here - CEOP-HE

January 2010

The CEOP-HE Science Plan
January 2010
Communication Officier: ceop-he@evk2cnr.org
Web: www.ceop-he.org
The reproduction of parts of this document is allowed quoting the source: CEOP-HE. 2010. Science
Plan. EvK2CNR, SHARE Project. 41 pp.
_____________
Cover pictures:
Himalayas:
Annapurna
Tibetan Plateau
African Mountain:
Kilimanjaro
Himalayas:
Everest and Lhotse
Himalayas:
Nanga Parbat
Karakoram Range:
K2
Rwenzori Mountain:
Rwenzori
Alps:
Monte Bianco
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Table of contents
Executive summary 4
Foreword 3
1. General Background 3
1.1 The Coordinated Energy and water cycle Observations Project (CEOP) 3
1.2 Why focus on high elevation areas? 4
2. Science rationale 6
2.1 Distribution of high elevation areas over the continents 6
2.2 Mountains as driving functions for water and energy cycles 7
2.3 Recent issues concerning environmental changes at high elevations 8
2.4 Key elements of process studies 8
2.4.1 Land-atmosphere interaction in mountains 9
2.4.2 Impacts of global changes at high elevations 9
2.4.3 Transportation processes of water-vapour/energy 10
2.4.4 Influences of mountains on extreme weather, water resources and sub-continental scale climate
changes 10
2.4.5 High elevations as cold regions 11
2.4.6 Atmospheric aerosol at high elevations 12
2.4.7 Global warming effects on high altitude ecosystems 13
2.5. Regional issues 14
2.5.1 Tibet/Himalayas 14
2.5.2 Central Asia Mountains: Altai, Tien Shan and Pamir 15
2.5.3 North America Mountains 16
2.5.4 South America Andes Cordillera 17
2.5.6 European Alps 18
2.5.7 African Mountains 19
3. CEOP-HE plan 20
3.1. Goal and objectives 20
3.2. Implementation strategy 20
3.2 HE network of observatories 21
3.2.1 Identification of HE-Net stations 21
3.2.2 CEOP-HE reference sites 22
3.2.3 From CEOP-HE to HE-Net. 24
3.2.3 Improving observation techniques at high elevations 24
3.3 Data archive, assimilation and management 25
3.4 Timeline 25
4. CEOP-HE: Contributions and Synergies with International Activities 26
4.1 Interactions with other CEOP Elements 26
4.1.1 Specific benefits obtained from interactions 26
4.1.2 Other more general benefits 27
4.2 Interactions with other international projects 27
4.3 The Global High Elevation Watch (GHEW) 28
4.4 CEOP-HE Organizational structure 28
References 30
Appendices 38
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Executive summary
High Elevations (HE) is an initiative within the Coordinated Energy and water cycle Observations
Project (CEOP) of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) Global Energy and Water cycle
Experiment (GEWEX). The Scientific Implementation Plan (SIP) of CEOP (see
http://www.eol.ucar.edu/projects/ceop/dm/new) identifies HE as a “regional study”. HE intends to
be a concerted, international and interdisciplinary effort aimed at furthering knowledge on physical
and dynamic processes at high elevations, which intends to contribute to global climate and water
cycle studies. The goal of HE is to study multi-scale variability of energy and water cycles in high
elevation areas while improving corresponding observations, modelling and data management. In
this context, the term “high elevations” should be understood to include altitudes above the
timberline, high plateaus, rough reliefs, low atmospheric pressure and low average temperature.
HE will address the current lack of high quality datasets in the majority of the world’s high
elevation regions and the need to improve dialogue among researchers interested in such data. A
network of high altitude observation stations, including but not limited to CEOP Reference Sites,
will be set up to establish a coordinated activity between high elevation stations, in an effort to
ensure the collection of quality data. Scientific investigations will ensue aimed at studying
hydro-meteorological and climatological conditions and their variability in high elevations regions,
while providing an overview of the water/energy budget in high elevation areas. New HE data will
help to facilitate modeling and forecasting activities.
The HE initiative will start by addressing common scientific issues in different high mountain
areas and preparing study plans within the CEOP science framework. Partially, this will be
achieved through an analysis of CEOP reference site data at high elevations. The next step will go
on the identify new high elevation sites that could be representative for a global study of physical
and dynamical processes in the high altitude range affecting water resources in surrounding
lowlands. The focus will be largely on regions with sufficient data coverage.
The planned activities mainly concern the improvement of long-term monitoring, observation, data
assimilation over complex terrain, as well as data management and modelling. The research
agenda will also include collaboration with other CEOP components such as Regional Hydroclimate
Projects (particularly those where high altitude regions are present - MAHASRI, CPPA), other
Regional Studies (Cold Region Studies, Monsoons, SARS), cross-cutting activities (WEBS, Extremes,
aerosol) and modelling studies. HE is particularly interested in collaborating with the aerosol group
in the study of natural and anthropogenic aerosol impacts on the climate and hydro-geological cycle.
CEOP is considered by GEO as the main water data management engine of GEOSS, and HE will
strive to serve as a high altitude component of it.
The establishment of the HE initiative under the GEWEX/CEOP framework was formally proposed
at a joint planning meeting held in Washington DC, USA, in March 2007. The HE Working Group
was established in early 2008 following the constitution of a HE Steering Committee (SC) composed
of international experts in high elevation studies, and the creation of the CEOP-HE Secretariat
(ceop-he@evk2cnr.org) at the Ev-K2-CNR Committee headquarters in Bergamo, Italy. The project
web-site http://www.ceop-he.org was implemented and updated with information and news about
this Working Group. In April, 2008 the 1 st CEOP-HE Steering Committee Meeting was held in
Padua, Italy, to launch the Working Group and define HE goals, objectives and future actions. On
this occasion the drafting of the HE Science Plan (SP) was also discussed. After the Padua meeting,
considerable effort was devoted to preparing the SP, and particularly to determining the scientific
rationale and methods for achieving HE’s objectives in compliance with CEOP goals. The SP
includes contributions of all Steering Committee members based on their expertise in climatology,
hydrology, glaciology and cryosphere, atmospheric chemistry and modeling. To enhance the current
SP, broader input from hydrology and modeling experts will be sought.

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Foreword
The main purpose of the HE Science Plan is to set priorities and strategies of the CEOP-High
Elevations initiative, providing a general overview of key science issues associated with water and
energy cycles in high altitude regions and their important role in physical, chemical and dynamical
processes over remote areas worldwide. This document represents the starting point of the HE
initiative within the GEWEX/CEOP and provides an interdisciplinary and integrated approach to
global hydro-climate studies.
1. General Background
The need for an integrated approach to observe, model and investigate hydro-meteorological
phenomena and physical and dynamical processes in high altitude regions has been recognized by
major international organizations and programs. The Group on Earth Observation (GEO) has
implemented the Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS), in order to support
nations in producing and managing their information for the benefit of the environment and people.
The GEO Work Plan includes tasks relevant to high elevations (e.g. EC-O9-02d). The main
international environmental organizations, such as WMO, UNEP and ICSU, are developing several
specific networks and research programs in the fields of climate, atmospheric physics, chemistry
and hydrology, which also include a subset of activities for high altitudes.
The HE project will address a number of issues of importance to the above programs and
organizations.
The World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
aims to improve climate predictions and understanding of the human influence on climate, through
observations and modelling of the Earth system and the policy-relevant assessment of climate
conditions. The WCRP’s two broad objectives are to determine the predictability of climate and to
determine the effect of human activities on climate, achieving a multi-disciplinary approach and
organizing large-scale observational and modelling projects. WCRP encompasses studies of the
global atmosphere, oceans, sea-and land-ice, the biosphere and the land surface, which together
constitute the Earth’s climate system (http://wcrp.wmo.int/wcrp-index.html).
The Global Energy and Water-cycle Experiment (GEWEX) is a core project of WCRP involving
studies of the dynamics and thermodynamics of the atmosphere, the atmosphere’s interactions with
the Earth’s surface, especially over land, and the global water cycle. It is an integrated program of
research, observations and scientific activities, mainly leading to the prediction of global and
regional climate change. In particular, the goal of GEWEX is to reproduce and predict, by means of
suitable models, the variations of the global hydrological regime, its impact on atmospheric and
surface dynamics, and variations in regional hydrological processes and water resources and their
response to changes in the environment (http://www.gewex.org/gewex_overview.html).
GEWEX is composed of several projects designed to address the elements of the scientific focus, the
global energy and water cycle, and grouped by research focus area into the following categories:
radiation, modelling and prediction, hydroclimate. The activities in each category are coordinated
and supervised, respectively, by the GEWEX Radiation Panel (GRP), the GEWEX Modelling and
Prediction Panel (GMPP) and the Coordinated Energy and water cycle Observations Project
(CEOP).
1.1 The Coordinated Energy and water cycle Observations Project (CEOP)
The merger in January 2007 of the previous WCRP’s GEWEX Hydrometeorology Panel (GHP) and
the ‘CEOP’ (Lawford et al., 2006), an element of WCRP initiated by GEWEX, led to the
establishment of a new entity, now designated the Coordinated Energy and water cycle
Observations Project (CEOP). CEOP now better coordinates similar international activities
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undertaken by both groups, which largely comprised similar scientists engaged in analogous
projects. In particular, it coordinates the plan and the focus of scientific issues relating to the
development and implementation of Regional Hydroclimate Projects (RHPs) and oversees all
GEWEX regional hydroclimate and land-surface projects.
‘CEOP’ began as part of the initial GHP strategy to help coordinate the activities of diverse GEWEX
Continental Experiments (CSEs), aimed at understanding and modeling the influence of
continental hydroclimate processes on the predictability of global atmospheric circulation and
changes in water resources. Efforts are now required to address regional climate prediction, which
is reflected in a major new initiative of the WCRP. Adequate attention should also be devoted to
biogeochemical aspects, an issue within the realm of the International Geosphere-Biosphere
Programme (IGBP).
The overall goal of CEOP is “to understand and predict continental to local-scale hydroclimates for
hydrologic applications”, with the commitment to attaining skill in predicting changes in water
resources and soil moisture on time scales up to seasonal and annual as an integral part of the
climate system. The Strategic Implementation Plan (SIP) of CEOP is available at
http://monsoon.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp/ceop2/implementationplan.html.
In broad terms, CEOP allows a global synthesis of the water cycle, bringing together surface,
satellite and model data with the ultimate aim of evaluating model skill and accelerate model
development. CEOP is the largest cross-cutting global scale project of GEWEX and has grown to
include 52 reference sites (CEOP Phase II: begun 2007), product generation by more than 10
numerical weather prediction centres (e.g. NCEP, UKMO, JMA , etc.), and a large archive of
satellite data with contributions from five major space agencies (e.g. NASA, ESA, JAXA, etc.).
The HE initiative is a recent element (March 2007) of the CEOP “Regional Foci”, identified by
Regional Studies in the CEOP SIP. CEOP-HE is a concerted, interoperative and interdisciplinary
effort geared toward obtaining further knowledge on physical and dynamical processes at high
elevations, providing a contribution to global climate and water cycle studies.
1.2 Why focus on high elevation areas?
The world’s high elevation mountainous areas form an alpine environment characterized by severe
climate conditions, the presence of glaciers and permafrost, specific alpine geomorphology,
vegetation, soils, and fauna. People need to adapt to live in such conditions.
High mountains are the Earth’s water towers (Viviroli et al., 2007). Water accumulation in
mountain snow and glacier ice forms a hydrologic regime that is favorable to agriculture, due to
increased runoff during the growing season. Mountains are the only renewable clean water source
in many regions and a significant contributor to the hydroelectric potential. Snow, glaciers and
frozen soil at high elevations are a reserve for maintaining the river flows in dry years. An improved
understanding of alpine hydrology will allow a more precise estimation of fresh water resources in
regions where the demand for water is forecast to rise progressively, even if seasonal snow cover,
glaciers and permafrost cannot be clearly guaranteed.
