do with<br />
adolescent behaviour. When a culture advocates a slow transition to<br />
adulthood which is characterised by equilibrium in development, the<br />
change between adolescence and adulthood is not characterised by<br />
times <strong>of</strong> storm and stress. Adolescent growth is then characterised by<br />
an easy acceptance <strong>of</strong> the role and demands <strong>of</strong> adulthood.<br />
Bandura (1964:230±231) also questioned why adolescence should<br />
necessarily be a time <strong>of</strong> storm and stress and anti-authoritarian<br />
behaviour. In 1959 he studied a group <strong>of</strong> well-adjusted high school<br />
adolescents and found that they were emancipated and independent,<br />
their parents trusted them, they selected friends with care, and were<br />
capable <strong>of</strong> making responsible choices. From this Bandura concluded<br />
that the negative expectation <strong>of</strong> a society may indeed result in negative<br />
behaviour trends because ``in this way a false expectation may serve to<br />
instigate and maintain certain role behaviours which in turn then<br />
reinforce the originally false belief''.<br />
Rice (1981:66) concurs with Bandura. He found that setting and<br />
achieving realistic goals, gave adolescents a feeling <strong>of</strong> pride. This, in<br />
turn, led to an ever-increasing tendency to act responsibly and make<br />
careful choices.<br />
3 ADOLESCENCE, PEER INFLUENCE AND<br />
SUBSTANCE ABUSE<br />
It is not known why substance abuse is so prevalent in adolescence.<br />
Oetting and Beauvais (1990:17±22) found that school-going adolescents
Adolescent substance abuse: perspectives on club drugs 253<br />
whousedrugshardlyeverdosoinisolation.Adolescentdrugabusers<br />
are almost always influenced by their peers and usually act in peer<br />
clusters. In this respect Carey and Knight (1990:27±29) conclude that<br />
``underlying all chemical dependency is the issue <strong>of</strong> self-esteem: these<br />
pupils do not like themselves and tend to feel `I am not worth it'.''<br />
Hence, they constantly seek reassurance and acceptance by peers.<br />
According to Erikson (1980:119±122), adolescence is mainly a time<br />
when the most important aspect <strong>of</strong> development is the attainment <strong>of</strong> an<br />
own identity and peer group opinion <strong>of</strong>ten carries the most weight<br />
during adolescence. Warheit, Biafora, Zimmerman, Vega and Apospori<br />
(1995:97 ) agree, stating that acceptance by peers is <strong>of</strong> the utmost<br />
importance during adolescence. With regard to peer group pressure,<br />
Papalia and Olds (1975:579) state that ``the herd instinct is strong in<br />
adolescence, as is the desire to be accepted by the crowd''. Wenar<br />
(1990:61) found that peer group influence is not exclusively negative<br />
and that ``these groups serve as the adolescent's primary bridge to the<br />
future Ð they provide a sense <strong>of</strong> belonging, which is especially<br />
important during this period <strong>of</strong> transition between being a child and<br />
being an adult ... they help adolescents master uncertainty by<br />
prescribing behaviour down to what clothes to wear, what music to<br />
listen to and what language to use ... they provide both provocation<br />
and protection''.<br />
McCoy, Metsch and Inciardi (1996:48) maintain that currently the<br />
strong emphasis on individuality together with the breakdown <strong>of</strong> the<br />
family has led to an adolescent period which is characterized by<br />
reliance on peers as a source <strong>of</strong> reference and self-definition. There is a<br />
need to understand how the world <strong>of</strong> the adolescent is influenced by<br />
peers in terms <strong>of</strong> their socialization. In this respect, Hoberg (1993:161)<br />
concludes that peer group pressure during adolescence is a major<br />
factor to contend with within the framework <strong>of</strong> successful drug abuse<br />
prevention among adolescents. According to Wenar (1990:61), ``peer<br />
group pressure plays an important role in both juvenile delinquency<br />
and drug abuse ... in fact, it is a potent force in drug abuse''.<br />
Considering that Erikson (1980:122) emphasised the importance <strong>of</strong>
254<br />
discovering one's own identity during adolescence, it stands to reason<br />
that peer group relations are not only an important influence to<br />
consider but also equally important in preventing substance abuse<br />
among adolescents.<br />
4 THE ROLE OF THE SCHOOL IN PREVENTING DRUG<br />
ABUSE<br />
Wenar (1990:61) maintains that positive family connections, the<br />
implementation <strong>of</strong> serious drug abuse prevention strategies by the<br />
school and the availability <strong>of</strong> school peer counsellors to drug-addicted<br />
adolescents is still the best way to assure that an adolescent will have a<br />
positive self concept with the aim <strong>of</strong> making realistic, responsible<br />
choices for themselves.<br />
Ianni (1990:637) contends that the problems <strong>of</strong> adolescence are the<br />
school's problems too because ``the school's major function is to<br />
perpetuate the values and traditions inherent in a democratic society<br />
who have each other's interest in mind''. In this respect Hoberg<br />
(1993:67±72) maintains that while the school is not responsible for the<br />
medical rehabilitation <strong>of</strong> drug-addicted adolescents, drug addiction<br />
prevention should certainly be an important aspect <strong>of</strong> education where<br />
learners are empowered by means <strong>of</strong> knowledge. However, too many<br />
adolescent drug abusers are being expelled from school rather than<br />
being supported and receiving effective assistance. The efficacy <strong>of</strong><br />
school counsellors in schools are not appreciated while teachers and<br />
principals are not knowledgeable about drug abuse assistance (Hoberg<br />
2000:10). Naginey and Swisher (1990:84) maintain that ``student<br />
willingness to turn to peer counsellors for drug-related problems could<br />
be a critical variable if we are to decrease substance abuse during this<br />
developmentally critical time ... we need to reach out to adolescents<br />
more effectively and turn the self-perpetuating system <strong>of</strong> peer<br />
influence into a positive aid''.<br />
5 CLUBDRUGS:THEFACTS<br />
The term ``club drugs'' refers to a wide variety <strong>of</strong> drugs used by<br />
adolescents at raves and all-night parties. These drugs include Ecstasy
Adolescent substance abuse: perspectives on club drugs 255<br />
or MDMA, GHB, Rohypnol, Ketamine, Methamphetamine and LSD. In<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> these drugs are normally taken as a cocktail together with<br />
alcohol and Dagga or Dagga and Mandrax (Pretoria News 8February<br />
2001:2). Many adolescents seem to think that club drugs are harmless<br />
substances merely there to induce and to enhance energy, and<br />
experiment with mutltiple drugs. These drugs are certainly not fun<br />
drugs and by no means benign. Taking a combination <strong>of</strong> these drugs<br />
together with alcohol can lead to adverse reactions and even death.<br />
Many adolescents' primary problem is thus not the abuse <strong>of</strong> a single<br />
drug, but <strong>of</strong> club drugs in combination with alcohol abuse.<br />
Many club drugs are colourless, tasteless and odourless and can easily<br />
be added unobtrusively to beverages by anyone who wants to induce a<br />
state <strong>of</strong> sedation in others. Recently there has been an alarming<br />
increase in the use <strong>of</strong> certain club drugs to commit sexual assault and<br />
rape. According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse (Community<br />
Drug Alert Bulletin 2001: 1±7), this alone is a serious reason to be alert<br />
to the consequences <strong>of</strong> these drugs.<br />
6 AN OVERVIEW OF THE MOST PREVALENT CLUB<br />
DRUGS<br />
The following is a broad overview <strong>of</strong> the major club drugs (De Miranda<br />
1998:28±48 and World Drug Report 2001:40±87).<br />
. ECSTASY: Ecstasy is also known as MDMA, which is an<br />
abbreviation for methylenedioxyamphetamine<br />
(MDA) and methylenedioxyethylamphetamine<br />
(MDEA). It is a synthetic drug which was<br />
developed and patented in the early 1990s. It is<br />
similar to amphetamine and the hallucinogen<br />
mescaline. Thus, MDMA can produce both<br />
stimulant and psychedelic effects in the user.<br />
This club drug is taken orally and produces a<br />
significant increase in the user's heart rate and<br />
blood pressure. The user experiences a sense <strong>of</strong><br />
alertness and exaltation together with a massive<br />
rush <strong>of</strong> energy.
256<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> the street names for Ecstasy are XC,<br />
Disco biscuits, Scoobie snacks or Big E. Ecstasy<br />
is psychoactive drug with hallucinogenic effects.<br />
It is highly addictive and can cause serious side<br />
effects such as high blood pressure, rapid heart<br />
rate, dehydration, blood clotting, severe exhaustion<br />
and in some cases even death. The<br />
psychological side effects include severe anxiety<br />
states, depression, suicidal tendencies and it can<br />
lead to full blown psychotic mental illness.<br />
. GHB This drug is Gamma-hydroxybutyrate.<br />
It is commonly known on the street as G, Liquid<br />
Ecstasy or the Georgia Home Boy. It is produced<br />
in clear liquid form, white powder, tablet or<br />
capsule form. This drug has been involved in<br />
poisonings, overdoses and date rapes. It is used<br />
predominantly by adolescents. It is usually used<br />
for its intoxicating, sedative and euphoric<br />
properties and for its growth hormone-releasing<br />
effects which can lead to muscle building. GHB<br />
is a central nervous system depressant that<br />
usually relaxes or sedates the human body. At<br />
higher doses it slows down the breathing and<br />
heart rate to dangerous levels, depending on the<br />
dosage.Thisdrugisverypopularatravescenes<br />
in the United Kingdom and the United States <strong>of</strong><br />
America but has only recently been detected on<br />
the <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n scene.<br />
. KETAMINE This drug is known as Special K or just as K. It<br />
gained popularity in the 1980s mainly because<br />
when taken in large doses it causes hallucinatory<br />
effects much like LSD. Ketamine is produced in<br />
liquid form or as a white powder and is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
snorted or even smoked with Dagga or tobacco<br />
cigarettes. It is very popular in the United States
Adolescent substance abuse: perspectives on club drugs 257<br />
<strong>of</strong> America where it has reportedly been injected.<br />
Side effects are dangerous and severe and<br />
include delirium, amnesia, impaired motor<br />
function, a rapid rise in blood pressure, depression<br />
and potentially fatal respiratory problems.<br />
It affects the learning ability, memory and<br />
results in impaired attention span.<br />
. ROHYPNOL Rohypnol (flunitrazepam) belongs to the benzodiazepines<br />
class <strong>of</strong> drugs such as Valium or<br />
Halcion. In the United States <strong>of</strong> America this<br />
drug is deemed so dangerous in date-related<br />
rape cases that it has been removed from the<br />
approved list for prescription usage. It is still<br />
approved for use in Europe and <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. It<br />
is generally used in severe cases for the treatment<br />
<strong>of</strong> insomnia. The slang street names for this<br />
drug are Ro<strong>of</strong>ies, Rophies, Roche or the Forget<br />
Me Pill. The drug is tasteless and odourless and<br />
mixes easily in carbonated beverages, wine or<br />
beer. This drug can cause pr<strong>of</strong>ound amnesia and<br />
individuals may not remember the events they<br />
experienced while under the effects <strong>of</strong> the drug.<br />
Side effects such as a decrease in blood pressure,<br />
severe drowsiness, visual disturbances, confusion,<br />
gastrointestinal disturbance and urinary<br />
retention have been reported. In <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong><br />
abuse <strong>of</strong> this drug is on the increase (Rapport 1<br />
November 1998:4).<br />
. METHAMPHETAMINE<br />
This drug is a toxic, addictive stimulant that<br />
affects the central nervous system. The drug is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten snorted, smoked, injected or orally ingested.Sideeffects<strong>of</strong>thisdrughaveserious<br />
health consequences, including memory loss,<br />
aggression, violence, psychotic behaviour and
258<br />
potential cardiac and neurological damage.<br />
Drug abusers who use this drug display signs <strong>of</strong><br />
agitation, excited speech, decreased appetite and<br />
a high increase <strong>of</strong> physical activity levels.<br />
. LSD The street names for LSD (Lysergic Acid<br />
Diethylamide) are Acid, Boomers, Yellow Sunshine,<br />
Candy, Smarties, Green Goblins, White<br />
Lightning and Strawberry Fields. This drug is a<br />
hallucinogen. The effects <strong>of</strong> LSD are individual<br />
and unpredictable, <strong>of</strong>ten depending on the<br />
amount taken. LSD is taken orally in tablet,<br />
capsule and liquid form and in pieces <strong>of</strong> blotter<br />
paper that have absorbed the drug. The physical<br />
effects <strong>of</strong> the drug include dilated pupils, higher<br />
body temperature, increased heart rate and<br />
blood pressure, excessive sweating, loss <strong>of</strong><br />
appetite, sleeplessness, dry mouth, tremors and<br />
nausea. Two long-term disorders are associated<br />
with LSD, namely persistent psychosis and<br />
hallucinogen persisting perception disorder,<br />
commonly known as flashbacks.<br />
This is a so-called ``soul and mind expanding''<br />
drug which is used to escape reality. Signs <strong>of</strong><br />
dependence are emotional swings, paranoia,<br />
bizarre behaviour, flashbacks, visions and hallucinations,<br />
disruptive mental activity, illusions<br />
and pseudo hallucinations such as the distortion<br />
<strong>of</strong> existing images. This is a dangerous drug due<br />
to the neurological damage, depression and<br />
intense paranoia that may occur when it is used.<br />
7 DRUGS USED TOGETHER WITH CLUB DRUGS<br />
Club drugs are seldom used in isolation. They are <strong>of</strong>ten consumed<br />
together with other drugs, such as alcohol, Dagga, Mandrax and Dagga<br />
and Crack, which enhance the effect <strong>of</strong> the club drug (De Miranda<br />
1998:36).
Adolescent substance abuse: perspectives on club drugs 259<br />
. Alcohol<br />
Adolescents <strong>of</strong>ten refer to alcohol as juice, booze or dop.<br />
According to The Star (1999:1±2), many adolescents experiment<br />
with cocktails <strong>of</strong> different beverages together with the<br />
club drug Ecstasy and are <strong>of</strong>ten ``caught up ... in a web <strong>of</strong><br />
peer pressure and the chance <strong>of</strong> earning extra pocket<br />
money ...'' when they consume alcohol, smoke dagga and<br />
influence their friends to use and sell Ecstasy. Alcohol abuse<br />
leads to impaired functioning in a social and interpersonal<br />
sphere and withdrawal symptoms can be severe. The danger<br />
in the abuse <strong>of</strong> alcohol lies in the fact that it causes mental<br />
disorientation and a lack <strong>of</strong> alertness. Consuming excessive<br />
amounts can result in blackouts and convulsions. When<br />
alcohol is taken together with other club drugs it enhances<br />
the effect <strong>of</strong> the club drug to exceedingly dangerous levels.<br />
. Dagga and Mandrax<br />
The street name for Dagga is a joint, grass, zol, boom, skyf,<br />
poison, hash and mojat. Dagga is a relatively cheap drug in<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>. It is very popular and is known for its ability to<br />
create a feeling <strong>of</strong> well-being and euphoria to escape from<br />
reality. Dagga is extremely emotionally addictive. Withdrawal<br />
symptoms are <strong>of</strong>ten severe and include restlessness,<br />
aggression, insomnia, mood swings, lack <strong>of</strong> self-control,<br />
lethargy, irritability, nausea, decreased appetite and headaches.<br />
The danger in using this drug is that it distorts the<br />
user's perception and can lead to excessive aggression when<br />
combined with alcohol. It can lead to toxic psychosis and<br />
physical damage through bronchial irritation, increased risk<br />
<strong>of</strong> throat and lung cancer, chromosome damage, interference<br />
with ovulation hormones and sterility.<br />
Mandrax is known on the street as Mandies, buttons or<br />
whites. It is used together with dagga. The tablet is crushed<br />
and smoked in a Dagga pipe, which is then called a white<br />
pipe. It can cause aggressiveness, mental disorientation and<br />
confusion and serious respiratory and circulatory collapse
260<br />
and is characterised by severe physiological dependence in<br />
users. It can lead to coma and death from an overdose,<br />
especially if taken together with alcohol and other club<br />
drugs, such as Ecstasy.<br />
. Crack<br />
Crack is also known as Rock. It is the smokable version <strong>of</strong><br />
cocaine and is <strong>of</strong>ten smoked together with dagga. It is<br />
manufactured from Cocaine powder by cooking the Cocaine<br />
powder. Crack may cause severe anger and aggression and is<br />
recognised as a contributing factor in drug abuse-related<br />
community crime and violence. The side effects <strong>of</strong> this drug<br />
are severe, ranging from mental depression and lethargy to<br />
high blood pressure, damage to tissue <strong>of</strong> the nasal passages if<br />
it is sniffed, convulsions while death may occur from an<br />
overdose.<br />
8 ADOLESCENT SUBSTANCE ABUSE: QUALITATIVE<br />
FIELD RESEARCH<br />
The relationship between peer group pressure and drug addiction<br />
among school-going adolescents is well known (Hoberg 1993:159). In<br />
2000 the researcher undertook a qualitative field research project to<br />
probe the life-world <strong>of</strong> the adolescent substance abuser <strong>of</strong> club drugs.<br />
The researcher aimed to search for a correlation with existing research<br />
in the literature and to probe corresponding problems experienced by<br />
the research participants. Generalisation was not envisaged. In this<br />
respect Schumacher and McMillan (1993:373) conclude that ``generalizability<br />
is usually not the immediate purpose <strong>of</strong> qualitative research;<br />
however, the understanding <strong>of</strong> people's experiences and the concepts<br />
generated from a case study are <strong>of</strong>ten extended in subsequent case<br />
studies or more structured designs''.<br />
The case studies in the research project were based on a qualitative
Adolescent substance abuse: perspectives on club drugs 261<br />
orientation in order to analyse and explore the complexities <strong>of</strong> the lifeworld<br />
<strong>of</strong> the adolescent substance abuser. In this context Smith<br />
(1987:174) contends that ``qualitative researchers study qualities or<br />
entities and seek to understand them in a particular context''.<br />
9 SELECTION OF THE RESPONDENTS<br />
The six respondents who participated in the case study were all<br />
selected purposefully. In this respect Schumacher and McMillan<br />
(1993:375) maintain that ``qualitative researchers investigate small,<br />
distinct groups''. The main criteria were that each respondent should<br />
have been a drug abuser, should have used club drugs and should have<br />
been rehabilitated. The reason rehabilitated respondents were selected<br />
is that it is very difficult for a researcher to enter the subculture or<br />
world <strong>of</strong> substance abusers as they are unwilling to divulge information<br />
because they fear they will be taken into custody by the police or<br />
that their drug supply will be cut <strong>of</strong>f if it becomes known that they are<br />
talking to a researcher. It is for this reason that the researcher selected<br />
rehabilitated abusers.<br />
The study was limited to a small group (N=6), which is typical <strong>of</strong><br />
qualitative research where the aim is not to generalise but to generate<br />
rather than prove hypotheses. All the respondents who participated in<br />
the case studies were between the ages <strong>of</strong> 15 and 19. Four <strong>of</strong> the<br />
respondents used prostitution as a means to earn money to secure<br />
drugs.<br />
10 THE CASE STUDY DESIGN<br />
Schumacher and McMillan (1993:373) argue that ``qualitative research<br />
is concerned with understanding the social phenomenon from the<br />
participants' perspective ... understanding is acquired by analyzing<br />
the many contexts <strong>of</strong> the participants and by narrating participants'<br />
meanings''. Schumacher and McMillan (1993:375) state that through<br />
the flexibility and adaptability <strong>of</strong> the case study design, ``a range <strong>of</strong><br />
contexts, processes, people, and foci provides some <strong>of</strong> the most useful<br />
methods available in educational research'' and that the case study<br />
design means that ``data analysis focusses on the one phenomenon
262<br />
which the researcher selects to understand in depth regardless <strong>of</strong> the<br />
number <strong>of</strong> sites, participants or documents for a study''. The case study<br />
design in this study was considered highly suitable as it focused on one<br />
phenomenon, namely the use <strong>of</strong> club drugs by school-going adolescents.<br />
Interviews and the personal document were used as data-collection<br />
strategies in the case study design.<br />
. Interviews<br />
Structured and unstructured in-depth interviews were used to ``obtain<br />
the desired data with maximum efficiency and minimum bias''<br />
(Tuckman 1987:237). Unstructured in-depth interviews were conducted<br />
with all the respondents, while the researcher assumed the role<br />
<strong>of</strong> ``participant-observer'' (Schumacher & McMillan 1993:415). With<br />
reference to participative-observation in qualitative research, Mouton,<br />
Marais, Prinsloo and Rhoodie (1988:164) indicate that by means <strong>of</strong><br />
participative observation, the researcher is in a position to observe all<br />
the phenomena personally and thus all spontaneous occurrences can be<br />
noted. Moreover, the situation is characterised by ``openness'' so that<br />
any unexpected occurrences can be registered.<br />
. Personal document<br />
The respondents were all asked to write a personal document. In this<br />
study, the personal documents consisted <strong>of</strong> a short essay in which the<br />
respondents were asked to reflect on the influence <strong>of</strong> their peers, the<br />
use<strong>of</strong>clubdrugs,andwhyandhowtheywererehabilitated.Inthe<br />
tradition <strong>of</strong> qualitative research, the personal document is used to<br />
study the individuals' actions, experiences and their own personal<br />
evaluation <strong>of</strong> their life-world situation. The personal document reveals<br />
the individuals' own view <strong>of</strong> their experiences. It is ``a short<br />
spontaneous, personal sketch'' which is a phenomenological descriptive<br />
method in qualitative research that incorporates content analysis<br />
so that the researcher is able to ``systematically decode messages, or<br />
information in them into categories'' (Chadwick, Bahr & Albrecht<br />
1984:23).
