A history <strong>of</strong> the english language 158 redemption, salvation, immortality, and the more general virtues <strong>of</strong> piety, sanctity, charity, mercy, pity, obedience, as well as the word virtue itself. We should include also a number <strong>of</strong> adjectives, like solemn, divine, reverend, devout, and verbs, such as preach, pray, chant, repent, confess, adore, sacrifice, convert, anoint, ordain. 126. Law. French was so long the language <strong>of</strong> the law courts in England that the greater part <strong>of</strong> the <strong>English</strong> legal vocabulary comes from the language <strong>of</strong> the conquerors. The fact that we speak <strong>of</strong> justice and equity instead <strong>of</strong> gerihte, judgment rather than dom (doom), crime in place <strong>of</strong> synn, gylt, undæd, etc., shows how completely we have adopted the terminology <strong>of</strong> French law. Even where the Old <strong>English</strong> word survives it has lost its technical sense. In the same way we say bar, assize, eyre, plea, suit, plaintiff, defendant, judge, advocate, attorney, bill, petition, complaint, inquest, summons, hue and cry, indictment, jury, juror, panel, felon, evidence, pro<strong>of</strong>, bail, ransom, mainpernor, judgment, verdict, sentence, decree, award, fine, forfeit, punishment, prison, gaol, pillory. We have likewise a rich array <strong>of</strong> verbs associated with legal processes: sue, plead, implead, accuse, indict, arraign, depose, blame, arrest, seize, pledge, warrant, assail, assign, judge, condemn, convict, award, amerce, distrain, imprison, banish, acquit, pardon. The names <strong>of</strong> many crimes and misdemeanors are French: felony, trespass, assault, arson, larceny, fraud, libel, slander, perjury, adultery, and many others. Suits involving property brought into use such words as property, estate, tenement, chattels, appurtenances, encumbrance, bounds, seisin, tenant, dower, legacy, patrimony, heritage, heir, executor, entail. Common adjectives like just, innocent, culpable have obvious legal import though they are also <strong>of</strong> wider application. 127. Army and Navy. The large part that war played in <strong>English</strong> affairs in the Middle Ages, the fact that the control <strong>of</strong> the army and navy was in the hands <strong>of</strong> those who spoke French, and the circumstance that much <strong>of</strong> <strong>English</strong> fighting was done in France all resulted in the introduction into <strong>English</strong> <strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> French military terms. The art <strong>of</strong> war has undergone such changes since the days <strong>of</strong> Hastings and Lewes and Agincourt that many words once common are now obsolete or only in historical use. Their places have been taken by later borrowings, <strong>of</strong>ten likewise from French, many <strong>of</strong> them being words acquired by the French in the course <strong>of</strong> their wars in Italy during the sixteenth century. Nevertheless, we still use medieval French words when we speak <strong>of</strong> the army and the navy, <strong>of</strong> peace, enemy, arms, battle, combat, skirmish, siege, defense, ambush, stratagem, retreat, soldier, garrison, guard, spy, and we have kept the names <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>ficers such as captain, lieutenant, sergeant. We recognize as once having had greater significance words like dart, lance, banner, mail, buckler, hauberk, archer, chieftain, portcullis, barbican, and moat. Sometimes we have retained a word while forgetting its original military significance. The word “Havoc!” was originally an order giving an army the signal to commence plundering and seizing spoil. Verbs like to arm, array, harness,
Middle english 159 brandish, vanquish, besiege, defend, among many, suffice to remind us <strong>of</strong> this important French element in our vocabulary. 128. Fashion, Meals, and Social Life. That the upper classes should have set the standard in fashion and dress is so obvious an assumption that the number <strong>of</strong> French words belonging to this class occasions no surprise. The words fashion and dress are themselves French, as are apparel, habit, gown, robe, garment, attire, cape, cloak, coat, frock, collar, veil, train, chemise, petticoat. So too are lace, embroidery, pleat, gusset, buckle, button, tassel, plume, and the names <strong>of</strong> such articles as kerchief, mitten, garter, galoshes, and boots. Verbs like embellish and adorn <strong>of</strong>ten occur in contexts which suggest the word luxury, and this in turn carries with it satin, taffeta, fur, sable, beaver, ermine. The colors blue, brown, vermilion, scarlet, saffron, russet, and tawny are French borrowings <strong>of</strong> this period. Jewel, ornament, brooch, chaplet, ivory, and enamel point to the luxuries <strong>of</strong> the wealthy, and it is significant that the names <strong>of</strong> all the more familiar precious stones are French: turquoise, amethyst, topaz, garnet, ruby, emerald, sapphire, pearl, diamond, not to mention crystal, coral, and beryl. The French-speaking classes, it would seem, must also be credited with a considerable adornment <strong>of</strong> the <strong>English</strong> table. Not only are the words dinner and supper French, but also the words feast, repast, collation, and mess (now military). So, too, are appetite, taste, victuals, viand, and sustenance. One could have found on the medieval menu, had there been one, among the fish, mackerel, sole, perch, bream, sturgeon, salmon, sardine, oyster, porpoise; among meats, venison, beef, veal, mutton, pork, bacon, sausage, tripe, with a choice <strong>of</strong> loin, chine, haunch, or brawn, and with gravy included; among fowl, poultry, pullet, pigeon, and various game birds mentioned below. One could have pottage, gruel, toast, biscuit, cream, sugar, olives, salad, lettuce, endive, and for dessert almonds, and many fruits, including raisin, fig, date, grape, orange, lemon, pomegranate, cherry, 16 peach, or a confection, pasty, tart, jelly, treacle. Among seasoning and condiments we find spice, clove, thyme, herb, mustard, vinegar, marjoram, cinnamon, nutmeg. The verbs roast, boil, parboil, stew, fry, broach, blanch, grate, and mince describe various culinary processes, and goblet, saucer, cruet, plate, platter suggest French refinements in the serving <strong>of</strong> meals. It is melancholy to think what the <strong>English</strong> dinner table would have been like had there been no Norman Conquest. A variety <strong>of</strong> new words suggests the innovations made by the French in domestic economy and social life. Arras, curtain, couch, chair, cushion, screen, lamp, lantern, sconce, chandelier, blanket, quilt, coverlet, counterpane, towel, and basin indicate articles <strong>of</strong> comfort or convenience, while dais, parlor, wardrobe, closet, pantry, scullery, and garner (storehouse) imply improvements in domestic arrangements. Recreation, solace, jollity, leisure, dance, carol, revel, minstrel, juggler, fool, ribald, lute, tabor, melody, music, chess, checkers, dalliance, and conversation reveal various aspects <strong>of</strong> entertainment in a baronial hall, while numerous words associated with hunting and riding are a reflection <strong>of</strong> the principal outdoor pastime <strong>of</strong> the nobility: ambler, courser, hackney, palfrey, rouncy, stallion for various types <strong>of</strong> horse, together with rein, curb, crupper, rowel, curry, trot, stable, harness; mastiff, terrier, spaniel, leash, kennel, scent, retrieve; falcon, merlin, tercelet, mallard, partridge, pheasant, quail, plover, heron,
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A History of the English Language F
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A History of the English Language F
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Contents Preface viii 1 English Pre
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Preface Before the present author e
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PHONETIC SYMBOLS [a] in father [a]
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1 English Present and Future 1. The
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English present and future 3 4. The
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English present and future 5 increa