Hydro-meteorological phenomena in the lower atmosphere, such as precipitation (rain, snow, hail),
evaporation and vapour condensation, cloud development , evolution of hydrological cycle, floods
and droughts, are strongly modulated by mountain ranges and plateaus with elevations over 2500
m above sea level (Barry, 2003). A the same time, mountains in many parts of the world are
fundamentally characterized sub-continental scale climate conditions and susceptible to impacts of
the rapidly changing climate system, thus constituting interesting locations for the early detection
of climate change signals and their impacts on hydrological, ecological and societal systems
(Beniston, 2000).
Climate models predict that a substantial warming will occur in continental interiors, such as
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central Asia and South America, both in summer and especially in winter (IPCC, 2007). Despite the
increased resolution of model predictions, details of regional climate predictions for high elevated
areas remain rather coarse, and uncorroborated by observations, since instrumental climate
records barely cover the last 100 years and in many alpine regions are sparse, when not totally
absent. Process studies at high-elevations are also insufficient to improve regional climate models.
Large positive trends in recent surface air temperature records have been reported in the high
elevation areas (e.g., Shrestha et al., 1999; Liu and Chen, 2000). However, the physical mechanisms
linking temperature increases with global warming are yet to be studied sufficiently. Ice cores from
polar latitudes and high elevation snow-firn from middle and low latitude plateaus contain
information on past climates and environmental changes, but such records are rapidly disappearing
due to the recent warming affecting high mountains glaciers.
In spite of the great widespread for climate data from mountain regions among the scientific
community, knowledge of the cold high elevation alpine environment is still limited. Data often
remain unpublished or are hard to access. Some basic climatic information is available for
temperature and precipitation, but is scant for evaporation or water balance (Chen et al, 2006), and
a large proportion of high elevated stations have been operating only for a short time.
For these reasons initiatives in GEWEX/CEOP-HE and Ev-K2-CNR/SHARE will focus attention on
studying multi-scale variability and water cycles, improving the observatories, data collection and
data management, with the ultimate aim of improving the integrated knowledge of main scientific
issues concerning the world’s high mountains and plateaux.
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2. Science rationale
2.1 Distribution of high elevation areas over the continents
The world distribution of mountain areas is well represented by the global digital elevation model
(DEM) GTOPO30 (http://edc.usgs.gov/products/elevation/gtopo30/gtopo30.html). The classification
of high altitude areas (http://www.unep-wcmc.org/habitats/mountains/region.html) are shown in
Figure 1 derived from the EROS Data Center of the U.S. Geological Survey National Mapping
Division.
Fig. 1 – Distribution map of elevations in the world.
Mountains occupy 24% of the global land surface, covering all latitudinal belts and encompassing
within them all the Earth’s climatic zones (Meybeck et al., 2001). Their ecosystems are differently
distributed in every continent. Excluding the Antarctica region, main mountain ranges are located
in East-Asia (5% of the land surface), followed by North America and the Russian Federation (3%
each), South America, Africa and Central Asia (2% each), and Europe (1,5%).
Kapos et al. (2000) published a global map of mountains based on a combination of elevation and
slope at a very fine resolution, with the aim of establishing a typology of mountain forests and their
distribution. Meybeck et al. (2001) developed a similar classification, although at a courser
resolution, from which distribution of the water balance and population was also derived.
50
50
% of mountainous terrain
40
30
20
10
High Elevations
>2500 m a.s.l.
40
30
20
10
0
300-1000m &
local elevation
range >300
1000- 1500m &
slope >=5° or
local elevation
range >300
1500- 2500m &
slope>=2°
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2500- 3500m
3500- 4500m
>= 4500m
Elevation ranges
Fig. 2 – Percentage distribution of mountainous terrain per different range of elevation.
Figure 2 illustrates the world’s percentage distribution of mountain terrains, divided into different
ranges of altitude. “High elevation” terrains, with height more than 2,500 m above sea level,
0

account for approximately 20% of the total mountain area (not counting Antarctica). The statistics
are available at http://www.unep-wcmc.org/habitats/mountains/region.html.
Mountains constitute important sources of freshwater for adjacent lowlands. Because of their
important geographical locations, the world’s 24 major rivers, starting from high elevated areas and
with a hydrographical basin extending more than 100.000 km 2 (Fig. 3), contribute to global runoff
up to 15,000 mm yr -1 . More than 50% of these mountain areas play an essential or supporting role
for downstream regions, in particular, given the potential significance of water resources for the
population. As reported by Viviroli et al. (2007), 7% of global mountain areas provide essential
water resources, while another 37% delivers important support supplies, especially in arid and
semiarid regions, where vulnerability to seasonal and regional water shortage is high.
Himalaya-Karakorum Ranges [6]
Western Ghats (or Sahyadri Mountains) [1]
Chubut Range [2]
European Alps [4]
Rocky Mountains (North) [1]
Jablonowy Mountains [1]
Ethiopian Highlands [3]
Pamir, Altai, Hindukush, Tien Shan Chains [2]
Highland of Bihe Okavango [1]
Taurus and Zagros Mountains [2]
Kolyma Mountains [1]
(mm yr -1 )
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Fig. 3 –Mountain ranges supplying the greatest runoff to beneficiary river basin(s) larger than 100,000 km 2 (derived from Table 4
reported in Viviroli et al., 2007). The square brackets indicate the number of river basins included in the runoff evaluation.
2.2 Mountains as driving functions for water and energy cycles
Mountains affect continental scale circulation and energy and water cycle (EWC) in the lower
troposphere, and contribute to the establishment of regional climates. Mountain ranges control the
advection of water vapour (WV), which has higher concentrations in the lower troposphere, and
causes convergences and divergences on thermo-dynamical functions in the regional scale. Moist
convection over the mountains transports latent heat into the upper troposphere, leading to
formation of cloud clusters and modification of diabatic heating distribution (e.g. Yanai and Li,
1994). In the lower latitudes with sufficient insolation, mountain ranges induce diurnal meso-scale
disturbances that later propagate towards lower elevations (Satomura, 2000). At sub-continental
scale the monsoon flows interact with both these phenomena and EWC, altering the whole climatic
and hydrological system.
Solid precipitation in high elevated areas is deposited on the surface as snow cover and is later
transformed into glacier ice. Although studies of the cryosphere in mountain regions and its role in
climate are addressed by WCRP through the CliC project (Barry, 2003), the processing of
cryospheric observations and modeling in high mountains involves significant difficulties. Seasonal
changes of snow cover affect the surface heat budget, e.g. through variations of albedo, and induce
marked short-term variability. Snow cover and topographic undulations change the depth of the
active layer in permafrost areas and influence soil moisture and vegetation growth. Snow melt in
spring and development of the active layer in upper soils are characterized by a highly
heterogeneous behaviour in the high-elevated complex terrains. The balance between the albedo
and hydrological feedback (e.g. proposed by Yasunari et al., 1991) is dependent on regional climates,
especially for the amount of precipitation and radiation, and such regional issues must be
addressed in order to capture the continental scale EWC.
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The accumulation of seasonal snow cover and glacier mass balance depend on the amount of
precipitation. However, there are still many difficulties in accurate measuring of gauge
precipitation and evaluation of the satellite estimates in remote and cold areas with complex
topography. The mass balance is also affected by the surface heat balance during the melt period.
Significant changes in the glacio-hydrological response due to EWC modulation in the global
climate system have been anticipated since the 90s (Barry, 1990).
The prediction of EWC changes under the influence of continental scale climate variability is still
difficult due to the lack of comprehensive data and their analysis. It is necessary to start
integrating knowledge of the EWC in different mountain zones, and identify regions sensitive in
terms of water management and conservation of the mountain environment.
2.3 Recent issues concerning environmental changes at high elevations
The mountain environment directly influences 10% of the world’s population, while indirectly
providing sustenance to over 40% (Beniston, 2000). Recent global warming will modify the
thermo-dynamical function of mountains and indirectly influence the water resources and
environment at lower elevations with denser populations. In a simple theory, advance indication of
warming at high-elevations can be explained by snow-albedo feedback (Painter at al., 2007; Giorgi
et al., 1997). However, the precipitation pattern and radiation condition may also change
simultaneously through systematic changes of regional climate, and therefore the down-scaling of
the large scale impact will be less simple. For instance, changes in the meridional temperature
gradient or ENSO signals will modify the tropospheric jet-stream activity or teleconnection
patterns, which may alter the synoptic condition of WV transportation or atmospheric instability
around the mountains in the sub-tropics or mid-latitudes.
The recent retreat of mountain glaciers or occurrence of extreme wet/dry weather are directly
influenced by the local mountain weather under the influence of synoptic scale variability, but a
large scale gap exists in link continental scale climate changes with basin scale EWC. Degradation
of permafrost and vegetation at high elevations are another long-term environment change and also
modify local scale land-atmosphere interactions and eco-systems. Many high altitude stations,
usually monitoring the background of atmospheric component and aerosol, have recently started to
detect artificial pollutions or aerosols, and the many discussions surrounding their origin and
transportation high-elevations have been left without sufficient quantitative verification (Bonasoni
et al., 2008)
Many mountain environment changes have been stressed individually in each region, leaving an
urgent need for global perspectives in order to compare the possible causes in different climatic
areas under the same hemispheric stress of global change.
Until recently, it was difficult to identify the representative signal from a point measurement over
complex terrain. Mountain research also tended to be a part of regional experiments. The recent
extension of observation networks and improvement of remote sensing techniques with numerical
simulations, provide the possibility of comparing multiple parameters at different mountain
stations. Thus, the CEOP would be an ideal opportunity to start the continental scale assessment of
mountain environment.
2.4 Key elements of process studies
EWC over mountains are controlled by various scale mechanisms, such as local or basin scale
circulation, directly affected by the slopes of topography, synoptic scale circulation affected by the
mountain system itself and inducing intra-seasonal variations, and sub-continental scale
circulations which accompanies seasonal changes. Two approaches are available to capture the
linkage of such scales; one is the down-scaling approach dealing with the response of EWC over the
mountain due to the impact of hemispheric variability, and the second is the up-scaling approach
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dealing with the effects of mountain induced EWC on surrounding environments. The main origin
of WV in the atmosphere is the ocean, and mountains can lift WV into uplands and the
mid-troposphere with relatively quick motion. e.g. diurnal variations. At the same time, surface
water runs off the uplands with relatively slow motion e.g. the gravity current, while the link
between surface and sub-surface water flow in a different time-scale in and over alpine watersheds
is poorly studied. CEOP-HE needs to study such circulation processes as a system covering different
elevations.
2.4.1 Land-atmosphere interaction in mountains
Many mountain meteorology studies simplify the shape of the mountain or basin and explain their
thermo-dynamic function in establishing local circulations by means of conceptual models (e.g.,
Barry, 1992; Whitman, 2000; Cherchi and Navarra, 2007). Studies of land-atmosphere interactions
in the mountains are limited, such as ones to diagnose the modification of dry local circulations (e.g.,
Billings et al., 2006). In lower latitudes with sufficient radiation and water vapour, e.g. monsoon
regions, land-atmosphere interactions are quite active over high elevated mountains, with wet
convections affecting diurnal and intra-seasonal change of weather and climate. For instance,
Yamada and Uyeda (2006) explained the change of convective cloud structure due to vegetation
growth and moistening of land-surface over the Tibetan Plateau (TP). Redistribution processes of
snow covers, enhancing patchiness and changing area surface heat budgets (e.g., Dery et al., 2004),
are expected with smaller amount of precipitation and stronger surface winds at high elevations. In
flat areas of lower elevations, land-atmosphere interactions coupled with cloud/precipitation
formation has been studied in many works (e.g., Pielke, 2001). In addition, the land surface in the
high altitude areas is quite heterogeneous, both for elevation roughness and for different
components forming EWC system.
