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Contents I Preliminaries 12 1 Introduction 13 1.1 Fortress in a Nutshell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.2 Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 2 Overview 16 2.1 The Fortress Programming Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.2 Exports, Imports, and Linking Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.3 Automatic Generation of APIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.4 Rendering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.5 Some Common Types in Fortress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 2.6 Functions in Fortress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.7 Some Common Expressions in Fortress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.8 For Loops Are Parallel by Default . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.9 Atomic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.10 Dimensions and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.11 Aggregate Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.12 Comprehensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.13 Summations and Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.14 Tests and Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.15 Objects and Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.16 Features for Library Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 II Fortress for Application Programmers 34 3 Programs 35 2
4 Evaluation 36 4.1 Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 4.2 Normal and Abrupt Completion of Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 4.3 Memory and Memory Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 4.4 Threads and Parallelism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 4.5 Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 4.6 Input and Output Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 5 Lexical Structure 41 5.1 Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 5.2 Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 5.3 Lines, Pages and Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 5.4 ASCII Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 5.5 Input Elements and Scanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 5.6 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 5.7 Whitespace Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 5.8 Special Reserved Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 5.9 Character Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 5.10 String Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 5.11 Boolean Literals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 5.12 The Void Literal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 5.13 Numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 5.14 Operator Tokens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 5.15 Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 5.16 Special Tokens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 5.17 Rendering of Fortress Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 6 Declarations 54 6.1 Kinds of Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 6.2 Top-Level Variable Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 6.3 Local Variable Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 6.4 Local Function Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 6.5 Matrix Unpasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3
Page 1: The Fortress Language Specification
Page 5 and 6: 12 Functions 85 12.1 Function Decla
Page 7 and 8: 17.7 Coercions for Tuple and Arrow
Page 9 and 10: IV Fortress for Library Writers 214
Page 11 and 12: 40.10The Trait Fortress.Core.Binary
Page 13 and 14: Chapter 1 Introduction The Fortress
Page 15 and 16: A note on the presented libraries i
Page 17 and 18: component HelloWorld export Executa
Page 19 and 20: foo:String → () baz: String → S
Page 21 and 22: fortress upgrade Gary with Ralph No
Page 23 and 24: halve(x : R64) : R64 = x/2 Predicta
Page 25 and 26: while x < 10 do print x x += 1 end
Page 27 and 28: It is also possible to convert a me
Page 29 and 30: factorial(n) = ∏ i←1:n i This f
Page 31 and 32: In both methods cons and append , t
Page 33 and 34: default distributions will provide
Page 35 and 36: Chapter 3 Programs A program consis
Page 37 and 38: Chapter 10), a literal (see Section
Page 39 and 40: (discussed in Section 13.13) to a s
Page 41 and 42: Chapter 5 Lexical Structure A Fortr
Page 43 and 44: U+0021 EXCLAMATION MARK ! U+0023 NU
Page 45 and 46: If a character (or any other syntac
Page 47 and 48: BIG SI unit absorbs abstract also a
Page 49 and 50: escape sequences are useful for ASC
Page 51 and 52: 5.14.1 Multicharacter Enclosing Ope
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Note: the elegant way to write Avog
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• top-level variable declarations
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declares id to be a mutable variabl
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several new variables. This syntax
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Chapter 7 Names Names are used to r
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7.3 Qualified Names Fortress provid
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Fortress also allows coercion betwe
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• element types of a tuple type c
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TypeAlias ::= type Id [StaticParams
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‘}’. If such a clause contains
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Note that a trait declaration inher
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the parametric trait WrappedDiction
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Chapter 10 Objects An object is a v
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FldDef ::= FldMod ∗ Id [IsType] (
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Chapter 11 Static Parameters Trait,
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11.5 Operator and Identifier Parame
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Chapter 12 Functions Functions are
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swap(x :Object, y : Object) = (y, x
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A function declaration may be separ
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Chapter 13 Expressions Fortress is
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Negating the literal 0 produces a s
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the function is evaluated with the
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13.10 Assignments Syntax: Expr ::=
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treeSum(t : TreeLeaf) = 0 treeSum(t
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Several common mathematical operato
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The body of each iteration is run i
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to the value of the condition expre
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An atomic expression consists of th
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13.26 Try Expressions Syntax: Flow
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13.27.2 Static Expressions and Valu
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A = [1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9] then A 1,
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evaluates to the set {0, 4, 16} Map
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ignore(f x) is equivalent to: f x;
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trait CheckedException extends { Ex
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Chapter 15 Overloading and Multiple
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e called with. In other words, we e
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Chapter 16 Operators Operators are
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• “ordinary” operators: + −
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left context whitespace operator fi
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The rules below are designed to for
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16.8.3 Enclosing Operators When use
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16.8.9 Intersection, Union, and Set
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Chapter 17 Conversions and Coercion
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17.3 Coercion Invocations One may i
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arguments nor with variable number
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trait B extends A end trait C exten
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a new coercion in a subexpression
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for tokens. For readability, plural
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Chapter 19 Tests and Properties For
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19.5 Test Suites In order to allow
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Chapter 20 Type Inference Type infe
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3. If a i is a functional applicati
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21.2 Programming Discipline If Fort
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Here the call f(a, a) ends up setti
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2. Ancestors, dynamically ordered b
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The ways in which fortresses are ac
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Component equivalence is determined
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22.5 Type Inference for Components
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Fortress.IO Fortress.Crypto IronLin
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execute(componentName:String, args:
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3. If the replacement does not expo
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This method runs all test functions
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Fortress.IO Fortress.Crypto Fortres
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Part III Fortress APIs and Document
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23.1.3 hash(maxval: N64): N64 23.1.