Adolescent substance abuse: perspectives on club drugs 263<br />
11 DATA ANALYSIS<br />
All the interviews were recorded by means <strong>of</strong> an audio tape and then<br />
meticulously transcribed while a simple coding system was used to<br />
identify topics or recurring themes. The analysis <strong>of</strong> the personal<br />
documents <strong>of</strong> each <strong>of</strong> the respondents was based on Omery (1983:57±<br />
58) and Giorgi's (1985:10±40) steps, namely to identify certain<br />
recurrent themes or constituents in the documents. Finally the<br />
constituents were integrated, cross-validated and compared with the<br />
constituents that emerged from the interviews, after which they were<br />
synthesised in a descriptive analysis.<br />
12 FINDINGS OF THE STUDY<br />
The following main constituents or themes recurred in the interviews<br />
and the respondents' personal documents.<br />
. Problems related to peer group influence and the use <strong>of</strong> club drugs<br />
All the respondents admitted to problems regarding peer group<br />
pressure to use club drugs. They expressed a certain amount <strong>of</strong> fear at<br />
admitting these issues as they felt it could be interpreted that they were<br />
weak or inadequate in their social life. Although they were still in the<br />
rehabilitation programme and were not taking drugs or even attending<br />
the same social raves anymore, they all expressed a yearning to be<br />
acceptedbytheirpeers.One<strong>of</strong>therespondentssaidthathefelt<br />
``extremely lonely when my peers ignored me when I started with the<br />
drug rehabilitation programme''. All the respondents reported feelings<br />
<strong>of</strong> loneliness, isolation, helplessness and anger at the thought that they<br />
were currently being rejected by their previous peer cluster. They all<br />
admitted to experiencing high levels <strong>of</strong> stress related to the rejection by<br />
their peers at the stage when they chose rehabilitation. They felt that at<br />
some stages the responsibility to rehabilitate was almost unbearable<br />
and it would have been easy for them to relapse had it not been for the<br />
peer counselling they were still receiving. They all admitted that peer<br />
influence is a very strong motivational factor in terms <strong>of</strong> drug abuse<br />
and especially the use <strong>of</strong> club drugs. All the respondents agreed that<br />
peer influence was the main reason they started using club drugs and<br />
that it was important for them to be ``in with the crowd''.
264<br />
. Thephysicaleffects<strong>of</strong>theuse<strong>of</strong>clubdrugs<br />
All the respondents admitted that they initially started abusing<br />
alcohol, then moved on to smoke Dagga after which they smoked<br />
``white pipes'' (a mixture <strong>of</strong> Mandrax and Dagga) and that they were<br />
``freaking out on E'' (Ecstasy) on a regular basis. Two <strong>of</strong> the<br />
respondents used crack on a regular basis. All the respondents stated<br />
that they tried to stay away from rave parties and to avoid their drug<br />
abusing peer pushers but found it impossible to break the vicious circle<br />
on their own while they were still attending the rave parties. One <strong>of</strong> the<br />
respondents said in retrospection that it seemed ``as though drugs<br />
followed me and that everywhere I went there were people on E''<br />
(Ecstasy). All the respondents reported that initially they all started on<br />
drugs because <strong>of</strong> the ``highs'' and ``kicks'' it gave them until eventually<br />
their all-consuming thought was about drugs, how to get hold <strong>of</strong> them<br />
and where to get money to buy the drugs. One <strong>of</strong> the respondents said<br />
``I was robbed <strong>of</strong> my innocence and my childhood ... I started just to be<br />
in and soon I was totally hooked ... I wasted so many <strong>of</strong> my young<br />
years.''<br />
The two adolescent respondents who reported that they had been<br />
addicted to crack said that they experienced it as a severe addiction<br />
and became seriously addicted after trying the drug two or three times.<br />
They said this drug is also a club drug and the ``kick'' or ``high'' is<br />
instantaneous. Unfortunately, the effect wears <strong>of</strong>f rapidly with the<br />
result that they always experienced depression after use. One <strong>of</strong> the<br />
respondents said that ``it is worse to live without crack than to OD''<br />
(overdose on Crack which will cause death). Both the respondents<br />
reported that they became physically violent while they took Crack.<br />
All the respondents reported that they abused alcohol on a regular<br />
basis and that the effect <strong>of</strong> the cocktail <strong>of</strong> Dagga, Mandrax and Ecstasy<br />
was greatly enhanced by alcohol. They all agreed that they always<br />
consumed alcohol in large quantities before they used their club drugs.<br />
All the respondents reported that soon they were not just using the<br />
drugs at rave parties but yearned for the drugs on a daily basis and
Adolescent substance abuse: perspectives on club drugs 265<br />
were soon consuming the drugs daily. One <strong>of</strong> the respondents said ``I<br />
could think <strong>of</strong> nothing else ... nothing else mattered ... not my<br />
schoolwork or my family, or anything ... I would sleep with anybody<br />
to get drugs.''<br />
All the respondents reported that at some stage <strong>of</strong> their young lives<br />
they were introduced to the drug Rohypnol. Two <strong>of</strong> the respondents<br />
reported that they were sexually abused while under the influence <strong>of</strong><br />
this drug. Four <strong>of</strong> the respondents reported that they suffered sexual<br />
abuse after using large doses <strong>of</strong> Mandrax and Dagga because they fell<br />
into a deep sleep only to wake up in an intoxicated state. All the<br />
respondents reported that they suffered physical effects, such as<br />
restlessness, headaches, impaired co-ordination, impaired concentration,<br />
frequent bouts <strong>of</strong> vomiting and slurred speech, because <strong>of</strong> their<br />
substance abuse habits. Two <strong>of</strong> the respondents had to be treated for<br />
irregular heart rhythm while one <strong>of</strong> the respondents was taken to<br />
hospital after excessive dehydration at a rave party when she had<br />
consumed too much alcohol and Ecstasy. She reported that she was<br />
comatose for 48 hours and that according to her doctor she is lucky to<br />
be alive. After this incident she decided to start with a rehabilitation<br />
programme.<br />
All the respondents reported that their schoolwork suffered because <strong>of</strong><br />
their drug abusing habits. They admitted that they were out <strong>of</strong> control<br />
and that they could never have beaten the habit on their own. All the<br />
respondents agreed that family connections are very important to them<br />
now but when they were using the club drugs their families did not<br />
exist for them. Two <strong>of</strong> the respondents came from divorced families<br />
and both respondents lived with their mothers. All the respondents<br />
agreed that as far as they were concerned, school principals do not<br />
initiate enough drug prevention programmes and that most <strong>of</strong> these<br />
programmes lack depth and are not taken seriously enough by schoolgoing<br />
adolescents.<br />
All the respondents reported that during their substance abuse years<br />
they suffered from severe physical and emotional dependence, they
266<br />
abused alcohol and <strong>of</strong>ten became comatose, they experienced respiratory<br />
complications, such as severe and prolonged coughing, that they<br />
slurred their words, <strong>of</strong>ten had circulatory problems and suffered from<br />
insomnia.<br />
. The emotional effects <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> club drugs<br />
All the respondents reported that the emotional effects <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong><br />
club drugs was, in actual fact, more severe than their actual physical<br />
addiction. They reported that once the physical addiction is broken, the<br />
great temptation <strong>of</strong> emotional addiction remains. One <strong>of</strong> the respondents<br />
reported that she felt ``incredibly powerful'' when she used club<br />
drugs. All the respondents reported that although they had tried<br />
desperately to kick their substance abusing habit on their own, they<br />
could not succeed because they longed to ``feel good''. All the<br />
respondents reported that they suffered from severe depression when<br />
they did not use their drugs and that they could not last a single day<br />
without ``a fix''.<br />
Two <strong>of</strong> the respondents reported that they considered Mandrax a very<br />
addictive drug because the psychological dependence and tolerance to<br />
the drug develops rapidly, which means that the user has constantly to<br />
increase the dose in order to experience the same emotional high as<br />
before. When withdrawal is abrupt they experienced symptoms such as<br />
major bouts <strong>of</strong> depression, severe headaches, stomach cramps,<br />
hallucinations, insomnia and feelings <strong>of</strong> anger. All the respondents<br />
reported that Mandrax dependence is a very difficult habit to break.<br />
All the respondents reported that they experienced severe mood<br />
changes, emotional instability, restlessness, that their personal hygiene<br />
and appearance had suffered with the result that in the end they had a<br />
very low self-concept and self-image. All the respondents agreed that<br />
the mental and emotional problems were very difficult to cope with.<br />
. The importance <strong>of</strong> the availability <strong>of</strong> peer counselling<br />
The respondents were all <strong>of</strong> the opinion that it would have helped them<br />
if peer counsellors had been available to them when they realised that<br />
they were addicted and when they tried to break the habit on their
Adolescent substance abuse: perspectives on club drugs 267<br />
own. They all agreed that it is easier to ``speak to a person who is<br />
almostourownageandwhoisnottheretotellushowbadweare''.<br />
The respondents reported that they found it difficult to talk to adults<br />
about their substance abuse habits. One <strong>of</strong> the respondents said in this<br />
respectthat``teachersshouldhavemoreknowledgeaboutdrug<br />
abuse ... they should know what we are going through ... the school<br />
should help us and give us peer councillors who can understand us''.<br />
All the respondents stressed the importance <strong>of</strong> available peer<br />
counselling and teachers who are knowledgeable about drug abuse.<br />
Four <strong>of</strong> the respondents reported that they knew <strong>of</strong> many school-going<br />
adolescents who wanted to rehabilitate but were too scared to consult<br />
their parents or teachers because they feared their adverse reactions.<br />
These respondents also reiterated that peer counselling could be the<br />
first step to successful rehabilitation.<br />
. The seriousness <strong>of</strong> drug abuse among school-going adolescents<br />
Alltherespondentsstressedthatfewteachersorprincipalsreally<br />
know the serious extent <strong>of</strong> the adolescent drug abuse picture. It was<br />
expressed that they (school principals and teachers) lack the basic<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> how to help and tackle the issue <strong>of</strong> drug abuse with the<br />
result that drug abuse prevention strategy programmes at school are<br />
generally not taken seriously. All the respondents reported that they<br />
felt that if their teachers and school principals really knew what was<br />
going on, they would be shocked at the serious extent <strong>of</strong> drug abuse.<br />
Four <strong>of</strong> the respondents expressed feelings <strong>of</strong> anger because <strong>of</strong> this.<br />
When confronted with the fact that it was still their own decision to use<br />
club drugs, all the respondents said that they accept this but when they<br />
wanted to rehabilitate and realised that they should seek help, they<br />
were all too scared to approach teachers at their schools or the school<br />
principal because they feared that they would be expelled from school<br />
and that they would get their parents in trouble. All the respondents<br />
stressed the fact that while many teenagers experiment with drugs not<br />
all <strong>of</strong> them become addicted but that for those who do become<br />
addicted, there should be adequate and available channels to help<br />
them when they wish to become rehabilitated at this critical point in<br />
their lives.
268<br />
The respondents all reported that they knew that their peers who<br />
attend rave parties experiment with Ecstasy. They were all <strong>of</strong> the<br />
opinion that it is almost impossible to attend a rave party or dance<br />
throughout the night and not use Ecstasy or some or other form <strong>of</strong> drug<br />
that would enhance their energy levels. All the respondents reiterated<br />
that drug abuse in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> is seriously on the increase, that<br />
schools should be much more knowledgeable to be able to render<br />
assistance in terms <strong>of</strong> rehabilitation and that prevention should be<br />
taken more seriously. The respondents also felt that parents should<br />
become enlightened about the problems that adolescents experience<br />
and that the school and peer counsellors can play a major role in<br />
practice.<br />
13 RECOMMENDATIONS<br />
There is a serious increase in the use <strong>of</strong> club drugs and at the most basic<br />
level the school should play a far more concerted role in prevention<br />
and rehabilitation. While it was not within the scope <strong>of</strong> this article to<br />
report on the attitude <strong>of</strong> school teachers and principals, during the<br />
interviews with the respondents and personal contact with schools the<br />
researcher found it a problem that many school principals maintain<br />
that rehabilitation is not their field but that prevention is. It is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
easier to expel problem drug-addicted adolescents than to render<br />
effective assistance. This study concentrated mainly on probing the<br />
life-world <strong>of</strong> school-going drug abusing adolescents by means <strong>of</strong> case<br />
studies to ascertain the issues in terms <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> club drugs.<br />
While it is accepted that it is not the responsibility <strong>of</strong> the school to<br />
render medical assistance to drug abusing school-going adolescents, it<br />
is strongly recommended that the school should play a major role in<br />
providing peer counsellors to assist students when they are in need at<br />
such a critical point in their lives. To merely expel drug addicted<br />
school-going adolescents is not the answer to this issue, but is rather a<br />
successful effort to rid the school <strong>of</strong> the problem. It is further<br />
recommended that peer counsellors be provided with every opportunity<br />
to equip and empower themselves with the necessary knowledge<br />
to be able to render assistance to their addicted peers.
Adolescent substance abuse: perspectives on club drugs 269<br />
While it is accepted that there certainly is no easy solution to the issue<br />
<strong>of</strong> substance abuse among school-going adolescents, it is maintained<br />
that drug abuse prevention is still better than cure. In this respect it is<br />
recommended that school prevention strategies should be emphasised<br />
and regarded in a more serious light. Moreover, school principals,<br />
teachers and parents should be empowered with knowledge on how to<br />
render meaningful assistance when confronted by drug abusing<br />
school-going adolescents. Workshops could well be the answer to<br />
enlighten parents about the issues pertaining to substance abuse and,<br />
in particular, the increasing use <strong>of</strong> club drugs. Such workshops could<br />
be presented at the school by experts in the field while the content <strong>of</strong><br />
the programme should take cognisance <strong>of</strong> the contextual realities <strong>of</strong> the<br />
life-world <strong>of</strong> the drug addicted adolescent.<br />
Much more needs to be explored in terms <strong>of</strong> research into the<br />
phenomenon <strong>of</strong> substance abuse with specific reference to the use <strong>of</strong><br />
club drugs. It is recommended that more in-depth research be<br />
undertaken on a qualitative and quantitative basis and focus on issues<br />
<strong>of</strong> peer influence and the use <strong>of</strong> club drugs.<br />
14 SUMMARY<br />
Club drugs are by no means fun drugs. These drug are here to stay. The<br />
researcher agrees with Oetting and Beauvais (1990:22) who maintain<br />
that when adolescents use drugs, ``it is almost always a direct<br />
reflection <strong>of</strong> their peer society, for peers help to shape attitudes about<br />
drugs, provide the social contexts for drug use and when people share<br />
their ideas, they help form the rationales that the youth uses to explain<br />
and excuse drug use''. School-going adolescent substance abuse is not<br />
a static phenomenon but an issue that is escalating at an alarming rate.<br />
The school, the principal, the teachers and peer counsellors still remain<br />
the path <strong>of</strong> effective prevention and primarily the school as an<br />
organization should contribute to some form <strong>of</strong> a solution in practice.<br />
The education system unquestionably prepares the adolescent for life<br />
and although there is still much to be learned and researched on drug<br />
abuse prevention and rehabilitation, the school's important educative<br />
role and influence in this field cannot be ignored.
270<br />
BIBLIOGRAPHY<br />
Ausubel, D P, Montemayor, R and Svajian, P N 1977. Theory and problems <strong>of</strong> adolescent<br />
development. New York: Grune & Stratton.<br />
Bandura, A 1964. The stormy decade: fact or fiction. New York: Ronald Press.<br />
Botvin, G J, Schinke, S and Orlandi, A M 1995. Drug abuse prevention with multi-ethnic<br />
youth. London: Sage.<br />
Carey, J and Knight, A 1990. County collaboration creates a unique drug treatment<br />
program for adolescents. Thrust for Education Leadership, 19(4):27±29.<br />
Chadwick, B A, Bahr, M H and Albrecht, S L 1984. Social science research methods.<br />
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: McGraw Hill.<br />
Community Drug Alert Bulletin. 2001. (www.drugabuse.gov/published)<br />
De Miranda, S 1998. The <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n guide to drugs and drug abuse. Johannesburg:<br />
Collins.<br />
Erikson, E H 1980. Identity and life cycle. New York: Norton.<br />
Giorgi, A 1985. Phenomenology and psychological research. Pittsburgh: Duquesne <strong>University</strong><br />
Press.<br />
Hall, G S 1904. Adolescence: its psychology and its relations to physiology, anthropology,<br />
sociology, crime, religion and education. New York: Appleton.<br />
Hoberg, S M 2001. Paper presented at the International Conference for Drug Abuse<br />
Prevention and Rehabilitation, 30 May 2001. Los Angeles.<br />
Hoberg, S M 1993. In Critical issues in education edited by EI Dekker and EM Lemmer.<br />
Durban: Butterworths.<br />
Hoberg, S M. 1993. Verband tussen portuurgroepdruk en dwelmverslawing by<br />
skoolgaande adolessente. SA Tydskrif vir Opvoedkunde, 13(4):159±165.<br />
Ianni, F A J 1990. Providing a structure for adolescent development. PHI Delta Kappan (4):<br />
673±681.<br />
Krech, D, Crutchfield, R S and Livson, N 1969. Elements <strong>of</strong> psychology. Second edition.<br />
NewYork:Knopf.<br />
McCoy, C B, Metsch, L R and Inciardi, J A 1996. Intervening with drug-involved youth.<br />
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geesteswetenskappe: basiese begrippe. Pretoria: Raad vir Geesteswetenskaplike<br />
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Naginey, J L and Swisher, J D 1990. To whom would adolescents turn with drug<br />
problems? Implications for school pr<strong>of</strong>essionals. High School Journal (2):80±85.
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Oetting, E R and Beauvais, F 1990. Adolescent drug use: findings <strong>of</strong> national and local<br />
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272<br />
The issue <strong>of</strong> perception:<br />
some educational<br />
implications<br />
Dr A Lewis<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Primary School<br />
Teacher Education<br />
Unisa<br />
Differences in perception are central to both the practice and research in education. It is<br />
thus necessary for educational practitioners to understand the reason for differences in<br />
perception in order to practice and do authentic research. It is therefore the aim <strong>of</strong> this<br />
article to touch on the complex nature <strong>of</strong> the perceptual process and influencing factors<br />
as well as provide three examples <strong>of</strong> educational phenomena in order to highlight<br />
differences in interpretation. In conclusion, a few practical guidelines will be provided in<br />
order to understand different modes <strong>of</strong> thinking and behaviour.<br />
1 INTRODUCTION<br />
As perceptions are central to both the practice and research in<br />
education (Johnson 1994:475), researchers, learners and practitioners <strong>of</strong><br />
education very <strong>of</strong>ten have problems understanding why a person<br />
thought or behaved in a specific way (Lewis 1999:4±5). McGregor<br />
(1993:17) gives a practical example to illustrate the case in point: When<br />
fourteen-year-olds writing an experimental school exit test were asked<br />
to trace the shortest distance between two towns, white children got<br />
the answer ``right'' while black children got it ``wrong''. The reason<br />
being that the black township <strong>of</strong> Crossroads (situated close to Cape<br />
Town) is situated between the two towns in the example. Black
The issue <strong>of</strong> perception: some educational implications 273<br />
children perceived the township as dangerous and thus travelled<br />
around the settlement while ``unpoliticized'' white children, to whom<br />
the name Crossroads meant little, if anything at all, took the ``correct''<br />
straight line. McGregor (1993:17) ascribes these differences to the<br />
``... many things in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> (which) are twisted by politics and<br />
totally different perceptions''.<br />
In a country like <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>, these different perceptions are very<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten simply attributed to differences between black people who<br />
represent an holistic, interdependent society and white people, who<br />
maintain a Western, independent cultural style (cf Markus & Kitayama<br />
1991:224±253). Although this cultural generalisation is scientifically<br />
valid (cf Scherer & Walbott 1994:310±328; Scherer 1997:902±922; Choi<br />
& Nisbett 1998:949±960), the reasons for differences in perception are<br />
far more varied than that <strong>of</strong> a cultural explanation, a factor solely<br />
expounded by Bergen (1992:6±8).<br />
Individuals or groups experience stimuli from the outside world to<br />
which they ascribe meaning. Although, in many instances these stimuli<br />
are experienced similarly, they may <strong>of</strong>ten be interpreted differently<br />
(Kearney 1984:41) due to a host <strong>of</strong> factors and may even lead to<br />
misunderstandings in some instances. Why is this so? Is it a case <strong>of</strong><br />
naive realism or that people do not know how to take another's point<br />
<strong>of</strong> view into consideration? These questions can initiate an endless<br />
debate, but a first step to understanding others would be to understand<br />
the perceptual process.<br />
In the light <strong>of</strong> the above, it is the aim <strong>of</strong> this article to firstly touch on the complex<br />
nature <strong>of</strong> the perceptual process and influencing factors, and secondly to propose<br />
certain guidelines as to a better understanding <strong>of</strong> others.<br />
2 DEFINITION AND ETYMOLOGICAL ROOTS OF THE<br />
TERM ``PERCEPTION''<br />
2.1 Definition<br />
The study <strong>of</strong> human perception is a complex field (Cantril 1968:5;<br />
Matlin & Foley 1992:2) with definitions and theories <strong>of</strong> the term being<br />
highly interdisciplinary (McBurney & Collings 1984:1) and inconclusive<br />
(Johnson 1994:476,492).