To capture comprehensively land-atmosphere interaction features in mountains, a dense surface
observation network is required within several specific sites/basins, able to reveal processes of
boundary layer development over terrains and their seasonal changes depending on different
synoptic conditions and surface hydrology stresses.
2.4.2 Impacts of global changes at high elevations
Intraseasonal climate variability is usually associated with sub-continental scale teleconnections.
Deep convections excited on the ocean, e.g. cases of ENSO events, cause anomalous dry/wet areas in
the sub-tropics and mid-latitudes. If the anomaly prevails over mountain areas, land-atmosphere
interactions in the high elevations react more efficiently than at lower elevations. For instance,
Beninston (1997, 2006) explained the acceleration of snow cover reduction in the Alps due to a
NAO-induced high-pressure anomaly with in-active precipitations and negative snow-albedo
feedback. Extreme dry/wet months during non-monsoon seasons in the Himalayas are also
explained by the impacts of convection in the tropics of South Asia (Ueno and Aryal, 2008). Changes
in predominant circulation patterns over central Asia mountains affect the accumulation rate of
glaciers in the Altai, Tien Shan and Pamir high mountains (Aizen, et al., 2004, 2006, 2008). At the
seasonal time scale, weather at high elevations is strongly determined by the prevailing upper
jet-stream caused by the atmospheric dynamics. Large scale mountain systems dynamically change
the routes of the jet-stream and induce unique synoptic patterns in the leeward. Meridional shift of
the location of the subtropical jet driven as a part of local-Hadley and sub-polar jet in the baroclinic
zone is changing year-by-year, altering the seasonal timing of mountain impacts on local weather.
Weakening of upper the jet-stream causes the activation of local deep convections and enhances
diurnal signals.
Longer-term dry/wet climate trends affect the glacier mass balance (Aizen and Aizen, 1995, 1997)
and high elevation ecosystems. Many ice cores (Adhicary, et al, 1995) and lake sediment cores (Lami,
2007) at high-elevations have recorded climate changes, but there are still explanation gaps
between the decadal scale trends and year-to-year variability. In particular, vegetation, which has
an important function in preventing land-surface degradation and controlling EWC, needs time to
acclimatise at high-elevations, and the impact of recent rapid climate changes on its distribution
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are of deep concern. Ecosystem conservation in mountain is also important for the tourism industry
in alpine countries. The knowledge of local EWC modification is important for understanding and
predicting quantitatively the surface of hydro-meteorological elements in high altitude areas
(Viviroli et al., 2007; Viviroli and Weingartner, 2004).
2.4.3 Transportation processes of water-vapour/energy
Most water vapour remains in the warm low-level troposphere. Mountain-valley circulation has
been identified as an important function in accumulating WV over mountains (Kimura and
Kuwagata, 1995), but sub-continental scale transport WV, air pollution and aerosols from lowlands
to high elevations is still unclear.
Recently, possible mechanisms of aerosol effects on the activity of Indian monsoon have been
proposed (Meehl et al., 2008), stressing the importance of plateau-plain circulation processes and
latitudinal temperature gradient changes. Chemical reactions between the dry gases/aerosols and
wet convections are another complicated mechanism.
Given the complexity of such mechanisms, multiple steps must be considered. First, it is necessary
to understand the 3D structure of mixing layer development over the lowlands with horizontal
upslope circulation in the daytime and gravity currents with stable inversion layer at nighttime.
Secondly, attention must be addressed to the development of vertical deep moist convections, which
give rise to precipitation systems and their propagation. The convection breaks the dry mixing
layers and washout the atmospheric materials. Thirdly, such diurnal modes are strongly modified
by intraseasonal variability or the seasonal progress of upper general flows with the changing
land-surface conditions.
Numerical simulations with multiple nesting and back-trajectory analysis are useful tools for
diagnosing the key factors in the multiple steps. In simulations data analyses are used to define the
boundary conditions on large environment scale, even if the accuracy of data close to massive
topography is always difficult. Since isotopic concentration in water vapour and consequent
precipitation are sensitive to condensation and evaporation processes during circulation, isotopes
can be used to verify the numerical simulations and back-trajectory analyses (e.g., Yoshimura et al.,
2003), leading to an accurate estimation of the evaporative source of water vapour (Yoshimura et al.,
2004). The longterm range of annual and seasonal variability in atmospheric aerosols (natural and
anthropic) can be recovered from high elevation ice cores (Kand, et al, 2001; Kreutz, et al., 2002;
Aizen, et al., 2008). Cross-cutting study works with monsoon and aerosol CEOP’s groups are
strongly recommended to attain further understanding from different points of view, as well as
collaboration with the Stable Water Isotope Intercomparison Group (SWING) Project for isotope
Global Climate Models (GCM).
2.4.4 Influences of mountains on extreme weather, water resources and sub-continental scale
climate changes
It is well known that regional climates are strongly influenced by topography. Continental scale
mountain ranges especially produce drastic changes in climate distribution with an unbalance of
surface water availability over the continent. For instance around the TP, abundant precipitation in
the south causes frequent landslides and flooding that fertilize the lands, while the extreme dry
climate of the north induces desertification, so that human life is reliant on underground water
supplied by the plateau. Interactions between the terrain and induced mesoscale circulations or
between the terrain and general flows, such as low-level monsoon flows, cause stagnant
precipitation in the lands around mountains (Barros and Lang, 2003). Extreme weathers, such as
heavy rains and cold waves in southern China, are also influenced by thermo-dynamic effects in the
lee of the plateau (e.g. Tao and Ding, 1981, Murakami, 1981). Numerical models suggest that rising
temperatures over TP may lead to increasing summer frontal rainfall in East Asia (Wang et al.,
2008). It is of concern that, while sub-continental scale climate variability is expected to determine
benefits and damage to the human life, their physical mechanisms and ranges have not been fully
diagnosed in terms of mountain impact studies.
Multiple data and studies carried out by numerical simulations are suitable to assure the
up-scaling effects (Beniston et al., 2007b). Analysis of water and the lower troposphere by the
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infrastructure on the mountain and data transfer and assimilation techniques will improve
forecasting of extreme weather down stream. Over longer-timescales, the cryosphere changes at
high elevations, such as retreating glaciers and outburst flooding, are already known. Changes of
precipitation type from solid to liquid influences the downstream runoff in the semi-arid lowlands
by altering glacier mass-balance (Aizen et al., 1997). Impacts of changing water resources on
irrigation for agriculture needs to be predicted with availability of waters at high elevations
(López-Moreno et al., 2008). As one of the application component of CEOP-HE, assessment of the
impact should be studied by comparing the different climate zones under continental scale EWC
flows.
2.4.5 High elevations as cold regions
Snow cover
Seasonal snow contributes up to 60% of snowmelt runoff in non-glacial catchments (Aizen et al.,
1996). Seasonal snow that covers mountain areas at different elevations for a period of one week to
12 months is the most important source of melt water in high elevated mountain areas. Over the
mountains, energy used for snowmelt amounted to 30x1012 MJ yr -1 with a maximum from the end
of spring to the middle of summer. The annual air volume cooled 5 o C by snowmelt amounted, on
average, to 0.9x107 km 3 yr -1 . The heat loss from snowmelt in mountains amounted to about one
third of heat loss in the plains, and air volume cooled by snowmelt in mountains amounted to about
one half of air volume over plains. The difference in the proportions occurred as a result of lesser air
thickness in mountains than over plains, which allowed the cooling of a larger air volume in
mountains under the same amounts of heat losses. The process of snow ablation and atmospheric
cooling in mountains due to snowmelt occurs more slowly and without the abrupt changes observed
on the plains, and energy losses in mountains smooth the general process of atmospheric cooling
prolonging it until the beginning of autumn (Aizen et al., 2000). The feedback of the spring and
summer snow ablation can explain the long-term rise in air temperatures being more pronounced
from early summer to August (Aizen et al., 1997), when maximum energy loss from snowmelt
occurs over the mountainous areas. The study of seasonal snow cover extension and the energy
spent during the snowmelt are important in the development of regional and global climatic models
in the frame of the HE Program.
Glaciers
Glacier ice at high elevated mountain areas covers approximately 3% of the Earth’s total land
surface, or 500,000 km 2 , and they store about 180,000 km 3 of world’s fresh water (Benn and Evans,
1998). Glacier melt water is particularly important when the lower courses flow through semi-arid
and arid regions with high evaporation rates and high demands for irrigation water during the
vegetation period in many mid-latitude areas adjacent to mountain systems, such as the Alps and
the mountains of central Asia and western China (Viviroli, 2007). A decrease in glacial and seasonal
snow covered areas reduces these portions of water in total river runoff, increasing the proportion of
precipitation runoff. Glaciers integrate climate variations over a wide range of timescales, making
them natural sensors of climate variability and providing a visible expression of climate changes,
preserving climatic signatures that can be used to reconstruct past climatic and environmental
records though the chemical analyses of glacier deep ice-cores. Ice-coring research and
paleo-climatic and environmental reconstruction would be a great asset to the HE Program.
Changes in air temperature and moisture income may influence mountain regions differently at the
macro- and meso-scale and even at the scale of small catchments For example, glaciers in the
European Alps, South and North America are more vulnerable, and retreat faster than Tien Shan,
Pamir or Tibetan glaciers due to their lower absolute elevations (Paul et al., 2004; Naftz et al., 2002;
Francou et al., 2003). Glaciers of the high TP, Himalayas and central Asia may be more stable and
may even advance (Bahadur and Naithani, 1999; Ageta et al., 2001; Fujita et al., 2001; Aizen et al.,
2006a; Liu et al., 2006; Narama et al., 2006).
There is much evidence that glaciers have been retreating globally since the mid-19th century, after
the “Little Ice Age” (Adamenko and Subaev, 1977; Mayewski and Jeschke, 1979; Naftz et al., 1996;
Thompson et al., 2003), and that glacier recession began to accelerate from the middle of 1970s in
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the majority of mountain regions of the world (Kadota et al., 1997; Liu et al., 2002; Paul et al., 2004;
Aizen et al., 2006b; Surazakov et al., 2007) in response to a rapid increase of air temperature and
changes in precipitation partition (rain instead of snow) at high mountains.
Permafrost and periglacial zone
Extensive distribution of permafrost, water thermal erosion and snow chemical weathering are
characteristic elements of periglacial high elevated mountain areas, implying two main processes:
frost action – wedging, heaving, trusting, and cracking, that all serve to prepare bedrock or soil for
erosion, while mass movements transport the loosened debris. The combination of such factors
results in geomorphic features that are unique to high elevated periglacial areas, i.e. hillslope
erosion and modified landforms. The dominated role of permafrost in periglacial landform is
apparent. In some high elevated mountainous areas the volume of stored ground ice is comparable
to that of modern glaciers, accounting for up to 20% of the total runoff (Gorbunov et al., 1997;
Vilesov and Belova, 1989). The increase in air temperature also has an effect on the alpine
permafrost. An increase in permafrost temperatures from 0.3°C at the early 1970s up to 0.6°C in
the 2000s has enlarged the thickness of the permafrost active-layer by 23%. The modeling estimates
show that the lower boundary of permafrost distribution has shifted by about 150–200 m upward
during the twentieth century (Marchenko et al., 2006). The seasonal soil thaw has increased by
30-35% during the last 30 years (Gorbunov, 2007, Gorbunov et al., 1997, Severskiy E., 2007).