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opr =(self,other: Boolean):Boolean
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24.1.20 getter hashCode(): N64 24.1
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False: BooleanInterval Uncertain: B
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24.2.11 opr ∧(self,other: Boolean
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24.2.19 possibly(self): Boolean 24.
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Chapter 25 Numbers 25.1 Rational Nu
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opr ⌈self ⌉: N realpart(self):
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25.1.11 opr (self,other: Q):Boolean
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25.1.26 floor(self): Z 25.1.27 opr
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Chapter 26 Negated Relational Opera
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26.1.26 opr ⊀T extends BinaryPred
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27.3 The Trait Fortress.Standard.Un
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Chapter 29 Dimensions and Units 29.
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unit secondOfAngle secondsOfAngle:
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Chapter 30 Tests 30.1 The Object Fo
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31.2 Convenience Types An optional
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Chapter 32 Parallelism and Locality
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y evaluating the two elements of th
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There is a DefaultDistribution whic
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v = spawn at a.region(i) do a i end
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expr ∑ type wrapper ∑ body R,
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32.8.3 Using Overloading to Adapt G
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Chapter 33 Overloaded Functional De
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coercions: T U ⇐⇒ T ♦ U ∧
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The More Specific Rule for Function
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An infix/multifix operator declarat
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may be so defined except ordinary p
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and here some of these computed dim
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unit name 1 name 2 name 3 : . . . u
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Chapter 36 Support for Domain-Speci
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Because syntax expanders are define
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Part V Fortress APIs and Documentat
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property ∀(a:T) ¬(a ∼ a) end A
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trait PartialOrderOperatorsT extend
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The HasMinimalElement trait specifi
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The trait Commutative requires the
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A value e is a left identity for a
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trait ApproximatelyHasInverses T ex
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end extends { ApproximateCommutativ
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A default definition is provided fo
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trait RationalQuantityunit U absorb
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(self,other:RationalQuantityU,ninf
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38.2.4 getter hashCode(): Z64 38.2.
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Chapter 39 Components and APIs We d
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Chapter 40 Memory Sequences and Bin
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updatenat k(j: IntegerStatick, v: T
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40.1.12 update(j:IndexInt, v: T): L
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40.3.2 opr nat m[r:RangeOfStaticSiz
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40.5 The Trait Fortress.Core.Binary
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40.5.5 bit(m:IndexInt): Bit The res
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40.6 The Trait Fortress.Core.Binary
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40.6.4 opr nat m[r:RangeOfStaticSiz
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40.6.16 opr ‖ nat m,bool bigEndia
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countLeadingZeroBits():IndexInt cou
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40.7.41 signedShift(j:IndexInt):T 4
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40.8.6 signedDivide(other: T,overfl
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littleEndian():BinaryEndianLinearEn
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40.9.16 opr ‖ nat m,nat radix,nat
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v: BinaryEndianWordb,bigEndianBytes
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40.10.9 opr nat m[r:RangeOfStaticSi
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40.10.24 splitnat b ′ () : Binary
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itAnd(selfStart: IndexInt,source:T,
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40.13.2 wrappingAdd(selfStart: Inde
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40.13.30 unsignedMax(selfStart: Ind
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40.13.55 gatherBits(selfStart:Index
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Appendix A Fortress Calculi A.1 Bas
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Values, evaluation contexts, redexe
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Expression typing: p; ∆; Γ ⊢ e
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α, β type variables f method name
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Function/method name lookup: Fname(
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One owner for all the visible metho
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Traits defining a method: defining
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Values, evaluation contexts, and re
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Valid function declarations: p ⊢
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Method definition lookup: visible p
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Values, intermediate expressions, e
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Field typing: p; ∆; Γ ⊢ vd ok
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Appendix B Overloaded Functional De
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Proof. We prove this for δ, but th
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Upgrade A predicate upg? takes two
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a is rendered as a foobar is render
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• If a portion is sub and another
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supercalifragilisticexpialidocious
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any alternative names, with undersc
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Appendix F Operator Precedence, Cha
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U+007C VERTICAL LINE | | U+2016 DOU
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The following two operators have th
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U+003D EQUALS SIGN = = EQ U+2243 AS
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U+22DD EQUAL TO OR GREATER-THAN U+2
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U+2289 NEITHER A SUPERSET OF NOR EQ
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F.4.8 Miscellaneous Relational Oper
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U+21A5 UPWARDS ARROW FROM BAR U+21A
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U+2224 DOES NOT DIVIDE ∤ U+2225 P
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U+27F8 LONG LEFTWARDS DOUBLE ARROW
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U+2960 UPWARDS HARPOON WITH BARB LE
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U+29ED BLACK CIRCLE WITH DOWN ARROW
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Appendix G Concrete Syntax In this
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Extends ::= extends TraitTypes Excl
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StaticParam ::= Id [Extends] [absor
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Value ::= Literal | fn ValParam [Is
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Appendix H Generated Concrete Synta
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-> fn_decl -> object_decl -> var_de
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-> id extends_opt absorbs_opt -> "n
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-> w "excludes" w type_ref_list com
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-> obj_decl_body_elem br obj_decl_b
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-> op wr op_follows_op_w -> op wr e
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-> no_space_op_expr_result no_space
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id_opt -> -> w id with_opt -> -> w
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-> unpasting_elem rect_separator un
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-> "}" comprehension -> set_compreh
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-> do_expr -> for_expr -> spawn_exp
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-> type_ref -> "(" w type_ref w ","
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enc -> enc_literal op_or_enc -> op
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Bibliography [1] O. Agesen, L. Bak,
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