274<br />
However, what has come to light from a study <strong>of</strong> literature is that it is<br />
in the fields <strong>of</strong> Philosophy and Psychology that these definitions and<br />
theories have their stronghold and are not without their theoretical<br />
debates (Lewis 1999:30). In view <strong>of</strong> these observations a general<br />
definition <strong>of</strong> the term ``perception'' will be provided and will be<br />
viewed in this article as an understanding <strong>of</strong> the world constructed<br />
from information obtained by means <strong>of</strong> the senses (Shaver in Johnson<br />
1994:476).<br />
2.2 Etymological foundations<br />
Etymologically, the term ``perception'' is derived from the Old French<br />
language term percepcõ È on and literally referred to the collecting <strong>of</strong> rents<br />
by feudal landlords (Barnhart 1988, sv ``perception''). Cutting<br />
(1987:62) observes that the present definition <strong>of</strong> the term has<br />
maintained a degree <strong>of</strong> this prior usage in that it refers to the collecting<br />
<strong>of</strong> information about the world by means <strong>of</strong> the senses (cf Simpson &<br />
Weiner 1989, sv ``perception''). In a similar vane, the Latin terms<br />
perceptH w o, percH w pH w o and perceptio}nem mean ``to take possession <strong>of</strong> or to<br />
seize'', be it physically grasping something or mentally seizing<br />
something with one's senses (Lewis & Short 1975, sv ``perceptG w o'',<br />
``percG w pG w o''). The latter explanation refers to the focus <strong>of</strong> this article.<br />
3 FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF, AND CONDITIONS<br />
FOR PERCEPTION<br />
The act <strong>of</strong> perceiving consists <strong>of</strong> certain conditions and fundamental<br />
elements (Jordaan & Jordaan 1996:329±332). These conditions and<br />
fundamental aspects transcend the scholarly debates surrounding the<br />
perceptual process (Lewis 1999:34). As these debates will not be<br />
discussedinthisarticleduetotheircomplexandlengthynature,<br />
suffice is to say that they have contributed to a better understanding <strong>of</strong><br />
the act <strong>of</strong> human perception (Shaver & Tarpy 1993:16±17).<br />
3.1 Fundamental elements <strong>of</strong> perception<br />
Fundamental to perception is that there is an experiencing person or<br />
perceiver; secondly, that something is being perceived (either an
The issue <strong>of</strong> perception: some educational implications 275<br />
object, person, situation or relationship); thirdly, there is the context <strong>of</strong><br />
the situation in which objects, events or persons are perceived and<br />
finally, there is the process nature <strong>of</strong> perception starting with the<br />
experiencing <strong>of</strong> multiple stimuli by the senses and ending with the<br />
formation <strong>of</strong> percepts. Although it may appear from the abovementioned<br />
to be a separated and slow process, cognisance must be<br />
taken that the formation <strong>of</strong> percepts takes milliseconds to complete and<br />
are not fragmented (Jordaan & Jordaan 1996:332).<br />
3.2 Conditions for perception<br />
Certain conditions have to be met before any act <strong>of</strong> perceiving can take<br />
place. To Jordaan and Jordaan (1994:329±332) the first condition is that<br />
there must be a sensory system that functions normally (cf Tibbetts<br />
1969:1); secondly, that the sensory system be subjected to basic sensory<br />
stimulation and thirdly, that the stimulation be in a constant state <strong>of</strong><br />
flux, both physiologically and psychologically.<br />
4 THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS AND INFLUENCING<br />
FACTORS<br />
In order to understand how humans give meaning to their world, one<br />
has to understand the perceptual process as well as the various<br />
influencing factors. With regard to the latter, Cantril (1968:5) sees any<br />
perception as ``an awareness that emerges as a result <strong>of</strong> a most<br />
complicated weighing process ... tak[ing] into account a whole host <strong>of</strong><br />
factors or cues''.<br />
What follows is a conceptualisation <strong>of</strong> the perceptual process, a mere<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> the process, and not the conceptualisation Ð a<br />
finality cast in stone. Several authors (cf Griffin & Moorhead 1986;<br />
Randolph & Blackburn 1989; Jordaan & Jordaan 1996) see the process<br />
<strong>of</strong> perception as following a pattern and conceptualise the perceptual<br />
process by means <strong>of</strong> a model. Although McBurney and Collings<br />
(1984:5) disagree with the use <strong>of</strong> a model portraying the perceptual<br />
process for certain reasons, Randolph and Blackburn's (1989:83±95)<br />
model is presented to show the process so as to gain a clearer<br />
understanding.
276<br />
4.1 Senses<br />
As the definition <strong>of</strong> perception implies, the first step in the perceptual<br />
process is the experiencing <strong>of</strong> multiple stimuli by means <strong>of</strong> the five<br />
senses (Matlin & Foley 1992:2). Already one notes that physiological<br />
differences and deficiencies in individuals may cause them to perceive<br />
differently. In this instance, Coren, Ward and Enns (1999:2) note that<br />
``... your world is what your senses tell you. The limitations <strong>of</strong> your<br />
senses set the boundaries <strong>of</strong> your conscious existence''.<br />
4.2 Observation and selection <strong>of</strong> focus<br />
The sheer amount <strong>of</strong> information observed by the human senses places<br />
restrictions on the human's ability to process everything at once (Baron<br />
& Byrne 2000:80,136). The continual bombardment <strong>of</strong> the senses by<br />
phenomena implies that humans will select those which they want to<br />
notice due to a range <strong>of</strong> factors. Randolph and Blackburn (1989:85±89)<br />
conceptualise this aspect <strong>of</strong> the perceptual process as the ``observation<br />
and selection <strong>of</strong> focus''. To them, after stimuli are observed, humans<br />
choose their point <strong>of</strong> focus due to a range <strong>of</strong> factors within the<br />
perceiver, the perceived target and the situational context in which the<br />
perception is made (cf Robbins 1991:125±126). The following include<br />
some factors within the perceiver, the target and context which affect<br />
perception:<br />
. The Perceiver<br />
Various researchers identify and emphasise certain characteristics <strong>of</strong><br />
the perceiver which can modify perception. Randolph and Blackburn<br />
(1989:87) identify three such factors, namely that which the individual<br />
has previously learnt, as well as the motivation and the personality <strong>of</strong><br />
the perceiver, while Coren et al (1999:532±550) see physiological,<br />
gender as well as personality and cognitive differences as contributing<br />
to differences in perception. Robbins (1991:129) sees the attitudes,<br />
interests, motives, experience and expectations <strong>of</strong> the perceiver as<br />
having an influence on that which is perceived while Johnson<br />
(1994:479) argues in favour <strong>of</strong> Forgus and Melamed's (1976) categorisation.<br />
These latter authors include firstly, the influence <strong>of</strong> social<br />
experience and cultural background (cf Choi & Nisbett 1998:949±960);
The issue <strong>of</strong> perception: some educational implications 277<br />
secondly, the impact <strong>of</strong> the perceiver's values (cf Postman, Bruner and<br />
McGinnies 1948:142±154), attitudes and personality; thirdly, the<br />
dynamics <strong>of</strong> person perception and lastly the perceptions <strong>of</strong> causality<br />
in social events as having an influence on that which affects the<br />
perceiver's perception.<br />
. The perceived object/subject<br />
If one looks at an object or subject, you form perceptions <strong>of</strong> what you<br />
see due to it having certain characteristics. Randolph and Blackburn<br />
(1989:85±86) categorise these characteristics as physical and/or<br />
dynamic.<br />
Physical elements may be size or physical appearance (cf The Sunday<br />
Independent, 7 January 1996:15), intensity (an object's brilliance or a<br />
person's resonance), contrast (objects or persons which stand out<br />
against their background) and novelty (unfamiliarity).<br />
Dynamic elements may include motion (moving objects or people are<br />
more likely to be focussed on), repetition (stimuli that are repeated<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten receive more attention) and the arrangement <strong>of</strong> the target.<br />
. The situational context<br />
The context or situation in which objects or events are perceived<br />
influences subsequent thoughts and behaviour (Randolph and Blackburn<br />
1989:87). Aspects such as the cultural context (Scherer & Walbott<br />
1994:310±328; Scherer 1997:902±922), the social situation as well as the<br />
location and time <strong>of</strong> an incident (Randolph & Blackburn 1989:87;<br />
Robbins 1991:129) all have a pr<strong>of</strong>ound influence on that which is being<br />
perceived.<br />
4.3 Frame <strong>of</strong> reference filter<br />
After stimuli <strong>of</strong> a person or object have been experienced by the senses<br />
within a specific situation or context, they are processed through what<br />
Randolph and Blackburn (1989:89±92) term a ``frame <strong>of</strong> reference<br />
filter''. To these authors, this is the initial phase <strong>of</strong> the attribution <strong>of</strong><br />
meaning to the experienced phenomena.
278<br />
In this frame <strong>of</strong> reference process, the characteristics <strong>of</strong> the perceiver<br />
become dominant with past and present experiences rendering a major<br />
role. Past experiences are associated with particular emotions and<br />
cognitions and when similar present experiences are encountered,<br />
humans tend to rely on past feelings and thoughts to interpret the<br />
perceived phenomena (Lewis 1999:42). Present experiences also play<br />
an important role in the perceptual process and may even modify and<br />
influence past thoughts and feelings ``except where [humans] consciously<br />
resist their prejudicial influence'' (Johnson 1994:481).<br />
4.4 Allocation <strong>of</strong> meaning<br />
To Randolph and Blackburn (1989:92±94), the final step in the<br />
perceptual process is the assignment <strong>of</strong> meaning to the perceived<br />
phenomena that have been selected and processed through the<br />
previously mentioned frame <strong>of</strong> reference filter. In order to understand<br />
others' and our own behaviour, the process <strong>of</strong> attribution comes into<br />
operation.<br />
With reference to a social context, while observing other humans in<br />
specific situations, humans make judgements about others and<br />
attribute meaning based on observed behaviour (Cushner et al. 1992:32;<br />
Finchilescu 1992:210; Baron & Byrne 2000:49). Several theories have<br />
been proposed to explain the attribution process (Baron & Byrne<br />
2000:49±57), and although they invariably differ, they all depart from<br />
the premise that a person's behaviour was either caused internally (eg<br />
motives and intentions), externally (some aspect <strong>of</strong> the social or<br />
physical world) or due to a combination <strong>of</strong> the two (Tyson 1987:328±<br />
329; Robbins 1991:129±130; Finchilescu 1992:210; Baron & Byrne<br />
2000:49±57). Cognisance must be taken <strong>of</strong> the fact that although<br />
attribution models are generally valid, Tyson's (1987:331) caution must<br />
be observed where he notes that ``... there are systematic biases which<br />
exist and which can lead to serious errors in the judgements we make''.<br />
Cushner, McClelland and Safford (1992:61) agree and note that in<br />
many instances certain attributions may be incorrect as not all the<br />
information is considered when attributing a cause to a specific<br />
behaviour. Tyson (1987:332) <strong>of</strong>fers a possible answer to this problem<br />
by noting that much research in this field has been conducted in
The issue <strong>of</strong> perception: some educational implications 279<br />
Western cultures, with little being done in non-western settings.<br />
Westerners, to Tyson, may approach behaviour in a more individualistic<br />
and independent manner, while non-western cultures may or<br />
may not be more interdependent, holistic and collective in their<br />
approach (cf Markus & Kitayama 1991:224±253).<br />
However, errors in attribution can and do occur. Common errors in<br />
attribution may be the fundamental attribution error (also known as<br />
the correspondence bias) and the self-serving bias. The fundamental<br />
attribution error is the tendency to overestimate the influence <strong>of</strong><br />
internal factors and underestimate the influence <strong>of</strong> external factors<br />
when judging others' behaviour, while the self-serving bias is when<br />
individuals attribute internal factors to their own successes, while<br />
blaming their failures on external factors. To Baron and Byrne (2000:60)<br />
the strength <strong>of</strong> both these errors tends to be stronger in independent or<br />
individualistic cultures than in interdependent or holistic cultures.<br />
Errors in the perceptual process may also occur due to an information<br />
overload (cf Baron & Byrne 2000:86). In this instance, strategies are<br />
applied by humans in making sense <strong>of</strong> so much information, as<br />
accurately as possible. These strategies or shortcuts are referred to as<br />
heuristics.<br />
5 HEURISTICS: MENTAL SHORTCUTS<br />
Humans develop strategies or shortcuts, referred to as heuristics, when<br />
perceiving. Heuristics are used as the exposure to information is<br />
tremendous and strategies are needed to simplify the process. In many<br />
instances these heuristics are valuable, but may very <strong>of</strong>ten lead to<br />
perceptual errors (Baron & Byrne 2000:80). Although authors differ in<br />
their categorization <strong>of</strong> these strategies (cf Sears et al 1985:54; Johnson<br />
1994:482; Baron & Byrne 2000;86±89), only three such strategies and<br />
their potential to digress will be discussed in this article.
280<br />
5.1 Stereotypes<br />
Stereotyping is a generalised assumption attributing identical characteristics<br />
(real and imagined) to all members <strong>of</strong> group or class to<br />
which individuals belong (Reber 1985, sv ``stereotype''; Tyson<br />
1987:341; Johnson 1994:482).<br />
Stereotypes can be either positive or negative (Botha et al. 1993:60). In<br />
the case <strong>of</strong> the former, stereotyping facilitates easier assimilation <strong>of</strong><br />
large amounts <strong>of</strong> information, while in the latter sense generalisations<br />
can become so common, despite them having no bases and credibility,<br />
leading to inaccurate perceptions (Lewis 1999:46±47) and prejudice<br />
(Baron and Byrne 2000:229±230). Prejudices and negative stereotypes<br />
can therefore hamper intergroup relations (Tyson 1987:341±343),<br />
especially in a country like <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>.<br />
5.2 Projection<br />
Projection occurs when the perceivers' own characteristics, traits,<br />
emotions and dispositions are attributed to those <strong>of</strong> other people. This<br />
implies that people's perception <strong>of</strong> others is influenced more by what<br />
the observer is like, than by what the person being observed is like<br />
(Robbins 1991:133).<br />
5.3 Selective perceptions<br />
Selective perceptions takes place when people selectively interpret<br />
what they perceive based on their own interests, background,<br />
experience and attitudes (Griffin & Moorhead 1986:77). This implies a<br />
failing to take the whole picture into account when drawing inferences.<br />
As the perceiver sees what he or she wants to see, due to their bases <strong>of</strong><br />
interpretation, unwarranted conclusions from an ambiguous situation<br />
can be drawn (Robbins 1991:132).<br />
6 THE INTERSUBJECTIVE NATURE OF PERCEPTION<br />
What has transpired from this cursory overview <strong>of</strong> the perceptual<br />
process is that, due to the uniqueness <strong>of</strong> each human being, there<br />
should be as many ``subjective realities'' as there are people in this
The issue <strong>of</strong> perception: some educational implications 281<br />
world (cf Rock 1975:5; Jordaan & Jordaan 1996:397±404). Common<br />
sense however refutes this claim, as there are instances where different<br />
groups and individuals perceive similarly, for example, perceptual<br />
agreement amongst cultural groups (cf Bergen 1992:6).<br />
When different people or groups have (more or less) reached consensus<br />
about a certain perception, they have reached what Jordaan and<br />
Jordaan (1996:397) term ``intersubjective agreement''. To these authors:<br />
``Intersubjectivity ... ensures that our perceptions <strong>of</strong> reality and the<br />
appropriateness <strong>of</strong> our behaviour can be verified through consensual<br />
validation (italics in text)'' (Jordaan & Jordaan 1996:400). However, not<br />
all people within a certain cultural group agree with each other and<br />
there is even a degree <strong>of</strong> consensus amongst people with totally<br />
different cultural backgrounds, an example being agreement amongst<br />
academics with regard to a certain topic.<br />
Contributing factors to this phenomenon are legion and include<br />
amongst other things, the influence <strong>of</strong> media (Wiehahn 1987:12), as<br />
well as cultural norms (cf Bergen 1992:6) and learning (Lewis 1999:53).<br />
The importance <strong>of</strong> the intersubjective nature <strong>of</strong> perception is that it it<br />
gives one an idea what perceptions prevail in society as well as a means<br />
<strong>of</strong> understanding and taking such perceptions into account. As Jordaan<br />
and Jordaan (1996:401±402) point out regarding its importance to<br />
conflict resolution:<br />
If we knew what sort <strong>of</strong> intersubjective categories govern the behaviour <strong>of</strong><br />
a particular person or group <strong>of</strong> people, we would better understand the<br />
reality they perceive. We would, for instance, argue less about what a<br />
particular matter means because we would know that we probably see it<br />
differently.<br />
In the light <strong>of</strong> the aforesaid, three examples will be discussed briefly in<br />
an attempt to highlight the reality <strong>of</strong> perceptual differences within<br />
education in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>.
282<br />
7 EXAMPLES OF EDUCATIONAL PERCEPTIONS IN<br />
SOUTH AFRICA<br />
Given the dynamic and developmental nature <strong>of</strong> the perceptual process<br />
and influencing factors, one can expect varied perceptions <strong>of</strong> certain<br />
educational aspects. Very <strong>of</strong>ten, perceptions are used to create negative<br />
and misleading images <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n education and educational<br />
policies thus creating a warped image <strong>of</strong> the educational reality (De<br />
Vries 1992:36±37). One such example being <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>'s perceived<br />
education crisis.<br />
7.1 The perception <strong>of</strong> an education crisis<br />
ThewordcrisisisderivedfromtheGreekwordkriasiB meaning<br />
``turning point'' (Fowler & Fowler 1976, sv ``crisis''). The Chinese word<br />
for crisis is wei-chi, wei meaning danger and chi meaning an<br />
opportunity (Cushner et al 1992:17). Both the Chinese and Greek thus<br />
perceive the concept as not only posing a threat, but also creating an<br />
opportunity <strong>of</strong> improvement from this threat.<br />
As a result <strong>of</strong> perceptual differences, people view the handling <strong>of</strong> a<br />
crisis differently. One perception is that it is experienced negatively,<br />
others view it as a challenge. This is especially so in the education<br />
system <strong>of</strong> the country.<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n society has been characterised over the past decade by<br />
accelerated changes. These changes have not been without problems<br />
and uncertainties. These problems and uncertainties in turn create the<br />
idea or perception that <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n society is facing an irreversible<br />
breakdown or crisis. Cushner et al. (1992:17) note that many Americans<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten think <strong>of</strong> the term ``crisis'' in a negative sense Ð implying an<br />
upset. This perception is also very evident in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>, especially<br />
when referring to the education system.<br />
Reasons why <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>ns perceive education in a negative sense are<br />
legion. Possible contributing factors are the role <strong>of</strong> the media (Wiehahn<br />
1989:12) with newspaper journalists using the concept mainly negatively<br />
in newspaper headings when referring to a perceived problem in
The issue <strong>of</strong> perception: some educational implications 283<br />
the educational situation (Die Burger, 17 Mei 1993:18). Political parties<br />
also use the term in election rhetoric and propaganda in national<br />
newspapers to canvass votes with promises <strong>of</strong> addressing this so-called<br />
problem (Sunday Times, 30 May 1993:14; Rapport, 31 Desember 1995:2).<br />
However, to state that all <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>ns perceive the concept in a<br />
negative sense would be a blatant generalization. Archbishop Desmond<br />
Tutu (1995:26) creates what appears to be a balanced impression<br />
when stating that ``as <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> enters the second year <strong>of</strong> ...<br />
liberation ... we have inherited a mess: an educational crisis''.<br />
However, he does present a case for opportunity by stating that <strong>South</strong><br />
<strong>Africa</strong>ns should become responsible for their own destiny by putting<br />
``their shoulders to the wheel''. How and when remain unanswered<br />
questions, but to perceive the education system as an irreversible<br />
situation only creates negative thoughts and behaviour. The answer<br />
lies in perceiving it not only as chaos, but also as a challenge and<br />
opportunity.<br />
Another concept that has and is subject to diverse interpretations is the<br />
notion <strong>of</strong> democracy.<br />
7.2 A varied perception <strong>of</strong> democracy<br />
Since the 1994 democratic elections, all aspects <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n society<br />
have reflected the idea <strong>of</strong> a democracy, with education being no<br />
exception.<br />
However, this term has been subjected to varying perceptions with<br />
individuals and groups giving their own specific interpretation to the<br />
term due to a host <strong>of</strong> factors. Hartshorne (1992:19) agrees and notes<br />
that ``democracy means different things to different people, and in<br />
recent years the word has been used by those who have little<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> it or desire to practise it''.<br />
Not only does the concept <strong>of</strong> democracy lack a universally accepted<br />
definition, but attempts to define the term are generally ``resisted from<br />
all sides'' (Nguru 1995:59) giving rise to various perceptions <strong>of</strong> the<br />
concept. According to Nguru (1995:60):
284<br />
Many definitions <strong>of</strong> democracy tend to be tailor-made to fit specific types<br />
<strong>of</strong> regimes or systems. They are <strong>of</strong>ten little more than exercises in political<br />
marketing to sell those particular regimes or systems.<br />
Even in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>, the term has been subjected to many interpretations,<br />
possibly because the undemocratic ideology <strong>of</strong> Apartheid<br />
in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> prevented certain groups' access to democratic<br />
structures (Hartshorne 1992:94). Another reason noted by Retief<br />
(1994:39) is that those in the Liberation Movements exiled in<br />
Communist-Socialist countries were led to believe that those societies<br />
reflected and upheld democratic principles.<br />
In the last example a prevalent perception regarding freedom and<br />
authority will briefly be discussed:<br />
7.3 The perception <strong>of</strong> freedom and authority<br />
To many observers, the authority in many <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n education<br />
institutions has fallen into a state <strong>of</strong> disarray. Tutu (1995:26) sees the<br />
reason as being that ``too many people still mistake freedom for<br />
licence'' thus ignoring the role and significance <strong>of</strong> authority and <strong>of</strong><br />
importance, the need to strike a magical balance between the two<br />
concepts.<br />
Charney (1995:55) and Pityana (1994:22) cite various reasons for this<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> discipline: students being too politicised, lack <strong>of</strong> respect for<br />
teachers, lack <strong>of</strong> disciplined behaviour by teachers and a lack <strong>of</strong> morals<br />
and values by teachers and learners alike, all leading to a culture <strong>of</strong><br />
intolerance, violence and disregard for authority.<br />
Given these contributing factors, one cannot forget that freedom<br />
cannot exist without authority and although they exist as polarities,<br />
they imply one another. To Venter (1992:37±39), freedom derives its<br />
true content from authority, while authority, on the other hand, is only<br />
true if it promotes and protects freedom. One factor contributing<br />
largely to this magical balance is that <strong>of</strong> the development <strong>of</strong> selfdiscipline.<br />
Venter (1992:38) views this as follows:
The issue <strong>of</strong> perception: some educational implications 285<br />
If the individual submits himself [/or herself] to inner authority, he [/she]<br />
becomes his [/her] true self, gains the good life and acquires spiritual<br />
freedom and true happiness.<br />
8 CONCLUDING REMARKS<br />
The aim <strong>of</strong> this article was to show, in a reasonably elementary fashion,<br />
how human beings make sense <strong>of</strong> their world. What has transpired is a<br />
complex, dynamic and developmental process which acknowledges<br />
that humans will and very <strong>of</strong>ten do differ in their interpretation <strong>of</strong> that<br />
which is perceived.<br />
It is in the light <strong>of</strong> the above that certain guidelines and recommendations<br />
will be made in order for educational practitioners and<br />
researchers to be more aware <strong>of</strong> others' thoughts and actions. These<br />
being that:<br />
. By keeping in mind the complexities <strong>of</strong> the perceptual<br />
process, as well as taking cognisance <strong>of</strong> influencing factors,<br />
perceptual errors may be minimised through an increased<br />
openness to more information.<br />
. Perceptual errors can be minimised and differences resolved<br />
by communicating with people <strong>of</strong> different cultures, backgrounds<br />
and training.<br />
. Educational stakeholders should be understanding and<br />
sensitive to others' points <strong>of</strong> view.<br />
. Perceptual errors may be overcome if there is a willingness to<br />
change one's perceptions when encountering new and<br />
relevant information.<br />
. Because perceptions are dynamic, people should realise that<br />
previously held and current perceptions that were seen as<br />
correct, may be changed due to the emergence <strong>of</strong> new and<br />
valid information.<br />
. Several factors are responsible for differences in perception<br />
and an understanding and sensitivity to these factors should<br />
be borne in mind when interpreting others' thinking and<br />
behaviour.