However, the stratums of seasonal permafrost reaction to climate changes remain ambiguous in
different high elevated landscape conditions and require long-term monitoring.
Rock glaciers also play a role in high elevated periglacial geomorphology and hydrology. The
available evidence suggests that, while rare, in the South American Andes, TP, Himalayas and
central Asian, mountains rock glaciers are numerous and probably contain significant amounts of
buried ice that contribute to periglacial processes and meltwater runoff formation. Flowing water in
periglacial high elevated mountain areas exerts an important influence on glacier behavior and
geomorphological processes, producing both benefits and hazards to human settlements in the low
river reaches. The hydrology of some periglacial areas is characterized by the periodic or occasional
release of large amounts of water in catastrophic outburst floods, creating devastating mudflows
and flooding down through river valleys. The periglacial processes of high elevated mountainous
areas have been studied very little and require special attention.
2.4.6 Atmospheric aerosol at high elevations
The high elevation areas, located far from direct anthropogenic emissions, are ideal sites for the
monitoring of atmospheric background conditions and for the early detection of global change
processes. Moreover in these areas the presence of atmospheric aerosols and greenhouse gases
affects the regional climate by altering the radiation budgets that are part of the Earth’s energy
balance (IPCC, 2007, Forster, 2007). As pointed out also by United Nations Environment
Programme, the environmental impact of aerosol and other anthropic pollutant emissions has
significantly increased in the last fifty years mainly due to the growth of energy demand related to
industrial processes and vehicular traffic. This strongly influences the Earth’s climate and water
cycle from local to global scales, both in urban and remote areas, like mountain regions. In fact, the
aerosol can directly affect cloud properties: for example, an increase in aerosol concentration will
increase the number of droplets in warm clouds, decreasing their average size, reducing the rate of
precipitation, and extending the cloud lifetime (Spichtinger and Cziczo, 2008). In addition, as also
pointed out during the Atmospheric Brown Cloud (ABC) project (Ramanathan et al., 2008), the
aerosol can directly absorb or reflect the incoming solar radiation before it reaches the Earth’s
surface. In this way the temperature fields (both horizontal and vertical) and the hydrological cycles
can be perturbed. In South Asia, it has been found that the presence of huge layers of absorbing
aerosols (e.g. black carbon, BC) may intensify the Indian monsoon through the so-called
‘‘Elevated-Heat-Pump’’ (Lau et al., 2006; 2008), and favour the early monsoon onset with increased
rainfall coming to northern India during May (Lau and Kim, 2006). However, as reported in
Bollassina et al. (2008) and confirming similar findings proposed by Ramanathan et al. (2005),
Meehl et al. (2008) found that over India BC aerosols can lead to an increase in premonsoon rainfall,
CEOP-HE
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ut to a decrease in rainfall during the monsoon season itself, with season-averaged break monsoon
conditions associated with cooler SSTs in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal and warmer SSTs
to the South (i.e., a weaker latitudinal SST gradient). These studies suggest that aerosol (and BC in
particular) effects on monsoon water cycle dynamics are extremely complex and strongly dependent
on aerosol distribution and characteristics over different spatial and temporal scales (Lau and Kim,
2006).
Within this context, HE could play an important role in studying the direct impact of aerosol on
precipitation at high elevations, especially in those regions affected by regional or continental
transport processes of biomass and fossil-fuel burning emissions.
2.4.7 Global warming effects on high altitude ecosystems
In our century the resilience of many ecosystems seems to have declined, faced with an
unprecedented combination of change in climate, associated disturbance and other global change
drivers, if greenhouse gas emissions and other changes continue at or above current rate. Since an
ecosystem can be defined as a dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities,
and non-living environment, interacting as a functional unit (Reid et al., 2005), an alteration of
ecosystems is followed by the modification of the interaction between abiotic and biotic components.
Current climate changes are also showing their effects on high elevation ecosystems, recognized in
IPCC 2007 among the most vulnerable ecosystems, causing an alteration of the biological
community.
Glaciers, for example, are a fundamental part of the cryosphere, but also important ecosystems
harbouring many microorganisms (Skidmore et al., 2000; Christner et al., 2003). Cryoconite holes
are often present on the surface of glaciers covering 0.1-10% of their surface area. These small
water-filled depressions (typically

cause turbid lakes to become more UV transparent (Sommaruga, 1997). In both cases the change of
radiation intensity will considerably influence the distribution of organisms in the lake water and
all biochemical reactions, for instance photosynthesis and respiration.
An increase in global temperatures may in turn cause water scarcity in some regions and increased
precipitation in others, and changes in mountain snowpack, with considerable effects also on
terrestrial plant and animal communities. In fact, climate change will cause geographical shifts in
the ranges of individual plant species and vegetation zone (Gonzales et al., 2005). In particular, in
the high mountains, plant species responding to higher temperatures may migrate upwards thus
threatening the upper vegetation zones (Peters and Darling, 1985; Ozenda and Borel 1991),
altering the availability of natural resources and the geographic location and extent of herbivore
and carnivore habitats (Danby and Hik, 2007; IPCC, 2007).
2.5. Regional issues
Climate conditions in the mountains and high-elevations, such as temperature and precipitation
amounts, differ from one region to another.
In the following section, regional issues of six major mountain areas are introduced to identify the
common/unique problems to address in HE activities to study EWC.
2.5.1 Tibet/Himalayas
Tibet/Himalayas are the most massive high elevation features in the world located in subtropical
regions. The plateau area extends on a scale of several 1000 km over 4000 m asl, and the
topography of the Himalayas consists of extreme deep valleys between 2000-7000 m levels.
To investigate the EWC, GAME-Tibet conducted pilot intensive observations focusing on
land-atmosphere interactions with modern instruments and remote sensing (Koike et al., 2002).
Moreover, currently, intensive observation network, TORP/NOIST (Ma et al., 2008; Xu e t al., 2008),
operated in collaboration with the JICA project and SHARE networking in the Nepal Himalayas by
the EV-K2-CNR, with two reference sites (RS) have been functioning over the TP under the CEOP
Phase II.
So far, many studies have been carried out in multiple timescales to evaluate the function of
TP/Himalayas on the Asian monsoon system, including the geological timescale (e.g. Abe et al.,
2003), year-to year or intra-seasonal variability (e.g., Yanai and Wu, 2006; Sato and Kimura, 2006),
and diurnal changes (e.g. Barros and Lang, 2003; Yasunari and Miwa, 2006), and their processes
are linked strictly. Studies leading to the establishment of observation networks and data
management systems are expected to facilitate the improvement of weather/climate forecasting in
the neighboring countries of East Asia.
Himalayan glaciers are maintained by huge moisture intrusions associated with the Indian
monsoon (Fujita et al., 1997), and provide important water resources during the dry season in the
surrounding areas. For this reason, recently, glacier retreat in the Himalayan mountain regions has
led to serious environmental problems (UNEP, 2008: Global Glacier Changes), such as the Glacier
Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) phenomenon and shortage of urban water. Furthermore, over a longer
time scale, eco-environmental degradation and permafrost reduction have been recorded in the
northeast TP (e.g. Wang et al., 2007), even if the causes are still unclear.
Water vapor transport is a key element for controlling the variability of EWC (Thomas, 2002; Chen
et al, 2006). Recent studies have focused on the importance of intraseasonal variability during
monsoons coupled with mid-latitude baroclinic waves, suggesting it to be the cause of mutual
changes of water vapor transportation between the recycling phase within the plateau area and the
intrusion phase from the outside (e.g., Sugimoto et al., 2008). To clarify the WEC, a comprehensive
observation network, numerical simulations, and aerological observations are fundamental element,
together with isotope studies (e.g. Kurita and Yamada, 2008).
Recently, the mechanism and impact of evident convective activity during non-monsoon season
(Fujinami and Yasunari, 2001) has been highlighted. The seasonal transition from winter to
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monsoon season is very attractive for understanding the thermo-dynamical functions of orography
with respect to snow cover and permafrost melting over the TP (Ueno et al., 2008).
In fact, in this season snow cover seems to play an important role in reducing radiative forcing and
changing the Asian climate (Yasunari et al., 1991), even if it is discontinuous with a large
temperature heterogeneity on the surface. Within this context, the importance of a snow
redistribution process was proposed to explain the consistency of surface heating and
remaining snow cover (Ueno et al., 2007).
At the same time, aerosol activity over the Hindustan Plain, influenced by the monsoon, is at a
maximum in this season, which plausibly changes in the meridional tropospheric temperature
gradient (e.g., Lau et al. 2006; Meehl et al., 2008). However, the long-distance transportation and
local circulations of aerosol and atmospheric components over the Himalayas and TP are still
unclear, and continuous monitoring of such materials was begun at extremely high elevations by
the ABC project (Bonasoni et al., 2008).
2.5.2 Central Asia Mountains: Altai, Tien Shan and Pamir
In this area climatic conditions are different from those described above. In fact, the monsoon is
absent in Central Asia and the co-existence of high elevated cold and arid desert areas is
determined only by the presence of central Asia mountain systems: the Altai, Tien Shan and Pamir.
The dry areas of central Asia are characterized by snow and glacier melt process more relevant in
the World. The large Aral-Caspian and Tarim closed drainage basins and great Siberian rivers the
Ob, Yenisei are fed by the central Asian glaciers located in Tien Shan, Pamir and Altai.
The central Asian glaciers cover an area of 30,627 km 2 (Dolgushin, 1989; Nikitin, 2007; Aizen et al.,
2008c) and comprise approximately 3,133 km 3 of fresh water. Changes in global and regional air
temperatures, frequency and patterns of major atmospheric circulation processes regulating
moisture flow over central Asia, are the main driving forces of the energy and hydrological cycle in
central Asian drainage basins. Moisture from the Atlantic Ocean is the main source of precipitation
on the Altai and Pamir glaciers (Aizen et al., 2005; 2006c; 2008a), while the Tien Shan glaciers
receive a large contribution of recycled (re-evaporated) atmospheric moisture from the Aral-Caspian
closed drainage basin and from the Eastern Black Sea (Aizen et. al., 2004).
The shift between predominant atmospheric circulation patterns determine glacier dynamics and
river runoff regime in the short- and long-term, as it may change the contribution of moisture
(snow) to the glacier accumulation process and change the glacier surface albedo during the
ablation period. The Altai mountain ridges also define the southern periphery of the Asian Arctic
Basin, and the Ob and Yenisei rivers are the only Siberian rivers that feed from Altai glaciers. In
recent, years both have recorded an increase in annual precipitation in the Altai alpine areas and
high elevations of the north-western and central Pamir over 3,000 m by 3,2 mm yr -1 and 8.1 mm yr -1
(Finaev, 2007), respectively, as well as an increase in summer air temperatures of 0.03 o C
yr -1 (Surazakov et al., 2007; Finaev, 2007 ) which has caused a continuous glacier recession. Unlike
Pamir and Altai, precipitation in Tien Shan has increased mainly at the western and northern part
of the mountain system, while air temperature has increased at elevations below 3000 m (0.02 o C
yr -1 )
Snow dominates the central Asian high elevation hydrology, accounting for 50-70% of total
precipitation, and providing 60% of the total river runoff (Denisov, 1965; Gray and Male, 1981;
Krenke, 1982; Aizen et al., 1997, 2006d; 2008c). During droughts, the proportion of glacial runoff
increases to 30% of the total, due to the decrease in precipitation and increase in glacier melt.
Mathematical simulations of the current glacier state and forecasts of the potential impact of global
and regional climate change on glaciers and glacier river runoff in Tien Shan have been performed.
It has been estimated that an increase in air temperature of 1 o C at ELA must be compensated by a
100 mm yr -1 increase in precipitation at the same altitude to maintain glaciers in their current state.