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English present and future 7 French
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English present and future 9 learne
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English present and future 11 words
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English present and future 13 our t
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English present and future 15 World
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The Indo-European family of languag
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The Indo-European family of languag
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The Indo-European family of languag
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The Indo-European family of languag
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The Indo-European family of languag
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The Indo-European family of languag
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The Indo-European family of languag
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The Indo-European family of languag
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The Indo-European family of languag
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Old english 39 extended beyond a pr
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Old english 41 hundred towns, with
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Old english 43 whom almost certainl
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Old english 45 36. The Names “Eng
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Old english 47 39. The Dialects of
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Old english 49 fæger (fair), or s
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Old english 51 present the inflecti
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Old english 53 While the ordinary m
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Old english 55 The origin of the de
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Old english 57
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Old english 59 ‘proudly’, and t
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Old english 61 a saddle, the shield
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Old english 63 people. The literatu
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Old english 65 history of the rest
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4 Foreign Influences on Old English
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Foreign influences on old english 6
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Foreign influences on old english 7
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The norman conquest and the subject
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The renaissance, 1500-1650 209 anac
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The renaissance, 1500-1650 211 word
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The renaissance, 1500-1650 213 seve
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The renaissance, 1500-1650 215 of t
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The renaissance, 1500-1650 217 rein
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The renaissance, 1500-1650 219 heap
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The renaissance, 1500-1650 223 Such
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The renaissance, 1500-1650 225 180.
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The renaissance, 1500-1650 227 sugg
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The renaissance, 1500-1650 229 It m
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The renaissance, 1500-1650 231 spea
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The renaissance, 1500-1650 233 185.
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The renaissance, 1500-1650 235 good
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The renaissance, 1500-1650 237 Sixt
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The appeal to authority, 1650-1800
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The appeal to authority, 1650-1800
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The appeal to authority, 1650-1800
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The appeal to authority, 1650-1800
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10 The Nineteenth Century and After
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The nineteenth century and after 28
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The nineteenth century and after 32
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11 The English Language in America
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The english language in america 333
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The english language in america 335
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The english language in america 337
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The english language in america 339
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The english language in america 341
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The english language in america 343
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The english language in america 349
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The english language in america 355
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The english language in america 357
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The english language in america 359
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The english language in america 383
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The english language in america 385
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APPENDIX A Specimens of the Middle
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Appendix A 389 East Midland The Bes
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Appendix A 391 down to the ground a
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Appendix A 393 Ac ich alle blisse m
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Appendix A 395 Characteristic of th
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Appendix A 397 Of Engelond, to Caun
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APPENDIX B English Spelling The fol
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Appendix B 401 straunge wordes as l
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Appendix B 403 more he tooke God so
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Appendix B 405 words, whose Etymolo
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Index 407 Alabama, 354 Albanian bra
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Index 409 Bacon, Francis, 261 Bacon
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Brakelond, Jocelyn de, 122, 124 Bra
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Index 413 Chamberlain, John, 209, 4
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Index 415 words from, 303 Dalby, D.
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Index 417 East Africa, English lang
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Index 419 Flügel, Ewald, 286 Folio
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Index 421 Goodenough, Ward H., 40 G
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Hill, A.A., 402 Hill, David, 72-73
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Index 425 Jackson, Kenneth, 72 Jaes
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Index 427 Lance, Donald M., 407 Lan
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Index 429 Lycian, 26 Lydgate, John,
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Index 431 Milton, John, 183, 224, 2
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Index 433 Nunnally, Thomas, 407 Nyn
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Peterborough Chronicle, 166 Peterho
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Index 437 Quirk, Randolph, 56, 316
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St. Mary’s Abbey, York, 147 Sallu
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Index 441 Society of Antiquaries, 2
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Index 443 Scandinavian, influence o
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Index 445 Verb-adverb combinations,
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Index 447 Woodbine, George E., 157