286<br />
. Although cultural factors play a large role in the difference in<br />
perception, all their members will not necessarily think and<br />
behave in a certain uniform way.<br />
In conclusion, it is maybe fitting to note Johnson's (1994:487)<br />
observation regarding the importance <strong>of</strong> knowledge <strong>of</strong> perceptual<br />
theory in the educational context:<br />
Educators and others may utilize their knowledge <strong>of</strong> perception theory<br />
more personally to improve their perceptual skills and interactive<br />
behaviour in order to approach their daily tasks and social interaction<br />
more fully and more accurately informed.<br />
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Educational change: is it possible? 289<br />
Educational change:<br />
is it possible?<br />
Johannes A Slabbert<br />
Faculty <strong>of</strong> Education<br />
<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Pretoria<br />
Educational change is always a serious matter. When educators and/or learners do not<br />
live up to the expectations <strong>of</strong> the change, the change is reconsidered. The most recent<br />
mammoth educational change in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> with the implementation <strong>of</strong> OBE in 1997<br />
has failed to deliver expected results. The most recent recommendations towards an<br />
attempt to rescue the situation continue to indicate fundamental ignorance towards what<br />
paradigmatic educational change requires. This article will reveal what research<br />
suggests as the requirements for fundamental educational change. It will also discuss<br />
how these principles were implemented in an in-service workshop for educators, how it<br />
was responsible for the school with the best implementation <strong>of</strong> OBE in Gauteng since its<br />
inception, and how it maintained this reputation through a persistent longitudinal effect <strong>of</strong><br />
eight years.<br />
1 INTRODUCTION<br />
When educational change fails to live up to its expectations, the change<br />
should be reconsidered ± that is the correct thing to do. However, what<br />
is done is <strong>of</strong> crucial importance. And we cannot allow this to be an<br />
ideological or political consideration like in the past. Whether it is<br />
change that needs to be re-considered or whether we need to start from<br />
scratch, the question remains the same: What kind <strong>of</strong> educational<br />
change is required?
290<br />
2 WHAT KIND OF EDUCATIONAL CHANGE IS<br />
REQUIRED?<br />
There is no doubt that we have entered a new world that we find<br />
extremely difficult to cope with (Glasser 1972:17). Not only is change<br />
taking place extremely rapidly, its intensity and scope is simply<br />
baffling. Change itself has become the only certainty that governs life.<br />
The uncertainty principle has become our foundation for living (Zukav<br />
1979; Zohar & Marshall 2000). Capra (1988:xviii) expresses the<br />
implication <strong>of</strong> this as follows:<br />
[We need] a new paradigm ± a new vision <strong>of</strong> reality, a fundamental<br />
change in our thoughts, perceptions, and values.<br />
If education wants to be relevant in this new world and if it wants to<br />
claim that it prepares learners for life, then a new paradigm is also<br />
what education needs (Land & Jarman 1992:68; Slattery 1995). But a<br />
new paradigm in education changes everything about education<br />
especially the perception <strong>of</strong> what education actually is! And it retains<br />
nothing <strong>of</strong> what education formerly was perceived to be. This is the<br />
non-negotiable point <strong>of</strong> departure if a new paradigm in education is to<br />
be achieved and the challenge for those who pursue such a venture.<br />
3 A NEW PARADIGM IN EDUCATION EVOLVED<br />
In the beginning <strong>of</strong> 1994, research on a new paradigm in education was<br />
conceptualised and eventually reported in 1997 (Slabbert 1997). The<br />
brief formulation <strong>of</strong> this new paradigm also contains a new aim <strong>of</strong><br />
education: Maximising human potential through facilitating lifelong<br />
learning towards a safe, sustained and prosperous universe for all. The<br />
human being created with incalculable potential already present by<br />
birth, is central to this paradigm. This potential can only be maximised<br />
by the learners themselves through a process <strong>of</strong> lifelong learning when<br />
they are continually challenged with real life problems above their<br />
ability, which they have to solve themselves. Since no one can learn for<br />
or on behalf <strong>of</strong> the learner, this lifelong learning process can only be<br />
facilitated Ð something completely new to education! (Although some
Educational change: is it possible? 291<br />
even claim that they know what it is). This new ``inside-out'' paradigm<br />
(potential inside the learner has to come out) is the complete opposite<br />
<strong>of</strong> the old ``outside-in'' paradigm (knowledge outside is imparted into<br />
the learner).<br />
As soon as this new paradigm became known in the beginning <strong>of</strong> 1994<br />
by a parent <strong>of</strong> a particular school, its appeal was recognised by the<br />
principal <strong>of</strong> that school who requested education <strong>of</strong> his teachers in this<br />
new paradigm without hesitation. It was decided to develop a<br />
workshop for this purpose and the consequent research for its<br />
development led to the basic foundation <strong>of</strong> a workshop to achieve<br />
paradigmatic change.<br />
4 THE JOURNEY INWARD<br />
Paradigmatic change requires first and foremost an inherent change in<br />
the human being. No new systems or structures and even intensive<br />
training to implement the  m, can and will result in paradigmatic<br />
change.<br />
Since human potential is the pivotal force <strong>of</strong> our existence, and because<br />
it is the source for becoming who we should be, becoming conscious <strong>of</strong><br />
this vital powerhouse is undoubtedly a prerequisite for maximising it.<br />
Learning as the way to maximise human potential, explores the<br />
discovery <strong>of</strong> the ultimate nature <strong>of</strong> reality. However, it has been<br />
discovered that the traditional positivist assumptions <strong>of</strong> obtaining data<br />
through the physical senses, which makes it ultimately quantifiable<br />
through technology, do not supply us with conclusive answers to all<br />
our questions. It has become clear that the ultimate nature <strong>of</strong> reality<br />
cannot become known (be learned) through the physical senses alone,<br />
as if the observer is completely detached from the observed. The<br />
observer is ineluctably involved in the observation and the concept <strong>of</strong><br />
the self and its consciousness inevitably comes into play. This means<br />
that reality also becomes known through an ``inner exploration'' or an<br />
``inner knowing'' (Harman 1992:1±12). Consequently, a more holistic<br />
approach towards establishing the ultimate nature <strong>of</strong> reality is<br />
required. Man as learner is then not only an observer, but also and<br />
much more so, an ``inner explorer'' (through its consciousness) as well
292<br />
as someone who not only has the willingness to, but has an imperative<br />
to be transformed and changed as an integral part <strong>of</strong> his/her learning<br />
endeavour. This can however only be obtained if the self is consciously<br />
involved. It is through consciousness that one's disposition in the<br />
world can truly be established and a meaningful direction and level <strong>of</strong><br />
action can be taken, which implies an incessant desire for learning and<br />
knowing as a way <strong>of</strong> life to acquire the highest level <strong>of</strong> development,<br />
maximising human potential.<br />
In this regard Csikszentmihalyi (1991:24) says:<br />
The function <strong>of</strong> consciousness is to represent information about what is<br />
happening outside and inside the organism in such a way that it can be<br />
evaluated and acted upon by the body. In this sense, it functions as a<br />
clearinghouse for sensations, perceptions, feelings, and ideas, establishing<br />
priorities among all the diverse information. Without consciousness<br />
we would still ``know'' what is going on, but we would have to react to it<br />
in a reflexive, instinctive way. With consciousness, we can deliberately<br />
weigh what the senses tell us, and respond accordingly. And we can also<br />
invent information that did not exist before: it is because we have<br />
consciousness that we can daydream, make up lies, and write beautiful<br />
poems and scientific theories.<br />
It is this function <strong>of</strong> consciousness that determines our lives ±<br />
especially the quality <strong>of</strong> our lives. What is <strong>of</strong> utmost importance, is that<br />
it is consciousness which allows us not to become victims <strong>of</strong><br />
circumstances, but that we are able to determine the quality <strong>of</strong> our lives<br />
in spite <strong>of</strong> circumstances. We are never victims <strong>of</strong> circumstances<br />
because we always have a choice how to react to circumstances.<br />
Csikszentmihalyi (1991:24) describes this faculty <strong>of</strong> man as follows:<br />
A person can make himself happy, or miserable, regardless <strong>of</strong> what is<br />
actually happening ``outside'', just by changing the contents <strong>of</strong><br />
consciousness. We all know individuals who can transform hopeless<br />
situations into challenges to be overcome, just through the force <strong>of</strong> their
Educational change: is it possible? 293<br />
personalities. The ability to persevere despite obstacles and setbacks is the<br />
quality people most admire in others, and justly so; it is probably the most<br />
important trait not only for succeeding in life, but for enjoying it as well.<br />
The question is <strong>of</strong> course how to achieve this kind <strong>of</strong> mastery in one's<br />
life:<br />
To develop this trait, one must find ways to order consciousness so as to<br />
be in control <strong>of</strong> feelings and thoughts ... . As suggested before, the way is<br />
through control over consciousness, which in turn leads to control over<br />
the quality <strong>of</strong> experience. Any small gain in this direction will make life<br />
more rich, more enjoyable, more meaningful (Csikszentmihalyi<br />
1991:22,24).<br />
Control over consciousness is therefore the answer to achieve and<br />
consequently maximises one's potential. The fact that control over<br />
consciousness is an integrated part <strong>of</strong> consciousness itself, is explicated<br />
by Shanon (1990:138±140) when he describes consciousness operating<br />
on three levels.<br />
The first and most basic level is that <strong>of</strong> the sensed being. This level <strong>of</strong><br />
consciousness distinguishes a living organism from the non-living. It is<br />
the consciousness that is characterized by perceiving and interacting<br />
with the environment, but it is all pervasive and non-focal; it is the<br />
sensed being in the world.<br />
The second level is that <strong>of</strong> mental awareness. This level pertains to<br />
awareness <strong>of</strong> the content (what) but not <strong>of</strong> processes (how) <strong>of</strong><br />
cognition.<br />
The third and highest level <strong>of</strong> consciousness is that <strong>of</strong> reflection.<br />
Reflection comprises:<br />
a<br />
b<br />
meta-observation in which the cognizer reflects on his/her<br />
mental states, thoughts feelings and processes;<br />
monitoring which consists <strong>of</strong> checking or evaluating one's<br />
mentations;
294<br />
c<br />
control which consists <strong>of</strong> conscious mentations that guide or<br />
govern thought.<br />
Theaim<strong>of</strong>consciousreflectionisthereforetopenetratetheunconscious<br />
mentations, which has far reaching consequences for education.<br />
Harman (1988:85) describes what has been found in research in this<br />
regard:<br />
Of all the findings <strong>of</strong> modern psychology, one <strong>of</strong> the most firmly<br />
established, and the one with the most pervasive implications, is that only<br />
a small part <strong>of</strong> our total mental activity is conscious. The more vast<br />
portion is out <strong>of</strong> conscious awareness ± in the unconscious. Ordinary<br />
conscious awareness may be thought <strong>of</strong> as a narrow ``visible spectrum''<br />
between the subconscious (for example, instinctual drives, repressed<br />
memories, automatic functioning) and the supraconscious (for example,<br />
creative imagination, intuitive judgement, aesthetic sense, spiritual<br />
sensibility).<br />
If potential is therefore to be maximised, it is the learner's obligation in<br />
maximising his/her potential to penetrate into the supra-conscious in<br />
order to release the untapped dormant wisdom located there. It is a<br />
journey inward, and, as someone has said, the longest and most<br />
difficult journey. This journey inevitably results in a new order <strong>of</strong><br />
consciousness ± a transformed and changed human being, maximising<br />
his/her potential, fulfilling his/her purpose.<br />
Our new world demands a new kind <strong>of</strong> human being: One with an<br />
incessant desire to learn as a lifestyle. One who is always a step ahead,<br />
changing problems into opportunities. One who does not wait for the<br />
future to suddenly dawn upon him/her, but perpetually creates abetter<br />
and brighter future. Education inevitably needs to have this as a result.<br />
But for education to have this as a result, the educators themselves<br />
need to construct a new order <strong>of</strong> consciousness as human beings,<br />
becoming fundamentally conscious <strong>of</strong> their own potential and their<br />
responsibility to maximise it. They need to take the first steps in<br />
becoming fundamentally transformed into a new human being, with a<br />
new personal vision and purpose. Only this transformation will ensure
Educational change: is it possible? 295<br />
their proper perception as facilitators <strong>of</strong> learning to achieve the new<br />
educational aim. Without such personal development as essential part<br />
and parcel <strong>of</strong> the education <strong>of</strong> our educators, failure will haunt all our<br />
noble attempts for paradigmatic change.<br />
This requires a renaissance in education. But if we believe in such a<br />
rebirth<br />
... then clearly this renaissance must begin in the chambers <strong>of</strong> our own<br />
hearts. ... We cannot wait for society to change or for institutions and<br />
organizations to be renewed. We, as individuals, must assume responsibility<br />
for our own personal transformation (Feuerstein 1990:89).<br />
The individual human being is therefore critical and pivotal in the<br />
emergence <strong>of</strong> a new paradigm. It is the individual and not an<br />
institution or organization that initiates, implements and sustains it,<br />
although the system cannot be neglected and systems thinking has to<br />
be fundamental if one is to succeed in our complex society (Senge,<br />
Roberts, Ross, Smith & Kleiner 1994:87±192).<br />
But it remains<br />
... the individual becoming acutely aware <strong>of</strong> his own separate reality visa-vis<br />
the community; his claim to express his personality by thinking and<br />
doing for himself ± exploring new lands, new realisms <strong>of</strong> thought, new<br />
ways <strong>of</strong> looking for truth, new means <strong>of</strong> expressing it; it is the<br />
individual's firm claim to live his own life (Acland 1963:64).<br />
Living his own life remains living a life where man is ``a nodal point <strong>of</strong><br />
relationships'' (Wielemans 1993:171±224): All relationships include<br />
man, emanates from man, and ultimately returns to man. It is a life<br />
where interconnectedness <strong>of</strong> all phenomena is recognised and where<br />
interdependentness is the highest human value (Covey 1992:46±52).<br />
It dissipates the symptoms <strong>of</strong> our time. It conquers the devastating<br />
effects <strong>of</strong> abuse (in all forms accompanied by destructive violence)<br />
addiction (<strong>of</strong> all kinds) and depression (which eventually results in<br />
suicide), because the human becomes fulfilled with extraordinary inner
296<br />
power and possibilities which renders the need for external forms <strong>of</strong><br />
power resulting in abuse, redundant, it eliminates the desire to be<br />
fulfilled from the outside through addiction, and it replaces depression<br />
with authentic self-fulfilment, happiness and joy. It manifests in<br />
psychological (Barron, 1990) and physical health (Torrance 1995:190±<br />
214) and a human being who is maximising his/her potential, fulfilling<br />
his/her ultimate purpose (Slabbert 1997).<br />
Only when the journey inward (personal transformation) is well<br />
established as the first principle in paradigmatic change, can the<br />
journey outward commence.<br />
5 THE JOURNEY OUTWARD<br />
The journey inward ensures a new vision, purpose and perspective<br />
from which can be departed to effect the educational environment.<br />
That is why the second principle for achieving paradigmatic change is<br />
a journey outward. It is a journey where the educational environment<br />
has to be completely transformed! To be able to achieve paradigmatic<br />
change, three design elements for the intended change are necessary<br />
which relate closely to Fullen's (1993) ideas and the key aspects<br />
suggested by Senge, Roberts, Ross, Smith and Kleiner (1994:36±37) for<br />
implementing change. They are discussed in the following paragraphs.<br />
5.1 Guiding ideas<br />
Quick fixes have been, and still are implemented to remedy education<br />
from its ailments. But unfortunately it has been proven over and over<br />
again that quick fixes will not and cannot provide the paradigmatic<br />
change needed, especially in education. Many years <strong>of</strong> experience has<br />
lead Leonard and Murphy (1995:8) to the following conclusion:<br />
In a culture intoxicated with promises <strong>of</strong> the quick fix, instant<br />
enlightenment, and easy learning, it was hard to accept one <strong>of</strong> the most<br />
important lessons that came to us out <strong>of</strong> those powerful but short-term<br />
experiences: Any significant long-term change requires long-term<br />
practice, whether that change has to do with learning to play the violin or<br />
learning to be a more open, loving person. We all know people who say<br />
they have been permanently changed by experiences <strong>of</strong> a moment or a day
Educational change: is it possible? 297<br />
or a weekend. But when you check it out you'll generally discover that<br />
those who ended up permanently changed had spent considerable time<br />
preparing for their life-changing experience or had continued diligently<br />
practicing the new behaviour afterward.<br />
A set <strong>of</strong> guiding ideas is the first element in the design <strong>of</strong> change. A<br />
guiding idea fundamentally supplies the purpose and vision, which<br />
transcends the present through overarching values and a sense <strong>of</strong><br />
ultimate direction to which one is compelled to stay committed. This is<br />
well stated by Bowers (1993:217) in the following way:<br />
Reform does not require a master plan before it begins; but it needs to be<br />