An increase in mean air temperature of 4 o C and precipitation of 1.1 times the current level that is
predicted for the 21st century may raise ELA by 570 m during the 21st century.
Glacier number, glacier covered area, glacier volume, and glacier runoff are predicted to be 94%,
69%, 75%, and 75% the current values. The maximum glacier runoff may reach as much as 1.25
times current levels, while the minimum is likely to equal zero (Aizen et. al., 2007). While the Tien
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Shan glacier area decreases continuously, the annual river discharge has been growing over the last
decade, mainly due to precipitation increase.
The sharp change in river runoff suggests the non-linear system response. In fact, the
evapotraspiration process does not respond linearly to air temperature and precipitation changes.
As reported by Aizen et al. (2006d), the evapotranspiration process seems to be independent of
amount of precipitations. This phenomenon is accelerated both when there is a surplus of
precipitation and when there is a deficit of precipitation, and air temperature increases.
The increase in aridity of continental interiors may cause a massive aeolian aerosol spread in the
troposphere, which could affect the Earth’s heat balance and generate direct biospheric and societal
impacts that extend thousands of kilometers away from the origins of dust storms. The deposition of
dust on seasonal snow cover and glacier ice will decrease the albedo of these surfaces and may
accelerate melting (Adhikary et al., 2002; Hansen and Nazarenko, 2004). Current glacier recession,
initially considered a positive factor that increased river flow, ultimately causes the runoff to
decrease.
2.5.3 North America Mountains
The Western Cordillera is the most prominent mountain range in North America (NA), extending
from Alaska to Central America. It includes a number of ranges along the western coast (Alaska
Range, Coast Range, the Cascades, the Sierra Nevada and Sierra Madres) and the Rocky
Mountains, just west of the Great Plains. In these regions also, snowpack represents an important
component of the water cycle in much of western NA and snowmelt generates roughly 60-90% of
streamflow in western North America. Many snowmelt-fed rivers originating in western mountain
ranges provide water to arid and semi-arid regions downstream, as is the case of the Colorado River
basin.
Important changes were observed in the NA mountain hydroclimate during the 20th century (IPCC,
2007), including the decrease in snow cover above all in spring over western NA (Groisman et al.,
2004) and the decline of spring mountain soil water equivalent (SWE) in western NA since 1950
(Stewart et al., 2005). Another important hydrological change associated to recent warming is the
tendency for precipitation to occur more in the form of rain rather than as snow (Knowles et al.,
2006). Regarding NA glaciers, it is estimated that the fraction of glacier area lost in the Western
United States since 1900 is on average roughly 40%.
Leung et al. (2003) investigated factors determining cold season hydroclimate anomalies in western
NA mountainous regions, demonstrating that there are interactions between large scale circulation
changes and regional topography. The current climate changes produce anomalies that are difficult
to forecast. For this reason both the ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillation) and the Pacific Decadal
Oscillation models have great difficulty in simulating and predicting the MJO (Madden Julian
Oscillation).
The North American Monsoon system (NAM) during the warm season is of particular importance to
water resources in the American Southwest. The Sierra Madre Occidental mountains of western
Mexico on average receive in excess of 60-70% of their annual rainfall in June-September, as part of
the NAM (Douglas et al., 1993). The mountainous terrain of southwestern North America and its
juxtaposition to seasonally warm water bodies of the eastern tropical Pacific, the Gulf of California,
and the Gulf of Mexico, serve as a driving component of the regional climate circulation, which
helps to initiate and sustain extra-tropical moisture during the NAM (Gochis, 2007).
Since 2004, a continental-scale process study called the North American Monsoon Experiment
(NAME) has been operative. Its aim is to understand the NAM (Higgins et al., 2006) and study the
characteristics of the precipitation-elevation relationship along the Sierra Madre Occidental
Mountains from the Gulf of California coast to the Mexican Plateau (NERN; Gochis et al., 2004).
Currently, further research is required to study microphysical processes and the structure of
diurnally-forced terrain circulations (Gochis, 2008).
Many factors condition the NA climate. For instance, drought occurrence over NA, due to a
combination of remote SST influences and regional land feedbacks (McCabe et al. 2004; Schubert et
al., 2004), has significant impacts on mountain environments, with reduced precipitation amounts
directly impacting snowpack formation, soil moisture and streamflow. Indirect hydrologic effects on
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mountain environments occur when wind-blown dust from drought-stricken and disturbed lands
shorten the duration of mountain snow cover hundreds of miles away by up to one month (Painter,
2007).
Mountain ranges also have important feedbacks on NA climate via topographic and land-memory
effects. Mountains are instrumental in convective processes along the coast of California (Neiman
et al., 2002) and in the generation of orographic precipitation during the NAM, as observed during
the NAME 2004 campaign. Key issues are associated with the initiation and life-cycle of convection
over the North American Cordillera and the eastward propagation of organized convection. NA
orography also plays an important and yet-to-be-fully understood role in the formation of the
low-level jets in the Gulf of California and Gulf of Mexico. These jets are of great importance for the
in-land transport of moisture and precipitation from neighboring oceanic regions. Snow-processes
(accumulation and snowmelt) are of particular importance regarding high-elevation impacts on
climate because these phenomena affect spatial and temporal variability of albedo and low thermal
conductivity. More research is needed to improve the simulation of snow processes in climate
models and to develop snow monitoring products based on the assimilation of in-situ and remotely
sensed data. Crucial data and process studies to improve the understanding of cold season
processes in western NA have included the North American Cordilleran Transect, the Cold Land
Processes Experiment (CLPX; Cline et al., 2008) and the Improvement of Microphysical
PaRameterizations through Observational Verification Experiment (IMPROVE; Stoelinga et al.,
2003).
2.5.4 South America Andes Cordillera
The Andes Cordillera is the longest mountain range in the world, extending more than 5.000 km
from Venezuela in northern South America (10º N) all the way to the southern tip of the continent
(53ºS), running parallel and very close to the Pacific coast. The Andes height is also impressive;
from the Equator to about 35 ºS its peaks are well over the 5000 m asl and its mean height
continuously exceeds 3000 m asl In contrast to its length and height, the Andes are a rather narrow
range. The mean width (defined as the transverse distance between points at 700 m asl) is less than
200 km along most of its length, except in its central portion (between 16-22º S) where the mountain
splits into two ranges holding a high-level plateau in between. The so-called South American
Altiplano has a mean width of 300 km and its floor level is about 4000 m asl, hosting the world’s
highest mega-lake (Titicaca) and salt-flat (Salar de Uyuni).
The Andes are extremely continuous. Only south of 35º S are there passes below 2000 m asl, while
south of 45º S (Patagonia) the Andes become a collection of isolated peaks (still higher than 1500 m
asl).
Consistent with their long north-south extension, the Andes host a variety of climates, from
equatorial glaciers to the massive ice fields of Patagonia. Broadly speaking, the Andes can be
separated into four major climate zones: equatorial, central, subtropical and southern Andes. Up to
about 10º S, the equatorial Andes are embedded in the tropical belt convective activity along its
eastern and western slopes, dominated by precipitation input ranging between 800 and 1500 mm
yr -1 .While convective storms occur year round, there are two main rainy seasons associated with the
insolation maxima at these low latitudes (around April and October). The low-latitude Andes host
90% of the world equatorial glaciers (most of them located in Ecuador and northern Peru), which
currently exhibit a dramatic retreat, with all the negative consequences for water resources in this
region (Garreaud et al. 2009). Farther south, the Altiplano (or central Andes) has only one rainy
season extending from November to March. As in the equatorial portion, precipitation over the
Altiplano is largely due to convective storms (with a very marked diurnal cycle), fed by water vapor
that originates over the lowlands of Bolivia and the Amazon basin (Garreaud et al., 2002). There is
a minor contribution of cutoff lows segregated from the SH mid-latitude flow. The Altiplano exhibits
a strong precipitation gradient that decreases from north to south.
The precipitation gradient reverts along the subtropical Andes (23-35ºS) as the southern portion
begins to receive the influence of extratropical weather systems, mainly cold fronts during the
austral winter. Orographic uplift enhances precipitation over the western slope, in sharp contrast
with the drier conditions over the eastern slopes (Poveda et al., 2006). Cold temperatures lead to the
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formation of seasonal snow during winter, that melts in spring-summer, bringing precious water
resources for low-land agriculture in central Chile and western Argentina. Finally, south of 40ºS,
the continuous passage of mid-latitude systems provides an abundance of precipitation (1000-4000
mm yr -1 ) for the southern Andes, supporting major rivers, glaciers and the large northern and
southern Patagonia ice fields (Falvey and Garreaud, 2007).
Because of their altitude and continuity, the Andes also act as a climate wall for South America. The
equatorial and central Andes separate the extremely wet continent interior to the east from the
Peru-Chile (Atacama) desert to the west. In a larger context, the Andes also contribute to shaping
the South American climate. One the one hand, the Andes are instrumental to the existence of a
low-level jet along the eastern slope of the mountains that transports a large quantity of water
vapor from the Amazon basin to the subtropical plains of northern Argentina and southern Brazil.
This so-called “atmospheric river” (Garreaud and Aceituno, 2007) is largely responsible for the
southward extent of the monsoonal precipitation regime during austral summer. On the other hand,
the Andes block the westerly flow at subtropical latitudes, increasing subsidence over the eastern
side of the subtropical Pacific, leading to the extremely stable and dry conditions that prevail along
the coasts of northern Chile and Peru (Garreaud, 1999).
The importance of the Andes is fully recognized, but these ecosystems are among the mountain
ranges with the lowest density of meteorological stations.
2.5.6 European Alps
With an area of about 200.000 km² and average summit altitudes between 2500 and 4300m, the
European Alps are by far the smallest and lowest mountain range of all major ranges. Located at
the boundary between west wind zone and the Mediterranean climate regime, marked climatic
differences exist between the northern and southern Alps, despite a north-south width of less than
200km. In addition, dry inner-alpine valleys provide a further differentiation of climatic conditions.
At the same time, the Alps are the best sampled range, in terms of both the density of the station
network and historical coverage. Among high elevated climate observatories the oldest stations
have been operating at least since the late-19th century (Hohenpeißenberg since 1786 at 986 m, Pic
du Midi since 1882 at 2862 m; Sonnblick since 1886 at 3105 m).
As a result, a vast body of literature exists that covers virtually every aspect of mountain
meteorology and climatology with a strong focus on long-term climatologies. However, while it is
true that the synoptic networks of Austria, Switzerland and France provide the densest coverage for
any mountain range, even here the long-term trends of e.g. snow cover are not known precisely,
because of a lack of directly observed data.
At the same time, the Alps have been densely settled since earliest times and are traversed by
major European traffic routes. Tourism provides a major source of income in both summer and
winter, with many tourist facilities located well above the timber line. Natural disasters such as
snow storms, avalanches and debris flows are therefore a major concern (Beniston, 2007a). In
addition, the Alps are the largest source of hydroenergy in Europe (excluding the Scandinavian
countries). The headwaters of the Rhine, Danube, Rhone and Po rivers all originate in the glaciated
inner region of the Alps, and provide a crucial fresh water source for the greater part of Europe
(López-Moreno et al., 2008). Climate conditions thus play an important role in determining the
scope and intensity of human activities in the mountains and the surrounding countries. Climate
change may threaten the very foundations upon from which depend the most human activities both
in the Alps then in the surrounding areas.
Given the availability of long-term climate data in high elevated areas, the general characteristics
of climate change are relatively well known. In the northern and western regions of the Alps
average wintertime precipitation increased by 20-30% during the 20th century. In contrast, average
precipitation in the Mediterranean part of the Alps in autumn decreased by a similar amount
(Schmidli et al., 2002). Days with heavy precipitation have increased in winter and autumn, while
no systematic trends are evident for intensive daily summer precipitation values (Frei and Schär,
2001, Schmidli and Frei, 2005). Snow cover depth and duration are in step with northern
hemisphere observations, increasing until the 1980s and decreasing thereafter (Laternser and
Schneebeli, 2003). Sunshine duration has increased in step with temperature (Brunetti et al., 2009).
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Changes with altitude are particularly important in mountain regions, with temperature trends
increasing less strongly at higher altitudes in northern Switzerland than at lower elevations
(Rebetez, 2004, Rebetez and Reinhard, 2008). Trends show distinct spatial differences, despite the
relatively small size of the Alps. In general, however, climate variability and variability of climatic
extremes appears not to have changed significantly.
Research concentrates on applied topics, including future conditions of snow packs for winter
tourism, glacier melt projections for hydropower generation, permafrost degeneration studies to
model slope instabilities, or drought trend analysis for agricultural applications. This includes
state-of-the art climate projections at resolutions of 25-100m in large-scale coordinated research
financed by the EU Framework Programs.
2.5.7 African Mountains
The eastern arc of African high mountain environments spans from northern Eritrea (Jabal
Hamoyet: 2780 m asl) at ca 18° N to the southern Cape (Matroosberg: 2249 m asl) at ca 33° S.
Concerning scientific contributions towards the current understanding of the climate and
cryospheric dynamics across the eastern arc mountains (Grab, 2002), while some mountains of
international interest, such as Kilimanjaro, Mt Kenya and Ruwenzori, have had some well
established science programmes focusing on glacier recession, ice core data, and contemporary
climate monitoring, many other high altitude ranges exceeding 3000 m have few or no
climate/cryogenic records (Mulder, and Grab, 2002).
Many of Africa’s prominent mountain environments are located within the tropics and beyond, and
may thus be directly impacted by such sea surface temperature changes (Grab, 1997). Diaz and
Graham (1996), observed how ‘changes in freezing-level height are related to a long-term increase
in sea surface temperatures in the tropics’, and ‘tropical environments may be particularly sensitive
because the changes in tropical sea surface temperature and humidity may be largest and most
systematic at low latitudes’. The extensive latitudinal representation of high mountains along
eastern Africa (Eritrea to the Western Cape of South Africa) presents an opportunity to test the
extent to which global climate change impacts local mountain climates at different latitudes within
a broad longitudinal transect which could span from northern Europe to southern Africa.
Furthermore, Africa’s vanishing glaciers and high alpine lakes provide valuable information on past
and contemporary high altitude climate change. Many, if not most, African mountain environments
are surrounded by drought prone and low-rainfall regions (e.g. Jebel Marra, Ethiopian highlands,
East African Rift highland and mountain systems, mountains of southern Africa). Most African
mountain environments have a positive water balance and are thus able to act as water reservoirs
to surrounding regions. Predicting future climate and associated hydrological models for African
mountains is imperative for regional water management and the planning for future sustainable
water resources. In addition, several African mountain environments are now listed as Ramsar
Wetland sites and/or World Heritage Sites and/or Transfrontier Parks. These mountains offer
important refuge to human habitation, fauna and flora (mountains as biological refuge sites and
centers for high levels of endemism and diversity). It is thus essential to quantify and understand
what contribution climate, as a global change driver, is making towards changing biological,
agricultural, tourism and other mountain environmental and socio-economic systems (Grab, 2007).
The development of new studies and the installation of other stations to obtain further details on
the climatology and hydrology of Africa’s mountains are needed. Moreover, in this region the
climate change effects (i.e. dramatic decline in lake levels, rapid glacial retreat, accentuated
sublimation, etc.) are becoming more and more obvious, even if the differences among regions
remain unclear.
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3. CEOP-HE plan
3.1. Goal and objectives
Based on the key elements of process studies with various regional issues regarding the EWC over
HE and large scale mountains, CEOP-HE working group set its goal under the GEWEX/CEOP
activity to study multi-scale variability in hydro-meteorological and energy cycles in high elevation
environments, improving observation, modeling and data management.
To achieve the above goal, HE’s objectives are:
1. Improve the understanding of the energy cycle and climate change in mountain regions,
promoting long-term monitoring and establishing a consolidated network of observatories
located at high altitude, with the perspective of coordinating a Global High Elevations Watch
(GHEW).
2. Study the water cycle in high elevation regions with particular attention to climate change
effects on glaciers, permafrost, hydrology and mountain ecosystems.
3. Improve the understanding of aerosol influence on energy and water cycles in high elevation
areas.
4. Promote and develop research activities in case study areas located at high elevations at the
worldwide level.
3.2. Implementation strategy
In order to ensure successful achievement of the general goals, the key elements of an
implementation strategy within the first five years of activity have been identified, summarized as
follows.
‣ Action A: Network of observatories.
HE will focus its efforts on the creation of an HE network (HE-Net) of observatories, which will
include both CEOP-HE Reference Sites and other selected and well representative sites located
in the Earth’s high elevations areas.
‣ Action B: Data quality management
For each site metadata regarding the installation procedures, data acquisition and validation,
long-term maintenance, QA/QC policies, data sharing policies, etc. will be developed, specifically
oriented towards high elevated remote areas.
‣ Action C: Archive, data assimilation and management
Data collected from both CEOP-HE Research Stations and other high elevated environmental
monitoring stations will be organized in a database as a part of the SHARE Information
System.
‣ Action D: Exchange and campaign activities of scientific results
Exchange of results and progress obtained in HE related studies world-wide will be ensured by
holding workshops or special sessions at major international conferences, in order to identify
common problems and goals, and promote/encourage/endorse research activities and
publications.
Collected data will be used in several disciplines to study: the interaction between global climate
change and ecosystems responses, such as glacial retreat, modifications of hydrological regimes at
high elevations; water budget processes and the role of atmospheric components of these processes;
modelling of high elevation climates, focusing particular attention on precipitation and physical
processes related to the water cycle; analysis of high elevation areas, etc.
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3.2 HE network of observatories
The first step towards coordinating a global HE Network of observatories (HE-Net) is to select
stations in high elevation areas that are representative for all major climatic zones, ecoregions and
regional circulation systems of the world. Particular emphasis will be placed on station networks
monitoring regional altitudinal gradients.
3.2.1 Identification of HE-Net stations
The selection of HE-Net stations will be based on the following characteristics:
1. elevation:
2. exposition;
3. available instrumentation;
4. duration, calibration and maintenance protocols;
5. homogeneity and completeness of data;
6. regional coverage;
7. integration in local/regional station networks.
Elevation is not the only criterion to consider. Exposition is also important, so to be representative
of local environmental conditions, a station must be located on an exposed site, for example, a
summit or ridge.
In addition to the well known high elevated stations, there are a number of stations that might be
included in this network despite their relatively low altitudes, as they are located at sites that
present the same characteristics as high elevated areas.
The network will include three different kinds of stations:
- HE Weather Stations: elements of national weather service networks, often Automatic Weather
Stations (AWSs) or Synoptic Stations, usually well distributed over a national territory, and
measuring several meteorological parameters in order to monitor the state of the atmosphere
and provide data for weather forecasting;
- HE Observatories: full-scale scientific observatories, in most cases long-term manned facilities
with extensive instrumentation, often dedicated to research other than climate monitoring (e.g.
astronomy, geophysics);
- HE Research Stations: in most cases AWSs, sometimes operated only for a limited time within a
research project, in most cases by individual university institutes.
For the establishment of the HE-Net, the stations should in general belong to the “observatories”
category, in order to guarantee high quality data and long-term continuous measurements. These
stations should be equipped with high quality sensors and, where possible, with real-time data
transmission systems.
The presented distribution of stations with altitude per % of mountainous terrain surface (1% is
equal to about 300,000 km 2 ), excluding Antarctica, was elaborated considering stations above 2,500
m a.s.l belonging to the GTS (Global Telecommunication System), GPCP (Global Precipitation
Climatology Project), FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization), NOAA (National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration), GAW (Global Atmospheric Watch), GOSIC (Global Observing
Systems Information Centre) and SHARE (Stations at High Altitude for Research on the
Environment) global networks.
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Figure 4 illustrates the relative density (number per one percent, #/%) of 646 sites for different
ranges of elevation: 3 sites above 4,500 m asl, less than 20 sites between 3,500 and 4,500 m and
around 30 sites between 2,500 and 3,500 m asl In other words, above 4,500 m asl there is one
observation site for each 100,000 km 2 , while between 2,500 and 3,500 m asl one site per 5,000 km 2 .
Fig. 4 - Distribution of about 650 sites above 2,500 m asl by a preliminary survey of AWSs in the world (excluding Antarctica)
considering GTS, GPCP, FAO, NOAA, GAWSIS, GOSIC and SHARE networks. The graph provides an overview of measurement
site density distribution per 1% of mountain areas (300000 km 2 ).
3.2.2 CEOP-HE reference sites
At present, the HE-Net includes the CEOP-HE Reference Sites which represent only four of the 52
sites included in CEOP.
In fact, the CEOP network currently comprises 52 selected globally distributed Reference Sites
(RSs) (Fig. 5). At these sites meteorological parameters (air temperature, relative humidity,
atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, global radiation, total precipitation) are observed,
while some stations are also equipped with sensors to measure both incoming and outgoing
longwave and shortwave radiation, soil temperature at -5 and -20 cm, soil thermal flux, snow depth.
Fig.5: Map of the CEOP Reference Sites/Basins. These HE sites could be insert within the HE Network to become CEOP-HE RS.
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Among the 52 sites, only four are located at high altitude:
- CAMP/Tibet on the Tibetan Plateau (Ref.Site # 5);
- CAMP/Himalayas (Lukla, Namche, Syangboche, Pheriche and Pyramid AWSs) in Nepal (Ref.
Site # 6) (Fig. 6)
- Pakistan Karakorum Network (Askole and Urdukas AWSs) on the Karakorum mountain
range (Ref. Site # 17) (Fig. 5);
- Northern Apennines (AWS Forni Glacier, O. Vittori Reseach Station, Monte Pino Met
Research Observatory) (Ref. Site # 52).
In reality, among the stations included in Ref. Site # 52, only AWS Forni Glacier and the O. Vittori
Research Station will be included in HE-Net, because the Met. Research Observatory on Monte
Pino is located at low altitude (184 m asl).
In particular, the AWS Forni is situated on the ablation tongue, and contributes to the
determination of glacier energy balance, quantifying energy and mass exchanges at the
atmospheric boundary layer. The Mt. Cimone Research Station performs continuous atmospheric
measurements of surface O3, CO, H2, halogenated compounds (CFCs, HFCs, HCFCs, SF6), PM10
aerosol mass concentration and size distributions, black carbon, stratospheric NO2, solar radiation,,
as well as meteorological parameters..
Table 1 shows all stations currently included in four CEOP-HE RSs. The stations are located in only
four mountain systems, thus imposing the need to increase the number of high altitude
observatories in order to obtain an overview of main mountain ranges.
Table1: List of stations currently within the CEOP-HE RSs. Latitude (decimal degree), longitude (decimal degree) and altitude (m
asl) are indicated for each site.