guided by a clear sense <strong>of</strong> direction in which we must move, and a full<br />
awareness <strong>of</strong> the consequences if we fail.<br />
The latter part <strong>of</strong> this statement is <strong>of</strong> crucial importance because failure<br />
should not even be considered. Hammer and Stanton (1995:15)<br />
explicitly say: ``Don't fail!'' Deming (1993:111) provides us with<br />
valuable criteria to assess our guiding ideas to ensure success.<br />
The first criterion for a guiding idea is concerned with consistency <strong>of</strong><br />
purpose. A guiding idea has therefore to contain a very definite, clear<br />
purpose and since it has to be fundamental in terms <strong>of</strong> thinking about<br />
education it has to bear consistency. The second criterion for a guiding<br />
idea concerns the recognition <strong>of</strong> variation in human beings. The<br />
paradigm has therefore to recognise individuality and restore pr<strong>of</strong>essionalism<br />
in education. The last criterion concerns the fact that all<br />
human beings are born with inherent creative potential that is<br />
characterised by an inner drive to learn, to take pride in their work, to<br />
experiment, innovate and to improve.<br />
This new paradigm as guiding idea has to adhere to all these criteria. It<br />
serves as the new structure, scaffolding or schemata within which its<br />
substance can be generated.<br />
5.2 Theory, methods and tools<br />
With the new paradigm as guiding idea and suprastructure in place, it
298<br />
is now ready to be elaborated into a substantial theory, methods and<br />
tools. Without these the executors <strong>of</strong> the new paradigm will not be able<br />
to acquire the competencies to implement the paradigm and its birth<br />
will be, for all practical purposes, futile. However, it must be stated<br />
clearly that the theory, methods and tools are not simply there for the<br />
taking, they are developed and refined as the implementation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
new paradigm progresses.<br />
5.3 Innovations in infrastructure<br />
A guiding idea ± as element in the design <strong>of</strong> change ± even though<br />
supported by substantial theory, methods and tools, will speedily die if<br />
the existing infrastructure is not innovated to provide the uninhibited<br />
implementation <strong>of</strong> the paradigm.<br />
5.4 Reengineering<br />
The development <strong>of</strong> theory methods and tools as well as the<br />
innovations in infrastructure requires a process <strong>of</strong> reengineering.<br />
Reengineering is concerned with the redesign <strong>of</strong> work so that it can be<br />
performed in a far superior way. Therefore reengineering is relevant for<br />
any organization in which work takes place: large or small, manufacturing<br />
or service, pr<strong>of</strong>it or nonpr<strong>of</strong>it, private or public sector (Hammer &<br />
Stanton 1995:274).<br />
Hammer and Stanton (1995:14±33) supply the top ten mistakes that<br />
cause paradigmatic change (reengineering) to fail. These are especially<br />
important when innovations in infrastructure are considered because it<br />
is this design element which manifests the execution <strong>of</strong> change. To<br />
prevent failure the following mistakes have to be avoided:<br />
a<br />
b<br />
Do not say or pretend you are reengineering without really<br />
doing it. Ad hoc tinkering within existing schemata, no matter<br />
how pr<strong>of</strong>ound the changes may seem to be, is simply not<br />
reengineering.<br />
Do not try to reengineer a structure, like a faculty or<br />
department or the race course, representing the wrong concep-
Educational change: is it possible? 299<br />
c<br />
d<br />
tion <strong>of</strong> what the curriculum is. Only processes, actions or<br />
activities can be reengineered ± running the race in curriculum<br />
sense.<br />
Do not waste time on analysing the process to be reengineered<br />
so as to not become entangled in detail that will prevent<br />
escaping existing schemata. Rather take some time to understand<br />
the process fundamentally and get on with the job.<br />
Do not be timid in redesign. In the words <strong>of</strong> Hammer and<br />
Stanton (1995:25):<br />
Reengineering requires radical, breakthrough ideas about process<br />
design. Reengineering leaders must encourage people to stretch<br />
goals and to think out <strong>of</strong> the box; to this end leadership must<br />
reward creative thinking and be willing to consider any new idea.<br />
e<br />
Do not even try and preserve even the tiniest bit <strong>of</strong> existing<br />
schemata. Hammer and Stanton (1995:31) states it as follows:<br />
Any attempt to set limits, to preserve a piece <strong>of</strong> the old system, will<br />
doom your efforts to failure.<br />
f<br />
Do not get caught up in the misconception that reengineering<br />
is a slow process. Hammer and Stanton (1995:30) say:<br />
Reengineer quickly. If you can't show some tangible results within<br />
a year, you will lose the support and momentum necessary to make<br />
the effort successful. To this end, ``scope creep'' must be avoided at<br />
all costs. Stay focused and narrow the scope if necessary in order<br />
to get results fast.<br />
g<br />
Do not ignore the concerns <strong>of</strong> your people.<br />
The new process must <strong>of</strong>fer some benefit to the people who are,<br />
after all, being asked to embrace enormous change, and the<br />
transition from the old process to the new one must be made with<br />
great sensitivity to their feelings (Hammer & Stanton, 1995:32).<br />
h<br />
Do not adopt a conventional implementation style. The<br />
mistake is that such organisations and institutions ±
300<br />
... try to ensure that everyone in the organization is solidly behind<br />
the effort. These companies are doomed to failure. They are<br />
pursuing an illusionary dream and applying a style <strong>of</strong> implementation<br />
where it does not belong ... Reengineering is a venture<br />
into the (at least partially) unknown. Attempting to achieve a high<br />
degree <strong>of</strong> precision and completeness before beginning is at best a<br />
waste <strong>of</strong> time and at worst disastrous. The cost-benefit analyses<br />
can only be estimates; the milestones are, in fact, guesses; the<br />
plans must be written in pencil. Nor will everyone get on board<br />
before the effort gets under way; some will never get on board.<br />
Companies that do not recognize this will spend forever getting<br />
ready for reengineering and will never get around doing it. The<br />
way to reengineer is to do it, not think about it, plan it or discuss it<br />
(Hammer & Stanton 1995:31).<br />
i<br />
Do not go directly from conceptual design into full implementation:<br />
Before implementing a process in the real world, create a<br />
laboratory version in order to test whether your idea works<br />
(Hammer & Stanton 1995:28).<br />
j<br />
Do not proceed without strong executive leadership. Hammer<br />
and Stanton (1995:22) say:<br />
Strong, committed, executive leadership is the absolute sine qua<br />
non for reengineering. Only a senior executive who deeply<br />
believes in the reengineering cause can actually make it happen.<br />
A complete reengineered educational environment is the second<br />
principle for achieving paradigmatic educational change.<br />
6 THE WORKSHOP<br />
An in-service workshop for educators to implement the new paradigm<br />
in education has been developed through action research over a period<br />
<strong>of</strong> eight years. The workshop has been presented to educators <strong>of</strong> all<br />
phases in GET band in affluent urban, peri-urban, rural, deep rural and<br />
township communities. It was also presented to lecturers at colleges,
Educational change: is it possible? 301<br />
technikons and universities, and trainers in the corporate world. Data<br />
has been collected in the form <strong>of</strong> assessment by participants and other<br />
observers as well as independent international assessors from the Iowa<br />
State <strong>University</strong> in the USA (Donaldson, 1998) and The <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
Twente in The Netherlands (Ter Braak & Janssens 1995). In addition,<br />
data obtained from observation and assessment <strong>of</strong> each session was<br />
reviewed every day by the facilitators for restructuring the programme<br />
for the next day towards the needs to be addressed, and for redesigning<br />
the entire workshop where necessary for its next implementation.<br />
6.1 The programme<br />
To adhere to the requirements <strong>of</strong> the two fundamental principles for<br />
paradigmatic change, the following conditions had to be maintained:<br />
Workshop facilitation has to be done by experts ± the two facilitators<br />
are experienced facilitators, one being qualified, carrying a certificate<br />
in Advanced Facilitation from the Creative Education Foundation in<br />
the USA. Since a critical, face-to-face, personal, intensive, focused, indepth,<br />
independent and interdependent human interaction is required,<br />
a maximum <strong>of</strong> 16 participants per workshop is accommodated. The<br />
requirement <strong>of</strong> an extensive isolation (where participants are not<br />
surrounded by and cannot come into contact with their work<br />
environment) is fulfilled by a five consecutive full day (08:00±17:00)<br />
programme at the <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Pretoria (De Kock 2000:209). The first 3<br />
days mainly follows the first principle <strong>of</strong> the journey inward, and the<br />
next 2 days, the journey outward. This resulted eventually in 2001 in a<br />
workshop programme with the following main features:<br />
Day 1: Educators going through an intensive individual self-discovery,<br />
<strong>of</strong> who they really are, what they are actually capable <strong>of</strong><br />
and what their ultimate purpose is. This is followed by an indepth<br />
discovery <strong>of</strong> what the new paradigm in education will<br />
expect from them. This also becomes a shared venture to enable<br />
participants to also learn from one another.<br />
Day 2: They need to consider what personal changes are needed to<br />
achieve success in the requirements <strong>of</strong> the new paradigm. They<br />
draft their own personal mission statement regarding the<br />
changes they will need to make in their human make-up to
302<br />
achieve success in the requirements <strong>of</strong> the new paradigm.<br />
Accompanying this they need to draft an action plan that is to<br />
be executed during the remainder <strong>of</strong> the workshop to achieve<br />
the changes. Progress regarding this transformation during the<br />
remainder <strong>of</strong> the workshop is carefully monitored.<br />
Day 3: The primary function <strong>of</strong> the facilitator <strong>of</strong> learning is to initiate<br />
learning through confronting the learners with a challenging real<br />
life problem they need to solve themselves. They discover what a<br />
real life problem actually is and what the demanding criteria for<br />
designing such learning task entails, since this is the only thing a<br />
facilitator <strong>of</strong> learning can plan or design. This represents the<br />
transfer from the journey inward to the journey outward.<br />
Participants are also required to consider what actions <strong>of</strong> theirs<br />
will ensure that the learners will maintain their learning.<br />
Day 4: The second part <strong>of</strong> the workshop is designed for reengineering<br />
the educational environment in practice. The educators discover<br />
what reengineering is necessary to implement the new<br />
paradigm and they design a learning task where they have to<br />
reengineer the educational environment in practice. They pay a<br />
short visit to their institutions and one <strong>of</strong> their learner groups<br />
where they present their learning tasks to that group who has<br />
to execute it. This effort is videotaped, assessed by the<br />
educators individually and through peer assessment before<br />
they return the next day.<br />
Day 5: Participants return to the workshop to receive intensive feedback<br />
on their implementation <strong>of</strong> the new paradigm the previous<br />
day. This feedback is also used as the point <strong>of</strong> departure to<br />
establish the immediate further needs <strong>of</strong> the participants in<br />
facilitating the maintenance <strong>of</strong> learning: A highly demanding<br />
and pr<strong>of</strong>essional task ± the epitome <strong>of</strong> facilitating learning.<br />
They complete an action plan to maintain a dynamic progression<br />
in maximising their potential as facilitators <strong>of</strong> learning.<br />
What has to be emphasised is that this workshop essentially only<br />
achieves the paradigm shift. A regular follow up is necessary to<br />
support the dynamic progression towards a fully fledged new theory,<br />
methods and tools.
Educational change: is it possible? 303<br />
6.2 The success <strong>of</strong> the workshop<br />
The principal that started out requesting the workshop in 1994, was so<br />
impressed with the changes he experienced in his educators and<br />
learners that he eventually had his entire staff attend the workshop<br />
over time. He also continually sent his newly appointed educators to<br />
attend the workshop in the years that follow. When OBE arrived in<br />
1997, some <strong>of</strong> these educators were trained by the authorities and even<br />
been appointed as facilitators to train teachers in OBE. But only after<br />
attending this workshop could they exclaim: ``Is this what OBE is all<br />
about?'' Soon after the inception <strong>of</strong> OBE, this school was identified as<br />
the best implementer <strong>of</strong> OBE in Gauteng. After an interruption <strong>of</strong><br />
attending the workshop for two years, this principal again requested<br />
the educators that have not attended this workshop previously to do so<br />
in spite <strong>of</strong> comprehensive OBE training <strong>of</strong> these educators by the<br />
authorities, because he experiences that this workshop provides<br />
educators with ``the edge'' needed that all the other workshops could<br />
not. This is a testimony <strong>of</strong> a consistent longitudinal success over a<br />
period <strong>of</strong> eight years.<br />
Perhaps the epitome <strong>of</strong> the success with which the two fundamental<br />
principles are manifested in this workshop is expressed by the<br />
assessment <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> the participants in the second workshop<br />
presentation still in 1994. Participants were asked: How do you feel<br />
about the workshop? The a) part <strong>of</strong> the response <strong>of</strong> the participant<br />
refers to the journey outward and the b) part to the journey inward:<br />
a<br />
b<br />
I have always believed in pupil activity and participation, but I<br />
really feel that this course changed my perceptions <strong>of</strong> teaching. I will<br />
never be able to use the same methods as previously and I see my role<br />
in the classroom in a different way. In fact, I never imagined that I<br />
could think so differently about teaching as I am now! The course<br />
also made me feel very excited about the future. I can't wait to apply<br />
it in my classes.<br />
One wonderful aspect <strong>of</strong> the course is that I did a lot <strong>of</strong><br />
introspection, and I really came in touch with my own feelings. It<br />
really helped me personally to get a little more perspective on my<br />
personal life ± Thank you!!
304<br />
7 CONCLUSION<br />
Educational change: Is it possible? This article has indicated that even<br />
the desperately needed paradigmatic educational change is possible.<br />
But there are at least two fundamental requirements for this to happen.<br />
The first one (which is a prerequisite for the second one) is that a<br />
complete personal transformation <strong>of</strong> the educator is necessary: an<br />
inevitable journey inward. Only then will the second requirement be<br />
possible because the newly transformed educator with a new vision,<br />
purpose and perspective will reengineer the entire educational<br />
environment to achieve a new educational aim. It is possible to<br />
maximise our human potential through facilitating lifelong learning<br />
towards a safe sustainable and prosperous universe for all!<br />
BIBLIOGRAPHY<br />
Acland, R 1963. We teach them wrong. London:VictorGollanz.<br />
Barron, F 1990. Creativity and psychological health. Buffalo, New York: Creative Education<br />
Foundation Press.<br />
Bowers, C A 1993. Education, cultural myths and the ecological crisis: Toward deep changes.<br />
New York: State <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> New York Press.<br />
Capra, F 1988. The turning point: Science, society and the rising culture. London: Fontana<br />
Paperbooks.<br />
Covey, S R 1992. The seven habits <strong>of</strong> highly effective people. London: Simon and Schuster.<br />
Csikszentmihalyi, M 1991. Flow: The psychology <strong>of</strong> optimal experience. New York: Harper.<br />
De Kock, D M 2000. Innovative teacher education and interactive technology support.<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n Journal <strong>of</strong> Higher Education. 14(3):204±214.<br />
Deming, W E 1993. The new economics: For education government and industry. Cambridge:<br />
MIT Centre for Advanced Study.<br />
Donaldson, K B 1998. Maximising human potential through facilitating lifelong learning.<br />
Unpublished Project Assessment.<br />
Feuerstein, G 1990. Encyclopedic Dictionary <strong>of</strong> Yoga. New York: Paragon.<br />
Fullen M G 1993. Change forces: Probing the depths <strong>of</strong> educational reform. London:Falmer<br />
Press.<br />
Glasser, W 1972. The identity society. New York: Harper and Row.<br />
Hammar, M & Stanton, SA 1995. The reengineering revolution: The handbook. London:<br />
Harper Collins Publishers.<br />
Harman, W 1988. Global mind change. Indianapolis: Knowledge Systems.
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ÐÐ 1992. Reconciling the experience <strong>of</strong> consciousness with the scientific world view. Paper<br />
read at the Science and Vision Conference, HSRC, Pretoria, pp 1±12.<br />
Land, G & Jarman B 1992. Breakpoint and beyond Mastering the future today. California:<br />
Harper Business.<br />
Leonard, C & Murphy, M 1995b. The life we are given. New York: Tarcher Putnam Books.<br />
Senge, P M, Roberts, C, Ross, R B, Smith, B J & Kleiner, A 1994. The fifth discipline fieldbook:<br />
Strategies and tools for building a learning organization. London: Nicolas Bearly<br />
Publishing.<br />
Shanon, B 1990. Consciousness. Journal<strong>of</strong>MindandBehaviour11(2), pp 137±152.<br />
Slabbert, J A 1997. Maximising human potential through facilitating lifelong learning.<br />
Unpublished Research Report.<br />
Slattery, P 1995. Curriculum development in the postmodern era. NewYork:Garland<br />
Publishing.<br />
Ter Braak, A & Janssens, N 1995. Teacher education project. Unpublished assessment<br />
report.<br />
Torrance, E P 1994. Creativity: Just wanting to know. Pretoria: Benedic Books.<br />
Wielemans, W 1993. Voorbij het individu: Mensbeelden in wetenschappen. (Beyond the<br />
individual: Images <strong>of</strong> man in the sciences). Leuven: Garant.<br />
Zohar, D & Marshall I 2000. Spiritual intelligence. London: Falmer Press<br />
Zukav, G 1979. The dancing Wu Li masters ± An overview <strong>of</strong> the new Physics. London: Rider.