NAME LAT LON ALT REFERENCE SITE
Piramide 27,959 86,813 5050 CAMP/Himalayas
Namche 27,802 86,715 3560 CAMP/Himalayas
Periche 27,895 86,819 4258 CAMP/Himalayas
Luckla 27,695 86,723 2660 CAMP/Himalayas
Syangboche 27,817 86,717 3833 CAMP/Himalayas
Amdo-Tower Station 32,241 91,625 4695 CAMP/Tibet
Amdo- SMTMS 32,241 91,625 4695 CAMP/Tibet
ANNI- AWS 31,254 92,172 4480 CAMP/Tibet
BJ- SAWS1 31,369 91,895 4509 CAMP/Tibet
BJ- SAWS2 31,366 91,900 4509 CAMP/Tibet
BJ- SAWS3 31,371 91,902 4509 CAMP/Tibet
BJ- SMTMS 31,369 91,899 4509 CAMP/Tibet
BJ- Tower 31,369 91,899 4509 CAMP/Tibet
D105-AWS 33,064 91,943 5038 CAMP/Tibet
D105- DSTMS 33,064 91,942 5039 CAMP/Tibet
D105-SMTMS 33,064 91,943 5038 CAMP/Tibet
D110- AWS 33,064 91,943 5038 CAMP/Tibet
D110- SMTMS 32,693 91,874 4984 CAMP/Tibet
D66-AWS 32,693 91,874 4984 CAMP/Tibet
D66-SMTMS 35,524 93,785 4585 CAMP/Tibet
Gaize 35,524 93,785 4585 CAMP/Tibet
MS3478-AWS 32,300 84,050 4416 CAMP/Tibet
MS3608-AWS 31,926 91,715 4619 CAMP/Tibet
MS3637-SMTMS 31,226 91,783 4588 CAMP/Tibet
MS3637-SMTMS 31,226 91,783 4588 CAMP/Tibet
Naqu-DSTMS 31,017 91,657 4674 CAMP/Tibet
Tuotuohe-SMTMS 31,378 91,940 4548 CAMP/Tibet
Askole 34,216 92,438 4538 Pakistan Karakorum Network
Urdukas 35,683 75,816 3015 Pakistan Karakorum Network
Mt. Cimone "O. Vittori" 35,728 76,286 3926 Northern Apennines
Forni AWS 46,398 10,426 2700 Northern Apennines
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CAMP/Himalayas Network
(Pyramid AWS, 5,050 m)
Pakistani Karakorum Network
(Urdukas AWS, 4,000 m)
Fig. 6: High altitude Reference Sites located in the Himalayan and Karakorum regions and included in the CEOP network. These
AWS represent the initial stage of implementation of a global HE Network (Photos courtesy of Ev-K2-CNR Archive).
3.2.3 From CEOP-HE to HE-Net.
The framework of SHARE activities envisages the project to create an integrated high mountain
network, clustering specific regional networks of existing observatories devoted to the monitoring of
the environment in mountain regions.
Preliminary HE activities will focus on a census of existing stations on a global scale, in order to
select stations beyond those included in CEOP-HE that could become part of HE-Net. During this
activity, an indicative altitude of 2,500 m asl will be considered.
Within this context, several long term monitoring stations, no longer operative, could provide an
important contribution to filling the regional gaps in the HE-Net, both through the collected long
term data and, if reactivated, by being included in the current HE network. Identification of such
stations within this framework might also provide an input for local and international research
infrastructures to consider the possibility of re-establishing their regular operation.
3.2.3 Improving observation techniques at high elevations
High elevated areas are always heterogeneous and have a complex orography. To carry out
observations over high elevated areas as many Comprehensive Observation and Research Stations
(CORS) and AWS as possible should be set up, together with facilities for automatic data
transmission. Satellite and ground-based remote sensing observations are an additional effective
means of contributing spatially distributed data.
Each CORS should contain an Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL) tower (measuring wind speed,
wind direction, air temperature, and humidity at five-levels), a four-component radiation system, a
five-level soil moisture and soil temperature measurement system (SMTMS), a GPS radiosonde and
precipitable water observation system, a wind profiler and RASS (Radio Acoustic Sounding System),
a sonic turbulent measurement system and CO2/H2O flux measurement system, a precipitation and
snow-cover monitoring system, and a soil heat flux measurement system.
Each AWS should instead install equipment to measure wind speed, wind direction, air
temperature and humidity at three-levels, the radiation system, the SMTMS, the precipitation and
snow depth system, and the soil heat flux system. Both CORS and AWS will monitor the
atmosphere (from stratosphere to surface layer) as well as ground surface processes over the high
elevated area.
Measurement of solid precipitation in high elevated areas without commercial power supply poses a
special problem, and development of new measurement devices is another key issue for the
improvement of AWS. AWS structures disturb the natural condition of snow cover accumulation,
and single point measurements of a snow depth sensor cannot evaluate the patchy distribution of
snow cover in a small area. Discontinuous snow cover under typical HE conditions of low
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precipitation and windy weather needs to be evaluated with new techniques.
Given the low coverage of HE areas by stations, new techniques need to be developed to derive
spatially distributed data sets. They include new statistical and model driven interpolation
techniques, as well as proven remote sensing techniques. Satellite data at different resolutions
should be used to derive surface reflectance, surface temperature, normalized difference vegetation
index (NDVI), modified soil adjusted vegetation index (MSAVI), vegetation coverage, Leaf Area
Index (LAI), net radiation flux, soil heat flux, sensible heat flux, latent heat flux, soil moisture etc.,
over HE areas.
3.3 Data archive, assimilation and management
Sharing of data and information are crucial aspects of CEOP. Data management is also a key
component of CEOP, which has successfully managed to convince various international groups to
agree to a general data policy and to guarantee an important dissemination action of database
including hydro-meteorological data.
Data management activities within HE will mainly be in support of research activity towards the
accomplishment of HE goals, by providing necessary data to the scientific research community
through the CEOP archive datasets. The major functions will be:
i) to provide necessary data to users smoothly with minimum cost;
ii) to develop a guideline for quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC) protocols and data
sharing;
iii) to coordinate with other CEOP sub-groups and international projects for data exchanges.
In addition, since HE intends to develop a global high altitude network and promote inclusion of
new reference sites within CEOP, selection of high elevation sites will take into account CEOP
standards and data procedures as reported by CEOP data policy,
http://www.eol.ucar.edu/projects/ceop/dm/documents/ceop_policy.html. The archived data will be
available to the scientific community all over the world. Scientists can submit a proposal to the data
center to apply for use of the data, and they can download the data from the center web site.
All of this will aim ultimately towards the development of a coordinated global approach to data
collection at high elevations, and will promote the execution of consolidated and coordinated studies.
The HE data collected could be used for land and atmospheric process analysis, model/scheme
development, model calibration, validation, and other tasks. Results from the process studies and
parameterizations can be used as input to atmospheric models, and data assimilation studies. In
this way, it is believed that CEOP-HE can contribute to the study of climatic change over the entire
globe.
3.4 Timeline
During 2008-09 the HE activities have addressed the issue of identifying the critical scientific needs
in high elevated areas. Strong efforts have been devoted to promoting the opportunity to develop a
global network of high altitude stations through the linkage of existing observatories.
During the start up activities, it was concluded that the HE’s goals as indicated in the present
Science Plan, were attainable within a period of 5 years (2010-2014). This period can be divided into
three different phases:
Phase 1: Creation of HE-Net (2010-2013) and setting-up of the database
Phase 2: Data collection, data quality procedures and data sharing (2012-2014)
Phase 3: Production of a synthesis of the characteristics of global change in high elevated areas of
the world.
This overall timeline needs to be further developed to include steps and mechanisms for collating,
archiving and disseminating data, organising research activities and workshops, as well as
promoting implementation of new high elevations reference stations.
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4. CEOP-HE: Contributions and Synergies with International Activities
CEOP-HE’s aims to provide an interdisciplinary and global vision of water cycle and climate
dynamics and related processes in high elevation areas. To reach its goals, CEOP-HE will benefit
from its affiliation with Ev-K2-CNR’s SHARE Project and also with CEOP/GEWEX activities.
4.1 Interactions with other CEOP Elements
Specific interactions and collaborations between HE and other CEOP Elements
(http://monsoon.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp/ceop2/) were identified during discussions within a breakout
session on HE held within the 2 nd CEOP Annual Meeting, and reconfirmed during the 3 rd CEOP
Annual Meeting, which took place on August 19-21, 2009, in Melbourne, Australia.
In particular, collaboration will regard especially three main elements that directly influence or
characterize high elevated areas, i.e. Regional Studies (RSs), Cross-Cutting Studies (CCRs) and
Regional Hydroclimate Projects (RHPs).
HE is included in the Regional Studies, of CEOP and the interactions with other CEOP elements
could be based on adopting common strategies to cover energy and water budgets studies at global
scale. In particular, some components of RS are complementary, like Cold Regions that studies the
same processes as HE (e.g. the permafrost melting) but at different altitude. In addition, Semi-Arid
and Monsoon Studies have strong affinities with high elevation areas. For these reasons, such
interactions are expected to produce results of great interest.
The second area of fruitful interaction was identified with CCRs, in particular, with three
components. The first is the Water and Energy Budget Studies (WEBS) group, the second is
Aerosols group, and the thirdis the Isotope Cross Cut Study (ICCS) group, Such cross-cutting
studies could contribute considerably to knowledge on the water budget in high elevated areas,
considering the fundamental role played by all these factors (water and energy budgets, aerosols
and isotopes) in the individuation of mechanisms of monsoon circulation.
The MAHASRI (Monsoon Asian Hydro-Atmosphere Scientific Research and Prediction Initiative),
CPPA (Climate Prediction Program for the Americas) and NEESPI (Northern Eurasia Earth
Science Partnership Initiative) are the main RHP activities which could interact with HE. Such
interaction could have a key role in identifying representative case study areas. The research
facilities available within the RHPs, the operative activities carried out at a meaningful level in
terms of space and time, and the long experience of researchers, will be of crucial to support the HE
activity, especially in view of the opportunity of linking the different high altitude observations
within a more complete context.
CEOP case studies which are representative of high elevated areas, such as Western American
Mountains, will also be taken into account. Joint activities will also be undertaken with the Model
Studies group.
4.1.1 Specific benefits obtained from interactions
The interaction with other Regional Climate Foci is essential in the planned activities of the HE
Working Group. In particular, it will regard the following specific aspects:
Cold Region Studies
HE will require information on glacier retreat/extension over the studied high elevated regions and
on the respective possible theory, if already proposed. Also required is a list of existing glaciers,
snow cover and permafrost, as possible reference sites in high elevated areas, as well as of heavy
snow events at HE during CEOP-Phase I (2003-2004) and CEOP-Phase II (2006-2010). Finally,
snow cover and permafrost climatology details will be required for the expected high elevated
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26

egions.
Monsoon
HE would need information on the existence of monsoons over candidate high elevated regions and
their prevailing seasons (months). In cases where monsoons are present, information will be needed
of active/week monsoon years and their characteristics during CEOP-Phase I and CEOP-Phase II
periods analyzed by the monsoon team.
Semi-Arid Studies (SASs)
HE would need a list of any semi-arid reference sites strongly relying on water resources from the
mountain glacier/rivers, complete with details of how/when dependence occurs, and which
mountain is responsible for the water resources at the site.
Therefore, Cold Region Studies and Monsoon Studies would supply information on
seasonal/interannual variations, respectively, of snow/glacier and monsoon, while Semi-Arid
Regional studies would provide data on the impact of regional circulation and snow/glacier melt.
4.1.2 Other more general benefits
Some RHP groups could contribute to HE studies by providing operational data sets on specific
mountain regions, particularly on the Rocky Mountains (CPPA – Climate Prediction Programme for
the Americas), Tibet/Himalaya (MAHASRI – Monsoon Atmospheric-Hydrologic Analysis
Sustainability Research and prediction Initiative) and Central Asia (NEESPI – Northern Eurasia
Earth Science Partnership Initiative and CADIP – Central Asia Deep Ice-coring Project).
Collaboration with Cross-Cutting Studies concerns the Aerosol component, which could provide
information on the modification of climate at high elevations, while the group on Water and Energy
Budget Studies (WEBS) could supply to HE output of energy budget results, including atmospheric
heating analysis, and land surface fluxes. Collaboration with the Isotopes group regards the issue of
isotopic composition of precipitation at the land–atmosphere interface. The group could provide
back-trajectory analyses through simulation of stable water isotopes in general atmospheric
circulation models, particularly local circulation. Extremes’ contribution to HE studies would
concern integrated analyses on extremes events at high altitudes.
Satellite groups could provide regional and reference site products, for example, datasets on
aerosols and other atmospheric components at different stratifications, and data integration
(satellite, land and snow cover, soil moisture, water and energy fluxes, water supply) (CEOP
AEGIS).
Model studies (GCM, RCM, LSM, ICTS) could provide analyses of orographic effects and are
working to increase model resolution and make corrections for topography, while providing better
remote sensing models and regional models for an evaluation of impacts of orography on hydrology.
In addition, it would be of great interest to examine the 3D output data of the 32 km regional model
over NAME as co-research work, and to compare numerical simulation studies with the same model
over Tibet/Himalaya and Karakorum, with focal points to co-research.
Finally, Global Data Centers (GPCC, GRDC) could contribute to HE studies by supplying both
long-term and near-real time data sets.
4.2 Interactions with other international projects
Joint activities will be undertaken with other operational projects in high altitude sites, such as:
IPWG (International Precipitation Working Group), GAW (Global Atmosphere Watch), ABC
(Atmospheric Brown Clouds), MAP (Mesoscale Alpine Project), and Climate Diagram Atlas of
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27

High-altitude Mountain Stations, JAMEX (Joint Aerosol-Monsoon EXperiment). Furthermore,
several international organizations, including IGPB (International Biosphere Geosphere
Programme), IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change), and GCOS (Global Climate
Observation System), could benefit from collaboration with the HE working group.
4.3 The Global High Elevation Watch (GHEW)
CEOP aims to develop an integrated global system of observations, in order to study the water
budget and, in particular, the mechanisms of interaction between energy and water cycles, using a
network of reference sites covering large areas characterized by different climatic regimes, from
arctic to tropical.
CEOP is highly representative integrated project bringing together activities in the fields of
physical, chemical, hydrological, glaciological and, more in general, ecological disciplines. The
CEOP activities, as a part of GEWEX, a project of WCRP, are carried out in the framework of the
objectives of the International Panel of Climate Change, one of the fundamental strategies
promoted by United Nations.
Within this context, HE-Net could represent more than a simple network that includes the
CEOP-HE sites. In fact, the HE-Net, within the initiative of Global High Elevations Watch could be
integrated with other reference stations for the study of the energy and water balance already
included in other networks (GCOS, GTOS, GAW…).
GHEW is an initiative promoted within the framework of WCRP/GEWEX/CEOP/CEOP-HE, whose
goal is to realize an electronic database relating to the study of the energy and water balance in
high altitude areas, supporting climate observation and modelling studies, and the investigation of
climate change and environmental variations at high altitudes.
The idea refers to the similar networks within WMO, such as the Global Atmospheric Watch (GAW)
or the very recent Global Cryospheric Watch (GCW).
The stations included within this new network could provide unique information on the composition
and alteration of the cryosphere, in the water cycle and energy balance, as well as on the
atmosphere composition and its changes. Such locations include in particular: areas located along
and over the limit of vegetation, plateaus, rough reliefs, and sites that may determine or directly
influence climate patterns on a regional level, as well as having an effect on the availability of water
resources, atmospheric circulation, natural hazards, and the life of living beings.
4.4 CEOP-HE Organizational structure
In order to address the general goal of HE and support its work, a Chairperson and a Scientific
Coordinator were designated, and a Steering Committee (SC), made up of a dozen experts in high
elevation studies from different countries, was formed in early 2008. The SC must integrate
scientific expertise, such as hydrology, climatology, meteorology, atmospheric chemistry, glaciology
and cryosphere, and modelling, with geographical expertise on each sub-continent, and will seek
to provide scientific guidance for the program by describing the scientific rationale and methods for
achieving HE’s specific objectives in line with the goal of CEOP. In fact, the Chair, the Scientific
Coordinator and members of SC must work together to reach the goals listed in this Science Plan
and to make effective the proposed implementation strategy.
To further develop the SP broader input from hydrology and modelling expertise will be sought.
Therefore, additional research in high elevation studies or involving scientists may be further
identified to contribute towards intensifying knowledge in the field of mountain hydrology, climate
change and meteorology.
The HE initiative will be managed by the HE members, the Ev-K2-CNR Committee and a
CEOP-HE Secretariat, which has been opened at its headquarters in Bergamo, Italy. The
CEOP-HE Secretariat will also support the actions of the working group by coordinating efforts to
CEOP-HE
28

investigate funding sources to maintain and expand the HE network and promote research
activities. The Secretariat will also promote internal and external communication and
dissemination, via the website of the High Elevations (http://www.ceop-he.org), through the
organization of meetings, scientific workshops and conferences, and through development of an HE
newsletter.
CEOP-HE
29

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Appendices
List of Acronyms
ABC
ABL
AWS
BC
CADIP
CAMP
CCR
CEOP
CEOP-HE
CLiC
CLIVAR
CLPX
CORS
CPPA
DEM
DOC
ELA
ENSO
EROS
ESA
Ev-K2-CNR
EU
EWC
FAO
GAW
GCM
GCOS
GEO
GEOSS
GEWEX
GHEW
GHP
GLOF
GMPP
GOSIC
GPCC
GPCP
GPS
GRDC
GTOS
GTS
HAP
HE
HE-Net
HE-RS
HEO
HE-RS
HISTALP
ICCS
ICSU
ICTS
Atmospheric Brown Clouds
Atmospheric Boundary Layer
Automatic Weather Station
Black Carbon
International Deep Ice-coring Project
Ceop Asia Monsoon Project
Cross-Cutting Studies
Coordinated Energy and Water Cycle Project
Coordinated Energy and water cycle Project – High Elevations
Climate and Cryosphere Project
Climate Variations Program
Cold Land Processes Experiment
Comprehensive Observation and Research Stations
Climate Prediction Program for the Americas
Digital Elevation Model
Dissolved Organic Carbon
Equilibrium Line Altitude
El Nino Southern Oscillation
Earth Resources Observation and Science
European Space Agency
Everest-K2-National Research Council
European Union
Energy and Water Cycle
Food and Agricultural Organization
Global Atmospheric Watch
Global Climate Model
Global Climate Observing System
Group on Earth Observation
Global Earth Observation System of Systems
Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment
Global High Elevation Watch
GEWEX Hydrometeorology Panel
Glacier Lake Outburst Flood
GEWEX Modelling and Prediction Panel
Global Observing Systems Information Centre
Global Precipitation Climatology Centre
Global Precipitation Climatology Project
Global Positioning System
Grains Research and Development Corporation
Global Terrestrial Observing System
Global Telecommunication System
Hydrologic Applications Project
High Elevations
High Elevation Network
High Elevation Reference Sites
High elevation observatory
High Elevation Reference Sites
Historical Instrumental Climatological Surface Time Series of the Greater Alpine
Region
Isotope Cross Cut Study
International Council for Science
Inter-CSE Transferability study
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IGBP
Geosphere-Biosphere Programme
IMPROVE Improvement of Microphysical Parameterizations through Observational
Verification Experiment
IOP
Intensive Observation Period
IPCC
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPGW International Precipitation Working Group
JAMEX Joint Aerosol-Monsoon Experiment
JAXA
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
JMA
Japan Meteorological Agency
JICA
Japan International Cooperation Agency
LAI
Leaf Area Index
LSM
Land Surface Model
MAHASRI Monsoon Asian Hydro-Atmosphere Scientific Research and Prediction Initiative
MAP
Mesoscale Alpine Project
MJO
Madden Julian Oscillation
MOLTS Model Output Location Time Series
NA
North America
NAM
North American Monsoon system
NAME North American Monsoon Experiment
NAO
North Atlantic Oscillation
NARR North America Regional Reanalyses
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NCEP National Centers for Environmental Prediction
NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
NEESPI Northern Eurasia Earth Science Partnership Initiative
NERN Netherlands Ecological Research Network
NIDIS National Integrated Drought Information System
NLDAS North American Land Data Assimilation System
NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NOIST New Integrated Observational System over Tibetan Plateau
PM
Penman-Monteith
QA/QC Quality Assurance/Quality Control
RASS
Radio Acoustic Sounding System
RCM
Regional Climate Model
RHP
Regional Hydroclimate Projects
RS
Reference Site
SARS
Semi-Arid Regional Studies
SC
Steering Committee
SHARE Stations at High Altitude for Research on the Environment
SIP
Scientific Implementation Plan
SMTMS Soil Moisture and Soil Temperature Measurement System
SNODAS Snow Data Assimilation System
SP
Science Plan
SST
Sea Surface Temperature
SWE
Soil Water Equivalent
SWING Stable Water Isotope Intercomparison Group
TORP Tibetan Observation and Research Platform
TP
Tibetan Plateau
UKMO United Kingdom Meteorological Office-Bracknell
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO United Nation Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
US
United States
USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
WCRP World Climate Research Programme
WEBS Water and Energy Budget Studies
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WMO
WV
World Meteorological Organization
Water Vapour
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HE Steering Committee
Members Institution City Country
Gianni Tartari Ev-K2-CNR & IRSA-CNR Bergamo/Brugherio Italy
Kenichi Ueno University of Tsukuba Tsukuba Ibaraki Japan
Yaoming Ma CAS & ITP Beijing/Lhasa China
Annarita Mariotti NOAA Silver Spring USA
Stefan Grab University of Witwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa
Axel Thomas University of Mainz Mainz Germany
Vladimir Aizen University of Idaho Moscow USA
Renè Garreaud University of Chile Santiago Chile
Experts and other contributors involved in the preparation of SP (alphabetical order)
Name Affiliation e-mail
Vladimir Aizen University of Idaho aizen@uidaho.edu
Paolo Bonasoni ISAC-CNR p.bonasoni@isac.cnr.it
Rene Garreaud University of Chile rgarreau@dgf.uchile.cl
Stefan Grab University of Witwatersrand Stefan.Grab@wits.ac.za
Pavel Groisman NEESPI Pasha.Groisman@noaa.gov
Yaoming Ma CAS & ITP ymma@itpcas.ac.cn
Emanuela Manfredi Ev-K2-CNR manfredi@irsa.cnr.it
Annarita Mariotti NOAA/CPPA Annarita.Mariotti@noaa.gov
Jin Huang NOAA/CPPA jin.huang@noaa.gov
George Kaser University of Innsbruck George.Kaser@uibk.ac.at
Roland Psenner University of Innsbruck Roland.psenner@uibk.ac.at
Vladimir Ryabinin WCRP Joint Planning Staff VRyabinin@wmo.int
Takehiko Satomura University of Tokyo satomura @kugi.kyoto-u.ac.jp
Gianni Tartari Ev-K2-CNR & IRSA-CNR tartari@irsa.cnr.it
Axel Thomas University of Mainz A.Thomas@geo.uni-mainz.de
Roberta Toffolon Ev-K2-CNR roberta.toffolon@evk2cnr.org
Kenichi Ueno University of Tsukuba kenueno@sakura.cc.tsukuba.ac.jp
Elisa Vuillermoz Ev-K2-CNR elisa.vuillermoz@evk2cnr.org
Kun Yang CAS & ITP kunyang@magnet.fsu.edu
Kei Yoshimura CASPO/SIO/UCSD keiyoshi08@gmail.com
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