306<br />
The Internet as an<br />
important instrument in<br />
training and learning in<br />
distance education ±<br />
a cursory overview<br />
Dr FJ Pretorius<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Secondary<br />
School Teachers Education<br />
Unisa<br />
This article addresses some <strong>of</strong> the problems and implications regarding the Internet<br />
such as the importance <strong>of</strong> the Internet for education and learning with reference to<br />
distance education. It is clear that the Internet as part <strong>of</strong> the communications network is<br />
getting more global and popular as more information becomes available every day. This<br />
increase in the using and application <strong>of</strong> the Internet has started to change the face <strong>of</strong><br />
commerce, teaching, education and learning. Educators, inter alia, will have to shift their<br />
paradigms and to start thinking anew about technology, teaching and learning and what<br />
the Internet can do for them.<br />
1 INTRODUCTION<br />
A fact that very few people can ignore, according to Reisman (1998:4),<br />
is that the using and application <strong>of</strong> the Internet and the Web (WWW)<br />
are growing at a very fast tempo and is starting to influence all aspects<br />
<strong>of</strong> our lives. Maybe the reason is that every few years something new<br />
like the Internet comes along and changes equations in business and<br />
institutions all over the world. Graham (1999:37±38) classifies the
The Internet as an important instrument in training and learning in distance education 307<br />
Internet as a ``transforming technology'' and puts it on the same level<br />
as the development <strong>of</strong>, for example, the motorcar and television<br />
because <strong>of</strong> their major impact upon the form <strong>of</strong> social and political life.<br />
The reason for this ``classification'' is because <strong>of</strong> the greater ability to<br />
serve certain needs <strong>of</strong> different people and leads to an increase in<br />
information and therefore to more power: ``With a transforming<br />
technology we can do more than previously, and with this increase in<br />
power (knowledge) comes an increase in choice'' (Graham 1999:37).<br />
Wiggens (1995:557) on his part, stated that the 1990's have seen a<br />
confluence <strong>of</strong> Internet-related trends, namely dramatic growth in the<br />
size <strong>of</strong> the Internet for example more information becomes available<br />
and there are more people visiting the various web sites; the<br />
deployment <strong>of</strong> protocols such as Gopher and the WWW (World Wide<br />
Web) that represents a change in how a user looks for and retrieves<br />
documents over the Internet; and thirdly, an explosion <strong>of</strong> interest in the<br />
``information highway'' concept that is promising new ways <strong>of</strong><br />
information delivery.<br />
Bearing this in mind, Johnson, finance manager <strong>of</strong> the company<br />
Verbatim, regards the Internet as being the future in communications<br />
and commerce and what his company is looking for, is ``products<br />
savings and to give our customers better response'' (1999:19). The aim<br />
<strong>of</strong>thiscompanyistotransformitsbusinessandtechnologymodelsto<br />
reflect the reality <strong>of</strong> the Internet, and establish a big target audience.<br />
This can be done by having better and immediate knowledge available<br />
to make the right decisions at the right time. By doing this the Internet<br />
will form a core part <strong>of</strong> the company's overall business strategy. The<br />
reason for this strategy lies in the advantages the Internet can provide<br />
to business (and institutions), for example the fact that data can pass<br />
seamlessly between companies and clients. The same database<br />
information is shared, eliminating inefficiencies and possible errors<br />
and therefore giving the company the edge over his rivals (Johnson<br />
1999:19).<br />
According to Berendt (1998:81) there are three trends emerging in the
308<br />
world today regarding communications in general: 1. There is an<br />
increase in mobility; 2. a rise in the Internet use and 3. a growing<br />
interest in the use <strong>of</strong> voice over the Internet. The question remains<br />
what has all this to do with education and teaching?<br />
2 PURPOSE OF THIS ARTICLE<br />
The purpose <strong>of</strong> this article is to indicate some critical viewpoints<br />
regarding the Internet, and the importance and effectiveness <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Internet for higher and distant education specifically. Some <strong>of</strong> the<br />
questions that will be addressed are inter alia: How effective can the<br />
Internet and all its accessories be applied in the teaching and learning<br />
process? Because the Internet is something that has already started to<br />
change the face <strong>of</strong> commerce, teaching, education and learning in the<br />
world,thequestionremains:shouldwechangeourteachertraining<br />
practices and courses as well? What implications does the Internet<br />
have for higher distance education?<br />
It is also hoped that this article will help some academics and other<br />
trainers and teachers to shift their paradigms and to start thinking<br />
anew about technology, teaching and learning and what the Internet<br />
can do for them and their students.<br />
3 WHAT IS THE INTERNET AND THE WORLD WIDE<br />
WEB (WWW)?<br />
3.1 The internet vs WWW<br />
While this article is mainly based on the Internet one must note that<br />
there is a difference between the Internet and the World Wide Web. The<br />
difference is mainly due to the fact that the Internet's aim is to connect<br />
all computer and various other networks around the world, together in<br />
one big network using certain protocols such as the Internet Protocol<br />
(IP) to send data and information on the Internet. The Internet is a<br />
``... method <strong>of</strong> interconnecting physical networks and a set <strong>of</strong> conventions<br />
for using networks that allow the computers they reach to<br />
interact'' (Comer 1995:17).<br />
As new users connecting to the Internet and new applications appear,
The Internet as an important instrument in training and learning in distance education 309<br />
traffic patterns change and as the Internet become more popular and<br />
users begin to browse information, they start making use <strong>of</strong> services<br />
liketheWorldWideWebandGopher.TheWorldWideWebcan<br />
together with Gopher and other ``search engines'', be regarded as<br />
services to help users <strong>of</strong> the Internet to get information faster and<br />
easier (Comer 1995:12).<br />
3.2 The Internet Society<br />
The Internet is a very decentralised organisation but is also in need <strong>of</strong><br />
mechanisms for coordination and oversight regarding key issues. One<br />
<strong>of</strong> the most important organisations playing a coordinating role, is the<br />
``Internet Society''. This organisation provides a means for global<br />
cooperation and coordination for the Internet and its internetworking<br />
technologies and applications. Its specific goals and purposes include<br />
the following:<br />
1 To develop and maintain certain standards for the Internet<br />
2 Growth and evolution <strong>of</strong> the Internet architecture<br />
3 Maintenance and evolution <strong>of</strong> effective administrative processes<br />
needed for operating the global Internet<br />
4 Education and research related to the Internet and the<br />
collection and dissemination <strong>of</strong> relevant information<br />
5 Harmonising <strong>of</strong> actions and activities and to facilitate development<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Internet (National Research Council <strong>of</strong> the<br />
USA1994:250)<br />
3.3Somefeatures<strong>of</strong>theInternet<br />
3.3.1 The internationalism (globalization) and populism <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Internet<br />
According to Graham (1999: 86) the Internet has two striking features,<br />
namely its internationalism and populism (or popularity). The using <strong>of</strong><br />
the Internet is indifferent to international boundaries. People are<br />
linked together by common interest. These features, however, can<br />
according to Graham (1999:86±7), also create some problems because it
310<br />
can lead to a form <strong>of</strong> subversiveness and together with its popularity<br />
will contribute that censorship over moral and ethical issues is going to<br />
be very difficult. The Internet and all it has to <strong>of</strong>fer, has to be handled<br />
carefully and with some responsibility.<br />
On the other hand, it is also very important to realise that on the<br />
Internet class, race, disability and even ability are no longer under<br />
consideration. ``Socially induced prejudices, such as appearances,<br />
gender and race, and behaviour can fade away, because students learn<br />
that they are judged solely on what they say and how they say it''<br />
(Ellsworth 1994:7).<br />
3.3.2 Some statistics regarding the Internet<br />
According to Waterman (1999:5) business on the Internet alone will<br />
grow from less than $2 billion to more than $4 billion, and the business<br />
between businesses themselves, is expected to grow over $300 billion<br />
in the next few years. Everyone who has a stake or interest in the<br />
Internet should be prepared for the change that technology <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Internet will bring.<br />
In 1998 about 1,5 million private homes in the USA alone, had access to<br />
the Internet and this figure is growing every day (Telecommunications<br />
1998:8). According to the Tegno-Beeld (30 March 1999:4) between 25 and<br />
30 million people are already connected to the Internet in 140 different<br />
countries and at the end <strong>of</strong> 1999 the figure is expected to be more than<br />
200 million people. However, The European Society for Opinion and<br />
Marketing Research (ESOMAR) puts this figure already in 1998 at 150<br />
million people (Vin 1998:16).<br />
According to Steyl (1999:2) from VISA <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>, it is expected that<br />
about 2 million people in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> alone, will be involved in the<br />
Internet and it's applications by the year 2002. Taking these figures<br />
into consideration one can hardly visualise how broad and enormous<br />
the potential base <strong>of</strong> students for distance education institutions like
The Internet as an important instrument in training and learning in distance education 311<br />
UNISA is going to be world wide. This is a fact that cannot be ignored<br />
and aspects such as better and more computer hard and s<strong>of</strong>tware and a<br />
greater marketing effort to reach a world market, therefore, needs<br />
serious attention.<br />
4 WORKING OF THE INTERNET REGARDING<br />
KNOWLEDGE, INFORMATION AND LEARNING<br />
4.1 Knowledge and information<br />
When dealing with the Internet, one should bear in mind the words <strong>of</strong><br />
Vin (1998:78) <strong>of</strong> the <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Texas: ``While information retrieval<br />
applications dominate the Internet today, the next-generation Internet<br />
will likely <strong>of</strong>fer applications that can process massive amounts <strong>of</strong> data<br />
for visualization and support real-time user interactivity''. However,<br />
one must be careful not to ignore the possibility that, in spite <strong>of</strong> all the<br />
advantages <strong>of</strong> the Internet, the Internet could be an instrument in<br />
deception and misinformation. So called ``reliable knowledge and<br />
information'' will have to be treated in the same way as any other<br />
information and must be checked and substantiated.<br />
4.2 Learning and the Internet<br />
In answering a question about what is good about the Internet,<br />
Ellsworth (1994:5) stated that the Internet is a ``powerful releaser <strong>of</strong><br />
emotion, motivation, and engagement for students''. This implies that<br />
the Net can be regarded as a completely `'new'' way <strong>of</strong> learning and<br />
studying. She went on saying that as soon as the students realise that<br />
their rewards on the Net will be in proportion to their investment in<br />
learning Net skills, they will want to learn more <strong>of</strong> it (Ellsworth<br />
1994:5). Benhamou (1999:47), also states that in education, converged<br />
technology will, by network converging, enable distance learning to<br />
deliver real time video, voice and instructional text from a classroom to<br />
a remote student, and even allow collaboration on a virtual white<br />
board.<br />
Ellsworth (1994:5) also compares the Internet to a sports exercising<br />
program because the Internet ``fitness'' will stay with the students for<br />
life due to the fact that these skills are intellectual and not physical.
312<br />
Students learn on the Internet ``to ask better questions, to make better<br />
arguments, and to present them more positively over the Net<br />
(Internet)'' (Ellsworth 1994:5). The Internet will also increase their<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> the world and the Internet will lessen the constrains <strong>of</strong><br />
time and space because e-mail takes only minutes and big files can be<br />
downloaded in seconds.<br />
It could be argued that one <strong>of</strong> the most important aspects or features <strong>of</strong><br />
distance education and learning is that one can study on your own,<br />
while working and earning an income to pay for the studies. The<br />
Internet falls into this criteria and encourages, according to Ellsworth,<br />
students, teachers, lectures and even parents to find and use new<br />
information on the Internet. ``Internet tools enable anyone to find and<br />
retrieve almost instantly new information data, images, and even<br />
s<strong>of</strong>tware that is personally interesting. Students can also learn on the<br />
Internet educational independence and intellectual autonomy''<br />
(1994:7).<br />
Steyl (1999:2) is confident that apart from business, education will be<br />
the second largest group that will make use <strong>of</strong> the Internet and what it<br />
can provide. Therefore, what applies to businesses regarding the<br />
Internet, surely also applies to any distance education institution such<br />
as Unisa.<br />
4.3 Managing available information<br />
The way to combine experience with information regarding organisational<br />
effectiveness, is also called the management <strong>of</strong> knowledge<br />
(Technet 1999:30). This would mean that business strategies like<br />
product feedback, product design, project and issue tracking, planning,<br />
analysis, employee management and education and training<br />
become part <strong>of</strong> the knowledge-management loop. ``Re-engineering the<br />
way information moves within your company and how it is stored can<br />
allow you to leverage existing knowledge into future success'' (ibit).<br />
Most knowledge is stored in documents but this knowledge is more or<br />
less useless unless it can be used and distributed in such a way that it is
The Internet as an important instrument in training and learning in distance education 313<br />
easy for other people to find. The ability to save such information onto<br />
the Web, breaks down the barriers <strong>of</strong> publishing and the distribution <strong>of</strong><br />
knowledge via conventional ways (ibit). Using the Internet can make<br />
feedback, storing, tracking and student progress much easier.<br />
5 APPLICATIONS OF THE INTERNET IN EDUCATION<br />
5.1 Training <strong>of</strong> staff and an increase <strong>of</strong> productivity<br />
Before any application can be made one should have trained staff in<br />
place. Training <strong>of</strong> staff in the use and application(s) <strong>of</strong> the Internet is <strong>of</strong><br />
theutmostimportanceandshouldhaveahighpriorityinpersonal<br />
development and training programs. Internet training should form an<br />
important part <strong>of</strong> every institution's in-service-training program. It<br />
may initially mean high costs but in the end it will be cost effective<br />
because less personnel will be needed and personnel (administrative<br />
and academics alike) can work from a home environment ± less<br />
transport costs, less <strong>of</strong>fice space and less salaries will have to be paid.<br />
This also means that academic staff should be trained how to prepare,<br />
develop and apply existing study material (or new material) on the<br />
Internet. Because it is not possible for every academic to be able to<br />
develop web pages or have basic knowledge <strong>of</strong> programming, there<br />
should be support services available to provide help with these<br />
technical matters. Separate technical support should be available to<br />
help lecturers and teachers to use the Internet and it's capabilities<br />
effectively so that they will be able to teach and create a better learning<br />
environment and culture. This implies that the teacher or lecturer will<br />
have to think and operate wider than the traditional classroom. The<br />
Internet and its environment are busy bringing about a complete new<br />
paradigm shift regarding teaching and learning.<br />
It is also interesting to know that Micros<strong>of</strong>t SA started with a program<br />
``Train the Trainer'' (www.micros<strong>of</strong>t.com/southafrica/community/)<br />
to meet the goal <strong>of</strong> developing and delivering computer literacy to<br />
previously disadvantaged communities. So-called Digital Villages to<br />
be used in this program, have been established at Soweto, the Western<br />
Cape and Kimberley. So far Micros<strong>of</strong>t successfully provided over 5 000
314<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n teachers with computer literacy skills (Technet 1999:30).<br />
The base <strong>of</strong> computer literacy and the multiple learning effect it creates<br />
increases and will have a greater impact on higher education and<br />
education in general in the near future.<br />
In this regard, distance education institutions such as UNISA should<br />
start and train their students and academic staff not only in the<br />
theoretical aspects <strong>of</strong> computer literacy but also in a practical way. If<br />
not, potential students will tend to go to those universities where they<br />
will get the necessary practical training in the application <strong>of</strong><br />
computers.<br />
Research undertaken in a few <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>n schools indicates that<br />
computers are mainly used for getting information and playing <strong>of</strong><br />
games (Tegno-Beeld 30 March 1999:19). This is mainly due to the fact<br />
teachers are not trained well enough to handle and use a computer to<br />
its full potential. This implies that all teachers should be trained to<br />
become computer literate so that they can teach pupils different<br />
techniques on how to use the computer. This has serious staff and<br />
training implications for higher education institutions as well.<br />
Once study materials are being prepared and adapted to be put on the<br />
Internet productivity could be increased. The reason is that initially<br />
staff (specifically academic staff) must be trained and helped to<br />
prepare most <strong>of</strong> their study material for the Internet. After the initial<br />
stage <strong>of</strong> putting a subject onto the Internet, it is much easier to keep<br />
abreast with the latest information and data available and to update<br />
any study material. That will leave much more time available for<br />
research and other community involvement projects as determined by<br />
the university. Less staff will be needed to do the same amount <strong>of</strong><br />
work.<br />
5.2 Ongoing research and development regarding<br />
the Internet<br />
According to Beck (1999:45) one has to realise that the core business <strong>of</strong>
The Internet as an important instrument in training and learning in distance education 315<br />
the Internet is Information to help one in all aspects <strong>of</strong> life to make<br />
certain strategic and tactical decisions. Beck (ibid) went on saying that<br />
we in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> (business and higher institutions alike) need a new<br />
approach, specially regarding information retrieval.<br />
Most competitors in all fields <strong>of</strong> higher education have access to the<br />
same information and data but people (ie students) need to be trained<br />
to make correct decisions based on relevant information. By using the<br />
WWW and the Internet students are exposed to more information than<br />
currently contained in their study guides. This does not imply<br />
necessarily more work but rather new techniques and methods in<br />
ordering and sifting information by using the computer and appropriate<br />
s<strong>of</strong>tware.<br />
The <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Texas is also heavily involved in research regarding<br />
Information Technology (IT) and specifically the Internet and distance<br />
learning. One <strong>of</strong> their research projects is the InfoWeave research<br />
program which is <strong>of</strong> some importance for education and teacher<br />
training. The InfoWeave is a visual environment for creating and<br />
disseminating digital educational material over the Internet. Info-<br />
Weave, according to Vin (1998:83) designs and integrates, and builds<br />
on a large body <strong>of</strong> research on hypermedia authoring systems, distance<br />
education systems, network protocols and techniques for streaming<br />
video and multimedia file system design techniques. This implies inter<br />
alia the use <strong>of</strong> searchable indexed video as the primary medium for<br />
delivering education; the ability to cross-reference and switch between<br />
different presentation media (such as audio, video and text); the use <strong>of</strong><br />
collaborative learning tools for enchanting distance learning and selfpaced<br />
education.<br />
5.3 Future trends and multimedia integration<br />
How difficult it may be for an uninformed person to try and figure out<br />
what the future holds for the IT and the computer, there are a few<br />
trends that one has to look at, especially in higher education and<br />
teachers training. One such aspect regarding education and training<br />
that is already in use worldwide, is the use <strong>of</strong> the radio on the Internet<br />
(IEEE Network Nov/Des 1998:9). There is also the Video Handling
316<br />
with music and speech detection that one has to look at, as well as<br />
distance learning using digital video and the Internet. IBM, according<br />
to Computerweek (22 Feb 1999:17) unveiled the latest addition to the<br />
Internet, namely the ``INTERNET 2 high speed IP backbone'' project<br />
aimed at storing and caching advanced applications such as real-time<br />
broadcast and video so that they can be accessed faster by users.<br />
This whole concept <strong>of</strong> the WWW and the Internet will have a major<br />
impact on education and teaching in the future. For example it is<br />
already possible via the Internet (together with the right hardware) to<br />
speak eye to eye. This ``personal'' feature <strong>of</strong> the Internet completely<br />
eliminate the ``distance'' and brings, so to speak, the learner right into<br />
the lecture room or <strong>of</strong>fice. In due course the only limitation, as far as<br />
teaching and learning on the Internet is concerned, will be one's own<br />
mind. The teacher/lecturer's isolation in distance education will soon<br />
be something <strong>of</strong> the past due to the Internet (Ellsworth 1994:5).<br />
According to Brackett <strong>of</strong> the Boston <strong>University</strong>, the preferred distance<br />
learning environment <strong>of</strong> the future ``... would integrate computers, the<br />
Internet, and digital video'' (1998:72). The Boston <strong>University</strong> College <strong>of</strong><br />
Engineering in Distance Learning Initiative (DLI), is already making<br />
use <strong>of</strong> an integrated system <strong>of</strong> computers, digital video and the Internet<br />
to deliver graduate degrees to students in distant companies. The key<br />
objective <strong>of</strong> the DLI is to ``... support learning wherever it is most<br />
convenient, whether by groups in a classroom, at the workplace, or at<br />
home'' (Brackett 1998:73). This technology enables students to take<br />
courses wherever a computer and network connection exists. Distributing<br />
classes to a student's computer opens the door to modern<br />
teaching techniques like:<br />
. course materials on a WWW site during class,<br />
. executing s<strong>of</strong>tware during a class, and<br />
. enabling collaborative work on design where both the<br />
instructor and student share an electronic whiteboard<br />
(Brackett 1998:73).
The Internet as an important instrument in training and learning in distance education 317<br />
Before selecting any technology system to replace the outdated<br />
television system and after a careful study the DLI used the following<br />
criteria in selecting the digital satellite broadcast system:<br />
. only flexible and upgradable commercially supported technology<br />
should be used,<br />
. it should facilitate convenient and cost-effective learning,<br />
. it must provide the potential for creating courses with<br />
significantly higher educational quality than was possible<br />
with the preceding distance learning technology<br />
. the ability to transmit live video classes as an essential part <strong>of</strong><br />
the required distance learning technology and must support<br />
live video with at least audio feedback. (Brackett 1998:73).<br />
Taking the above mentioned in consideration, one can visualise the<br />
following scenario: Imagine a lecturer in distance education, sitting in<br />
his/her <strong>of</strong>fice talking to individual students via the computer and<br />
using a digital camera so that they can see each other. Practical lessons<br />
can also be ``attended'' via the computer and feedback can personally<br />
be given direct after the class, regardless the fact that the student and<br />
the lecturer could be in two different countries. The same way<br />
assessment can take place in writing and orally. This applications are<br />
already available and can be done today.<br />
Therefore one should take notice <strong>of</strong> the words <strong>of</strong> Vin <strong>of</strong> the <strong>University</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> Texas, when he stated: ``while information retrieval applications<br />
dominate the Internet today, the next generation Internet will likely<br />
<strong>of</strong>fer applications that can process massive amounts <strong>of</strong> data for<br />
visualization and support real-time user interactivity'' (1998:78).<br />
5.4 A Multimedia Micro-<strong>University</strong>?<br />
In a very interesting article Chang (1998:60) <strong>of</strong> the <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
Pittsburgh describes what is happening at this university's Knowledge<br />
Systems Institute (KSI) and how they incorporated a multimedia<br />
micro-university into the education programs and management<br />
operations at the KSI. Several components make up this multimedia<br />
micro-university such as a virtual library, an information distance
318<br />
learning system, and visualisation and planning tools for the school<br />
management operation. These components are already available on the<br />
Web for students, faculty members and administrators <strong>of</strong> that<br />
university (Chang 1998:60).<br />
A higher learning institution such as Unisa, will have to stay abreast <strong>of</strong><br />
its competitors regarding IT. Higher learning and distance institutions<br />
like most businesses have customers with needs that needs to be<br />
satisfied with the products being <strong>of</strong>fered. Therefore higher education<br />
institutions such as Unisa must be prepared for the changes that digital<br />
technology will bring. Courses being <strong>of</strong>fered must be relevant and to<br />
the point. With the policy <strong>of</strong> students being able to write examinations<br />
twice a year, for example at Unisa, implies that students needs reliable<br />
and relevant information and data in a very short period to complete<br />
their assignments and research. To put courses and other subjects on<br />
the Internet is essential and in this modern age <strong>of</strong> technology<br />
institutions should not merely respond to students' needs, but must<br />
anticipate them as well. Benhamou (1999:47) echo's this by stating<br />
``Many traditional sectors such as retail, education and finance will<br />
identify new uses and efficiencies from the application <strong>of</strong> converged<br />
technology''.<br />
As the technology develops and the need for trained computer<br />
(literate) persons increases in all sphere's <strong>of</strong> life, the contents <strong>of</strong> school<br />
subjects as well as those in higher education should also change<br />
according to the needs. This means that there will be a greater demand<br />
for better re-trained teachers and teachers training courses should be<br />
adapted accordingly. Unisa and other distance education institutions<br />
can only gain by increasing its potential student base and in this regard<br />
the Internet provides a golden opportunity. The more students, the<br />
more funds will be available and the greater recognition will bring<br />
more sponsors.<br />
6 SOME ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF<br />
THE INTERNET REGARDING EDUCATION<br />
6.1 Cost effectiveness<br />
Regarding cost effectiveness, Brackett <strong>of</strong> the Boston <strong>University</strong> who is
The Internet as an important instrument in training and learning in distance education 319<br />
doing satellite broadcast via the Internet, argues that the Internet is<br />
already cost effective (1998:72). It is general knowledge that the faster<br />
and bigger a market for a product develops the cheaper the product<br />
becomes. For example, today computers cost less than a few years<br />
back. There will be initial costs involved for all role players if an<br />
institute like UNISA decide to go on the Internet, but in the end it will<br />
be more cost effective. Whether one agrees or not, higher education<br />
institutions will have to meet the needs <strong>of</strong> all its students, now and in<br />
the future.<br />
6.2 High volume information and faster accessibility<br />
The technology era and the new millennium brings about changes such<br />
as new job creations, needs, products and learning contents. To enable<br />
anyone to make the right decisions regarding these new changes, one<br />
has to have the correct information immediately available. Students<br />
need information and data to complete assignments <strong>of</strong> a high standard.<br />
Lecturers need information to keep abreast and they must continuously<br />
do research in/on their subject(s). The ability <strong>of</strong> the Internet to<br />
make available a vast amount <strong>of</strong> data and information at high speed<br />
meets all the above mentioned needs. We must understand that the<br />
technology that exists today is very powerful and improving all the<br />
time but what will make the difference is the ability to use and apply<br />
technology and information in a practical way. Bill Gates, chairman <strong>of</strong><br />
Micros<strong>of</strong>t, makes the following statement: ``Virtually everything in<br />
business today is an undifferentiated commodity except how a<br />
company manages its information. How you manage information<br />
determines whether you win or lose'' (1999:6).<br />
It is interesting to note that the operating speed <strong>of</strong> the Internet is<br />
becoming faster and faster every day due to new technology. Opperman<br />
(2001:5) from the Computer Sciences Corporation points out that<br />
the possibility <strong>of</strong> the Internet II (the future Internet), already exsists.<br />
Today the Internet is working at a speed <strong>of</strong> about 1±2 gigabytes per<br />
second and in the near future it is being estimated that the Internet will<br />
be running at a speed <strong>of</strong> about 50±100 gigabytes per second (ibit).<br />
Information will become more easily available and faster.
320<br />
By eliminating inefficiencies and possible errors the Internet can<br />
become more effective than traditional written information and data.<br />
The reason lies in the faster speed and accessibility <strong>of</strong> information via<br />
the Net. Protocols such as the TCP/IT and companies like IBM make it<br />
possible to eliminate inefficiencies and possible errors or at least keep<br />
them to the minimum. It becomes more and more safe to send<br />
confidential information via the Internet.<br />
According to Comer (1995:2) if one wants to appreciate the Internet<br />
technology and how it effects for example a pr<strong>of</strong>essional group for<br />
example teachers, one should consider the exchanging <strong>of</strong> data resulting<br />
from an experiment with other scientists, and also the fact that<br />
computer services and programs available at one location, can be used<br />
by scientists and pr<strong>of</strong>essionals at other locations. This can result in that<br />
the speed <strong>of</strong> exchanging data increases dramatically and more accurate<br />
and immediate decisions can be made on all levels <strong>of</strong> an organisation.<br />
Greater amounts <strong>of</strong> research output <strong>of</strong> the most recent information and<br />
methods can, therefore, be made available (ibit). The compiling and<br />
sending <strong>of</strong> assignments on the Internet is very viable and could be time<br />
saving. The possibility also exists that (oral and practical) examinations<br />
can be done via the Internet by making use <strong>of</strong> digital technology.<br />
6.3 Immobility vs mobility<br />
According to Castelein (1998:41) many people see the web as becoming<br />
absolute central to the way people work, live, study and play. The<br />
ability to have access to the WWW and the Internet at all times and at<br />
any place will become critical in the nearby future. It is therefore<br />
important that one should look at more ways to be mobile and still be<br />
able to have access to the WWW and the Internet. This means that<br />
``mobile'' data must be easily available, simple, affordable and reliable<br />
and that the Internet must perform more effectively (Castelein<br />
1998:41). This aspect has implications for higher education and also for<br />
Unisa as well as for teacher training programs.
The Internet as an important instrument in training and learning in distance education 321<br />
6.4 Dumping and ``too much useless information'' on<br />
the Internet<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the biggest problems regarding the Internet is the big amount <strong>of</strong><br />
useless information being put onto the Internet and the difficulty <strong>of</strong><br />
getting exactly what you are looking for. A current survey <strong>of</strong> useless<br />
information on the WWW revealed that there are more than 20 jillion<br />
(not million) ``Web site pages'' currently accessible on the WWW<br />
(Reisman 1998:4). Reisman (1998:5) concluded that there are ``... too<br />
many people, using far too many Web development tools, are<br />
generating far too many Web site pages''. This is a problem that needs<br />
a solution, but if you know where to look for information on the<br />
Internet, it will help a lot to spare time and effort. We cannot agree<br />
more with Reisman when he propose that what we need is legislation<br />
or standards that will unclutter the Internet (Reisman 1998:5). The first<br />
steps to find a solution for the chaos on the Web, have already been<br />
taken by the establishing <strong>of</strong> the Silicon Valley World Internet Centre in<br />
California USA to ``.... bring some clarity to the chaos <strong>of</strong> the Internet<br />
revolution'' (Talking Business Nov 1998:14).<br />
6.5 The Internet and s<strong>of</strong>tware<br />
One aspect <strong>of</strong> the Internet which is very important is the s<strong>of</strong>tware.<br />
Without s<strong>of</strong>tware to organise and transcripts data and information it<br />
would not be possible for anyone to make use <strong>of</strong> the Internet and what<br />
it presents. In this regard the CD-ROM technology plays a significant<br />
part. Most s<strong>of</strong>tware today are available on a CD ROM. In using a CD<br />
writeable driver, a vast lot <strong>of</strong> information can be stored on a CD<br />
instead <strong>of</strong> a hard disk. This is also less expensive. There are lots <strong>of</strong><br />
s<strong>of</strong>tware programs available on the market that can help to make<br />
access to the Internet easier.<br />
6.6 Availability <strong>of</strong> hardware<br />
Information technology is developing at a tremendous speed and it<br />
willbedifficultforanyonetotryandkeepupwiththelatest<br />
technology all the time. Initially there could be a shortage <strong>of</strong> computers<br />
available for some students (in distance education) especially in <strong>South</strong><br />
<strong>Africa</strong> and in the rest <strong>of</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> as well. However, one must understand
322<br />
that big companies (such as Micros<strong>of</strong>t), and the government such as the<br />
Education Department, are also increasing computer literacy and most<br />
companies are also making more and more computers available to their<br />
employees. In using the Internet, one should look past the fact that<br />
students will only study from their homes and that they must have a<br />
computer at home. Students are also using the <strong>of</strong>fice, or any place<br />
where a laptop and cell-phone can make contact with the Internet! This<br />
will broaden the base <strong>of</strong> potential students <strong>of</strong> a university because <strong>of</strong><br />
greater accessibility and availability.<br />
The workplace will become more and more the place where information<br />
via the Internet will become available. More and more students<br />
will have access to computers in the near future. A survey (conducted<br />
by the author) in 1998 <strong>of</strong> students in the course Subject Didactics<br />
Economics, indicated that more than 81% <strong>of</strong> the students had free<br />
access to a computer, while 72% had access to the Internet. These<br />
figures make it possible and worthwhile to put the above mentioned<br />
course on the Internet.<br />
7 CONCLUSION AND SOME SUGGESTIONS<br />
When looking at the above mentioned scenario, distance higher<br />
education in <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> and to be more specifically to Unisa, (as a<br />
leader in distance education), could not afford to be trailing too far<br />
behind the rest <strong>of</strong> the world, regarding the use and application <strong>of</strong><br />
Internet technology in teaching and education because it could lose<br />
students that will study at other institutions that can meet their needs<br />
thebest.Inspite<strong>of</strong>somenegativeviewpointsregardingtheInternet<br />
and its features, the only reasonable conclusion one can make is that<br />
the Internet is here to stay and that it is going to play a major role in<br />
future in education, learning and research. More and more applications<br />
for the Internet are invented every few weeks.<br />
What needs to be done is that:<br />
. All role players in education, including the private sector,<br />
should come together and formulate a policy regarding the<br />
Internet and its application for teaching and learning.
The Internet as an important instrument in training and learning in distance education 323<br />
. Research should also be undertaken to set up a blueprint for<br />
future planning and strategy regarding the Internet as a core<br />
part <strong>of</strong> distance learning and teaching. A ``master plan''<br />
needs to be developed with 1, 2, 5 and 10 year aims/targets<br />
as to where higher education wants to be regarding IT<br />
technology. As Anecke (1999:9) <strong>of</strong> Micros<strong>of</strong>t <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>,<br />
puts it: ``Anyone can sell goods over the Internet. Many are<br />
doing so. The question is how do you use this facility better<br />
than anyone else to delight your customer and bind her to<br />
you. How well does the process integrate with your other<br />
systems ± and how well do you use your experience to<br />
improve continuously.''<br />
. Academic staff should be trained in the use and application<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Internet regarding education and learning.<br />
. We cannot but agree with Day (2001:35) when he argues what<br />
we need is to minimise text and to maximise our multimedia<br />
content to enable us to deliver a `'new, multi model<br />
pedagogics''.<br />
For some role players in higher distance education this means a<br />
complete change <strong>of</strong> mind. A new way <strong>of</strong> thinking and looking at<br />
teaching and learning, and the development and adapting <strong>of</strong> existing<br />
and new study material is going to be needed. The Internet and the<br />
ways and means that is opening up for education in particular, is here<br />
to stay. In some ways, it is really a matter <strong>of</strong> ``adapt or die'' for those<br />
involved in higher and distance education.<br />
Higher education in general and Unisa in particular, will have to give<br />
serious attention to the aspect <strong>of</strong> how to train academic staff to enable<br />
them to prepare appropriate study material for the Internet and to be<br />
able to update the material all the time. There is still a wide gap<br />
between technical support staff and some academic staff that needs to<br />
be addressed. It does not matter how you are looking at the Internet<br />
and computing, one must agree with Jain (1998:1) on the following<br />
statement: ``One thing is clear ± your grandchildren will wonder how<br />
anyone could read something as boring as a document (that) contains<br />
only text.''
324<br />
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(http://computer.org/multimedia).<br />
Johnson, P. ``Verbatim ± Success Story'' in ACCPAC Chronicle, Summer 1999:19.<br />
Meyer, B. in ``Die Internet groei uit sy nate'' in Tegno-Beeld, 25 May 1999:4.<br />
Micros<strong>of</strong>t Web page: www.micros<strong>of</strong>t.com/southafrica/community/<br />
National Research Council (USA) Computer Science and Telecommunication Board.<br />
1996. Realizing the Information Future: The Internet and Beyond. (National Academy<br />
Press. Washington DC).<br />
Opperman, P. in ``So lyk die Interent van die Toekoms'' in Sake-Beeld, 16 Jan 2001:5.
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Pretorius, F J, 1999. A survey regarding the availability <strong>of</strong> computers to students <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Subject Didactics Economics. (Unpublished).<br />
Reisman, S. ``Uncluttering the Web Maze'' in IEEE Multimedia, Jul±Sept 1998, 5(3):4±5<br />
(http://computer.org/multimedia).<br />
Staff reporter, ``Mobile computing gets more freedom'' in Computerweek, 22(5):22<br />
Feb1999:3<br />
Steyl, T. in ``E-Handel kan in vyf jaar met 66% groei'' in Tegno-Beeld, 30 March 1999.<br />
Shin, K G. ``Fast low-cost failure recovery for reliable real-time multimedia communications''<br />
in IEEE Network, Nov/Dec 1998, 12(6):56±63. (www.comsoc.org).<br />
Vin, H. ``Supporting Next-Generation Distributed Applications'' in IEEE Multimedia, Jul/<br />
Sept 1998, (http://computer.org).<br />
Waterman, J. ``ACCPAC ± S<strong>of</strong>tware Superior by Design ± Editorial'' in ACCPAC<br />
Chronicle, Summer 1999:5.<br />
Wiggins, R W. 1995. The Internet for Everyone: A guide for users and providers. McGraw-Hill<br />
(New York).
326<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>essional portfolio<br />
building ± alternative<br />
assessment strategy in<br />
teacher education<br />
Dr Pieter H du Toit<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Teaching and<br />
Training Studies<br />
<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Pretoria<br />
This article is a report based on the notion that the Faculty <strong>of</strong> Education at the <strong>University</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> Pretoria has already adapted its practices to the OBE context. The numerous policy<br />
documents on education and training in general, and higher education in particular, and<br />
especially regarding teacher education gave impetus to different initiatives by the<br />
Faculty. These initiatives focused on programme design, modes <strong>of</strong> delivery, and<br />
alternative assessment opportunities.<br />
The focus is placed on the changes specifically made to the assessment practice <strong>of</strong> the<br />
module on Didactics, as part <strong>of</strong> the post-graduate Higher Education Diploma. The<br />
introduction <strong>of</strong> portfolio assessment, as alternative, in the module is a means <strong>of</strong> having<br />
students to experience OBE in function. The development <strong>of</strong> a pr<strong>of</strong>essional portfolio<br />
provides students the opportunity to become independent, self-regulated and reflective<br />
learners. By means <strong>of</strong> action research they have to give pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> their ability to investigate<br />
their own practices and pr<strong>of</strong>essional development in a scientific way. Furthermore,<br />
portfolio assessment makes provision for developing flexibility in terms <strong>of</strong> learning styles<br />
± flexibility all teachers need in their practices to match teaching and learning.<br />
The outcome <strong>of</strong> the implementation <strong>of</strong> portfolio assessment, as affirmed by feedback<br />
from students, peers, critical friends and the external examiner, is reported. From the
Pr<strong>of</strong>essional portfolio building 327<br />
feedback and experience <strong>of</strong> the lecturer involved, based on action research, the general<br />
conclusion can be made that portfolio development by education students indeed<br />
facilitates their process <strong>of</strong> learning how to learn.<br />
1 INTRODUCTION<br />
If you keep doing what you've always done, you'll keep getting what<br />
you've always got.<br />
Peter Francisco<br />
I was urged by this spot-on quotation to act differently in my practice,<br />
especially over the past five years. The purpose <strong>of</strong> this article is to focus<br />
on my assessment practice regarding the module <strong>of</strong> the teacher<br />
education programme at the <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Pretoria I am responsible<br />
for. The focus is placed on portfolio assessment as developmental<br />
process conducive to pr<strong>of</strong>essional development.<br />
The outcomes-based approach to teaching and learning that has<br />
recently been introduced as blueprint for education and training in<br />
<strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong>, <strong>of</strong>fers many challenges to all educators. One <strong>of</strong> these is to<br />
cater for pr<strong>of</strong>essional development within the context <strong>of</strong> life-long<br />
learning. Pr<strong>of</strong>essional development includes, inter alia, becoming a<br />
self-regulated, flexible, reflective practitioner, who can monitor one's<br />
own learning in accordance with the demands <strong>of</strong> the teaching<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ession.<br />
In this article the focus is placed on the intrinsic-driven responsibility<br />
the practitioner should take regarding pr<strong>of</strong>essional development. It<br />
implies those skills a learner deploys as independent learner. Such a<br />
practitioner is able to monitor aspects pertaining to the self, such as:<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Self-regulated learning in terms <strong>of</strong> planning, monitoring and<br />
assessing one's own education practice.<br />
One's learning style preferences to shape one's own teaching<br />
style.<br />
Learning flexibility to become a flexible educator, and to<br />
promote flexible learning within learners.
328<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Reflective learning at a scientific level, for the purpose <strong>of</strong><br />
investigating one's practice, and improving it.<br />
Action learning by means <strong>of</strong> action research.<br />
Intrinsic motivation for self-empowerment and improving<br />
one's practice.<br />
Creative, critical and productive thinking about applying<br />
innovative ideas into practice.<br />
Self-assessment by means <strong>of</strong> gathering feedback and other<br />
data regarding one's practice.<br />
During the course <strong>of</strong> the module students are introduced to different<br />
theories on learning styles. As integral part <strong>of</strong> the module, students are<br />
<strong>of</strong>fered the opportunity to identify their own learning style preferences.<br />
Kolb's Learning Style Inventory (Ellis 1997) and Ned Herrmann's<br />
Brain Dominance Instrument (Herrmann 1996) are used for<br />
formal diagnostic assessment <strong>of</strong> learning style preferences.<br />
When the seven roles for educators, as outlined in the National<br />
Education Policy Act (Republic <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> 2000) are scrutinized<br />
carefully, the importance <strong>of</strong> catering for different learning styles as<br />
part <strong>of</strong> an outcomes-based approach to education is evident. Students<br />
had to determine through reflection to what extent their ``practices''<br />
during the school practice session <strong>of</strong> the first semester would differ<br />
from their own past experiences. They also had to illustrate their own<br />
improvement towards authentic outcomes-based teaching and learning.<br />
It serves as a useful opportunity for critical reflection <strong>of</strong> what<br />
evidence could be included in the final portfolio they have to submit.<br />
Reflective learning including self and peer assessment, as indicated by<br />
Kimeldorf (1996:11), make portfolios a powerful learning tool.<br />
Different authors' work on portfolio assessment (see Lustig 1996);<br />
Danielson and Abrutyn (1997) and Kimeldorf (1996)) has been adapted<br />
to the teacher education context. Therefore I opted for a pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
development portfolio, which gives pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> one's development as an<br />
expert in a specific field/area (Kimeldorf 1996:7).
Pr<strong>of</strong>essional portfolio building 329<br />
2 PROBLEM STATEMENT<br />
Traditionally, the teacher education programme at the <strong>University</strong>, like<br />
most university studies, focused on the mastering <strong>of</strong> knowledge.<br />
Therefore it was expected from learners to give pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> what they<br />
knew and comprehended in written tests and examinations. In some<br />
instances, though, learners did get the opportunity to apply theory ±<br />
but in an abstract way and in non-authentic case studies!<br />
The answering <strong>of</strong> questions served as end product. Not much attention<br />
was given to the learning process as such and pr<strong>of</strong>essional development<br />
was not taken into account. The imperative to provide for the<br />
foregoing aspects is stressed by De Fina (1992:102): ``Optimal learning<br />
is best achieved when students are examined in a variety <strong>of</strong> contexts as<br />
well as by determining not only what a learner has learned but how a<br />
learner is learning.''<br />
The overarching problem, therefore, was to find an alternative to the<br />
written examination students used to write that will complement an<br />
outcomes-based approach to teacher education.<br />
3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES<br />
The aim <strong>of</strong> the research reported in this article, namely the replacement<br />
<strong>of</strong> the traditional assessment strategies with portfolio assessment vests<br />
within the critical outcomes. These were selected and contextualized<br />
for the semester module on Didactics (Du Toit 200) for the postgraduate<br />
Higher Education Diploma programme as follows:<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Reflect on your pr<strong>of</strong>essional development as education<br />
practitioner and use a variety <strong>of</strong> strategies to learn more<br />
effectively.<br />
Solve problems regarding the teaching practice and make<br />
accountable decisions using critical and creative thinking.<br />
Work with other education practitioners as a member <strong>of</strong> a<br />
team.<br />
Collect, analyze, organize and critically evaluate information<br />
regarding the teaching practice.
330<br />
Ð<br />
Communicate effectively using visual and verbal language<br />
skills in curriculum documentation, learning material and<br />
research documentation.<br />
Linked to these outcomes, the following specific outcomes (Du Toit<br />
2000), among others, have been formulated:<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Design an action research plan for your own pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
development.<br />
Execute your action research plan and document the outcomes<br />
by means <strong>of</strong> a pr<strong>of</strong>essional development portfolio.<br />
To assess these specific outcomes, the traditional written semester<br />
examination was replaced by a portfolio examination assignment<br />
(Appendix A). In doing so, the lecturer responsible intentionally<br />
provided for an alternative assessment opportunity that complements<br />
an outcomes-based practice and its focus on pr<strong>of</strong>essional developmental<br />
aspects. In voicing the importance <strong>of</strong> a focus on pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
development for effective teaching and learning, which are to be found<br />
in an outcomes-based approach, the lecturer is very much aware <strong>of</strong> the<br />
imperative <strong>of</strong> acting as role-model for student teachers.<br />
Complementary to the overarching aim <strong>of</strong> the research the following<br />
objectives have been set:<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
To establish to what extent the building <strong>of</strong> a pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
portfolio provided learners the opportunity <strong>of</strong> developing as<br />
flexible learners.<br />
Closely linked to the latter the research study was executed to<br />
establish to what extent the building <strong>of</strong> a portfolio provided<br />
students the opportunity <strong>of</strong> becoming independent learners<br />
who can monitor their own pr<strong>of</strong>essional growth in a scientific<br />
way, which include reflective learning, creative and critical<br />
thinking, competence in action research, self-regulated learning<br />
and language.<br />
Developing students' research capacity.<br />
During the introductory part to the module students are given the
Pr<strong>of</strong>essional portfolio building 331<br />
opportunity to reflect on past experiences regarding teaching and<br />
learning. They usually come to the conclusion that there has been too<br />
little emphasis on the learning process as experienced previously. To<br />
help them, as prospective practitioners and to adapt to an outcomesbased<br />
approach, which provides for both the process and outcome<br />
(product), the focus in the module under discussion has been shifted to<br />
providing opportunities for pr<strong>of</strong>essional development, as well as<br />
mastering competence in monitoring one's own learning process.<br />
The process approach proposed by Costantino and Lorenzo (1998:7-8)<br />
has been adapted to include the following phases, and to complement<br />
the action research-driven process that forms the essence <strong>of</strong> the<br />
portfolio:<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Identification <strong>of</strong> an educational problem/weakness in one's<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional competence.<br />
Identification <strong>of</strong> goals for improving one's education practice<br />
and exploration <strong>of</strong> options that will facilitate achieving those<br />
goals.<br />
Selection <strong>of</strong> appropriate options for improvement and designing<br />
an action plan to achieve these goals.<br />
Implementation <strong>of</strong> the plan <strong>of</strong> action.<br />
Documenting the outcome, which includes an action research<br />
report; examples <strong>of</strong> work done; reflection on pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
growth and learning.<br />
Portfolio assessment has been implemented as part <strong>of</strong> the teacher<br />
education programme for the very same reasons as Costantino and<br />
Lorenzo (1998:2) stipulate (adapted to the teacher education context):<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
It facilitates critical reflective thinking at a scientific level ± a<br />
skill students do not have.<br />
It presents a complete picture <strong>of</strong> achieving set outcomes <strong>of</strong> the<br />
module.<br />
``A come alive resume'' <strong>of</strong> the student's pr<strong>of</strong>essional development<br />
as prospective practitioner is presented.
332<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
It helps individuals to be responsible for their own pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
growth.<br />
It correlates with national trends in assessment, such as<br />
formative assessment.<br />
4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY<br />
A synchronic action research model is used. It is synchronic in the<br />
sense that the lecturer as well as the students plan for improvement<br />
and pr<strong>of</strong>essional growth, execute the plans and compile pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
development portfolios in tandem during the course <strong>of</strong> the semester.<br />
The following model for action research has been developed and is<br />
being used by the lecturer. It is introduced to students to help them<br />
comprehend the cyclic and continuous nature <strong>of</strong> action research, which<br />
is totally new to them. The model is based on the work <strong>of</strong> specialists<br />
referred to in the work <strong>of</strong> Hodgkinson and Maree (1998). Instead <strong>of</strong><br />
planning for change, the author prefers to use planning for improvement.<br />
Since the steps to be followed in this sequential, cyclic model are quite<br />
obvious, they will not be discussed as such. Rather, their application in<br />
the specific practice will be outlined as exemplar.<br />
An in-depth study <strong>of</strong> relevant literature serves as basis for the action<br />
research undertaken. Qualitative feedback obtained from students,<br />
feedback from colleagues, and self-assessment are used for triangulation<br />
purposes.<br />
Phase 1: Planning for improvement<br />
Over the past five years, the lecturer deliberately changed the written<br />
examination papers from being knowledge-based to being outcomesbased.<br />
The inclusion <strong>of</strong> questions, complementing the outcomes-based<br />
approach, though, did not satisfy the need for reflective and flexible<br />
learning. The curriculum also did not provide for developing students'<br />
research competence and pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essional development.
Pr<strong>of</strong>essional portfolio building 333<br />
FIGURE 1<br />
Action research model<br />
Planning for improvement<br />
. Innovative and accountable curriculum development<br />
3<br />
!<br />
Acting to improve<br />
. Innovative and accountable teaching practice<br />
. Innovative and accountable assessment practice<br />
!<br />
Observing the effects <strong>of</strong> new actions<br />
. Personal observations?<br />
. Diagnostic assessment<br />
!<br />
Reflecting on the change process and improvements<br />
. Self-assessment<br />
!<br />
Innovative and accountable new actions<br />
With the introduction <strong>of</strong> outcomes-based education, the idea <strong>of</strong><br />
portfolio assessment and pr<strong>of</strong>essional development were new concepts<br />
that students had to grasp and apply. Therefore specific outcomes<br />
related to portfolio assessment and pr<strong>of</strong>essional growth were for-
334<br />
mulated. Relevant learning and assessment opportunities complemented<br />
curriculum initiatives. For the purpose <strong>of</strong> this article the<br />
radical change to the format <strong>of</strong> the examination forms the core <strong>of</strong> the<br />
discussion.<br />
The portfolio assignment as such was developed over a period <strong>of</strong> four<br />
years. It was formulated and scrutinized by colleagues and tested with<br />
students enrolled for the Diploma in Higher Education and Training<br />
Practice during 1997±2000, and students enrolled for the Higher<br />
Education Diploma during 1999 and 2000. The portfolio assignment<br />
was formulated in such a way that provision is made for covering the<br />
core <strong>of</strong> the curriculum, and to demonstrate the competence to integrate<br />
different educational aspects. It also provides for developing intrinsicbased<br />
assets such as flexible learning. Measured against the expected<br />
learning outcomes, the portfolio examination satisfies the requirement<br />
<strong>of</strong> content validity.<br />
In the view <strong>of</strong> the collaborative nature <strong>of</strong> action research, students<br />
were allowed to work in pairs ± another innovative idea that<br />
challenged the examination system that allows individual work only.<br />
Phase 2: Implementation<br />
The written semester examination was replaced by the portfolio<br />
assignment. Because <strong>of</strong> the research-driven nature <strong>of</strong> the portfolio, the<br />
groups <strong>of</strong> students were surprised on receiving the ``exam paper'' at<br />
the commencement <strong>of</strong> the programme in February 2000. The due date<br />
for submission was June.<br />
Hand in hand with the students' on-going development <strong>of</strong> their<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional portfolios, formative assessment opportunities and<br />
learning opportunities conducive to the execution <strong>of</strong> students' action<br />
research were planned and implemented. As first developmental phase<br />
students had to write a research proposal. Pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> peer assessment had<br />
to be included, as well as evidence <strong>of</strong> their improvement based on the<br />
feedback from peers. Students were also encouraged to discuss<br />
proposals with the tutor and to use the lecturer's feedback for<br />
improvement purposes. They were also encouraged to test their ideas
Pr<strong>of</strong>essional portfolio building 335<br />
with the lecturer and to adapt their proposals accordingly. The lecturer<br />
then assessed the proposals. A mark, as part <strong>of</strong> the final semester mark,<br />
was allocated. A diagnostic assessment rubric was designed for the<br />
purpose <strong>of</strong> self, peer and lecturer assessment.<br />
Phase 3: Observation<br />
For the purpose <strong>of</strong> observation, different partners involved in the<br />
lecturer's practice were asked for comments/feedback on the implementation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the portfolio assessment. Cohen and Manion's (Zuber-<br />
Skerritt 1992:139) idea <strong>of</strong> multiple method triangulation was used to<br />
get a more holistic perspective on the portfolio assessment as an<br />
educational outcome. Triangulation can schematically be represented<br />
as in figure 2.<br />
Feedback from students has been obtained by means <strong>of</strong> different<br />
questionnaires. Among others, one questionnaire was designed to get<br />
feedback from students about their experience <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essional portfolio<br />
development. The other questionnaire was used for the purpose <strong>of</strong><br />
student feedback on the module as a whole.<br />
Specialists include the following partners:<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
The external examiner<br />
Colleagues at national and international level<br />
Post-graduate students who acted as co-researchers<br />
An external examiner from the <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> was<br />
appointed. She was provided with a copy <strong>of</strong> the portfolio examination<br />
as well as a study manual that included the module outcomes. After<br />
assessing and verification <strong>of</strong> the examination assignment, it was<br />
returned without any amendments, and with the single comment that<br />
``It is an innovative idea''. At the end <strong>of</strong> the semester, a sample <strong>of</strong> 10 <strong>of</strong><br />
the final portfolios assessed by the lecturer was submitted for external<br />
moderation. A full report was written and submitted to the Faculty<br />
secretary.
336<br />
FIGURE 2<br />
Multiple method triangulation regarding assessment practice<br />
Practitioner<br />
~<br />
± Portfolios as outcomes<br />
6<br />
!<br />
6<br />
Assessment practice<br />
± Portfolio assessment<br />
6<br />
~<br />
~<br />
6<br />
Students<br />
± Questionnaires<br />
3<br />
6<br />
6<br />
"<br />
Specialists<br />
. External examiner<br />
± Report<br />
. Colleagues/critical friends<br />
(National and international)<br />
± Interviews<br />
± Informal feedback<br />
. Post-graduate students<br />
± Research report<br />
Informal feedback was obtained from colleagues at the <strong>University</strong> as<br />
well as critical friends at universities from abroad, inter alia the<br />
<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Maryland, Iowa State <strong>University</strong>, <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Oklahoma,<br />
in the United States <strong>of</strong> America, as well as the <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
Queensland, Australia. The whole idea was well received by colleagues<br />
as innovative and the way to go. ``Critical friends'' (external assessors)<br />
from abroad also assessed the practice as one <strong>of</strong> high standard. One<br />
external assessor from the Australian university, though, thought it to<br />
be too comprehensive and difficult.<br />
Postgraduate students enrolled for the Bachelor <strong>of</strong> Education (BEd)
Pr<strong>of</strong>essional portfolio building 337<br />
programme who were not active practitioners at the time <strong>of</strong> their<br />
studies, were encouraged to act as co-researchers for the lecturer's<br />
practice. The dual purpose <strong>of</strong> doing that was to have research support<br />
for one's own research, and to make the students' pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
portfolios more authentic.<br />
The lecturer as practitioner's observation is multifaceted. He is in the<br />
prime position to observe students' growth at first hand. Monitoring<br />
curriculum development activities during contact sessions, and<br />
assessment opportunities provide him with an array <strong>of</strong> observation<br />
possibilities. This article reports on the lecturer's observation <strong>of</strong> how<br />
students opted for implementing principles <strong>of</strong> flexible learning in the<br />
process <strong>of</strong> developing their pr<strong>of</strong>essional portfolios, and demonstrating<br />
active participation in monitoring their learning processes, pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
growth, as well as on the final portfolios as outcome.<br />
Phase 4: Reflection<br />
Reflection is an integrated part <strong>of</strong> self-regulated learning ± a necessity<br />
for pr<strong>of</strong>essional portfolio development and monitoring one's learning<br />
style flexibility. It demands specific skills. Skills <strong>of</strong> reflection,<br />
according to Senge (in McGill & Beaty 1996:195) ``... concern slowing<br />
down our own thinking processes so that we can become more aware <strong>of</strong><br />
howweformourmentalmodelsandthewaystheyinfluenceour<br />
actions''. It also implies being aware <strong>of</strong> and taking responsibility for<br />
one's pr<strong>of</strong>essional development.<br />
Intentional reflection was done by interpreting the outcome <strong>of</strong> the<br />
different partners' observations. It also included taking a retrospective<br />
view <strong>of</strong> the attitude and experience <strong>of</strong> previous groups in an informal,<br />
comparative manner.<br />
The lecturer was very much aware <strong>of</strong> the fact that the students were<br />
challenged by the outcomes-based practice, and the demanding task <strong>of</strong><br />
undertaking action research as novice practitioners. The execution <strong>of</strong><br />
their action research was further complicated by the programme as a<br />
whole being more academic, with only four weeks <strong>of</strong> authentic<br />
teaching experience during school practice.
338<br />
Phase 5: Evaluation<br />
Evaluation <strong>of</strong> the whole process <strong>of</strong> portfolio building was done to make<br />
sure that the necessary adjustments could be made. The evaluation<br />
phase consists <strong>of</strong> two dimensions, namely the structural and affective.<br />
These two dimensions fit the concept <strong>of</strong> metalearning as described by<br />
Biggs (1985:204).<br />
The structural dimension includes aspects like administrative and<br />
organizational ability, as academic and scientific accountability. The<br />
latter includes the criteria for accountable assessment. The affective<br />
dimension focuses on the psychological and emotional effect <strong>of</strong> the<br />
assessment practice on the practitioner. By introducing students to the<br />
concept <strong>of</strong> action research and challenging them to execute their<br />
individual action research projects in the same way as discussed above,<br />
the third objective <strong>of</strong> building students' research capacity was met.<br />
5 COLLECTING OF DATA<br />
Several instruments are used in the process <strong>of</strong> portfolio development to<br />
help promote a culture <strong>of</strong> reflective learning among students as well as<br />
the lecturer as partners. Therefore the aim <strong>of</strong> the different instruments<br />
used to collect data is two-fold. On the one hand items are focused on<br />
the lecturer's actions or documentation. On the other, students are<br />
deliberately given the opportunity to reflect on their own learning<br />
processes. Making use <strong>of</strong> triangulation, the different sets <strong>of</strong> data can be<br />
interpreted meaningfully, validated, and acted upon.<br />
For the purpose <strong>of</strong> this article only the data collected by means <strong>of</strong> a<br />
feedback questionnaire on portfolio assessment will be reported, which<br />
serve as exemplar. A four-point scale is used, with 1 as indicative <strong>of</strong><br />
total disagreement and 4 total agreement. The feedback on portfolio<br />
assessment is summarized in the table below:
Pr<strong>of</strong>essional portfolio building 339<br />
TABLE 1<br />
Feedback on portfolio assessment<br />
Section B: Experience regarding portfolio assess-<br />
ment<br />
Average score<br />
N = 45<br />
1 The execution <strong>of</strong> the examination assignment<br />
(portfolio compilation) has more worth than a<br />
written exam. 3.6<br />
2 Critical thinking is stimulated. 3.6<br />
3 Research skills are developed. 3.7<br />
4 Creativity is promoted. 3.4<br />
5 Self-regulated learning is promoted. 3.4<br />
6 Reflective learning can be practiced. 3.5<br />
7 Action research is useful for my own pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
development as teacher. 3.2<br />
8 Portfolio assessment is a handy strategy for<br />
promoting lifelong learning. 3.2<br />
9 The assignment caters for learning style<br />
flexibility/whole brain learning. 3.4<br />
10 The assignment is complementary to the<br />
lecturer's assessment practice as a whole. 3.5<br />
11 Deep learning is promoted. 3.9<br />
12 Productive learning occurred. 3.6<br />
A separate section on the responsibility <strong>of</strong> the learner was added to<br />
help learners reflect on managing their own learning processes. The<br />
feedback on this section is summarized in table 2.
340<br />
TABLE 2<br />
Reflection on own learning process<br />
Section C: Completion <strong>of</strong> assignment<br />
Average score<br />
1 I studied the examination assignment thoroughly<br />
and ensured that I understand what is<br />
expected <strong>of</strong> me. 3.5<br />
2 I ensured that I am knowledgeable regarding<br />
portfolio assessment and action research. 3.2<br />
3 I ensured that my portfolio adheres to all the<br />
set criteria (as indicated in the exam assignment).<br />
3.7<br />
4 The assignment challenged me to develop my<br />
full potential. 3.4<br />
5 The execution <strong>of</strong> the assignment encouraged<br />
me to explore possibilities for portfolio assessment<br />
in my own subject field. 3.6<br />
6 I worked continuously on the assignment<br />
since the commencement <strong>of</strong> the semester. 2.7<br />
7 I ensured that my documentation is furnished<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essionally and technically. 3.5<br />
8 I ensured that the language used in my<br />
documentation is <strong>of</strong> a high standard. 3.4<br />
9 I spent sufficient time on doing the assignment.<br />
3.3<br />
It can be deducted from the above information that all aspects<br />
regarding portfolio assessment have been experienced as very positive.<br />
The single low score <strong>of</strong> 2.7 (item 7) reflects the lack <strong>of</strong> students'<br />
commitment to continuously work on their portfolio development. In<br />
future the lecturer ought to intentionally plan for guiding students in<br />
managing their progress on a continuous basis. It could be hypothe-
Pr<strong>of</strong>essional portfolio building 341<br />
sized that students are not able to do self-management <strong>of</strong> learning over<br />
a period <strong>of</strong> time, because they are used to written tests and<br />
examinations that are long-term goals towards which they work on in a<br />
once-<strong>of</strong>f fashion (by cramming just before they have to produce the end<br />
product). The process <strong>of</strong> continuous pr<strong>of</strong>essional development,<br />
though, asks for setting and mastering <strong>of</strong> continual short-term goals.<br />
6 PROMOTING FLEXIBLE LEARNING<br />
The metaphoric whole brain model <strong>of</strong> Herrmann (1995) is introduced to<br />
students as an example <strong>of</strong> catering for diversity and promoting flexible<br />
learning. Portfolio assessment therefore has been introduced to<br />
demonstrate how flexible learning could be applied in practice. The<br />
portfolio examination is structured to incorporate the expectations <strong>of</strong><br />
learners in all four quadrants (see figure 3). The process <strong>of</strong> developing<br />
the portfolio facilitates the development <strong>of</strong> the full potential <strong>of</strong> learners<br />
± thus, learning in all four quadrants. By doing so, learners' thinking<br />
preferences are accommodated and areas <strong>of</strong> lesser preference and<br />
avoidance are activated.<br />
In summary, the portfolio provides the opportunity to, amongst others,<br />
develop:<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
A quadrant learning, which has as focus the rational self,<br />
because it is research-based.<br />
B quadrant learning, which has as focus the safekeeping self,<br />
because the learner has to plan thoroughly and has to monitor<br />
the action research process.<br />
C quadrant learning, which has as focus the feeling self,<br />
because the emphasis is on personal development.<br />
D quadrant learning, which has as focus the experimental self,<br />
because the learner has to think holistically and experiment<br />
with innovative ideas.
342<br />
FIGURE 3<br />
Expectations <strong>of</strong> learners with thinking preferences in the four quadrants<br />
The learner with an A quadrant<br />
thinking preference expects:<br />
. Precise, to the point information<br />
. Theory and logical rationales<br />
. Pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> validity<br />
. Research references<br />
. Textbook readings<br />
. Numbers, data<br />
The learner with a B quadrant<br />
thinking preference expects:<br />
. Organised, consistent approaches<br />
. Staying on track, on time<br />
. Complete subject chunks<br />
. A beginning, middle and end<br />
. Practise and evaluate<br />
. Practical application<br />
. Examples<br />
. Clear instructions/expectations<br />
The learner with a Dquadrant<br />
thinking preference expects:<br />
. Fun and spontaneity<br />
. Playful approaches<br />
. Pictures, metaphors, overviews<br />
. Discovering and exploration<br />
. Quick pace and variety in<br />
format<br />
. Opportunity to experiment<br />
The learner with a C quadrant<br />
thinking preference expects:<br />
. Group discussion<br />
. Sharing, expressing ideas<br />
. Feeling based<br />
. Hands on learning<br />
. Personal connection<br />
. Emotional involvement<br />
. User-friendly learning<br />
. Use <strong>of</strong> all senses<br />
7 OUTCOMES OF THE RESEARCH<br />
By introducing portfolio assessment in the module under investigation,<br />
the set objectives <strong>of</strong> the research have been achieved. In addition,<br />
the following aspects added value to the practice:<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
In-depth, productive learning has taken place.<br />
Portfolio assessment promotes and enhances formative assessment.<br />
The curriculum has been enriched.
Pr<strong>of</strong>essional portfolio building 343<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Ð<br />
Creativity is stimulated because students are not inhibited by<br />
one single format; and they select their own focus <strong>of</strong> study.<br />
The lecturer learns much from students.<br />
Diversity in terms <strong>of</strong> learning styles/whole brain learning is<br />
catered for.<br />
The next step for improving the practice could be planned for.<br />
8 CONCLUSION<br />
Introducing portfolio assessment to student teachers is a major<br />
challenge for everyone involved. The practice under discussion could<br />
metaphorically be described by means <strong>of</strong> the following poem by a<br />
French philosopher (Slabbert 1997:32):<br />
Come to the edge, he said.<br />
They said: We are afraid.<br />
Come to the edge, he said.<br />
They came.<br />
He pushed them ... and they flew.<br />
BIBLIOGRAPHY<br />
Biggs, J B 1985. The role <strong>of</strong> metalearning in study processes. British journal <strong>of</strong> educational<br />
psychology, 55:185-212.<br />
Centra, J A 1993. Reflective faculty evaluation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.<br />
Costantino, M & Lorenzo, M N 1998. Developing a pr<strong>of</strong>essional teaching portfolio: A guide for<br />
educators. College <strong>of</strong> Education, <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Maryland.<br />
Danielson, C & Abrutyn, L 1997. An introduction to using portfolios in the classroom.<br />
Virginia: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.<br />
Du Toit, P H 2000. Study manual for Pedagogics 412. Faculty <strong>of</strong> Education, <strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
Pretoria.<br />
Ellis, D 1997. Becoming a master student. Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Company.<br />
Herrmann, N 1995. The creative brain. Lake Lure: The Ned Herrmann Group.<br />
Hodgkinson, C A & Maree, J G 1998. Action research: Some guidelines for first-time<br />
researchers in education. Journal <strong>of</strong> education and training, 19 (2):51-65.<br />
Kimeldorf, M 1996. Creating portfolios for success in school, work and life. Free Style<br />
Publishing.
344<br />
Lustig, K 1996. Portfolio assessment: A handbook for middle level teachers. Columbus:<br />
National Middle School Association.<br />
McGill, I & Beaty, L 1996. Action learning: A guide for pr<strong>of</strong>essional, management and<br />
educational development. London: Kogan Page.<br />
Republic <strong>of</strong> <strong>South</strong> <strong>Africa</strong> 2000. Government gazette. No 20844. Pretoria: Government<br />
Printer.<br />
Slabbert, J A 1997. A quantum leap to excellence: The challenge for education. (Manuscript)<br />
Zuber-Skerritt, O 1992. Action research in higher education: Examples and reflections.<br />
London: Kogan Page.
Appendix A 345<br />
Appendix A<br />
<strong>University</strong> <strong>of</strong> Pretoria<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> Teaching and Training Studies<br />
Examination Portfolio<br />
Internal examiner: Author<br />
External examiner: Unisa staff member<br />
Assignment:<br />
June 2000<br />
At your specific school, you are undergoing external evaluation. Your<br />
head <strong>of</strong> department requests that you do a proposal regarding your<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional development as teacher. Compile a complete portfolio,<br />
based on action research on your competence in facilitating learning,<br />
linked to the pr<strong>of</strong>essional training you are currently enrolled for.<br />
Criteria:<br />
. Be creative in compiling your portfolio.<br />
. Provide evidence <strong>of</strong> your ability to think holistically and that you<br />
areabletoworkinanintegratedfashion.<br />
. Indicate how you made provision for:<br />
Ð Outcomes-based education<br />
Ð Co-operative learning<br />
Ð Learning style differentiated teaching-learning<br />
Ð Metalearning and -teaching<br />
. Give pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> continuous peer assessment and self-reflection.<br />
Ð Your literature study should include at least the following:<br />
Relevant educational aspects<br />
Ð Pr<strong>of</strong>essional self-development<br />
Ð Preferred model for teaching and learning<br />
ÐResearch<br />
Ð Portfolio assessment<br />
Ð Outcomes-based education
346<br />
Ð Learning styles/whole brain learning<br />
Ð Metalearning<br />
. Documentation <strong>of</strong> your research should comply to the following<br />
general requirements for academic publications:<br />
Ð A creative title<br />
ÐName <strong>of</strong> author(s)<br />
Ð Table <strong>of</strong> contents<br />
Ð Introduction<br />
Ð Problem statement<br />
Ð Hypothesis (if applicable)<br />
Ð Aim/objectives/questions<br />
Ð Discussion <strong>of</strong> research methodology<br />
Ð Discussion <strong>of</strong> investigation (different sections/focuses)<br />
Ð Findings/recommendations<br />
Ð Bibliography (according to the condensed Harvard method)<br />
. Length: 20-30 pages (excluding samples, annexures)<br />
. The research report forms part <strong>of</strong> the portfolio<br />
. Marks:<br />
Technical: 10<br />
Language: 10<br />
Content: 80<br />
Total: 100%<br />
. Date <strong>of</strong> submission: June<br />
Enjoy the challenge!
347